Terminologies:

● Earth- is the third planet from the sun in the solar system, orbiting
between Venus and Mars at an
average distance of 149.6 million km from the sun, and has one natural
satellite, the moon.
- is the only planet that supports life.

● Science- is a systematized body of knowledge based on truths, facts,

observations and experimentations.

● Earth Science- simply defines the study of physical characteristics of

Earth.

Earth is considered as a special planet because only in it exists life.

Among all planets in the Solar system, only earth has a perfect location
that can support and nurture life.

Earth Science is defined as the study of Earth.

It includes rocks, minerals, water, air and other things that we
see on Earth.
Earth Science is categorized by four different branches namely, geology,
astronomy,oceanography and meteorology.

● Geology is a study of the geosphere which is composed of Earth’s rocks

and minerals.
● Oceanography is the study of large bodies of water, including seas,
rivers, and lakes.
● Meteorology is the study of Earth’s atmosphere and weather. In this
branch, weather, climate and
storms and typhoons are the main focus.
● Astronomy is the study of heavenly bodies. The eye on this branch is
the planets near on earth and their effects.

Did you know that?

• James Hutton is considered as father of geology
• Earth is 4.5 billion years’ old
• Earth is the only planet not named after a god
• Earth has one natural satellite and it is the Moon
Lesson 1.2: Theories on the Origin of the Universe

Terminologies:
● Cosmology- a branch of astronomy that deals with origin and evolution
of universe
● Big bang theory- universe is expanding, and originated in an infinitely
tiny, infinitely dense point.
● Oscillating universe- This curvature results in the expansion of the
universe for a time and then to its contraction due to the pull of gravity
in perpetual cycle of big bang and big crunch.
● Steady state theory- universe did not expand and not change anything.
● Inflationary universe- exponential cosmic inflation in order to solve the
uncertainties of the standard of big bang theory.
● Multiverse- this theory sees the universe as just “one” of the many
bubbles that grew as part of a multiverse.
How did everything as we know it today, come into being?
Universe came from the Latin word universum which means all together,
whole, entire, collective, general, literally turned or combined into one.

Universe is all time and space including stars, galaxies and planets.

Beforehand, the universe is not the same as we look today.

Universe got a bit different in today’s era.
In an effort to make sense of the universe, humans used religion,
tradition and philosophy in order to define what the universe is.

Here are some beliefs on the origin of the universe.

● In Christian view, God created everything including stars, planets and
all living creatures. The book of Genesis shows how God created
everything in six days.
● In Hindu text Rig-Veda, the universe is a cosmic egg or “Brahmanda”
which contains the sun, moon, planets and space.
● Greek philosophers Leucippus and Democritus describe the universe as
an atomic universe. The Atomic Universe was composed of very small,
indivisible and indestructible atoms.
● Geocentric universe earth is the center of the universe proposed by
Ptolemy. The Heliocentric Universe earth is not the center but the sun.
Proposed by Nicolaus Copernicus
● Sir Isaac Newton described the universe as a static and steady state.
● French philosopher Rene Descartes outlined a Cartesian vortex model
of the universe. Descartes said, the vacuum of the space was not empty
at all but was filled with matter.
● Einstein’s theory is anchored by his theory, Theory of Relativity.

Modern Theories on the origin of Universe After religious belief and

tradition, scientific ideas flourished.
These are different theories on the origin of the universe.
• Big bang Theory ✔ Universe is expanding through time.
It came from nothing called singularity and it expands. ✔
At first there was nothing, followed by an explosion and then finally
everything came to be.
This is the easiest way to remember Big Bang Theory. ✔
There are three pieces of evidence for the Big bang theory.

First, CMB or Cosmic Microwave background.

