Sundar Raj, C., et al.

: Influence of Hexanol-Diesel Blends on Constant …

THERMAL SCIENCE, Year 2011, Vol. 15, No. 4, pp. 1215-1222 1215

INFLUENCE OF HEXANOL-DIESEL BLENDS ON CONSTANT

SPEED DIESEL ENGINE

by

Chockalingam SUNDAR RAJ a* and Ganapathy SARAVANAN b

a
AVC College of Engineering, Mannampandal, Mayiladuthurai, India
b
Annamalai University, Chidambaram, Tamil Nadu, India

Original scientific paper

UDC: 621.43.041.6:547.266
DOI: 10.2298/TSCI101001089S

As an attempt to suggest an alternate fuel for diesel with less emission, the effects
of diesel-hexanol blends, blended in different percentage ranging from 10%-50%
by volume were experimentally investigated on a single-cylinder, water-cooled,
direct injection Diesel engine developing a power output of 5.2 kW at 1500 rpm
and the results show improved performance with blends compared to neat fuel
with substantial reductions in smoke and increase of NOx emissions. Combustion
analysis show peak pressure and rate of pressure rise were increased with in-
crease in hexanol. For this reason it is examined the use of hot exhaust gas recir-
culation to control NOx emissions. From the analysis of experimental findings it
is revealed the use of exhaust gas recirculation causes a sharp reduction of NOx
with a slight reduction of engine efficiency which in any case does not alter the
benefits obtained from the oxygenated fuel.
Key words: blended fuel, hexanol, exhaust gas recirculation, performance,
emission characteristics

Introduction

A method to curtail emissions of smoke and other pollutants from Diesel engines is
to enhance the oxygen supply to their combustion chamber. This can be accomplished by
enriching either the intake air stream or the fuel stream with oxygen. Experimental studies
concerning the oxygen-enrichment of intake air, have revealed large decrease of ignition
delay, drastic decrease of soot emissions as well as reduction of CO and HC emissions while,
brake specific fuel consumption (BSFC) remained unaffected and increasing of power output
is feasible [1]. However, this technique was accompanied by considerable increase of NOx
emissions. Also it requires minor modifications in the intake system like carburetor or
separate fuel injector for inducted fuel. Zaidi et al., [2] conducted an experimental study of a
direct injection (DI) Diesel engine to observe the influence of partial premixing fumigation of
the intake air with diesel fuel on the exhaust emissions and reported, the degree of premixing
of fuel in the form of fully vaporized superheated fuel vapor in comparison to that of fine

*nCorresponding author; e-mail: csundarraj@yahoo.com

 Sundar Raj, C., et al.: Influence of Hexanol-Diesel Blends on Constant …
1216 THERMAL SCIENCE, Year 2011, Vol. 15, No. 4, pp. 1215-1222

