Core Paper V: Climatology

Unit I: Structure of the Atmosphere

Ms. Ayanika Ray

Department of Geography
Indraprastha College for Women
Structure refers to…
 A structure is something that consists of parts
connected together in an ordered way.
Layered Structure of the
Atmosphere (वायमु ण्डऱ की परतें )
 The earth‘s atmosphere consist of zones or
layers arranged like spherical shells.
 Each zone has an unique set of characteristics.
 The atmosphere can be divided conveniently
into a number of rather well-marked
horizontal layers, mainly on the basis of
temperature.
 For the most part the layers are not at all
sharply defined, and their boundaries are
arbitrarily established.
 Evidence for the layered structure comes from
regular rawinsonde (radar wind-sounding)
balloons, radio wave investigations, and, more
recently, from rocket flights and satellite
sounding systems.
 The layers of the atmosphere are based on
changes in the vertical temperature structure of
the atmosphere.
 Such temperature changes are largely
determined by the ability of each layer to
absorb radiation.
 Rawinsonde??
 A balloon-borne device comprising a radiosonde and
a radar target which both transmits meteorological
data to ground stations.
 The vertical distribution of temperature, pressure,
and humidity up to an altitude of about 30 km can be
obtained with a Radiosonde – a small, lightweight
box equipped with weather instruments and a radio
transmitter.
 It is attached to a cord that has a parachute and a gas-
filled balloon tied tightly at the end.
 The atmosphere can be divided into the
following layers:
i. Troposphere
ii. Stratosphere
iii. Mesosphere
iv. Thermosphere
v. Ionosphere
vi. Exosphere and Magnetosphere
 The vertical structure of atmosphere consists of these
layers which are separated from one another by change
in slope of the graph of temperature vs. altitude.
 In the troposphere the temperature decreases with
increasing altitude and at the tropopause (10-12 kms),
the temperature is -70 °C.
 The next layer (the stratosphere) is characterized by
increasing temperature.
 Near the top of the layer is a region where the ultraviolet
solar radiation is absorbed by ozone.
 This makes stratopause a warm area of the atmosphere
and also provides an effective shield keeping the harmful
UV radiation from the reaching the earth‘s surface.
i. Troposphere (क्षोभमण्डऱ)
 The lowest layer of the atmosphere.
 The term ―troposphere‖ stems from the Greek
word ―tropos‖ meaning ―turn‖ which is
descriptive of the layer‘s convective and mixing
characteristics.
 The term ―troposphere‖ was coined by
Teisserence de Bort in 1908 and literally means
the region where the air ―turns over‖ – a reference
to the appreciable vertical mixing of air in this
lowermost zone.
 It is the zone where weather phenomena and
atmospheric turbulence are most marked.
 It contains 75 % of the total molecular or gaseous
mass of the atmosphere and virtually all the water
vapour and aerosols (> 90%).
 Average height of this layer is about 14 km above
sea level.
 Height varies from place to place and season to
season.
 Under normal conditions the height of the
troposphere is about 8 km at the poles and about
16 km at the equator.
 Warm surface temperature and highly developed
thermal mixing are responsible for the greater
vertical extent of the troposphere near the equator.
 Throughout the troposphere there is general
decrease in temperature with height.
 Temperature decreases at the mean rate of 6.5 o C
per km (or 3.6 o F per 1000 feet).
 This is known as the normal lapse rate or the
environmental lapse (सामान्य ताप पतन दर).
 The temperature decrease occurs because air
is compressible and its density decreases with
height, allowing rising air to expand and
thereby cool.
 In addition, heat transfer from the earth‘s
surface mainly heats the atmosphere, not
direct absorption of radiation.
 Wind velocities increase with height and attain
the maximum at the top.
 Marked by turbulence and eddies.
 Contains all the convective activity (associated
with cloud formation) and has an appreciable
vertical component of air motion.
 Also called the convective region, for all
convective activities cease at the upper limit of the
troposphere.
