Sourcebook Aga Khan Deccan 22102021

ISLAMIC ARCHITECTURE AND URBAN DEVELOPMENT OF SOUTH
INDIA
SOURCEBOOK
Aga Khan Trust for Culture

Education Programme
AGA KHAN TRUST FOR CULTURE CENTRE FOR THE STUDY OF

Education Programme Architecture and Cultural Heritage of India, Arabia and the Maghreb
October 2021 The University of Liverpool, School of Architecture (UK)
CONTRIBUTORS
This sourcebook is produced by the Centre for

the Study of Architecture and Cultural Heritage of
India, Arabia and the Maghreb (ArCHIAM), based
at the University of Liverpool, UK. ArCHIAM is
an interdisciplinary research centre based at the
University of Liverpool, which brings together a
range of researchers interested in the study of the
architecture and cultural heritage of India, Arabia
and the Maghreb.
SUPERVISION AND COORDINATION

Prof Soumyen Bandyopadhyay
CONTENT EDITING
Prof Soumyen Bandyopadhyay, Dr Konstantina
Georgiadou, Matina Vrettou
DESIGN AND LAYOUT
Matina Vrettou
CONTENT CONTRIBUTION
Dr Konstantina Georgiadou, Matina Vrettou, Shreya
V. Pai, Preetam S.P., Harshini Rajagopal
Copyright © ArCHIAM 2021

ISBN: 978-1-910911-24-2
All rights reserved. No part of this sourcebook may be

reproduced, translated, stored in a retrieval system,
or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic,
mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise,
without prior written permission of copyright holder.
Hammam, Qutb Shahi Tomb Complex

Location: Hyderabad, India
Date: 1543-17th century CE
Source: Richters, C., 2014. Qutb Shahi Heritage Park, https://archnet.
org/media_contents/100581, accessed Jul 2021
2
CONTENTS
01 Contributors
03 Contents
05 Introduction
07 Islamic Architecture in India

09 Spread of Islam in India
11 Styles of Indo-Islamic architecture
13 Indo-Islamic building types
17 Additional images
29 The Deccan Sultanates

31 Kingdoms prior to the Deccan
Sultanates
33 The rise of the Islamic Sultanates
35 The architecture of the Sultanates
37 Architectural characteristics
4
51 Adil Shahi Rule and the city of

Bijapur
53 History of Adil Shahi Dynasty
55 The city of Bijapur
57 Architectural features
59 The suburbs
73 Southern Islamic Centres Beyond

the Deccan
75 Tamil Nadu and the eastern region
77 Kerala and the western region
79 The Island Town of Srirangapatna
81 Islamic and Hindu architectural heritage
95 Epilogue
97 List of Acronyms
INTRODUCTION
ISLAMIC ARCHITECTURE AND URBAN

DEVELOPMENT OF SOUTH INDIA
This sourcebook is a companion to the Architecture

and Urban Development of the Deccan Sultanates
lecture series prepared by ArCHIAM, on behalf of
the Education Programme of the Aga Khan Trust for
Culture (AKTC).
This series of lectures aims to present the

architectural and urban contributions of the South
Indian sultanates that remain relatively unknown,
beyond a handful of well-publicised monuments.
The Deccan Plateau, lying south of the central Indian
mountain range, occupies a significant part of the
triangle-shaped peninsular Indian landmass. Islamic
cultural and architectural influence extended into the
region from the late-thirteenth century CE onwards,
which reached its apogee during the rule of the five
Deccan Sultanates – Ahmadnagar, Bijapur, Berar,
Bidar and Golconda – during the late-fifteenth to
the late-seventeenth centuries CE. In an attempt to
bring this distinctive late-mediaeval Islamic period
architecture into sharper focus, this series of lectures
draws on both existing scholarship as well as new
research undertaken in Bijapur.
This book includes a collection of additional content

supporting the lectures organised in chapters, and
provides expanded bibliography and sources on
them to add to the knowledge delivered through
the lectures. It also provides the reader with relevant
additional visual material.
It can be used by researchers on its own or in

combination with the lecture material, which can
be accessed on Archnet: http://archnet.org/
collections/2263
Pencil drawing of Jami Mosque of Bijapur

Location: Bijapur, India
Date: 1821-1844 CE
Source: Boyd, G., 1832. Jumma Musjid Beejapoor, Asia, Pacific &
Africa Collections, Online Exhibitions of The British Library, http://
www.bl.uk/, accessed Jul 2021
6
1 ISLAMIC ARCHITECTURE IN INDIA
Islamic Architecture in India
CONTENTS
Spread of Islam in India
Styles of Indo-Islamic architecture
Indo-Islamic building types
This chapter provides sources regarding Islamic

architecture in India and an overview on:
•the manner in which the newly introduced social,

cultural, and political ideals and religious beliefs and
the existing Indian traditions interacted and shaped
the Indo-Islamic architectural style;
• the principal characteristics and elements of Indo-

Islamic architecture.
Nizammudin Dargah
Location: Delhi, India
Date: 1325 CE
Source: AKTC, 19th c. CE Nizam-ud-Din Auliya Shrine Complex,
https://archnet.org/media_contents/97161, accessed Jul 2021
8
Spread of Islam in
India
Islam was introduced to India through trade and Indo-Islamic architecture
travelling missionaries, as well as through invasions
and military campaigns. From the 8th century CE Islamic architecture introduced by the Mamluks
onwards, Islam appeared in the west, in Sindh and in the last decade of the 12th century CE in
Gujarat. However, it was formally established in India, was influenced by Afghan and Central
the early 13th century CE by the Mamluk Dynasty Asian, as well as Syrian and Egyptian traditions.
and began influencing the local political, social,
religious and cultural practices. Characteristics
When Islamic faith arrived, India was already
abounding with local artistic traditions for
centuries. A plethora of Hindu and Jain
Bibliography temples and shrines, Buddhist monasteries,
forts and palaces, were built in the cities but
Alfieri, B. M., 2000. Islamic Architecture of the Indian also in the suburbs and the countryside. The
Subcontinent. London: Laurence King Publishing new architecture incorporated pre-existing built
traditions, thus, Indo-Islamic architecture is an
Alpers, E. A. 2014. The Indian Ocean in World History. amalgamation of the two styles, unique to this
Oxford: Oxford University Press territory.
Arnold, S. T. & Guillaume, A. (eds), 2001. The Islamic Art Building types and features
and Architecture. New Delhi: Goodword Books The construction of mausoleums, mosques,
forts, madrasas and tombs employed a
Asher, C. B., 1995. Architecture of Mughal India. New variety of architectural features such as
Delhi: Foundation Books in cooperation with Cambridge pointed arches, domes, minarets, vaults,
University Press charbagh (quadrilateral garden layout) and
water channels. The employment of these
Brown, P., 1968. Indian Architecture: Islamic Period. features produced elaborate designs, which
Bombay: Taraporewala’s Treasure House of Books together with bold ornamentation, resulted in
impressively articulated monuments.
Burton Page, J., 2008. Indian Islamic Architecture: Forms
and Typologies, Sites and Monuments. Leiden: E. J. Brill
Materials
The earliest phase of Indo-Islamic architecture
Chaghtai, M. A., 1941. Indo-muslim Architecture, New
is characterised by the reuse of pillaged
Delhi, Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research
material from Hindu and Jain temples, following
Institute , Volume 22, No. 1/2. Pune: Bhandarkar Oriental
the destruction of these religious buildings.
Research Institute
The prevailing material was stone, a distinctive
feature of India attributed to the local masons’
Desai, Z. A., 1970. Indo-Islamic Architecture. New Delhi:
expertise in stonework, developed through
Publications Division. M/O Information & Broadcasting,
centuries of temple building. Some of the
Government of India
first Indo-Islamic stone masonry monuments
were built by Hindu craftsmen employed by
Fergusson, J., 1910. History of Indian and Eastern
Muslim rulers. Lime mortar was introduced and
Architecture, Volume 2. London: John Murray
widely used in architecture and ornamentation,
marking a significant change in construction
Koch, E., 2014. Mughal Architecture. An outline of its
methods and replacing formerly used iron
history and development (1526-1858). Delhi: Primus
clamps or mud in securing masonry.
Books
10
Exterior view of Jami Mosque, built in 1656 CE

Source: AKTC, 19th c. CE. Jama Masjid (Delhi), https://archnet.org/media_contents/97157, accessed Jul 2021
Quwwat al-Islam Mosque of Qutb complex, built in 1191 CE