spray with the intake air reduced NOx by 45%, unburned HC by 50%, total particulate mater
by 40%, soluble organic fractions by 50%, and carbon by 40%. Sundar Raj used a
microprocessor controlled electronic fuel injector for fumigating methanol in the air intake
system [3]. He also compared the results with methyl ethyl ketone (MEK) and found a
fumigation rate of 0.4 g/min. of methanol and 0.6 g/min. of MEK gave improved results in
terms of efficiency and emission [4]. The use of oxygenates to produce cleaner burning diesel
fuels was initially considered over fifty years ago. Since that time, the addition of numerous
oxygenated compounds to diesel fuel has been reported. Low molecular weight alcohols such
as ethanol and t-butyl alcohol have been reported to reduce emissions [1]. However, both the
low flash points and high water partitioning of these alcohols make them unacceptable. Also,
when ethanol content in the blends reaches 20-40%, high concentration of additives are
needed to ensure the mixture homogeneity in the presence of high water contents, and to
attain the required cetane number for suitable ignition [5, 6].
Carbonates, including dimethyl carbonate, diethyl carbonate, and dimethyl dicarbo-
nate, have been successfully demonstrated to reduce particulate matter (PM) [7]. Dimethyl
carbonate suffers from having a low flash point. Diglyme is one oxygenate that has been
included in several studies [8]. While diglyme has acceptable fuel blending properties, its high
cost makes its use prohibitive. Other oxygenates that have been investigated include various
ethers, glycol ether acetates, and ketones [9]. The effect of 1,4 dioxane on ethanol diesel
blends were investigated and reported that even though 10% dioxane is capable to stabilize
30% ethanol with 60% diesel with significant reductions in emissions; 70% diesel and 20%
ethanol with 10% dioxane is the optimum mixture [10]. Kitamura et al. reported that the
potential of oxygenated fuels to suppress soot precursor formation is dominated by molecular
structure as well as fuel oxygen contents [11]. Miyamoto et al. found when oxygen content in
the fuel reaches approximately 30% by mass, smokeless combustion in Diesel engines could
be realized [12].
Hexanol is an organic alcohol with a six carbon chain and a condensed structural
formula of CH3(CH2)5OH. It is produced industrially by the oligomerization of ethylalcohol
which can be produced from crops, corns, vegetables, and other feedstock such as wastes
from agricultural food and beverage processing and hence, a renewable oxygenated HC is
investigated in this study. Aloko et al. [13] characterized the effect of hexanol-diesel blends
and reported that many properties like density, flash point, viscosity of the blends are well
above the requirement than that of the standard ASTM norms for a Diesel engine. He also
indicates that 5% hexanol with diesel by volume is having the required diesel properties and
increases anniline point (responsible for particle emission), hence the fuel can perform well
with less emission. Gupta et al. [14] studied the effect of ethanol diesel emulsion by using
hexanol as surfactant and reported that the fuel is capable of increase efficiency with
significant improvements in emission. Previous studies reveal that hexanol has not been
addressed as alternate for diesel fuel. Hence, to validate the favorable properties of the
hexanol as alternate for diesel fuel this investigation was made.
The effects of exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) on diesel combustion were
investigated in a single-cylinder, heavy-duty research engine by Husberg et al. [15] and found
NOx emissions were reduced from over 500 ppm at 0% EGR to 5 ppm at 55% EGR, and
higher levels of EGR (approximately 35% or more) reduce efficiency. Kouremenos [16]
revealed from their experimental and theoretical study that the use of EGR causes a sharp
reduction of NOx and an increase of soot emissions. Herbst-Dederichs [17] outlined the main
technical issues of EGR technology for thermal barrier coated heavy daty engines with EGR
Sundar Raj, C., et al.: Influence of Hexanol-Diesel Blends on Constant …
THERMAL SCIENCE, Year 2011, Vol. 15, No. 4, pp. 1215-1222 1217

up to 30% and more of the exhaust gases and found the same results. Durnholz [18] found
that so called “hot EGR”, which keeps the temperature of the recirculated exhaust gases at a
very high level, not only helps to reduce NOx but also contributes distinctly to achieve lower
HC and PM emissions. In addition, there is no adverse affect of EGR on the fuel economy
[18]. The findings from smoke point measurements and high-pressure combustion tests
reveals that oxygenates are effective soot suppressants in diesel combustion, and motivated to
studies on oxygenates to find the solution for simultaneous reduction in smoke and NOx
emissions without affecting the performance EGR is solicited.

Fuel properties of diesel and hexanol

General fuel properties of hexanol and diesel are presented in tab. 1. It can be seen
that, as an oxygenated additive, hexanol has several favorable properties for on board storage.