This is left over radiation caused by an explosion.
Second, the star’s explosion
and lastly, Hubble’s Law.
Edwin Hubble explains the universe is moving and expanding. ✔
Proponent of Big Bang Theory is Georges Lemaitre
• Oscillating universe ✔ This curvature results in the expansion of the
universe for a time and then to its contraction due to the pull of gravity
in a perpetual cycle of big bang and big crunch. ✔
Proposed by Albert Einstein
• Steady state theory ✔
Universe did not expand and not change anything. ✔
Universe is the same yesterday, today and tomorrow ✔
Proposed by Fred Hoyle, Thomas Gold and Hermann Bondi
• Inflationary universe ✔
Exponential cosmic inflation in order to solve the uncertainties of the
standard of big bang theory. ✔
Proposed by Alan Guth
• Multiverse ✔
This theory sees the universe as just “one” of the many bubbles that
grew as part of a multiverse. ✔
Proposed by Andrei Linde
Lesson 1.3:

The Origin of Solar System and Life on Earth and its Subsystem

Terminologies:
● Goldilocks zone- Habitable zone
● Nebula- Cloud of dust and gas
● Roque star- stars that are not gravitationally bound to any galaxy
● Sun- the only star in our solar system
● Planetesimal- small bodies which planet came from
● Atmosphere- It is the mixture of gases
● Biosphere- includes all life forms on Earth
● Geosphere- refers to the rock, minerals and geologic landforms
● Hydrosphere- it is the Earth’s water

Solar system is where the planet Earth belongs.

The Sun is the center of the solar system in which the planets revolve
around it.
Solar system is composed today of eight planets namely, Mercury, Venus,
Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune.
The first four planets are categorized as Terrestrial planets which have
a characteristic of solid and rocky surface (Mercury, Venus, Earth, and
Mars).
On the other side, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune are Jovian
planets. It has a characteristic of gas and icy planets.
This is the solar system today but how did the solar system form?

There are three theories that explain how the solar system formed.
Theories on the origin of Solar System 1.
Encounter Hypothesis - Encounter Hypothesis explains, a Roque star
passed close to the sun and stripped materials (hot gases) from both the
sun and the Roque star.
The hot gases continued to spin in the same direction as the sun, and
united into smaller lumps which formed the planets.
2. Nebular Hypothesis - The nebular hypothesis states that the entire
Solar system starts as a large cloud of gas that contracted due to self-
gravity.
Conservation of angular momentum requires that the rotating disk form a
large concentration at the center, which starts as the protosun, while
planets begin forming within the disk.
3. Protoplanet Hypothesis - According to this hypothesis, the solar
system began with a fragment from an interstellar cloud composed mainly
of hydrogen, helium and trace amounts of light.
The fragments of the interstellar cloud formed the dense central region
of the solar nebula, which collapsed more rapidly than its outlying parts.

Protoplanets came from planetesimals.

- Protoplanet Hypothesis is an improved version of the nebular

hypothesis.
- It is the most popular hypothesis on the origin of the solar system.
Life on Earth Earth is rich in Biodiversity which means that many life
forms exist on Earth.
Humans, animals, plants and microorganisms are examples. Life on earth
is interconnected to each other; one species will suffer if another
species will be extinct.
Imagine, what will happen if all plant species will be wiped out?
Did you think humans and animals will last long?
Protecting and nurturing other life forms are the responsibility of
humans.
In fact, humans are called stewards of nature.
But then again life will never exist if these factors go in the first place.

1. Water- H2O plays a great role in the existence of life.

First, photosynthesis will never be able to be performed by plants.

Photosynthesis is the ability of the plants to make their own food if

without water plants will die and food for animals will run out.
Also water makes earth habitable for life or also known as Goldilocks
zone.
Scientists believe that water on earth came from volcanism and icy
meteors from outer space hit the earth.
2. Heat- sun is the main source of heat and energy that planets need.
In fact, earth has a perfect location where heat is just enough to sustain
life.
Earth is not too close nor too far from the sun which leads to life that
can be supported on this planet.
Also, earth has its own heat coming from earths’ beneath, it is called
geothermal energy.
3. Atmosphere- Earth also has a perfect atmosphere that is supported
by different gases that can preserve life on Earth.
This is oxygen gas, carbon dioxide and nitrogen gas that is an essential
cycle of life.

Did you know that?