Source: Mohan, V., 2012. Carving on Pillars on Quwwat ul-Islam Mosque, CC BY-SA 4.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Carving_
at_Quwwat_ul-Islam_Mosque.jpg, accessed Oct 2021
Styles of Indo-Islamic
architecture
The initial style evolved resulting in derivative styles Classification
and variations in different parts of the subcontinent,
depending on local availability of material and Indo-Islamic architecture can be broadly
skills. These regional styles were also impacted by classified into three stylistic periods, the
the climatic conditions of their geographic region. Imperial style, the Provincial styles and the
All of the above influenced the morphological Mughal style.
characteristics and ornamentation techniques of
buildings types spread across India. The Imperial style 1191-1557 CE
The Imperial or Delhi style, known for the
flourishing of palatial complex design, was
developed under five ruling dynasties in Delhi.
Bibliography The first was the Mamluk or Slave dynasty that
was established after Mu’izz al-Din Muhammad
Beaujard, P., 2019. The Worlds of the Indian Ocean. A bin Sam (also known as Muhammad of Ghur
Global History. New York: Cambridge University Press or Muhammad Ghuri) conquered Delhi and its
suburbs. His successors ruled until 1290 CE.
Burton Page, J., 2008. Indian Islamic Architecture: Forms The dynasty that followed the Mamluks was the
and Typologies, Sites and Monuments. Leiden: E. J. Brill Khalji (until 1320 CE) who managed to extend
their rule to a larger part of the country. They
Fischel, R. S., 2020. Local States in an Imperial World: were followed by the Tughluqs who ruled until
Identity, Society and Politics in the Early Modern Deccan. 1412 CE. Finally, the Tughluqs were succeded
Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press by the Sayyids (1414-1451 CE) and the Lodis
(1451-1526 CE).
Havell, E. B., 2000. Encyclopedia of Architecture in the
Indian Subcontinent, Volume 2. New Delhi: Aryan Books Materials
International Local materials, such as quartzite stone,
replaced the marble and red sandstone and
Mate, M. S.,1963. Islamic architecture of the Deccan, were widely used for the main architectural
Bulletin of the Deccan College Research Institute, Volume features, including columns, frames and
22. Pune: Deccan College Post-Graduate and Research arches. Additional features, including minimal
Institute (Deemed University) ornamentation, were made using rubble and
covered in plaster.
Nath, R., 1995. Studies in Medieval Indian Architecture.
Delhi: M. D. Publications The Provincial styles 1150 -1650 CE
During the Tughluq period independent
Rani, A., 1991. Tughluq Architecture of Delhi. Delhi: dynasties were established in the provinces,
Bharati Prakashan such as the Bahmanis that appeared in the
Deccan. The localisation of power and the
Sahai, S., 2004. Indian Architecture: Islamic Period. 1192 consequent intense building activity in these
- 1857. New Delhi: Prakash Books India areas altered the Imperial Style of the capital,
and created regional variations. The new styles
Welch, A., 1993. Architectural Patronage and the Past: were heavily influenced by the local building
The Tughluq Sultans of India, Muqarnas X: An Annual on and artistic traditions of each province, as
Islamic Art and Architecture. Margaret B. Sevcenko (ed). well as the availability of materials, resulting in
Leiden: E.J. Brill autonomous architectural expressions.
12
Building: Alai Darwaza Building: Firuz Shah Tughluq Tomb

Location: Delhi, India Location: Delhi, India
Style: Imperial (Mamluk/Khalji) Style: Imperial (Tughluq)
Date: 1190-1311 CE Date: 1390 CE
Source: Sirajul Islam, M., 1982. AKVA, MIT Libraries, https:// Source: Cherian, D., 2003. https://archnet.org/sites/1564, accessed
archnet.org/media_contents/49781, accessed Jul 2021 Oct 2021
Building: Mosque of Sadna Qasai Building: Zafar Khan Ghazi Mosque

Location: Fatehgarh Sahib, India Location: West Bengal, India
Style: Provincial (Punjab) Style: Provincial (Bengal)
Date: 1180 CE Date: 13th-14th c. CE
Source: Parihar, S., 2016. Before heritage crumbles, https:// Source: Ganguly, B., 2013. An early Sultanate era mosque and tomb,
www.tribuneindia.com/news/archive/arts/before-heritage- https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=28042680,
crumbles-211025, accessed Oct 2021 accessed Oct 2021
Building: Citadel of Jaunpur Building: Jami Mosque

Location: Jaunpur, India Location: Srinagar, India
Style: Provincial (Jaunpur) Style: Provincial (Kashmir)
Date: 1376-1377 CE Date: 1398 CE
Source: Williams, J. A. & C., 1968-1978. https://archnet.org/media_ Source: The Iran Project, 2014. http://sanjaygarg.wikidot.com/
contents/3245, accessed Oct 2021 kashmir-sultanate, accessed Oct 2021
Styles of Indo-Islamic
architecture
After enjoying authority for more than a century and Sultanate and Mughal architecture
a half, the Provincial Sultanates were in their turn
annexed to the Mughal empire. Following Babur’s Individual stylistic expressions were developed
establishment of the Empire in North India in 1526 in the provinces of Punjab, Bengal, Gujarat,
CE, he initiated the construction of buildings, Jaunpur, Malwa, Deccan, Khandesh and
particularly palatial complexes and formal gardens. Kashmir.
Punjab Sultanate
Characteristic of the Punjab provincial style is
the use of baked bricks for construction with
intermediate structural wood course bonding,
Bibliography as well as the presence of a second floor sitting
on an octagonal drum, and crowned with a
Beaujard, P., 2019. The Worlds of the Indian Ocean A hemispherical dome and pinnacles.
Global History. New York: Cambridge University Press
Bengal Sultanate
Burton Page, J., 2008. Indian Islamic Architecture: Forms In Bengal the main building materials were
and Typologies, Sites and Monuments. Leiden: E. J. Brill black basalt stone and alluvial clay, used for the
production of bricks and terracotta tiles. The
Eaton, R. 2005. A Social History of the Deccan 1300-1761: local methods of constructing bamboo huts
Eight Indian Lives. Cambridge: Cambridge University influenced the shape of curves on the cornices
Press of square funerary chambers as well as the
morphology octagonal corner buttresses.
Hambly, G., 1968. Cities of Mughal India: Delhi, Agra
and Fatehpur Sikri. New York: Harper Collins Distribution Deccan Sultanates
Services The earliest phase of the Deccan Sultanates
coincide with the Bahmani dynasty, which ruled
Merklinger, E. S., 2005. Sultanate architecture of pre- first at Gulbarga and Bidar (1347-1538 CE)
Mughal India. New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal and was then replaced by other dynasties with
Publishers capitals at Ahmadnagar, Bijapur, Berar and
Golconda.
Parihar, S., 1999. Some Aspects of Indo-Islamic
Architecture. Delhi: Abhinav Publications
The Mughal style 1526-1658 CE
This architectural style thrived in northern and
Parihar, S., 2004. Historical Mosques of Sirhind. Islamic
central India under the auspices of the Mughal
Studies, Volume 43, No. 3. Islamabad: Islamic Research
emperors from 1526 until the 18th century
Institute, International Islamic University
CE. The style is a blend of diverse traditions
which included Transoxanian, Timurid, Persian
Sahai, S., 2004. Indian Architecture: Islamic Period. 1192
and Indian influences. Unlike the preceding
- 1857. New Delhi: Prakash Books India
stylistic periods, works of the Mughal era
were not defined by regional styles but by
Sharma, P. K., 2001. Mughal Architecture of Delhi: A Study
a broad ‘global’ character that fused the
of Mosques and Tombs (1556-1627 A.D.). Delhi: Sundeep
various influences into a cohesive and unified
Prakashan
architectural expression.
Thapar, B., 2004. Introduction to Indian Architecture.
Hong Kong: Periplus Editions Limited
14
Building: Muhammad Shah Sayyid Mausoleum Building: Jami Mosque

Location: Delhi, India Location: Ahmedabad, India
Style: Imperial (Sayyid) Style: Provincial (Gujarat)
Date: 1434-1444 CE Date: 1424 CE
Source: Cherian, D., 2003. https://archnet.org/media_ Source: Palamadai, R.,1981. AKVA, MIT Libraries, https://archnet.
contents/3000, accessed Oct 2021 org/media_contents/127411, accessed Jul 2021
Building: Bara Gumbad Complex Building: Qutb Shahi Heritage Park

Location: Delhi, India Location: Golconda, India
Style: Imperial (Lodi) Style: Provincial (Deccan)
Date: 1490-1494 CE Date: 15th c. CE
Source: Williams, J.A. & C., 1968-1978. https://archnet.org/ Source: AKTC, 2014. https://archnet.org/media_contents/100553,
sites/1562/media_contents/3178, accessed Jul 2021 accessed Jul 2021
Building: Qila-i Kuhna Mosque Building: Diwan-i ‘Am

Location: Delhi, India Location: Delhi, India
Style: Mughal Style: Mughal
Date: 1541 CE Date: 1639 CE
Source: Brand, M., 1984. AKVA, MIT Libraries, https://archnet.org/ Source: Bailey, G., 1992. AKVA, MIT Libraries, https://archnet.org/
media_contents/2800, accessed Jul 2021 media_contents/2823, accessed Jul 2021
Indo-Islamic building
types
Islamic architecture worldwide shares building Typology
typologies and architectural components related
to the practice of Islam. The uses and styles of The main Indo-Islamic building types are:
buildings varied across different socio-geographic religious, (mosques, idgahs, tombs, madrasas);
contexts. These building typologies in Indo-Islamic defensive (forts and walls); infrastructure (water
architecture were expressed via two constructional structures); and residential (palaces).
types, trabeate, referring to spaces spanned by
horizontal beams and arcuate, referring to spaces Mosques
covered by arches, domes or vaults. Mosques in India are usually enclosed by
colonnaded arcades (riwaq). These often have
mezzanine floors on colonnades flanking the
Bibliography main entrance.
Albanese, M., 2000. Architecture in India. New Delhi: Om Idgahs

Book Service The idgah, a freestanding wall or enclosure
with a qibla wall, a mihrab(s) and a minbar, is
Brown, P., 1968. Indian Architecture: Islamic Period. often located beyond the western boundary of
Bombay: Taraporewala’s Treasure House of Books an Islamic town and functions as an open-to-
sky prayer space.
Bunce, F. W., 2004. Islamic Tombs in India: The
Iconography and Genesis of Design. New Delhi: D. K. Madrasas
Printworld (P) Ltd. The madrasas are Qur’anic schools and in
India they are part of mosques or a mosque
Burton Page, J., 2008. Indian Islamic Architecture: Forms complex. In mosques, these are commonly
and Typologies, Sites and Monuments. Leiden: E. J. Brill accommodated in a multi-storey riwaq.
Chaghtai, M. A., 1941. Indo-muslim Architecture, New
Tombs
Delhi, Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research
The Islamic faith introduced the creation of
Institute, Volume 22, No. 1/2. Pune: Bhandarkar Oriental
tombs in India, as monuments to commemorate
Research Institute
the deceased, resulting in the construction of
impressive mausoleums of the dynasty rulers.
Publications Division, M/O Information & Broadcasting,
Forts and Palaces
Government of India
Forts and palatial complexes were built for
defensive or ceremonial purposes. In the north,
Grover, S., 2002. Islamic Architecture in India. New Delhi:
they were built in a combination of styles and
CBS Publishers and Publishers
bore Persian and Central Asian influences,
whereas in the south they often retained
Nath, R., 1994. Mosque Architecture: From Medina to
regional characteristics.
Hindustan (622-1654 A.D.). Jaipur: Historical Research
Documentation Programme
Water monuments
Parihar, S., 1999. Some Aspects of Indo-Islamic Due to water insufficiency, infrastructure to
Architecture. Delhi: Abhinav Publications store rainwater using artificial means was vital.
These included elaborately ornamented tanks
Pereira, J., 2004. The Sacred Architecture of Islam. New (talabs), step-wells (baolis or bavadis), canals
Delhi: Aryan Books International (ganjes) or weirs.
16
Interior view of Shahzadi-ka Rawza (tomb), built in late 15th century CE