Table 1. Chemical properties of diesel, hexanol, and ethanol

Fuel properties Diesel Hexanol Ethanol
Molecular formula CxHy CH3(CH2)4CH2OH C2H5OH
Molecular weight 190-220 102.18 46
Density at 20 °C (·103 kg/m3) 0.829 0.8218 0.79
Latent heat of evaporation, [kJkg–1] 250 486 846
Boiling point, [°C] 180-360 175-203 78.4
Flash point, [°C] 65-88 68 13
Viscosity, [mPa·s] 3.35 5.32 1.20
% of oxygen by weight 0 15.7 34.7
Heat value, [kJkg–1] 42000 39100 29700
Cetane number 45-50 42 8

The tested heat values of hexanol diesel blends Table 2. Heat values of the tested fuel
is given in tab. 2.
Hexanol ratio Heat value [kJkg–1]

Parameter tested and 0% (neat diesel) 42000

experimental procedure 10% 41710
20% 41420
Experiments were conducted on a, single- 30% 41130
cylinder, water-cooled, DI Diesel engine develop-
40% 40840
ing a power output of 5.2 kW at 1500 rpm
connected with a water cooled eddy current 50% 40550
dynamometer. The engine was operated at a con- 100% (hexanol) 39100
stant speed of 1500 rpm and standard injection
pressure of 216 bar. The specification of the engine is given in tab. 3. The fuel flow rate was
measured on volume basis using a burette and a stop watch. K-type thermocouple and a
digital display were employed to note the exhaust gas temperature.
Smoke level was measured using a standard AVL437C smoke meter. Exhaust
emissions of unburned HC, CO, CO2, O2, and NOx were measured on dry basis. A non-
-dispersive infrared (NDIR-AVL-444 digas) analyzer was used. The analyzer was periodically
calibrated according to the instructions of the manufacturer and the error analysis is given in
tab. 4. HC and NOx were measured in ppm and CO, CO2, and O2 emissions were measured in
 Sundar Raj, C., et al.: Influence of Hexanol-Diesel Blends on Constant …
1218 THERMAL SCIENCE, Year 2011, Vol. 15, No. 4, pp. 1215-1222

terms of vol.%. AVL combustion analyzer with 619 Indi meter hardware and indwin software
version 2.2 is used to measure in cylinder pressure, heat release rate (HRR), indicated mean
effective pressure, etc. The schematic experimental set-up is shown in fig. 1.

Table 3. Engine specification

Vertical, water
Type
cooled, four stroke
Number of
cylinder One

Bore 87.5 mm
Stroke 110 mm
Compression
17.5:1
ratio
Maximum
power 5.2 kW Figure 1. Experimental set-up
1 – Kirloskar TV1 engine, 2 – eddy current dynamometer, 3
Speed 1500 rpm
– injector, 4 – fuel pump, 5 – fuel filter, 6 – diesel tank, 7 –
Dynamometer Eddy current emulsified fuel tank, 8 – air stabilizing tank, 9 – air filter,
Injection timing 23 bTDC 10 – AVL somke meter, 11 – AVL di-gas analyser, 12 –
pressure transducer, 13 – TDC encoder, 14 – charge
Injection 216 bar, direct amplifier, 15 – indimeter, 16 – monitor, 17 – exhaust
pressure injection silencer

Table 4. Error analysis

Fuel volumetric
Parameters O2 NOx HC CO BSFC BTE
flow rate
% of error 1.05 0.94 1.03 0.09 ±1 ±1.5 ±1.5

Base data was generated with standard diesel fuel. Subsequently five fuel blends
ranging from 10 to 50% of hexanol by volume were prepared and tested. Readings were
taken, when the engine was operated at a constant speed of 1500 rpm for all loads. Parameter
like engine speed, fuel flow and the emission characteristic like NOx and smoke were
recorded. The performance of the engine was evaluated in terms of brake thermal efficiency
(BTE), brake power (BP), and BSFC from the parameters in tab. 4. The combustion charac-
teristics like cylinder pressure and HRR were noted for different blends. The experiments
were repeated for the same fuels with 25% EGR which was found as optimum and the results
were compared. The EGR ratio is determined as the ratio of CO2 concentration of intake air to
CO2 concentration of the exhaust gas.
Results and discussion