 Contains all the weather – so often called the
weather sphere.
 Almost all clouds and certainly all
precipitation, thunderstorms, cyclones and
anticyclones occur in this sphere because of
the concentration of almost all the water
vapour and aerosols in it.
 Contains nearly all the major atmospheric
pollutants.
 The upper limit of the troposphere separating
it from the stratosphere is called the
tropopause.
Near-Surface Troposphere
 The lowest part of the troposphere can be
further subdivided into 4 layers:
i. Laminar Layer
ii. Roughness Layer
iii. Transition Layer
iv. Free Atmosphere
What is Convection??
 The heat transfer due to bulk movement
of molecules within fluids such
as gases and liquids.
 Refers primarily to atmospheric motions in the
vertical direction.
 Describes the vertical transport of heat and
moisture in the atmosphere, usually from a
warmer area (the surface) to a cooler one (aloft).
What is Turbulence??
 Chaotic flow.
 Small-scale, irregular air motions characterized
by winds that vary in speed and direction.
 Turbulence is important because it mixes and
churns the atmosphere and causes water
vapour, smoke, and other substances, as well as
energy, to become distributed both vertically and
horizontally.
Turbulent Flow of Air
 Laminar Layer
 Part of the atmosphere nearest to the surface or
elements on the surface, such a leaf or root or sea wave.
 E.g. every leaf on a tree has a laminar layer adjacent to
its surface.
 Comprises of only a few millimeters.
 In this sub-layer the air is held almost stationary
around all solid and liquid surfaces by molecular
forces.
 Characterized by smooth flow that parallels the
features of the earth‘s surface over which it moves.
 Very important because the atmospheric flow across
the leaves is an important factor affecting the loss of
water from the plant‘s surface.
Roughness Layer
 A zone of strong convection or turbulence.
 Thicker by day than by night – because of
differential heating – extends between 50 – 100
m).
 Characterized by a large component of vertical
motion than compared with horizontal motion.
 The turbulence in this layer is entirely mechanical
in origin – caused by rough elements such as
trees, crops, mountains or buildings.
 Very important from an energy perspective.
 The vertical motion that dominates this zone
transports energy used to drive atmospheric
processes – between the surface and the
atmosphere above this layer.
 The upward transport of matter (in this case
water vapour) is very important in this layer.
 Transports water vapour – usually in an upward
direction – from the surface where oceans, soil
moisture, streams and lakes evaporate liquid
water to the atmosphere. From there, the
turbulent flow may allow clouds to form.
Surface Boundary layer (SBL)
 The laminar layer and the roughness layer are
combined are sometimes referred to as the
surface boundary layer (SBL).
 Extends up to a few meters from the earth‘s
surface.
 In this layer the surface topography controls
the wind speed and its direction.
Transition Layer
 Extends from top of the SBL to approx. 500-1000
m above the surface.
 Again, this layer extends further upwards during
the day than during night, as convective process
thrive in the afternoon heat.
 Turbulent features from the SBL remain
important.
 Some characteristics of the free atmosphere also
have importance.
 Decrease in friction with height.
Planetary Boundary Layer (PBL)
 Collectively, the laminar, roughness and
transition layers comprise the planetary
boundary layer (PBL).
Free Atmosphere
 Friction is generally assumed to be negligible.
 Flow is controlled by pressure gradient force,
Coriolis effect, centrifugal force and geostrophic
balance.
 Therefore, the troposphere is characterized
by:
i. varying moisture content,
ii. mobility of the air masses, both vertical
and horizontal, and
iii. regular temperature decline with height.
 Tropopause (क्षोभ-सीमा)
 At the top of the troposphere there is a shallow layer
separating it from the next thermal layer of the
atmosphere.
 The boundary separating the troposphere from the
stratosphere.
 Very unstable and thin/shallow layer of 1.5 km
thickness only.
 The word tropopause has also been taken from the
Greek word which literally means, 'where the mixing
stops‗ (Greek tropos 'turning' + pause).