Location: Chanderi, India
Source: Kirkby, A., 2013. Shahzadi-ka Rawza, https://archnet.org/media_contents/90717, accessed Jul 2021
Nizamuddin Baoli, built in 1321-1322 CE, before restoration

Source: Richters, C., 2009. Nizamuddin Baoli, AKHCP, AKTC, https://archnet.org/media_contents/75855, accessed Jul 2021
Humayun’s Tomb in Delhi, built c. 1565-1575 CE

Location: India
Source: AKTC, 2007. Humayun’s Tomb, © Aga Khan Trust for Culture (India), accessed Jul 2021
18
Exterior view of Mausoleum of I’timad al-Daula from the west, built in 1622-1628 CE
Location: Agra, India
Source: Braun, E./Braun Media, 2005. Mausoleum of I’timad al-Daula. AKVA, MIT Libraries, https://archnet.org/media_contents/86978,
accessed Jul 2021
20
Watercolour drawing of Adina Mosque interior in Pandua, built in 1364-1375 CE

Location: Bengal, India
Source: Ram, S., 1817. The many domed interior of the Adina Mosque at Pandua, including the western wall and its niches, and the
royal platform, Asia, Pacific & Africa Collections, Online Exhibitions of The British Library, http://www.bl.uk/, accessed Oct 2021
22
Exterior view of Jami Masjid in Srinagar, built c.1400 CE

Location: Kashmir, India
Source: Sampat, R. 1983. Jama Masjid (Srinagar), AKVA, MIT Libraries, https://archnet.org/sites/3990, accessed Jul 2021
24
Tomb of Ahmad Shah Bahmani, built in 1436 CE

Location: Ashtoor, India
Source: Mansoor, A., 2013. Tomb of Ahmad Shah Bahmani, https://archnet.org/media_contents/91060, accessed Oct 2021
Purana Qil’a, Humayun Darwaza, built in 1543-1544 CE

Source: Rotch Visual Collections, 2009. AKVA, MIT Libraries, http://hdl.handle.net/1721.3/36697, accessed Oct 2021
26
Jahangiri Mahal in Agra Fort, built in 1565–1573 CE

Location: Agra, India
Source: Kidder Smith, G. E., 1965. AKVA, MIT Libraries, http://hdl.handle.net/1721.3/165455, accessed Oct 2021
28
2 THE DECCAN SULTANATES
The Deccan Sultanates
CONTENTS
Kingdoms prior to the Deccan Sultanates
The rise of the Islamic Sultanates
The architecture of the Sultanates
Architectural characteristics
This chapter provides sources regarding the Deccan

Sultanates and an overview on:
• the history and architecture of the Deccan plateau

with specific references to different dynasties;
• monuments built under the Deccan Sultanates

and their historic significance;
• architectural qualities and characteristics of the

Sultanates;
• the principal characteristics of the architecture of

the different dynasties.
Qutb Shahi Tomb Complex

Date: 1543-17th century CE
Source: Richters, C. Qutb Shahi Tombs Restoration, 2014. © AKDN
Asset Bank 2021, accessed Jul 2021
30
Kingdoms prior to the

Deccan Sultanates
The anglicised name ‘Deccan’ derives from the Pre-Islamic Deccan kingdoms
Sanskrit word for south, dakshina. This plateau
extends southwards from the Vindhya Range hill Although the pre-Islamic kingdoms of
systems in central India and is flanked by the the Deccan developed individual temple
mountain ranges, the Western and the Eastern architectural styles, they still shared common
Ghats. Until the 14th century CE the Deccan saw features attesting to their spatial interaction.
the rise and fall of Hindu kingdoms including the
Satavahanas, the Chalukyas, the Rashtrakutas, the Satavahanas 2nd century BCE - 3rd century
Hoysalas, and the Yadavas. CE
Although the Satavahanas were Hindu rulers,
their reign marked the spread of Buddhism in
Bibliography the Deccan. About 800 rock-cut caves were
excavated and stupas and monasteries were
Dhaky, M. A., 1996. Encyclopaedia of Indian Temple constructed.
Architecture. South India, Upper Dravidadesa, Later
Phase AD 973-1326. New Delhi: Manohar Publishers and Chalukyas 5th-8th century CE
Distributors Temples constructed during the Chalukyan
reign display Hindu and Buddhist features.
Dubreuil, G. J., 1987. Dravidian Architecture. New Delhi: This new architectural style, known as the
Gyan Publishing House Vesara style, is a combination of Dravidian
and Nagara architecture, originating in Tamil
Eaton, R. M. & Wagoner, P. B., 2013. Power, Memory, Nadu. It gradually evolved from cave to free-
Architecture: Contested Sites on India’s Deccan standing stone temples, with intricately carved
Plateau,1300-1600. Oxford Scholarship Online ornamentation and sculptures.
Eaton, R. M., 2005. The new Cambridge history of India. Rashtrakutas 8th-10th century CE
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press The Rashtrakutas excavated elaborate Jain
cave temples or appropriated existing Buddhist
Fergusson, J., 1910. History of Indian and Eastern ones. The architectural style of temples
Architecture, Volume 1. New Delhi: Low Price Publications was predominantly Dravidian. Rashtrakutan
temples are known for their monolithic stone
Fergusson, J., 1910. History of Indian and Eastern architecture and sculptures that depict
Architecture, Volume 2. London: John Murray theological tales.
Flatt, E. J., 2019. The Courts of the Deccan Sultanates:
Hoysalas 12th-14th century CE
Living Well in the Persian Cosmopolis. Cambridge:
Hoysala temples were constructed in Vesara
Cambridge University Press
style and share features with temples built
towards the end of the Chalukyan age. Their
Foekema, G., 1996. A Complete Guide to Hoysala
design is sophisticated with complex layouts
Temples. New Delhi: Abhinav Publications
and architectural features.
Hettiarachchy, J., 1973, Buddism in the Northern Deccan
Yadavas 12th-14th century CE
under the Satavahana rulers (PhD Thesis). University of
The Yadavan temple architecture drew
London
inspiration from Chalukyan temples introducing
a unique style of faunal ornamentation.
Simmons, C., 2020. Devotional Sovereignty: Kinship and
Religion in India. Oxford: Oxford University Press
32
Map of major centres of the Persian Cosmopolis, 900–1500 CE

Source: Eaton, R. M. & Wagoner, P. B., 2013. Power, Memory, Architecture: Contested Sites on India’s Deccan Plateau,1300-1600, Oxford
Scholarship Online
Map of regional kingdoms of the Deccan, 1190-1310 CE Map of the Bahmani and Vijayanagara kingdoms
Source: Eaton, R. M. & Wagoner, P. B., 2013. Power, Memory, Source: Eaton, R. M. & Wagoner, P. B., 2013. Power,
Architecture: Contested Sites on India’s Deccan Plateau,1300-1600, Memory, Architecture: Contested Sites on India’s Deccan
Oxford Scholarship Online Plateau,1300-1600, Oxford Scholarship Online
The rise of the Islamic

Sultanates
Islam arrived in the Deccan region in the late 13th The Deccan Sultanates
century CE with the rise of the Khaljis. The Tughluqs
followed in the 14th century CE, while the Mughal As discussed in the previous chapter,
invasion of parts of the Deccan took place in the 17th independent provincial dynasties were
century CE. Regardless of Deccan’s remoteness, established during the Tughluq period, with the
this religious and political change brought an array Bahmanis dominating the Deccan region.
of cultural, architectural and artistic influences from
territories as far as Persia and the Ottoman Empire. The Bahmanis
Zafar Khan, the commander of the Tughluq
army, arrived in the Deccan in 1347 CE and
established the Bahmani Sultanate, taking
Bibliography the name, Ala-ud-Din Bahman Shah. The
Bahmanis captured most of the Western and
Alfieri, M. B. & Borromeo, F., 2000. Islamic Architecture Central Deccan area but lost their power at the
of the Indian Subcontinent. London: Laurence King beginning of the 16th century CE.
Publishing
The Sultanates
Rani, A., 1991. Tughluq Architecture of Delhi. Delhi: The Bahmani territory was divided into five
Bharati Prakashan smaller sultanates ruled by independent
dynasties, which collectively came to be known
Eaton, R. M., 2019. India in the Persianate Age 1000- as the Deccan Sultanates. Their capitals were:
1765. London: Penguin Books
• Ahmadnagar, 1490-1600 CE, Nizam Shahi
Eaton, R., 2005. A Social History of the Deccan 1300- dynasty
1761: Eight Indian Lives. Cambridge: Cambridge • Bijapur, 1490-1686 CE, Adil Shahi dynasty
University Press. • Berar, 1490-1574 CE, Imad Shahi dynasty
• Bidar, 1492-1619 CE, Barid Shahi dynasty
Encyclopaedia Iranica, 2011. Bahmanid Dynasty [Online] • Golconda, 1518-1687 CE, Qutb Shahi
https://iranicaonline.org/, [Accessed 17 Oct 2021] dynasty.
Gribble, J. D. B., 1896. A History of the Deccan. London: Cultural influences