• Venus is the hottest plane
t • Water is the only found on planet earth
• Mars have two moons: Deimos and Phobos
• Asteroid belt is found between Mars and Jupiter

Terminologies:
● Mineralogy- study of minerals
● Magma- hot molten rocks inside Earth’ surface
● Lava- hot molten rocks outside Earth’ surface
● Weathering- is the breaking down or dissolving of rocks and minerals on
Earth’ surface
● Silicate minerals- minerals that contain oxygen and silicate
● Non - Silicate minerals- less abundant in the earth’s crust, does not
have oxygen and silicate but they have economic value. Minerals Minerals
are the building blocks or rocks.
Scientists define mineral as a naturally- occurring chemical compound, it
is solid in nature and it is inorganic (without carbon element).
General characteristics of Minerals:
Natural- occurring
Inorganic
Solid
Definite chemical composition
Ordered internal structure

Minerals have distinguished properties which can be considered in

identifying and classifying it.
Estimated there are 4000 minerals found in earth’s crust.
Properties of Minerals Luster- is the ability of minerals to reflect light
from its surface.
Most minerals have metallic luster and are described as glassy, dull or
earthy, pearly, silky or greasy.
 Color- it is the most obvious and most seen property of minerals but
color of minerals is not reliable because of impurity that may change the
color of minerals.
Streak- this is the color of mineral in powdered form.
Cleavage- is the ability of a mineral to break along planes of weak bonding.
Fracture- can be an irregular fracture when a mineral breaks and exhibits
uneven surface
Crystal shape- refers to the common or characteristic shape of a crystal
or combination of crystal.
Hardness- is the resistance of minerals to abrasion or scratching.

Lesson 2.2: Rocks and Rock Cycle Rocks Rocks are naturally solid
aggregates of one or more minerals.
Rocks came from the Greek word lithos which means stone.
Rocks have lots of useful functions especially to the house and building.
There are three major types of rocks.
Three classification Rocks
1. Igneous rocks - Igneous rocks are formed by fire since they originated
from magma produced by the melting of rocks in the hot mantle.
It is crystalline when formed from cooled magma, lava and pyroclastic.
Basalt
A. Crystalline Texture- how fast and slow the cooling took place. •
Intrusive or Plutonic rocks- form from slowly cooled magma
• Extrusive or volcanic rocks- form from rapidly cooled magma.
B. Pyroclastic- is derived from the Greek word pyro which means fire and
klastos which means shattered.
This texture is the result of lithification or eruption of erupted
materials; these types of rocks are distinguished from each other by the
size of their particle components.

2. Sedimentary rocks - Sedimentary rocks are formed by compacted and

cemented sediments.
- Sedimentary rocks can also be bioplastics when they form as the result
of the accumulation of organic material or biological activity.
- It may even contain remnants of plants, corals, shells or fossil
fragments

3. Metamorphic rocks - Metamorphism means transformation or change in

form.
- Metamorphic rocks originate from pre- existing igneous, sedimentary or
even metamorphic rocks.
 Every metamorphic rock has a parent or the rock form which it
originated.
- Metamorphic rocks are created by the physical or chemical alteration
by heat and pressure of an existing igneous or sedimentary material into
a denser form.

Rock Cycle- is a model that describes all the processes, by which rocks
are formed, modified, transported, decomposed, melted, and reformed.

These processes occur both on earth’s surface and underneath.

Essentially it is a dynamic process and product.
● When the magma cooled it became igneous rock.
When the Igneous rock melted it became magma.
● When the sediments compact it becomes sedimentary rock.
When sedimentary rocks undergo erosion and weathering it becomes
sediments.
● When igneous rocks undergo heat and pressure it becomes metamorphic
rocks. When sedimentary rocks undergo heat and pressure it becomes
metamorphic rocks.
● When metamorphic rocks melted it became magma. When metamorphic
rock experiences weathering and erosion it becomes sediments.