 Sir Napier Shaw used the word for the first time.
 Just above 11 km the air temperature normally
stops decreasing with height (the lapse rate is zero).
 Tropopause is usually characterized by a sharp
temperature inversion.
 Above this narrow transition zone, there is a slight
increase in temperature with increasing elevation.
 This region, where the air temperature remains
constant with height, is referred to as an
isothermal (equal temperature) zone.
 The bottom of this zone marks the top of the
troposphere and the beginning of another layer, the
stratosphere.
 Height of tropause is not constant in either
space or time.
 Normally found at higher elevations over
equatorial regions, and it decreases in elevation
poleward.
 Marked variations in the altitude of the
tropopause with latitude, from about 16 km at
the equator, where there is strong heating and
vertical convective turbulence, to only 8 km at
the poles.
 Generally, tropopause is higher in summer and
lower in winter at all latitudes.
 In the middle and high latitudes the height of
the tropopause varies according to seasons.
 For e.g., at latitudes 45° N and S the average
height of the tropopause in January is about
12.5 kilometers, while in July it becomes 15
kilometers.
 In some regions, the tropopause ―breaks‖ and
is difficult to locate and, here, scientists have
observed tropospheric air mixing with
stratospheric air and vice versa. These breaks
also mark the position of jet streams.
ii. Stratosphere (समतापमण्डऱ)
 Derived from the Latin word ‗stratum‘ meaning ‗a
layer‘, which is descriptive of its stratified, non-
convective nature.
 Extends upward from the tropopause to about 50
km.
 Accounts for about 10 % of the atmospheric
mass.
 The lower stratosphere (up to 20-25 km) is
isothermal.
 Above this level temperature increases with
height.
 At an altitude of about 20 km, air temperature
begins to increase with height, producing a
temperature inversion.
 The inversion region, along with the lower
isothermal layer, tends to keep the vertical currents
of the troposphere from spreading into the
stratosphere.
 The inversion also tends to reduce the amount of
vertical motion in the stratosphere itself; hence, it is
a stratified layer.
 Even though the air temperature is increasing with
height, the air at an altitude of 30 km is extremely
cold, averaging less than –46°C.
 The reason for inversion is the presence of ozone
gas - plays a major part in heating the air at this
altitude.
 Winds tend to decrease with height in the lower
stratosphere, and then increase with height in the
upper stratosphere, being mainly easterly in
summer and westerly in winter.
 The layer is extremely dry with no clouds or
weather.
 Thicker at the poles than at the equator.
 Distinctive feature of the stratosphere - its
stability compared with the troposphere, its
dryness, and its high concentration of ozone.
 Ozone has the important property of absorbing and
filtering out UV rays (पराबैगनी ककरणों) of the sun of
wavelength 0.23 to 32 μm.
 Stratosphere contains much of the atmospheric ozone.
 90% of the ozone occurs below 35 km.
 Maximum ozone concentration is between 15 and 30
km.
 The relative thickness of the ozone layer is measured
in Dobson Units.
 The absorption of UV radiation leads to the warming
of the stratosphere.
 Maximum temperatures occurring at the more
exposed upper levels at 50 km.
 Maximum temperatures associated with the
absorption of the sun‘s UV radiation by ozone
occur at the stratopause, where they may
exceed 0° C.
 Air density is much lower here – so even limited
absorption produces higher temperature rise.
 Weather related incidents do not take place in
this layer. The air blows horizontally here.
Therefore this layer is considered ideal for flying
of aircraft.
 Further protection – it is in this layer that
majority of meteorites burn themselves out as
they enter the earth‘s gravitational field.
Stratopause (समताप-सीमा)
 Upper limit of the stratosphere.
 Boundary between the stratosphere and the layer
above it.
 Encountered at an height of 50 km above the
earth‘s surface.
 Region where a maximum in the temperature
occurs.