Figure 2 shows the BSFC for the neat diesel fuel and the various percentages of the
hexanol in its blends with diesel fuel at peak load (maximum BP). The lower heat value of the
hexanol makes heat value of the mixture to decrease and hence the BSFC to increase for
higher blends. Among the blends 10% hexanol shows minimum BSFC to other blends. Slight
increase in BSFC is observed for EGR as some of the intake air is replaced with hot exhaust
gases as illustrated by Husberg [15].
Sundar Raj, C., et al.: Influence of Hexanol-Diesel Blends on Constant …
THERMAL SCIENCE, Year 2011, Vol. 15, No. 4, pp. 1215-1222 1219

Figure 2. Variation of BSFC for D:Hx blends at Figure 3. Brake thermal efficiency for D:Hx
peak load blends at peak load

The presence of O2 due to the addition of hexanol in the diesel fuel, improve the
combustion, especially diffusion combustion and hence increase the BTE. Figure 3 shows, at
the peak load, the BTE for the neat diesel fuel and the various percentages of the hexanol in
its blends with diesel fuel. This can be attributed to the higher premixed combustion part
possessed by the hexanol blends because of the lower cetane number of hexanol, leading to
higher percentage of “constant volume” combustion, and to the lower heat losses and “leaner”
combustion. From the fig. 3 it is observed that the BTE of 10% hexanol blends recorded a
maximum of 33.9% efficiency. However, the efficiency of higher blends decreases as the
calorific value of the mixture decreases with the increase in hexanol ratio. EGR slightly
reduces the BTE as the amount of fresh oxygen available for combustion gets decreased due
to replacement by exhaust gas [15].
Figure 4 shows the exhaust smoke (soot)
density for the neat diesel fuel and the
various percentages of the hexanol in its
blends with diesel fuel. One can observe
that the soot emitted by the hexanol-diesel
fuel blends is significantly lower than that
for the corresponding neat diesel fuel case,
with the reduction being higher the higher
the percentage of hexanol in the blend. This
may be attributed to the engine running
overall “leaner”, with the combustion being
now assisted by the presence of the fuel-
Figure 4. Variation of smoke density for D/Hx
bound oxygen of the hexanol. In other blends at peak load
words addition of hexanol reduces smoke
density uniformly at peak load because of
the decreased quenching distance and the increased lean flammability limit due to the high
combustion temperature. The presence of O2 in the fuel assists in permitting the oxidation
reactions to proceed close to completion. It is also evident that the heat release rate of
oxygenated fuels is high due to improved injection spray quality and causes less smoke [19].
The results reveal that the tendency to generate soot from the fuel-rich regions inside diesel
diffusion flame is decreased by hexanol in the blends. With the use of EGR, the change in
oxygen concentration causes the change in the structure of the flame and hence changes the
 Sundar Raj, C., et al.: Influence of Hexanol-Diesel Blends on Constant …
1220 THERMAL SCIENCE, Year 2011, Vol. 15, No. 4, pp. 1215-1222

duration of combustion. EGR increase the smoke density due to deterioration in diffusion
combustion [16].
NOx emissions are predominately temperature phenomena, the presence of O2
increase the heat release rate for the oxygenated fuel and hence the NOx emission will be high
[5]. The anticipated increase in NOx emissions as a function of increasing hexanol concentra-
tion is apparent in fig. 5. EGR is a useful technique for reducing NOx formation in the
combustion chamber. Exhaust consists of CO2, N2, and water vapors mainly. When a part of
this exhaust gas is recirculated to the cylinder, it acts as diluents to the combusting mixture.
This also reduces the O2 concentration in the combustion chamber [15]. The specific heat of
the EGR is much higher than fresh air; hence EGR increases the heat capacity (specific heat)
of the intake charge, thus decreasing the temperature rise for the same heat release in the
combustion chamber [17].

