Angle Modulation Fundamentals and Circuits

Frequency Modulation Fundamentals

FREQUENCY MODULATION – system in which the amplitude of the modulated carrier is kept constant

- While its frequency and rate of change are varied by the modulating signal.

FREQUENCY DEVIATION – amount by which the carrier FREQUENCY is varied from its unmodulated value

- It is made PROPORTIONAL to the instantaneous amplitude of the modulating voltage.

In FM, all components of the modulating signal having the same

amplitude, will deviate the carrier frequency by the same amount, no
matter what their frequencies.

Similarly, all components of the modulating signal of the same frequency,

will deviate the carrier at the same rate, no matter what their individual
amplitudes. The amplitude of the frequency modulated wave remains
constant at all times.

As the modulating signal amplitude INCREASES, the carrier frequency

INCREASES.

 Highest peak of modulating signal – highest frequency

 Lowest peak of modulating signal – lowest frequency
RESTING FREQUENCY – carrier is at its normal center when no
modulation.

 FM nasa sine
 constant amplitude, nag vavary sa frequency

Mathematical Representation of FM

 The instantaneous frequency of the frequency modulated wave is given by

 The maximum deviation for this signal will occur when the sine term has its maximum value, ±1. Under these conditions,
the instantaneous frequency will be
 so that the maximum deviation will be given by

 The instantaneous amplitude of the FM signal will be given by a formula of the form

Modulation index of FM is defined as

Phase Modulation Fundamentals

PHASE MODULATION – system which the amplitude of the modulated carrier is kept constant,

- while its phase and rate of phase change are varied by the modulating signal.

PHASE DEVIATION - amount by which the carrier PHASE is varied from its unmodulated value
- It is made PROPORTIONAL to the instantaneous amplitude of the modulating voltage.
- the rate at which this phase variation changes is equal to the modulating frequency.

In PM, the amount of the carrier deviation is PROPORTIONAL to the rate of

change of the modulating signal .
 Yung phase nagbabago depende sa value ng modulating signal

With a sine wave modulating signal, the PM carrier appears to be frequency-

modulated by the COSINE of the modulating signal.

Remember that the cosine occurs 90 degree earlier (leads) than the sine.

 PM indirect ng FM
 Phase Modulation yung process pero frequency parin yung nag
vavary
 Unang nagrereact compare sa FM
 Sa crossing na 0, nagrereact ang phase modulation
 Mathematical Representation of FM

 The instantaneous phase of the phase modulated wave is given by

 The maximum deviation for this signal will occur when the cosine term has its maximum value, ±1. Under these conditions,
the instantaneous frequency will be

so that the maximum deviation will be given by

 The instantaneous amplitude of the PM signal will be given by a formula of the form

Modulation index of PM is defined as

Converting PM into FM

 In order to make PM compatible with FM - the deviation produced by frequency variations in the modulating signal
must be compensated for. This compensation can be accomplished by passing the intelligence signal through a low-
pass RC network.

 RC LOW-PASS FILTER – called a frequency-correcting network, predistorter, or 1/f filter

- Causes the higher modulating frequencies to be attenuated.

 INDIRECT FM – FM produced by a phase modulator

- Originally phase modulation that converted to FM

Modulation Index and Sidebands

  Any modulation process produces SIDEBANDS

 SIDE FREQUENCIES - are the sum and difference of the carrier and the modulating frequency.

 In FM and PM, as in AM, sum and difference sideband frequencies are produced. In addition, a large number of pairs of
upper and lower sidebands are generated. As a result, the spectrum of an FM or a PM signal is usually WIDER than that
of an equivalent AM signal.

 Theoretically, the FM PROCESS - produces an infinite number of upper and lower sidebands and, therefore, a
theoretically infinitely LARGE BANDWIDTH.

 However, in practice, only those sidebands with the LARGEST AMPLITUDES are significant in carrying the information.
Typically, any sideband whose amplitude is LESS THAN 1 percent of the unmodulated carrier is considered insignificant.

MODULATION INDEX (mf) - ratio of the frequency deviation to the modulating frequency

 In most communication systems using FM, MAXIMUM LIMITS are put on both the frequency deviation and the
modulating frequency.

 When the maximum allowable frequency deviation and the maximum modulating frequency are used in computing the
modulation index, is known as the DEVIATION RATIO.