Luzac & Co. Due to the origins and religious affiliations of
the dynasties’ rulers, the Deccan was greatly
Leonard, K., 1971. The Hyderabad Political System and influenced by the culture and architectural
its Participants, Journal of Asian Studies, Volume 30,
tradition of the Middle East. The Qutb Shahis
No.3. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
were descendants of Qara Qoyunlu Turkmen
princes and the Adil Shahis proclaimed links to
Mate, M. S.,1963. Islamic architecture of the Deccan,
Bulletin of the Deccan College Research Institute, Volume the Ottoman dynasty, while the Nizam Shahis
22. Pune: Deccan College Post-Graduate and Research converted to Islam from Hinduism. After 1501
Institute (Deemed University) CE Persian influence on the Deccan became
paramount, while links were maintained with
Haidar, N. N. & Sardar, M., 2015. Sultans of Deccan the Shia holy cities of Iraq. In contrast, the
India, 1500–1700: Opulence and Fantasy. New York: The cultural ties with northern India were weaker.
Metropolitan Museum of Art
34
Gawilgarh Fort The Great Mosque or Sola Khamb Mosque

Location: Berar, India Location: Bidar, India
Date: 1425 CE Date: 1423-1424 CE
Source: Taylor, P. M., 1837. View from Gawilgarh (Berar), Asia, Pa- Source: Sykes, D. H., 1875. The Great Mosque or Sola Khamb Masjid
cific & Africa Collections, Online Exhibitions of The British Library, at Bedar, Asia, Pacific & Africa Collections, Online Exhibitions of The
http://www.bl.uk/, accessed Oct 2021 British Library, http://www.bl.uk/, accessed Sep 2021
Damri Mosque Farah Bagh

Location: Ahmadnagar, India Location: Ahmadnagar, India
Date: 1567-1568 CE Date: 1583 CE
Source: Cousens, H., 1880. General view of the Damri Masjid, Source: Cousens, H., 1885. General view of the Faria Bagh, Asia,
Ahmadnagar, Asia, Pacific & Africa Collections, Online Exhibitions Pacific & Africa Collections, Online Exhibitions of The British Library,
of The British Library, http://www.bl.uk/, accessed Aug 2021 http://www.bl.uk/, accessed Aug 2021
Asar Mahal Golconda Fort

Location: Bijapur, India Location: Hyderabad, India
Date: 1591 CE Date: 14th-17th centuries CE
Source: 1875. The Asar Mahal, Bijapur, Asia, Pacific & Africa Source: Macnabb Collection, 1902. Golconda Fort, 1902-03. 752516,
Collections, Online Exhibitions of The British Library, http://www. Asia, Pacific & Africa Collections, Online Exhibitions of The British
bl.uk/, accessed Sep 2021 Library, http://www.bl.uk/, accessed Sep 2021
The architecture of
the Sultanates
All of the five sultanates developed individual Ahmadnagar
architectural and artistic expressions, affirming the The Nizam Shahis’ large citadel in Ahmadnagar,
importance of the relationship between architectural enclosed by a circular fort and moat, contains
style and dynastic identity in Deccan culture. Malik Ahmad’s palace and reception hall. Other
The unstable political climate and succession of significant civic buildings are located in the
kingdoms led to intense defensive building activity. surrounding area (Farah Bagh, Hayat Behisht
The rulers built new citadels, as well as religious Bagh resort).Their style is an amalgamation of
and civic buildings to legitimise their rule over the Bahmani architecture and Hindu ornamentation
Deccan territories. and construction techniques.
Bibliography Bijapur
Under the Adil Shahis, Bijapur became a centre
Fischel, R. S., 2016. Bahmani Sultanate, The Encyclopedia for arts, literature, and culture. The city features
of Empire, New York: John Wiley & Sons monuments including defensive, religious
and palatial structures, featuring intricate
Haidar, N. N., & Sardar, M., 2015. Sultans of Deccan ornamentation (e.g., Ibrahim Rouza Complex)
India, 1500–1700: Opulence and Fantasy. New York: The and unprecedented construction (e.g., the
Metropolitan Museum of Art dome of the Gol Gumbaz).
Grover, S., 2002. Islamic Architecture in India. New Delhi: Golconda

CBS Publishers and Publishers The Qutb Shahis’ stronghold, Golconda, has
been their greatest achievement, both for its
Mate, M. S.,1963. Islamic architecture of the Deccan, urban configuration and its residential, civic
Bulletin of the Deccan College Research Institute, Volume and defensive architecture with their Iranian
22. Pune: Deccan College Post-Graduate and Research
influences. Jami mosque, Nau Mahal Complex,
Institute (Deemed University)
Bala Hisar Gate, Dad Mahal and Shahi Mahal,
stand out among its many monuments.
Michell, G. & Philon, H., 2018. Islamic Architecture of
Deccan India. Woodbridge: ACC Art Books Ltd.
Bidar
Mudiraj, K. K., 1929. Pictorial Hyderabad. Volume 1, Bidar, flourished in the 15th and 16th century
Hyderabad: The Chandrakanth Press CE under the Bahmanis and the Barid
Shahis. Its monuments are enclosed within
Sastri K. A. N., Shyam, R.,1968. A History of South India. a large circular fort including bastions, gates
The Kingdom of Ahmednagar, Journal of the American and barbicans. The Jami Mosque and the
Oriental Society, Volume 88, No. 2 impressive Mahmud Gawan Madrasa are few
of the surviving monuments.
Sohoni, P. (ed), 2018. The Architecture of a Deccan
Sultanate: Courtly Practice and Royal Authority in Late Berar
Medieval India. London: I. B. Tauris Berar was the capital of the Imad Shahis before
it was absorbed by Ahmadnagar. The fort with
UNESCO, Monuments and Forts of the Deccan Sultanate its bastions, walls, and gates safeguarded the
[Online] https://en.unesco.org/, [Accessed 12 Oct 2021]
sprawling palace complex, containing water
reservoirs, baths, and civic buildings with
Yazdani, G., 1995. Bidar. Its History And Monuments.
unique pyramidal roofs.
Oxford: Oxford University press
36
Golconda Fort, built in 1143 CE and fortified in 14th-17th centuries CE by the Bahmanis and Qutb Shahis
Source: 1876. AKVA, MIT Libraries, http://hdl.handle.net/1721.3/20308, accessed Sep 2021
Sola Khamb Mosque, built in 1423-1424 CE

Location: Bidar, India
Source: Javed, S., 1986. AKVA, MIT Libraries, http://hdl.handle.net/1721.3/96172, accessed Sep 2021
Architectural
characteristics
Distinctive typologies, façade designs and Typology
decorative traditions flourished in early 16th
century CE religious architecture, in the capitals of Defensive
the Sultanates. In contrast, military structures do The Deccan Sultanates produced an abundance
not present as many variations, probably because of defensive architecture, ranging from elaborate
of their unchanging warfare techniques and fortification systems to water supply and
programmatic demands. distribution infrastructure. Enormous stone walls
enclosed and safeguarded military installations
or urban centres, categorising them to frontier,
territorial and metropolitan forts.
Bibliography Palatial
Different palatial complexes were built by
Burton Page, J., 2008. Indian Islamic Architecture: Forms successive royal dynasties expressing not only
and Typologies, Sites and Monuments. Leiden: E. J. Brill their political dominion on the territory but also
their individual architectural styles. Using stone
Cousens, H., 1889. Bijapur, the old Capital of the masonry and timber constructions, they erected
Adil Shahi Kings; a Guide to its Ruins With Historical impressive royal residencies that also featured
Outline, Archaeological Survey of Western India. Poona: hammams (baths) and stucco decoration. To
Orphanage Press insure their security, these were often built within
forts.
Fergusson, J., 1891. History of Indian and Eastern
Architecture, Volume 2. New York: Cambridge University Religious
Press Deccani mosques were rectangular structures
of simple layout, surmounted by large domes
Nath, R., 1995. Studies in Medieval Indian Architecture.
and accessed through riwaqs on one or all four
Delhi: M.D. Publications
façades. Funerary structures present similar
morphology, featuring unique bulbous domes
Mate, M. S., 1963. Islamic architecture of the Deccan,
Bulletin of the Deccan College Research Institute, Volume that rise on a frieze of floral merlons. Religious
22. Pune: Deccan College Post-Graduate and Research complexes usually incorporate a central courtyard
Institute (Deemed University) and water features.
Michell, G., 1995. Architecture and Art of Southern India: Ornamentation

Vijayanagara and the Successor States 1350–1750, The The Khalji and Tughluq floral and geometric
New Cambridge History of India. Cambridge: Cambridge ornamentation was continued by the Deccanis.
University Press Additionally, the strong influence of Iranian and
Turkish ornamentation traditions can be seen
Fergusson, J., 1891. History of Indian and Eastern in later Bahmani and Nizam Shahi monuments,
Architecture, Volume 2. New York: Cambridge University through a variety of decoration types, including
Press calligraphy, stylized plant forms and arabesques.
Coloured tiles (e.g., Mahmud Gawan’s Madrasa
Sohoni, P. (ed.), 2018. The Architecture of a Deccan in Bidar) and elaborate plaster decorations (e.g.,
Sultanate: Courtly Practice and Royal Authority in Late
tombs of Gulbarga and Bidar) are also of Iranian
Medieval India. London: I. B. Tauris
style.
38
Courtyard and water feature of Ibrahim Rouza Complex, built in 1626 CE

Source: ArCHIAM Centre, 2018
Parapet and finials in Ibrahim Rouza Complex, built in 1626 CE

Sculpted facade of Hoysalan temple, built in 1100-1350 CE

Location: Halebid, India
Source: Oakeley, R. B., 1856. Close view of the sculptured façade of an unidentified temple at Halebid, Asia, Pacific & Africa Collections,
Online Exhibitions of The British Library, http://www.bl.uk/, accessed Sep 2021
40
Banded sculptural frieze of Hoysalesvara temple, built in 12th century CE

Location: Halebid, India
Source: Oakeley, R. B., 1856. Banded sculptural frieze on the east side of the south doorway of the Hoysalesvara Temple, Halebid, Asia,
Pacific & Africa Collections, Online Exhibitions of The British Library, http://www.bl.uk/, accessed Sep 2021
Chalukyan Buddhist cave temple, built in 6th century CE