Figure 5. NOx emissions for D/Hx blends at peak Figure 6. Variation of cylinder pressure with
load crank angle for D/Hx blends at peak load

Hexanol contain O2 molecule that improves the combustion process of the engine.
Figure 6 illustrates cylinder pressure traces of hexanol blended diesel fuels. It is found that at
the same engine speed and maximum load, the ignition delay for the oxygenated blend is
higher (the pressure rise due to combustion starts later) than the corresponding one for the
neat diesel fuel case, with no appreciable difference in the maximum pressure due to the lower
cetane number of hexanol. Rakopoulos et al. obtained the same result for 15% ethanol [19].
Figure 7 shows the cylinder pressure traces with respect to the crank position for
diesel and Hx 10 fuel with and without EGR. From the figure it is observed that the engine
with EGR is having longer delay period
compared standard engine and hence reduces
the maximum pressure.
It is observed from fig. 8, that the ignition
delay for the oxygenated blend is higher than
the corresponding one for the neat diesel fuel
case, while its premixed combustion peak is
much higher and sharper. It is the lower cetane
number of hexanol that causes the increase of
ignition delay and so the increased amount of
“prepared” fuel (to this end may also assist the
Figure 7. Effect of EGR on cylinder pressure easier evaporation of hexanol) for combustion
with crank angle at peak load after the start of ignition but is not reflected in
Sundar Raj, C., et al.: Influence of Hexanol-Diesel Blends on Constant …
THERMAL SCIENCE, Year 2011, Vol. 15, No. 4, pp. 1215-1222 1221

pressure, probably because of the counteracting effect of later combustion in a lower

temperature environment. The higher HRR in diffusion combustion of the oxygenated fuel
increase the net heat release rate, consequently oxygenated fuel has controlled rate of pre-
mixed combustion.

Figure 8. Heat release rate with crank angle for Figure 9. Effect of EGR on heat release rate with
D/Hx blends at peak load crank angle at peak load

The effect of EGR on HRR for the neat fuel and Hx10 at maximum loading condi-
tions is illustrated in fig. 9. EGR increases the delay without many variations in the HRR. The
effect of EGR on HRR may be due to dilution caused by increasing amounts of inert gases in
the mixture, which reduces the adiabatic flame temperature.

Conclusions

An extended experimental study is conducted to evaluate and compare the use of

hexanol as supplement to the conventional diesel fuel at blend ratios (by volume) ranging
from 10 to 50% in a constant-speed, DI Diesel engine located at the authors’ laboratory.
From the analysis results, it is revealed that with the use of the hexanol blends
against the neat diesel fuel:
the ignition delay is increased; maximum cylinder pressures are hardly affected. Where
as, EGR increases the delay and decreases the combustion pressure; maximum heat re-
lease rate is hardly affected,
the smoke density was significantly reduced and reduction is higher for the higher per-
centage of hexanol in the blend. EGR increase the smoke density due to deterioration in
diffusion combustion,
the NOx emissions were increased with the use of the hexanol-diesel fuel blends. But 60%
reduction in NOx emissions was observed with EGR as it acts as diluents to the combust-
ing mixture, and
little increase in specific fuel consumption with slight increase of brake thermal effi-
ciency were also observed.
On the whole it is concluded that simultaneous reduction of NOx and smoke without
affecting the performance of a diesel engine can be obtained by using hexanol diesel blends
with hot EGR compared with neat diesel.
 Sundar Raj, C., et al.: Influence of Hexanol-Diesel Blends on Constant …
1222 THERMAL SCIENCE, Year 2011, Vol. 15, No. 4, pp. 1215-1222

Acronyms

BSFC – brake specific fuel consumption HSU – Hatridge smoke unit

BTE – brake thermal efficiency Hx – hexanol
D – diesel TDC – top dead centre
EGR – exhaust gas recirculation W EGR – with exhaust gas recirculation
HRR – heat release rate WO EGR – without exhaust gas recirculation