Lesson 2.3: Ores and Minerals

Terminologies:
• Ore- naturally- occurring materials that can be profitably mined. This
can be minerals or rocks or metallic or non-metallic, depending on the
economic requirements.
• Mining- refers to a set of processes through which useful resources are
withdrawn from a stock of any non-renewable.
• Deposit- is a potential ore body if its localized abundance is greater
than its average abundance or distribution on Earth’s crust.
• Blasting Tools- essential part of the mining industry and are used to
break down and fracture materials (usually rocks) by use of a calculated
amount of explosive to liberate the sought-after product from the waste
material.
• Excavator- is to act as a continuous digging machine in large-scale open-
pit mining operations, removing thousands of tons of overburden a day.
• Tailings- waste product
ORE is a solid material from which valuable minerals can be profitably
extracted.
Mining refers to a set of processes through which useful resources are
withdrawn from a stock of any non- renewable resources.
There are two types of mining.
1. Surface Mining- it is done to extract ores that are near the earth’
surface.
Surface mining can be categorized by:
Open pit Mining- This surface mining technique is used when mineral or
ore deposits are found relatively close to the surface of the earth.
Open-pits are sometimes called ‘quarries’ when they produce building
materials and dimension stone.
Quarrying- refers to extracting materials directly from the surface.
The mining and quarrying sector includes mining of fossil fuels (coal and
lignite mining, oil and gas extraction), mining of metal ores, quarrying of
stone, sand, and clay, and mining of phosphate and other minerals.
Strip Mining- is employed in coal reserves where the overburden is
removed in rectangular blocks in plain view called pits or strips.
Placer Mining- ancient method of using water to excavate, transport,
concentrate, and recover heavy minerals from alluvial or placer deposits.

Placer mining takes advantage of gold's high density, which causes it to

sink more rapidly from moving water than the lighter siliceous materials
with which it is found.
Dredging- is the removal of sediments and debris from the bottom of
lakes, rivers, harbours, and other water bodies.
It is a routine necessity in waterways around the world because
sedimentation—the natural process of sand and silt washing downstream
—gradually fills channels and harbours.
2. Underground Mining- it is used to extract ores that are found beneath
earth’ surface.
Shaft mining- is the process where miners dig straight down, or almost
straight down, until they reach their desired depth.
Then the mine begins to branch out in all directions.
Pipe mining- is used when the primary sources of pipe deposits are found.
Once the pipes and presence of diamonds are discovered, shanks are
inserted into the earth at ore-bearing pipes and large amounts of soil are
extracted.
Ores that are found on mining sites will undergo a certain process to
remove non- useful rocks and minerals to give higher economic value to
the ore.
There are three processes to extract rocks or minerals from the ore.
• Heap leaching- this is the addition of chemicals like cyanide and acid to
separate ore from rocks.
• Flotation- putting a substance that produces air bubbles to make ore or
important minerals float.
• Smelting- placing the ores into high temperature resulting in the rocks
separate into layers to get the minerals or the ore.
Here some examples of ores and its technique in Mining

Mining can’t be done without a proper procedure indicated. Mining follows

a certain process or step.
Here are the steps that need to be followed.
a. Prospecting or exploration- it is looking for ore substance
b. b. Drilling- a little part of the ore is removed to determine the ore’s
quality or grade.
c. c. Modeling- identifying the ore’s size, shape and grade distribution
throughout the deposit.
This is to apply specific mining techniques, methods and to plan safety
precautions.
d. Identifying and assessing potential impacts- thinking about the
possible result of the mining. Considering if the area can be back into
original state or at least lessen the damage.
e. Designing and constructing the mine- engineer and scientist must work
hand in hand to create perfect design. All papers must have been
approved by government and local communities.
f. Ore extraction- high grade ore separated from the rest of the deposit.
g. Milling- the ore is crushed and concentrated. Tailings are released.
H.Mine site decomposition- is the closure of a mining site. Mine site must
be cleaned and rehabilitated. Philippines’ Ore and Minerals The Philippines
belong to the pacific ring of fire where volcanoes and plate tectonics are
active.
The Philippines is rich in minerals and ore. In fact, the Philippines ranked
as fifth (5th) most mineralized country in the world, third (3rd) in gold,
fourth (4th) in copper and fifth (5th) in nickel.
 Baguio and Palawan are the main contributors of minerals in the country.
Effects of Mining Mining has good benefits in the country, it may improve
economically. It can offer lots of job opportunities to the people.
Those minerals are useful for manufacturing gadgets, jewellery and can
be used in electricity. Also, rare ore and minerals give a lot of money.
In contrast, mining also has a lot of negative effects.
First, the waste product that can cause destruction of the habitat of
humans and animals.
Second, deforestation, people tend to cut trees to make way in digging
the mountains for its precious gem. Deforestation can lead to soil erosion
and flash floods result in loss of lives and properties.
Last, it can hazard the health of the miners because of the extraction of
ores.
Mining companies should be responsible for mining. It should be
permitted by the government and must follow the protocols.