What is the Ozonosphere? (ओजोन
मण्डऱ)
 The lower portion of the stratosphere having
maximum concentration of ozone.
 Confined to a height varying from 15 to 35 km,
although upper limit extends to 55-60 km above
sea level.
 Acts as a filter for the UV rays.
 Temperature decreases with height at the rate of 5
o C per km.

 Also known as chemosphere because of the

chemical processes taking place.
iii. Mesosphere (मध्य मण्डऱ)
 Lies above the stratopause and is a very cold
region.
 From the Greek word ‗meso‘ meaning middle.
 Sits in the middle of the atmosphere from an
altitude perspective.
 This layer extends upward to about 80 kms from
the surface of the earth.
 Similar to troposphere, temperature in the
mesosphere decrease with height.
 By 80 km temperature reaches -100 ° C.
 Above 80 km, temperatures again begin rising
with height and this inversion is referred to as
the mesopause.
 The air here is extremely thin and the
atmospheric pressure is quite low.
 Pressure decreases from about 1 mb at 50 km to
0.01 mb at 90 km.
 Even though the percentage of nitrogen and
oxygen in the mesosphere is about the same as it
was at the earth‘s surface, a breath of mesospheric
air contains far fewer oxygen molecules than a
breath of tropospheric air.
 At this level, without proper oxygen-breathing
equipment, the brain would soon become oxygen-
starved—a condition known as hypoxia—and
suffocation would result.
 With an average temperature of –90°C, the top of
the mesosphere represents the coldest part of our
atmosphere.
 It is in this region that noctilucent clouds are
observed on summer ‗nights‘ over high latitudes.
 Their presence appears to be due to meteoric dust
particles, which act as ice crystal nuclei when
traces of water vapour are carried upward by
high-level convection.
 However, their formation may also be related to
the production of water vapour through the
oxidation of atmospheric methane, since
apparently they were not observed prior to the
Industrial Revolution.
 Very few processes of consequence to weather and
climate are known to occur in the mesosphere
because so little atmospheric mass exists in this
zone.
 An important feature is its higher temperature in
winter compared with summer, which is
apparently due to a small ozone content.
Noctilucent Clouds (ननशादीप्त मेघ)
 Noctilucent roughly means "night shining"
in Latin.
 Highest clouds in the Earth‘s atmosphere - 83 km
(50 miles).
 Observed slightly below the mesopause in the
polar summertime.
 These clouds are of special interest, as they are
sensitive to both global climate change and to
solar/terrestrial influences.
Mesopause (मध्य-सीमा)
 The upper limit of mesosphere is
called mesopause which separate mesosphere
and thermosphere.
 Above 80 km, temperatures again begin rising
with height and this inversion is referred to as the
mesopause.
 One of the least explored regions of the
atmosphere.
Middle and Upper Atmosphere
 The layers between the tropopause and
the lower thermosphere are commonly
referred to as the middle atmosphere.
 Upper atmosphere denotes the regions
above about 100 km altitude.
iv. Thermosphere (ताप मंडऱ)
 The ―hot layer‖ above the mesosphere.
 ‗Thermo‖ means heat – so literally it is the ―heat
sphere‖.
 Has no well defined upper limit.
 Contains a minute fraction of the atmosphere‘s
mass.
 The lower portion of the thermosphere is
composed mainly of nitrogen (N2) and oxygen in
molecular (O2) and atomic (O) forms.
 Above 200 km atomic oxygen (O) predominates
over nitrogen (N2 and N).
 Here, oxygen molecules (O2) absorb solar rays,
warming the air.
 There are relatively few atoms and molecules in
this layer.
 Consequently, the absorption of a small amount
of solar energy can cause a large increase in air
temperature that may exceed 500°C or 900°F.
 Temperatures rise with height, owing to the
absorption of extreme UV (0.125 to 0.205 μm) by
molecular and atomic oxygen, probably
approaching 800 to 1200 K at 350 km, but these
temperatures are essentially theoretical.
Will you feel hot in the
thermosphere?