Location: Aihole, India
Source: Cousens, H., 1885. Two-storied Buddhist Cave Temple, Aihole, Asia, Pacific & Africa Collections, Online Exhibitions of The
British Library, http://www.bl.uk/, accessed Sep 2021
42
Quranic calligraphy on Mahmud Gawan’s Madrasa, built in 1472 CE

Location: Bidar, India
Source: Javed, S., 1986. Quranic calligraphy, https://archnet.org/sites/3988/media_contents/3038, accessed Aug 2021
44
Golconda Fort, built in 1143 CE and fortified in 14th-17th centuries CE by the Bahmanis and Qutb Shahis
Source: Reddy, D. R., 1999. AKVA, MIT Libraries, http://hdl.handle.net/1721.3/20129, accessed Sep 2021
Interior of Qutb Shahi Great Mosque, built in 1543-17th century CE

Source: Richters C., 2014. Interior view of the Great Mosque, https://archnet.org/media_contents/100585, accessed Aug 2021
46
Ornamentation detail in Qutb Shahi Tomb, built in 1543-17th century CE

Source: Monreal, L., 2013. Qutb Shahi Tombs, © Aga Khan Trust for Culture, accessed Jul 2021
48
Interior view of an ante-chamber in the palace within Golconda Fort, built in 1543-17th century CE
Source: Khalidi, O., 1985. AKVA, MIT Libraries, http://hdl.handle.net/1721.3/20166, accessed Sep 2021
50
3 ADIL SHAHI RULE AND THE CITY OF BIJAPUR
Adil Shahi Rule and the city of

Bijapur
CONTENTS
History of Adil Shahi Dynasty
The city of Bijapur
Architectural features
The suburbs
This chapter provides sources regarding Adil Shahi

Rule and its Influence on the City of Bijapur and an
overview on:
• the Adil Shahi dynasty and its influence on Bijapur;
• the evolution (morphology) of the citadel and its

main architectural features;
• the current state of the city;
• the main architectural monuments and water

infrastructure;
• the current state of its main suburbs.
Ibrahim Rouza Complex

Date: 1626 CE
52
History of Adil Shahi

Dynasty
The Adil Shahi dynasty ruled Bijapur from 1489 to Historical background
1686 CE, after the Bahmanis. They were succeeded
by the Mughal emperors after the siege of Bijapur in Bijapur’s founder, Yusuf Adil Shah was said to
1685 CE, when the emperor Aurangzeb and his son be the son of the Ottoman Sultan Murad II, or
captured the city. The dynasty reached its apogee a slave of Georgian, Turkmen or Persian origin,
when its power expanded as far as Mysore, the purchased by the Bahmani prime minister,
southernmost city of Karnataka region, under the Mahmud Gawan.
rule of Ibrahim Adil Shah II (1580–1627 CE).
Yusuf Adil Shah
Yusuf Adil Shah travelled at a young age
from Constantinople to Hindustan, where he
Bibliography
was taken into the royal Bahmani household.
Burton Page, J., 2008. Indian Islamic Architecture: Forms Sultan Muhammed Bahmani appointed him
and Typologies, Sites and Monuments. Leiden: E. J. Brill as governor of Bijapur with the title of Adil
Khan. After Sultan Muhammed’s death and
Cousens, H., 1889. Bijapur, the old Capital of the the decline of the Bahmani dynasty, Yusuf
Adil Shahi Kings; a Guide to its Ruins With Historical asserted his province’s independence in 1489-
Outline, Archaeological Survey of Western India. Poona: 1490 CE and he introduced Shi’ism to Bijapur,
Orphanage Press but practiced toleration. Even after the division
of the Deccan Plateau into five sultanates
Cousens, H., 1916. Bijapur and its architectural remains. around 1490 CE, the Adil Shahis continued to
Bombay: Government Central Press acknowledge and assist the latest Bahmani
sultans.
Publications Division, M/O Information & Broadcasting,
Successors
Government of India
In 1510 CE Yusuf’s son, Ismail Adil Shah,
succeeded him. Nonetheless, it was the third
Eaton, R. M., 2019. India in the Persianate Age 1000-
1765. London: Penguin Books Adil Shahi ruler, Ibrahim I (1534-1558 CE), who
proclaimed a full royal title in 1539 CE. Ibrahim
Flatt, E. J., 2019. The Courts of the Deccan Sultanates: I was succeeded by Ali I (1558-1580 CE),
Living Well in the Persian Cosmopolis. Cambridge: and during Ali’s rule the arts and architecture
Cambridge University Press flourished in the region.
Mate, M. S.,1963. Islamic architecture of the Deccan. The Bijapur Style

Bulletin of the Deccan College Research Institute, Volume Building activity was initiated in that period
22. Pune: Deccan College Post-Graduate and Research in the city of Bijapur, and one of the earliest
Institute (Deemed University) architectural examples was the Jami mosque.
This early phase of intensive building activity
Sohoni, P. (ed), 2018. The Architecture of a Deccan contributed to the evolution of the existing
Sultanate: Courtly Practice and Royal Authority in Late Bahmani into a new architectural style, more
Medieval India. London: I. B. Tauris
affluent in design and construction.
The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica, Adil Shahi
dynasty [Online] www.britannica.com, [Accessed 12 Oct
2021]
54
Cornice detail in Gol Gumbaz, built in 1627-1656 CE

Qutb Shahi Heritage Complex, built in 1543-17th century CE

Source: AKTC, 2019. Aerial view over Phase 1 showing the restored tombs and gardens, Aga Khan Historic Cities Programme - Delhi,
https://archnet.org/media_contents/145088, accessed Aug 2021
The city of Bijapur
The Adil Shahi’s interest in architecture was Description of the city

translated into intense building activity of
impressive monuments, tombs, mosques and The Adil Shahis’ commitment to the welfare of
palaces in their capital, Bijapur. The city retains their people led to the construction of mosques,
to this day most of its original characteristics roads, sarais (resting places for travellers and
and morphology from the Adil Shahi period. traders), gardens and other charitable facilities
The concept and development of its complex and civic amenities. A large number of civil
fortification and water infrastructure system and religious monuments, along with baolis/
can be traced back to Yusuf Adil Khan’s era. bavadis (water structures) are preserved to this
day.
Bibliography
The city walls
Cousens, H., 1889. Bijapur, the old Capital of the The city is encircled by a fortified wall with
Adil Shahi Kings; a Guide to its Ruins With Historical 96 bastions and a moat. The wall consists
Outline. Archaeological Survey of Western India. Poona: of a wide rammed earth base that acts as a
Orphanage Press platform and is crowned with battlement wall
running along the bastions and the gates.
Cousens, H., 1916. Bijapur and its architectural remains. The city has five main brick gateways with low
Bombay: Government Central Press entrances supported by large semicircular or
polygonal bastions. There are also several
FICUS Landscape architects, 2015. Water Heritage, secondary gates between the main ones that
Bijapur, https://studioficus.com/water-heritage-bijapur, now lie disused.
accessed Oct 2021
The citadel
Imaratwale, G. & Killedar, R. A., 2011. Studies in Mediaeval
The citadel, Ark-Qila, is located at the centre of
Bijapur. New Delhi: Islamic Wonders Bureau
the city within its own enclosing walls and three
gates approached by draw bridges across a
James, B., 1844. The Ruined City of Bijapur. Journal of
the Bombay Branch of the Royal Asiactic Society, Volume second moat. Its layout resembles that of the
1 city and its walls.
Michell, G. & Philon, H., 2018. Islamic Architecture of Water structures

Deccan India. Woodbridge: ACC Art Books Ltd. The Adil Shahi sultans faced the challenge
of tackling the water scarcity of the arid land,
Michell, G. & Zebrowski, M., 1999. Architecture and Art which in turn would act as a reinforcement of
of the Deccan Sultanates. The New Cambridge History of their power over the people. They ensured the
India, Volume 1. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press abundance of water both within and outside
of the fort. In the case of Bijapur, water was
Sohoni, P. (ed), 2018. The Architecture of a Deccan brought in from two sources; Torweh (west) and
Sultanate: Courtly Practice and Royal Authority in Late Begum Talab (south). The water was collected
Medieval India. London: I. B. Tauris in holding tanks on the hills outside the city and
supplied through a network of pipes, channels
Sharma, A., Kumar, M. et al, 2019. Medieval (Islamic)
and underground tunnels connected to bavadis
Cities in India (1206–1764): An Environmental Review and
(square-shaped structures similar to wells).
its Contemporary Relevance. Indian Historical Review,
Volume 46, Part 1. SAGE Publications India Pvt. Ltd
56
Plan of Bijapur Citadel, between 1821-1844 CE

Source: Boyd, G.,1821. f.3’ Citadel of Bejapoor. Plan. Asia, Pacific & Africa Collections, Online Exhibitions of The British Library, http://
www.bl.uk/, accessed Oct 2021
Plan of Bijapur walled city and Shahpur shuburb, in 1888 CE