Renewable resources can be replenished or regenerated on a human time

scale.
The example of renewable energy resources is geothermal, hydroelectric,
wind, solar and biomass.
On the other hand, Nonrenewable resources cannot be regenerated on a
human time scale; it is limited and has an ending.
Coal, petroleum, natural gas and nuclear energy are the main examples of
nonrenewable energy resources.
● Peat- is the first stage in the development of coal. It is made of
decayed plant fiber that is usually soft.
● Lignite- brown coal that is soft and has woody texture
● Bituminous coal- dark brown or black and soft, it is a sedimentary rocks
contains impurities like sulfur
● Anthracite- most common type of coal. It is hard and brittle
● Nuclear fission- splitting of the nucleus of an atom.
● Nuclear fusion- combination of an atom 3.1.1. Fossil fuel Fossil fuels are
formed from living plants and animals that existed 500 million years ago.
Also, fossil fuels are considered as the world's primary energy resource.
It gives most of the energy that supports human transportation,
electricity production, heating and cooling of buildings and industrial
works. Fossil fuels when the dead plants and animals are buried on the
ground and swamps, it will become part of layers of rock.
Due to extreme pressure in the layers of rocks, intense heat, pressure
and chemical reactions caused the remains of plants to turn into
hydrocarbons.
Hydrocarbon is a combination of hydrogen and carbon atoms.

Coals Coal is a solid fossil fuel that is black or brown in color and
composed of carbon. Coal is a combustible substance.
It is made of dead plants that are found at the bottom of pre- existing
swamps.
Coal is the largest source of energy for electricity in the world.
There are types of coals:
Peat- it is a soft substance that is made of plant fiber. It has 50% of
carbon.
Lignite- brown coal that is soft and has a woody texture has 70% carbon.
Bituminous coal- dark brown or black and soft, it is a sedimentary rock
containing impurities like sulfur, it is mid-rank coal that has 70% carbon.
Anthracite- most common type of coal. It is hard and brittle, due to high
temperature shiny black and high-rank coal that has 95% carbon. 3.1.3.
Oil and Natural Gas Oil is a liquid form of fossil fuels which is known as
petroleum or crude oil.
It is made of small organisms that lived on the surface of the sea and
sank on the seafloor where they died.
The dead organism was kept away from the oxygen by layers of sediments
and other creatures.
As heat and pressure increased, the remains of the organism became
liquid. Gasoline and diesel are used for vehicles while kerosene is used as
a source of heat.
Oil is also used for making plastics, fertilizers and other products.
Natural gas is a gaseous form of fossil fuel. Methane is the main example
of natural gas.
CH4 is the chemical formula of methane. It is for heating and cooking.
Methane is lighter than air and highly combustible. .
Nuclear Energy Nuclear reactions occur when atoms of one species of
chemical element are transformed into atoms of another species by
nuclear change.
Nuclear energy can be acquired in two ways. First is nuclear fusion,
nuclear fusion is combining light atoms to form heavy atoms. While
nuclear fission is splitting heavy atoms into lighter atoms.
Radioactive elements that decay are uranium – 235, uranium – 238 and
thorium – 232.
These elements can be mined and used for nuclear energy by fission. This
energy is hazardous because of radioactive elements.
It can cause mutation and can trigger cancer.
Nuclear power plants are so sensitive that simply an increase in energy
can cause an explosion.
Non-renewable energy and its effect Non-renewable energy has a lot of
contribution to humans.
It is used for heat, electricity and transportation.
Despite having a good contribution, non-renewable energy produces
negative effects on the environment.
One of those is pollution, air water, soil and noise pollution are the
consequences of using non-renewable energy.
Next is global warming, which can cause climate change and melting of
polar ice, as the result of these stronger typhoons and tornadoes in
different parts of the world.