References

[1] Ecklund, E. E., et al., State-of-the-Art Report on the Use of Alcohols in Diesel Engines, SAE paper
840118. 1984
[2] Zaidi, K., Andrews, G. E., Greenhaugh, J. H., Diesel Fumigation Partial Premixing for Reducing
Ignition Delay and Amplitude of Pressure Fluctuations, SAE paper 980535, 1998
[3] Sundar Raj, C., et al., Performance Achievements and Emission Control on DI Diesel Engine
Fumigated with Methanol Using Microprocessor Controlled Fumigator, (TIDEE) TERI Information
Digest on Energy and Environment, 8 (2009), 1, pp. 35-39
[4] Sundar Raj, C., Arul S., Sendilvelan, S., Some Comparative Performance and Emission Studies on DI
Diesel Engine Fumigated with Methanol and Methyl Ethyl Ketone Using Microprocessor Controlled
Fumigator, The Open Fuels & Energy Science Journal, 1 (2008), pp. 74-78
[5] He., B.-Q., et al., Study on Combustion and Emission Characteristics of Diesel Engines Using Ethanol-
Blended Diesel Fuels, SAE paper 2003-01-0762, 2003
[6] Xingcail, Z. H., Wugau, Z., Degang, L., The Influence of Ethanol Additives on the Performance and
Combustion Characteristics of Diesel Engine, Journal of Combust Sci Technol, 176 (2004), 8, pp. 1309-1329
[7] West, B. H., Griffith, W. L., Compere, A. L., High-Alcohol Microemulsion Fuel Performance in a
Diesel Engine, SAE paper 902101, 1990
[8] ***, U. S. Patents 2,331,386; 4,891,049, 4,904,279; 5,004,480
[9] Bennethum, J. E., Winsor, R. E., Toward Improved Diesel Fuel, SAE paper 912325, 1991
[10] Sundar Raj, C., et al., Effect of 1, 4 Dioxane Ethanol Diesel Blends on Diesel Engine, International
Journal of Engineering Research and Industrial Applications, 2 (2009), 2(V), pp. 197-208
[11] Kitamura, T., et al., Extraction of the Suppression Effects of Oxygenated Fuels on Soot Formation
Using a Detailed Chemical Kinetic Model, JSAE Review, 22 (2001), 2, pp. 139-145
[12] Miyamoto, N., et al., Low NOx High Thermal Efficiency and Low Noise Diesel Combustion with
Oxygenated Agents as Main Fuel, SAE paper 980506, 1998
[13] Aloko, D., Adebayo, G. A., Oke, O. E., Evaluation of Diesel-Hexanol Blend as Diesel Fuel, Leonardo
Electronic Journal of Practices and Technologies, 10 (2007), 6, pp. 151-156
[14] Gupta, V. K., Agarwal, P. K., Performance of a Constant Speed Diesel Engine with Ethanol Blended
Fuels, IE (I) Journal–MC, 89 (2008), pp. 20-23
[15] Husberg, T., et al., Visualization of EGR, Influence on Diesel Combustion with Long Ignition Delay in
a Heavy-Duty Engine, SAE paper 2004-01-2947, 2004
[16] Kouremenos, D. A., et al., Using Advanced Injection Timing and EGR to Improve DI Diesel Engine
Efficiency at Acceptable NO and Soot Levels, SAE International paper 2001-01-0199, 2001
[17] Herbst-Dederichs, C., Munchow Modern, F., Piston Ring Coatings and Liner Technology for EGR
Applications, SAE International paper 2002-01-0489, 2002
[18] Dürnholz, M., Eifler, G., Endres, H., Exhaust-Gas Recirculation, A Measure to Reduce Exhaust
Emissions of DI Diesel Engines, SAE International paper 920725, 1992
[19] Rakopoulos, C. D., Antonopoulos, K. A., Rakopoulos, D. C., Experimental Heat Release Analysis and
Emissions of a HSDI Diesel Engine Fueled with Ethanol-Diesel Fuel Blends, Energy, 32 (2007), 10, pp.
1791-1808

Paper submitted: October 2, 2010

Paper revised: July 23, 2011
Paper accepted: August 24, 2011