Source: Cousens, H., 1889. Bijapur, the old Capital of the Adil Shahi Kings; a Guide to its Ruins With Historical Outline. Archaeological
Survey of Western India. Poona: Orphanage Press
Architectural features
The development of the Bijapur style in Indo-Islamic Bijapur construction

architecture corresponds with the Renaissance
period in Europe. The prevailing building materials A series of architectural advancements in
were rubble and plaster or stone masonry, while both construction and ornamentation are
decorative patterns were carved in stone or moulded characteristic of the architectural style of
in stucco. The main features are the prominence Bijapur.
of minarets instead of many or large domes, and
the lavish surface ornamentation of buildings and Structural and decorative features
components. • A new dome form with reduced size and
varied shape from bulbous to spherical, on
a rectangular base, and decorated drum
Bibliography concealed within a ring of petals.
• Multiple arched façades with a wider
Brown, P., 1968. Indian Architecture: Islamic Period. central arch.
Bombay: Taraporewala’s Treasure House of Books • Use of a large masonry platform instead of
pillars.
Bunce, F. W., 2004. Islamic Tombs in India: The • Treatment of pointed arches with curved
Iconography and Genesis of Design. New Delhi: D.K. outlines on the building façades, and
Printworld (P) Ltd. decoration of arch spandrels with elaborate
plaster moulded medallions.
Chaghtai, M. A., 1941. Indo-muslim Architecture, New • Bold overhanging eaves (chhajjas) or
Delhi, Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research cornices supported on brackets with carved
Institute, Volume 22, No. 1/2. Pune: Bhandarkar Oriental decorations, inspired by Hindu woodwork.
Research Institute • Vertical projections above the roof level,
with miniature domes.
Desai, Z. A., 1970. Indo-Islamic Architecture. New Delhi: • Introduction of the ‘hanging ceiling’, made
Publications Division, M/O Information & Broadcasting, by stone slabs bound together with the use
Government of India of iron clamps and mortar.
• Employment of minarets and finials as
Hosamani, R., 2018. Some Architectural Replications of prominent decorative parts of the building.
Adil Shahi of Bijapur, Aayushi International Interdisciplinary
Research Journal (AIIRJ), Volume 5, No.3 Built heritage
These features are found on surviving
Michell, G. & Philon, H., 2018. Islamic Architecture of monuments in Bijapur, such as:
Deccan India. Woodbridge: ACC Art Books Ltd. • the Gol Gumbaz, with its incomparable
spherical dome and corner towers
Nath, R., 1995. Studies in Medieval Indian Architecture. surmounted by small bulbous domes;
Delhi: M.D. Publications • the Ibrahim Rouza Complex, with cornice
overhangs running along its façades;
Philon, H., 2017. Gulbarga, Bidar, Bijapur. Mumbai: • the Asar Mahal, with its decorated walls
JAICO-Deccan Heritage Foundation and windows, displaying lavish floral,
geometrical and human figure motifs.
Reuben, S. S., 1963. The Architecture of Bijapur. New
Delhi: Archaeological Survey of India
58
Decorative detail of Chotta Sarai, built in 1543-1580 CE Interior of Rani Mahal, built in 1627-1656 CE
Location: Shahpur suburb (Bijapur), India Location: Kumatagi, India
Source: ArCHIAM Centre, 2018 Source: ArCHIAM Centre, 2018
Facade detail of Ibrahim Rouza, built in 1626 CE

The suburbs
Bijapur thrived as the capital of the Adil Shahi Development of the suburbs
dynasty and by 1565 CE the citadel with its walls,
gates, bridges across the moat and bastions were The core of Bijapur was encircled by vast
established. The development of the suburbs fortification walls. Around this walled city many
around the city walls took place at the peak of Adil suburbs were developed, and some of the
Shahi power. The main suburbs of Bijapur were historical ones are to this day rich in ruins of
Nauraspur, Ainapur, Kumatagi, and Shahpur. the Adil Shahi era.
Shahpur
One of the largest suburbs is Shahpur,
established in 1557 CE, north-west of the
Bibliography Bijapur city walls. It was a commercial hub
due to textile trade, that accommodated many
Campbell, J. M., 1884. Gazetteer of the Bombay businesses, workshops, and storage facilities
Presidency. Bombay: Government Central Press and a large community of merchants. One of
the building types that evolved in the area due
Cousens, H., 1889. Bijapur, the old Capital of the to the mercantile activity is the caravanserai,
Adil Shahi Kings; a Guide to its Ruins With Historical located on caravan routes, 30-40 km apart.
Outline. Archaeological Survey of Western India. Poona: In that way the traders would travel during the
Orphanage Press day and would have a shelter for the night.
There are two known caravanserais in Shahpur,
Cousens, H., 1916. Bijapur and its architectural remains. Mustafa Khan Sarai and Chotta Sarai. A water
Bombay: Government Central Press distribution network as well as related structures
(baths, wells and reservoirs) are found close to
Michell, G. & Zebrowski, M., 1999. The New Cambridge such structures.
History of India, Volume 1, Part 7: Architecture and Art
of the Deccan Sultanates. Cambridge: Cambridge Nauraspur
University Press Nauraspur, established in 1599 CE by Ibrahim
II, is located west of Bijapur. Its plan resembles
Rotzer, K., 2010. Hydraulic works and gardens, Silent that of Bijapur, thus is called ‘twin city’. The
Splendour: Palaces of the Deccan 14th -19th Century. suburb was destroyed in 1624 CE and only one
Helen Philon (ed). Mumbai: Marg Publications of its walled compounds, that used to surround
Ibrahim Adil Shah’s palace, remains today.
Taylor, M. & Ferguson, J., 1886. Architecture at Beejapoor.
London: J. Murray Ainapur
Ainapur, which was located east of the city,
Hosamani, R., 2018. Some Architectural Replications of was founded in the 17th century CE by Jahan
Adil Shahi of Bijapur, Aayushi International Interdisciplinary Begum. Surviving monuments include her
Research Journal (AIIRJ), Volume 5, No.3 garden-palace with baolis, as well as her tomb
that was a smaller replica of Gol Gumbaz, her
Reuben, S. S., 1963. The Architecture of Bijapur. New husband’s mausoleum.
Delhi: Archaeological Survey of India
Kumatagi
Siddhanti, V. V., 2011. Water Management and Kumatagi is located east of Bijapur. Its standing
Conservation Systems in the Adil Shahi Dynasty of Bijapur monuments are the royal summer palace,
Sultanate. A Study, South Asian Journal of Tourism and Rani Mahal, a market structure, a gateway,
Heritage, Volume 4, No 1 mosques, walls and tombs.
60
Mausoleum and Prayer Hall Complex, built in 1675 CE

Location: Shaphur suburb (Bijapur), India
Map of Bijapur walled city and its surrounding environment, in1889 CE

Source: Cousens, H., 1916. Bijapur and its architectural remains. Bombay: Government Central Press
Gol Gumbaz east façade, built in 1627-1656 CE

Source: Javed, S., 1986. East façade viewed from northeast, http://archnet.org/media_contents/3047, accessed Sep 2021
62
Parapet detail in Gol Gumbaz, built in 1627-1656 CE

Source: Javed, S., 1986. Looking along the parapet, http://archnet.org/media_contents/3050, accessed Sep 2021
64
Parapet and lotus petal ring detail in Gol Gumbaz, built in 1627-1656 CE
Main entrance of Chotta Sarai, built in 1543-1580 CE

Location: Shahpur suburb (Bijapur), India
66
Interior view of Chotta Sarai, built in 1543-1580 CE

68
Baoli and hammam located east of Chotta Sarai, built in 1543-1580 CE

Location: Shahpur suburb (Bijapur)
70
Mausoleum and Prayer Hall Complex, built in 1675 CE

72
Interior view of Mausoleum, built in 1675 CE

4 SOUTHERN ISLAMIC CENTRES BEYOND THE DECCAN
Southern Islamic centres beyond

the Deccan
CONTENTS
Tamil Nadu and the eastern region
Kerala and the western region
The island town of Srirangapatna
Islamic and Hindu architectural heritage
This chapter provides sources regarding Southern

Islamic centres beyond the Deccan and an overview
on:
• the history and architecture of the ports and towns

of Coromandel and Malabar;
• the spread of Islam through trade to South India

and its influences on regional architectural and
cultural styles;
•Srirangapatna’s historical background and the

development of its architectural heritage;
• the architectural features of the Srirangapatna Fort

and its monuments;
• the symbiotic relationship between Hindu and

Muslim rulers reflected in the town’s architecture.
Kazimar Big Mosque

Location: Madurai, India
Date: 1284 CE, 14th-15th centuries CE
Source: Wasifwasif, 2009. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kazimar_Big_
Mosque#/media/File:Kazimarbigmosque.JPG, accessed Jul 2021
74
Tamil Nadu and the

eastern region
In the early 9th and 10th centuries CE, the south- Coromandel Coast
eastern coastal region of the Indian subcontinent,
known as the Coromandel Coast, was a hub for The towns of the Coromandel coast, such
Muslim traders. Due to their links to the Middle as Madurai and Kayalpatnam, were part of
East, Islam was introduced to this part of India. the southern campaigns of the Khilji general,
The trade centres developed a distinctive Tamil- Malik Kafur, during his expeditions of Islamic
Arabic culture, which has parallels with the cultural domination to the South.
tradition of the spice trade ports of Malabar on the
western coast of the subcontinent. Madurai
Madurai fell under the reign of the Delhi
Bibliography Sultanate in 1323 CE and regained its
independence between 1333 and 1335
Alpers, E.A. 2014. The Indian Ocean in World History. CE under the Tughluqs. This short Islamic
Oxford: Oxford University Press period of the independent Madurai Sultanate
ended when the town was captured by the
Elphinstone, M., 2014. The History of India, Volume 1. Vijayanagara forces in 1371 CE. After the 14th
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press century CE, the Islamic faith continued to be
established within communities in the far south
John, E. A., 2014. Triplicane Big Mosque: Prayer calls of India.
to the past [Online] https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com
[Accessed 23 Oct 2021] Influences
Although little remains from the old mosques
Logan, W., 2010. Malabar Manual. Alappuzha: of Tamil Nadu, the surviving building examples
Mathrubhumi Books in towns of the Coromandel coast illustrate
associations with its earlier Muslim settlers.
Mailaparambil, B. J., 2013. Lords of Sea: The Ali Rajas of The architectural style, developed in the region
Cannanore and the Political Economy of Malabar, 1663-
(Tamil Nadu), differs from the North Indian
1723. Leiden: E. J. Brill
styles and has some vernacular features
rooted in the place and the earlier Yemeni and
Muthiah, S., 2008. Madras, Chennai: A 400-year Record
of the First City of Modern India, Volume 1. Madras: Persian influences that arrived through Gujarat
Palaniappa Brothers and Malabar.
Raja, M. J., 2004. Islamic architecture in Tamil Nadu. Architecture