 In standard FM broadcasting, the maximum permitted frequency deviation is 75 kHz and the maximum permitted
modulating frequency is 15 kHz.

- The modulation index for standard FM broadcasting is therefore 5.

 For broadcast television (NTSC format), the maximum frequency deviation of the aural carrier, is ±25 kHz with a
maximum audio input frequency, of 15 kHz.

- Therefore, for broadcast TV (NTSC format), the deviation ratio (DR) is 1.67

 FM systems that have a deviation ratio greater than or equal to 1 (DR >1) are considered to be wideband systems,
whereas FM systems that have a deviation ratio less than 1 (DR < 1) are considered to be narrowband FM systems.

BESSEL FUNCTIONS - equation that expresses the phase angle in terms of the sine wave modulating signal that solved with a
complex mathematical process.

 BESSEL COEFFICIENTS are widely available and it is not necessary to memorize or calculate them.
  This is a special case of FM in which the modulation process
produces only a single pair of significant sidebands like those
produced by AM.

 With a modulation index of 0.25, the FM signal occupies no

more spectrum space than an AM signal. This type of FM is
called NARROWBAND FM, or NBFM.

 NARROWBAND FM (NBFM) - is any FM system in which the

modulation index is less than π/2 = 1.57, or mf < π /2.

- widely used in communication.

- It conserves spectrum space at the

expense of the signal-to-noise ratio.

HEAT CHECK
FM Signal Bandwidth

 The total bandwidth of an FM signal can be determined by knowing the modulation index and using Bessel function.

 Another way to determine the bandwidth of an FM signal is to use Carson’s rule.

- This rule recognizes only the power in the most significant sidebands with amplitudes greater than 2
percent of the carrier (0.02 or higher in Bessel function)

Noise Suppression Effects of FM

NOISE - interference generated by lightning, motors, automotive ignition systems, and power line switching that produces
transient signals.

- typically, narrow spikes of voltage with high frequencies. Noise (voltage spikes) add to a signal and interfere with it.

- completely obliterates signal information.

  FM signals have a constant modulated carrier amplitude.

 FM receivers contain limiter circuits that deliberately restrict the amplitude of the received signal.

 Any amplitude variations occurring on the FM signal are effectively clipped by limiter circuits.

 This amplitude clipping does not affect the information content of the FM signal, since it is contained solely within the
frequency variations of the carrier.

 Because of the clipping action of the limiter circuits, noise is almost completely eliminated. Even if the peaks of the FM
signal itself are clipped or flattened and the resulting signal is distorted, no information is lost.

 In fact, one of the primary benefits of FM over AM is its superior noise immunity. The process of demodulating or
recovering an FM signal actually suppresses noise and improves the signal-to-noise ratio.

NOISE AND PHASE SHIFT

 The noise amplitude added to an FM signal introduces a small frequency variation, or phase shift, which changes or
distorts the signal.

 The maximum phase shift occurs when the noise and signal phasors are at a right angle to each other.

 This angle can be computed with the arcsine or inverse sine according to the formula

 It is possible to determine just how much of a frequency shift a particular phase shift produces by using the formula

 Remember that the noise interference is of very short duration; thus, the phase shift is momentary (panandalian), and
intelligibility is rarely severely impaired. (bihira masira)

 With heavy noise, human speech might be temporarily garbled, but so much that it could not be understood.

 Noise can interfere with an FM signal and particularly with the high-frequency components of the modulating signal.

 Noise is primarily sharp spikes of energy and contains a lot of harmonics and other high-frequency components.

 To overcome high-frequency noise, a technique known as pre-emphasis is used.

PRE-EMPHASIS

 Pre-emphasis provides more amplification of only high- frequency components.

 At the transmitter, the modulating signal is passed through a simple network that amplifies the high frequency
components more than the low-frequency components.

 A simple high-pass filter can serve as a transmitter’s pre-emphasis circuit.

DEEMPHASIS

 A simple low-pass filter can operate as a deemphasis circuit in a receiver.

 A deemphasis circuit returns the frequency response to its normal flat level.

 The combined effect of pre-emphasis and deemphasis is to increase the signal-to-noise ratio for the high-frequency
components during transmission so that they will be stronger and not masked by noise.