Lesson 3.2: Renewable Resources

Terminologies:
● Geothermal energy- it refers to earth’s internal heat
● Hydroelectric energy- energy came from moving water
● Wind energy- energy came from moving air
● Biomass- biological material derived from living or recently deceased
organism
● Solar energy- heat energy came from the sun Renewable energy
Renewable energy defined as energy can be regenerated on a human time
scale.
It means that this energy can be replaced on a specific time scale.
Renewable energy can be classified into different types.
Geothermal Energy Geothermal energy is energy that comes from earths’
beneath.
The temperature of earth is getting warmer as you go deeper to the core.
There are several geothermal power plants that can be used.
Steam power plant- runs on natural steam coming from under the ground.
The steam is made to flow through long pipes that reach up to the power
plant.
Flash-steam power plant- used underground hot water and steam that is
about 182° C.
The water is pumped into a partial vacuum area to make the water
evaporate rapidly into steam.
Binary cycle power plant- uses hot water but not directly source of
steam. It is contained in a pipe above the ground to warm to an organic
industrial refrigerant that has a lower boiling point than water.
Enhanced geothermal system- is done in areas with hot and dry
underground rocks.
A well is drilled deep into the ground and very cold water is poured into
it to force the rock layers to create new fractures as reservoirs for
underground water.

How does it work?

This can be used directly in cold areas like in Iceland.

Water heated by hot volcanic rocks is used for household interiors,
growing of plants and can be used as hot springs.
Another way is utilizing active geothermal systems in volcanic areas.
Hot, shallow magmas in volcanic areas heat up groundwater sometimes up
to 370 ° C.
This creates a reservoir or underground system of hot water or steam
that circulates in fractured.
This reservoir must be 200° C and 3km below the surface. When the hot
water pumped in produces steam, steam runs the turbine and generates
electricity.
Hydroelectric Energy Gravity plays a very important role in hydroelectric
energy.
An object at rest in higher elevation has a gravitational potential energy.
When the water is at a lower elevation, the potential energy is
transformed into kinetic energy.
The energy generated from falling water is called hydroelectric energy.
Rivers, dams and waterfalls were built to allow water to move from higher
to lower elevations.

How does it work?

Waters enters the intake at the bottom of the reservoir and flows
through the tunnel or large pipe called penstock to reach the turbine.
The water pressure causes the turbine to rotate and generate electricity.
Wind Energy Air moves from higher to lower pressure as a result of
uneven heating of earth’s surface by the sun.
Hot air rises and cooler air moves down, forming wind current.
Wind energy gathered by windmills will be converted by mechanical
energy and mechanical energy to be converted by electric energy.
Windmills depend on the latitude, elevation, and proximity to the
coastline.
Hilltops, mountain ridges and coastline are the best locations for
windmills.
Solar Energy Energy coming from the sun is called solar energy.
Converting solar energy into electricity requires a solar collector.
One example of a solar collector is called concentrated solar power.
It involves mirrors, lenses, and a tracking system that focuses light into
the receiver and generates heat.
The heat is used to generate electricity from steam- driven turbines.
Another kind is photovoltaic cells or solar cells.
Photovoltaic refers to the direct conversion of light into electricity at
the atomic level.
. Biomass Biomass is the oldest source of energy.
It is a renewable energy because it can be replenished or regenerated
within human time scale as compared to fossil fuels which extends
through geologic time scale.
Biomass includes fuel, wood, animal dung, and agricultural waste.