Chennai: Director of Museums, Government Museum A common feature of mosques in Tamil Nadu
is the presence of a colonnaded portico before
Shokoohy, M., 2013. Muslim Architecture of South India the prayer hall. This is not found in the mosques
The Sultanate of Ma’bar and the Traditions of Maritime of northern regions, but a similar expression of
Settlers on the Malabar and Coromandel Coasts (Tamil it is present in the Bengal Sultanate. Another
Nadu, Kerala and Goa). New York: Taylor and Francis characteristic of the region is the absence of
domed buildings, with a few exceptions of
Shokoohy, M., 1991. Architecture of the Sultanate of funerary structures. In contrast to North India
Ma’bar in Madura, and Other Muslim Monuments in and the Deccan, the mosques of the south-
South India, Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, Volume eastern coastal region have only one mihrab
1, No. 1, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press for instead of multiple and rarely have minarets.
Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland
76
Triplicane or Wallajah Mosque, built in 1795 CE

Location: Chennai, India
Source: Fiebig, F., 1851. Mosque, Madras (Black Town), Asia, Pacific & Africa Collections, Online Exhibitions of The British Library, http://
www.bl.uk/, accessed Sep 2021
Wallajah’s Tomb in Nuttur Auleah Mosque built in 18th century CE

Location: Tiruchchirappalli, India
Source: Tripe, L., 1858. Wallajah’s Tomb in the Nuttur Auleah Musjid [Close view of entrance to Nathar Shah’s Tomb, Tiruchchirappalli],
Asia, Pacific & Africa Collections, Online Exhibitions of The British Library, http://www.bl.uk/, accessed Sep 2021
Kerala and the

western region
The west coast of India, south of Gujarat, called the Malabar Coast
Malabar Coast, was also dominated by the Tamil
rulers – the Cheras, the Cholas and the Pandyas. From the ancient times the abundance of
The Malabar Coast was the principal producer of pepper in Malabar had played an important
spices and had a near monopoly in the cultivation role in the promotion of trade between the East
of pepper until the 15th or 16th centuries CE. Some and West; from China to the Middle East and
of the trade was controlled by foreign merchants. later, even Europe. Islam was introduced into
this coastal area by Sunni Arab traders.
Kerala
At present most of medieval Malabar is part of
Bibliography India’s Kerala state, where the best preserved
works of vernacular timber architecture -both
Aiyangar, S. K., 1921. South India and her Muhammadan Islamic and Hindu- can be found.
Invaders. London: Oxford University Press
Islamic presence
Carmody, K. N., 2019. The Vernacular Architecture of During the 9th century CE, a small Muslim
Kerala: A Case Study of Mishkal Mosque of Calicut, population and the presence of mosques
India, Exhibition, Master in Design Studies / Energy & in Kerala, is mentioned in travellers’ and
Environment. Harvard University Graduate School of geographers’ accounts. Mosque architecture
Design was at its peak between the 13th and the 16th
century CE due to the spice monopoly and the
Desai, M., 2018. Wooden Architecture of Kerala. Kaivanna: maritime supremacy of the Arabs.
Mapin Publishing Pvt. Ltd
Architecture
D’ Souza, S. V., 1978. Status Group among the Mappillas The mosques of Kerala are distinct from
on the South Western Coast of India. Caste and Social the ones in the rest of the subcontinent due
Stratification among Muslims in India. Ahmad Imtiaz (ed). to their construction methods, their tiered
New Delhi: South Asia Books structure and the choice of materials The main
building material is timber, widely used for the
Gurukkal, R. & Varier, R., 2018. History of Kerala: construction of upper storeys and roofs, as
Prehistoric to the Present. Hyderabad: Orient BlackSwan well as for the production of carved decorative
details. The feature of the colonnaded
Jayewardene Pillai, S., 2007. Imperial Conversations: portico, and the absence of minarets, similar
Indo-Britons and the Architecture of South India. New to the mosques of Tamil Nadu, are other
Delhi: Yoda Press characteristics of Kerala mosques, particularly
in Calicut. These architectural features, are
K, M., 2017. The Three Mosques of Kuttichira. not a mere invention of the Muslim settlers,
Welcome Kerala, Volume 09, No. 03 [Online] https:// but are influenced by the local climate and
welcomekeralaonline.com [Accessed 2 November 2020] context, as well as the Hindu architecture of
the region derived from temple complexes to
Shokoohy, M., 2013. Muslim Architecture of South India
simple dwellings. As with the case of Tamil
The Sultanate of Ma’bar and the Traditions of Maritime
Nadu, there are not many surviving traditional
Settlers on the Malabar and Coromandel Coasts (Tamil
mosques in Kerala. Several of these have
Nadu, Kerala and Goa. New York: Taylor and Francis
now been replaced or refurbished, in modern
construction materials and techniques.
78
Etching of Calicut, in 1813 CE

Location: Kerala, India
Source: Forbes, J., 1813. Calicut, on the coast of Malabar, Asia, Pacific & Africa Collections, Online Exhibitions of The British Library,
http://www.bl.uk/, accessed Oct 2021
Plan of Cheraman Jami Mosque, built in 1568 CE, with the outline of the modern addition around it
Source: Shokoohy, M., 2013. Muslim Architecture of South India. The Sultanate of Ma’bar and the Traditions of Maritime Settlers on the
Malabar and Coromandel Coasts (Tamil Nadu, Kerala and Goa), New York: Taylor and Francis
The island town of

Srirangapatna
Srirangapatna is the name of a town as well History and origins
as its associated taluk (administrative district)
in the Mandya District of Karnataka, India. It The origins of Srirangapatna can be traced as
is a riverine island with long history and vast far back as the late 9th century CE, although
architectural heritage, ranging from the Hindu there are suggestions that the island was
already inhabited in the 4th century CE. Entirely
Sri Ranganathswamy temple (built in 894 CE) to overrun by jungles, it was at the time known as
memorials and monuments built during the British Sri-Ranga-Pura. The origin of the name derives
era (18th -19th centuries). from an over 1000 year-old temple dedicated
to Lord Sriranganatha, which was established
by Tirumalaiyah of the Ganga dynasty.
Bibliography Historical background

In 1117 CE, the king of Hoysalas, who had
Buchanan, F., 1807. A Journey from Madras Through the converted from Jainism to Vaishnavism,
Countries of Mysore, Canara, and Malabar, Volume 1. allotted 8 plots of land along the river Kaveri
for the establishment of the Ashtagrama (‘eight
London: T. Cadell and W. Davies
villages’), marking the formal establishment of
the first planned settlement of Srirangapatna.
Gupta, E., Das, S., Rajani, M. B., 2017. Archaeological In 1454 CE, Thimanna, one of the Ashtagrama
Exploration in Srirangapatna and Its Environ Through lords, became the ruler of Srirangapatna and
Remote Sensing Analysis, Indian Society of Remote he obtained permission from the Vijayanagara
Sensing. Volume 45 rulers, to build an earthen fort in the island. He
also oversaw the development of the town,
Hosagrahar, J., 2012. Defiant Ambivalence: Globalisation, which he fortified with earthen walls.
Architecture and Urbanism, Homogenisation of
Representations. M. Sadria, (ed). Geneva: Aga Khan Islamic rule
In the 1760s CE, it became the capital of
Award for Architecture
Mysore under the Muslim rulers Hyder Ali and
his son, Tipu Sultan. Although during its early
Hosagrahar, J., 2007. Sustainable conservation and history the settlement was mainly confined
development of Srirangapatna heritage town, Karnataka within the Fort, under the reign of Tipu Sultan,
(report), Srirangapatna: Department of Archaeology, land beyond the Fort, started being populated.
Museums and Heritage Government of Karnataka. He founded a trading village known as Ganjam
at the centre of the island and to the east of
IHCNF, 2016. Conservation Plan for Srirangapatna Fort. the Fort. The establishment of Ganjam marked
Bangalore: Venkatappa Art Gallery the beginning of the economic transition of
Srirangapatna, whose livelihood had until then
centred around religion.
Rice, B. L., 2004. Mysore: a gazetteer complied for
government, vol. 2, Bangalore: M/s Vinayaka Offset Anglo-Mysore wars
Printers. During Tipu’s rule Srirangapatna witnessed
the third and fourth Anglo-Mysore war. The
Shankar, B. & Uma, S., 2012. Conservation strategies for third one was followed by the enhancement
Srirangapatana Town: Evaluation of heritage buildings, of its fortification with additional ramparts and
International Journal of Modern Engineering Research, ditches. The forth ended with the siege of 1799
Volume 2, No. 2 CE, when the kingdom fell into the hands of
the British. They reinstated the Wodeyars, who
Sunilkumar, H. M., 2017. Srirangapatna. A Historical ruled Srirangapatna and Mysore until it joined
the Union of India, in 1947 CE.
Tourist Centre, International Journal of Recent Scientific
Research, Volume 8, No. 7
80
View of Srirangapatna, in 1803 CE

Location: Srirangapatna, India
Source: Moffat, J.,1775-1815. ‘View of Seringapatam’. Aquatint, drawn and engraved by James Moffat, published Calcutta undated., Asia,
Pacific & Africa Collections, Online Exhibitions of The British Library, http://www.bl.uk/, accessed Sep 2021
The outer ramparts of Srirangapatna Fort, built in 1454 CE

Source: 1895. The Outer Ramparts, Seringapatam., Asia, Pacific & Africa Collections, Online Exhibitions of The British Library, http://www.
bl.uk/, accessed Sep 2021
Islamic and Hindu

architectural heritage
The island town of Srirangapatna has a number Religious architecture
of Hindu and Islamic monuments of historical and
religious significance and is on the UNESCO World Apart from the extensive defensive system of
Heritage Tentative List. The city is a palimpsest of Srirangapatna, a number of surviving religious
architecture and culture, which was influenced by structures, belonging to different groups,
the ideologies and the political circumstances of consists in temples, mosques and churches.
the rulers it has seen over the centuries.
Hindu period
The first Hindu monument built in Srirangapatna
was the Sri Ranganathaswamy Temple (894
CE), which along with the Lakshmi-Narasimha
Bibliography
temple hold great importance for the Vaishnavite
sect. The monumental main entrance (gopura)
Buchanan, F., 1807. A Journey from Madras Through the
of Sri Ranganathaswamy Temple is made
Countries of Mysore, Canara, and Malabar, Volume 1.
of stone and is crowned with a tower made
London: T. Cadell and W. Davies
of brick pilasters. The rectangle tower is
topped by a barrel-vault roof and covered in
Gupte, Y. R., Sanderson, G., et al, 1916-22. List of
carved stucco sculpture on the exterior. The
Muhammadan and Hindu Monuments. Calcutta:
inner sanctum (garbhagriha) can be reached
Superintendent Government Printing
through a series of pavilions (mandapas). It is
enclosed by courtyards (prakarams) that also
Hosagrahar, J., 2007. Sustainable conservation and
accomodate an ante-chamber (sukhanasi), a
development of Srirangapatna heritage town, Karnataka
hall (navaranga or mandapa) and a front hall
(report). Srirangapatna: Department of Archaeology,
(mukhamandapa).
Museums and Heritage Government of Karnataka.
IHCNF, 2016. Conservation Plan for Srirangapatna Fort. Islamic period

Bangalore: Venkatappa Art Gallery The Sultans of Mysore, Hyder Ali and Tipu
Sultan, are known for the creation of the
INTACH, 2020. Proposed properties for Nomination of Mysore architectural style (1760-1799 CE),
Monuments of Srirangapatna Island to UNESCO World which shares morphological and typological
Heritage list, Volume 1. Bangalore characteristics with the Deccan styles, but also
presents individual idioms in construction and
Mac Lean, M. G. H. (ed), 1993. Cultural Heritage in Asia craftsmanship. Few of the major buildings of
and the Pacific: Proceedings of a Symposium Held in this era are the Darya Daulat Bagh Palace,
Honolulu, Hawaii. California: Getty Conservation Institute which was a royal summer resort of graceful
proportions, the Gumbaz-i-Ala mausoleum,
Wink, A., 2020. The Making of the Indo-Islamic World: influenced by the great funerary architecture of
c.700–1800 CE. Cambridge: Cambridge University Bijapur and the two-storey Masjid-i-Ala, with its
Press. octagonal domed minarets.
Simmons, C. 2020. Devotional Sovereignty: Kinship and The ornamentation of this period includes low
Religion in India. Oxford: Oxford University Press relief carvings on the façades, in addition to
merlons, finials and bulbous domes on a lotus
Sunilkumar, H. M., 2017. Srirangapatna. A Historical base. Murals featuring floral patterns adorn the
Tourist Centre, International Journal of Recent Scientific interior.
Research, Volume 8, No. 7
82
Gopura (tower) over the entrance of Sri Ranganathswamy Temple, built in 894 CE
Source: Dixon, H.,1868. Gopura of the Srirunganatha Temple in the Fort at Shrirangapattana [Seringapatam]., Asia, Pacific & Africa
Collections, Online Exhibitions of The British Library, http://www.bl.uk/, accessed Sep 2021
Masjid-i-Ala or Jami Mosque in the Fort area, built in 1787 CE

Source: Dixon, H.,1868. The Jami Masjid built by Tipu Sultan in the Fort at Shrirangapattana [Seringapatam]., Asia, Pacific & Africa
Collections, Online Exhibitions of The British Library, http://www.bl.uk/, accessed Sep 2021
Triplicane Mosque, built in 1795 CE, and adjoining Palace of the Nawab of Arcot
Location: Chennai, India
Source: Ward, F. S.,1803. The Palace Of The Late Nabob Of Arcot, (at Tritchinopoly), Asia, Pacific & Africa Collections, Online
Exhibitions of The British Library, http://www.bl.uk/, accessed Sep 2021
84
South and east (front) elevation of Muchundipalli Mosque in Calicut, built in 14th-15th centuries CE
86
Plan of Muchundipalli Mosque in Calicut, built in 14th-15th centuries CE

Gumbaz-i-Ala, tomb of Tipu Sultan, built c.1781 CE

Source: Javed, S., 1986. Tomb of Tipu Sultan, AKVA, MIT Libraries, http://hdl.handle.net/1721.3/96305, accessed Sep 2021
88
Gumbaz-i-Ala interior, built c.1781 CE

Source: Javed, S., 1986. Tomb of Tipu Sultan, AKVA, MIT Libraries, http://hdl.handle.net/1721.3/96308, accessed Sep 2021
Front view of garden and mausoleum (Gumbaz-i-Ala) of Haidar and Tipu Sultan, built c.1781 CE
Source: 1890. Front view of garden and mausoleum of Haidar and Tipu, Ganjam., Asia, Pacific & Africa Collections, Online Exhibitions of
The British Library, http://www.bl.uk/, accessed Sep 2021
90
Mandapa, Mutt Complex in Ganjam, built c.1600 CE

92
Chikka Gosaighat Complex, in Ganjam, built c.1600 CE

94
OVERVIEW
EPILOGUE
This sourcebook provides an overview of the material

studied in the lecture series, as well as additional
bibliographical sources. Extended photographic
material accompanies each chapter.
The architecture presented in the sourcebook

and lecture series focuses on Islamic centres and
territories in the south of the Indian subcontinent.
This geographical remit was chosen due to the
gap of extensive archival and research material,
as well as documentation. Although some of the
monumental sites in these territories have been
recorded and presented in existing bibliography,
there is still room for further research in order to attain
holistic understanding of Indo-Islamic architecture in
these areas. In this effort, visual material from AKTC,
along with archival sources and field documentation
material produced by ArCHIAM, were used.
Islamic architecture in other regions of India, such

as Kashmir, Gujarat and Bengal, did not fall within
the scope of this educational material package.
Nonetheless, they present an abundance of
interesting Indo-Islamic monuments, worthy of
further study.
Tomb within Batashewala Complex

Location: New Delhi, India
Date: 16th century CE
Source: AKTC, 2011. Batashewala Complex , © Aga Khan Trust for
Culture (India), accessed Jul 2021
96
ACRONYMS
List of Acronyms
AKAA
Aga Khan Award for Architecture
AKDC
Aga Khan Documntation Centre - MIT
AKDN
Aga Khan Development Network
AKF
Aga Khan Foundation
AKHCP
Aga Khan Historic Cities Programme
AKTC
Aga Khan Trust for Culture
AKVA
Aga Khan Visual Archive
ArCHIAM
Centre for the study of Architecture and Cultural Heritage of India, Arabia and the Maghreb
DGAM
Directorate General of Antiquities and Museums in Syria

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ISLAMIC ARCHITECTURE AND URBAN DEVELOPMENT OF SOUTH

Aga Khan Trust for Culture

AGA KHAN TRUST FOR CULTURE CENTRE FOR THE STUDY OF

This sourcebook is produced by the Centre for

SUPERVISION AND COORDINATION

Copyright © ArCHIAM 2021

All rights reserved. No part of this sourcebook may be

Hammam, Qutb Shahi Tomb Complex

07 Islamic Architecture in India

29 The Deccan Sultanates

51 Adil Shahi Rule and the city of

73 Southern Islamic Centres Beyond

ISLAMIC ARCHITECTURE AND URBAN

This sourcebook is a companion to the Architecture

This series of lectures aims to present the

This book includes a collection of additional content

It can be used by researchers on its own or in

Pencil drawing of Jami Mosque of Bijapur

Islamic Architecture in India

This chapter provides sources regarding Islamic

•the manner in which the newly introduced social,

• the principal characteristics and elements of Indo-

Exterior view of Jami Mosque, built in 1656 CE

Quwwat al-Islam Mosque of Qutb complex, built in 1191 CE

Building: Alai Darwaza Building: Firuz Shah Tughluq Tomb

Building: Mosque of Sadna Qasai Building: Zafar Khan Ghazi Mosque

Building: Citadel of Jaunpur Building: Jami Mosque

Building: Muhammad Shah Sayyid Mausoleum Building: Jami Mosque

Building: Bara Gumbad Complex Building: Qutb Shahi Heritage Park

Building: Qila-i Kuhna Mosque Building: Diwan-i ‘Am

Albanese, M., 2000. Architecture in India. New Delhi: Om Idgahs

Interior view of Shahzadi-ka Rawza (tomb), built in late 15th century CE

Nizamuddin Baoli, built in 1321-1322 CE, before restoration

Humayun’s Tomb in Delhi, built c. 1565-1575 CE

Watercolour drawing of Adina Mosque interior in Pandua, built in 1364-1375 CE

Exterior view of Jami Masjid in Srinagar, built c.1400 CE

Tomb of Ahmad Shah Bahmani, built in 1436 CE

Purana Qil’a, Humayun Darwaza, built in 1543-1544 CE

Jahangiri Mahal in Agra Fort, built in 1565–1573 CE

The Deccan Sultanates

This chapter provides sources regarding the Deccan

• the history and architecture of the Deccan plateau

• monuments built under the Deccan Sultanates

• architectural qualities and characteristics of the

• the principal characteristics of the architecture of

Qutb Shahi Tomb Complex

Kingdoms prior to the

Map of major centres of the Persian Cosmopolis, 900–1500 CE

The rise of the Islamic

Gribble, J. D. B., 1896. A History of the Deccan. London: Cultural influences

Gawilgarh Fort The Great Mosque or Sola Khamb Mosque

Damri Mosque Farah Bagh

Asar Mahal Golconda Fort

Grover, S., 2002. Islamic Architecture in India. New Delhi: Golconda

Sola Khamb Mosque, built in 1423-1424 CE

Michell, G., 1995. Architecture and Art of Southern India: Ornamentation

Courtyard and water feature of Ibrahim Rouza Complex, built in 1626 CE

Parapet and finials in Ibrahim Rouza Complex, built in 1626 CE

Sculpted facade of Hoysalan temple, built in 1100-1350 CE

Banded sculptural frieze of Hoysalesvara temple, built in 12th century CE