 Even though the temperature in the
thermosphere is exceedingly high, a person would
not necessarily feel hot.
 There are too few molecules in this region of the
atmosphere to bump against something (exposed
skin, for example) and transfer enough heat to it
to make it feel warm.
 If you were to hang out in the thermosphere, you
would be very cold because there aren‘t enough
gas molecules to transfer the heat to you!
 In the thermosphere - Low density means
that an air molecule will move an average
distance of > 1 km before colliding with
another molecule.
 On the earth’s surface - A similar air
molecule will move an average distance of < 1
millionth of a cm before it collides with
another molecule.
v. Ionosphere (आयन मण्डऱ)
 Located at the altitude between 80 and 400 km.
 Coinciding with the lower portion of the
thermosphere.
 Not really a layer, but rather an electrified region
within the upper atmosphere where fairly large
concentrations of ions and free electrons exist.
 Contains electrically charged particles known as
ions, and hence known as the ionosphere.
 The term ionosphere is commonly applied to the
layers above 80 km.
 This layer protects us from falling meteorites.
What are ions??
 An ion is a charged atom or molecule.
 Ions are atoms and molecules that have lost (or
gained) one or more electrons.
 It is charged because the number of electrons do
not equal the number of protons in the atom or
molecule.
 An atom can acquire a positive charge or a
negative charge depending on whether the
number of electrons in an atom is greater or less
then the number of protons in the atom.
 The bulk of the ionosphere is in the thermosphere
 Plays a major role in radio communications.
 Radio waves transmitted from the earth are
reflected back to the earth by this layer and due to
this, radio broadcasting has become possible.
 Ionosphere has little impact on our daily weather,
but is the site of one of nature‘s most interesting
spectacles – the auroras (ध्रव ु ीय ज्योनत).
 Aurora borealis or northern lights (सम ु ेरु ज्योनत or
उत्तर ध्रव
ु ीय ज्योनत).
 Aurora australis or southern lights (कुमेरु
ज्योनत or दक्षक्षण ध्रव
ु ीय ज्योनत).
What causes the auroras?? (ध्रुवीय
ज्योनत).
 When the charged particles from the sun strike
atoms and molecules in Earth‘s atmosphere,
hey excite those atoms, causing them to light up.
 The aurora often appears as curtains of lights, but
they can also be arcs or spirals.
 Most are green in color but sometimes pink, and
strong displays might also have red, violet and
white colors.
 Also known as polar lights.
Where can you see auroras??
 Aurora borealis – places in the Northern
Hemisphere - like the nations bordering the
Arctic Ocean – Canada and Alaska, Scandinavian
countries, Iceland, Greenland and Russia.
 Aurora Australis – places in the Southern
Hemisphere – like the Falkland Islands, South
Georgia Island; Tasmania; and Stewart
Island, New Zealand.
Layers of the Ionosphere
 The ionosphere consists of the following ionized
layers:
 D-Layer : 60-99 km
 E-Layer : 90-130 km (Sporadic E-layer)
 E-layer : 110 km
 E2 : layer : 150 km
 F1 : layer
 F2-layer : 150-380 km
 G-layer : 400 km and above
D-Layer
 The D-layer reflects low-frequency radio waves,
but absorbs medium-and high- frequency waves.
 Being closely associated with solar radiation, it
disappears as soon as the sun sets.
E-Layer
 Also called the Kennelly-Heaviside layer.
 It reflects the medium-and high-frequency radio
waves.
 It is much better defined than the D-layer. It is
produced by ultraviolet photons from the sun
interacting with nitrogen and nitrogen molecules.
 This layer also does not exist at night.
Sporadic E-Layer
 This layer occurs under special circumstances.
 It is believed that this sporadic layer is caused by
meteors and by the same processes that cause
aurora lights.
 This region is often characterized by high-velocity
winds.
 It affects very high-frequency radio waves.
E2-Layer
 This region is found above the E-layer and
sporadic E-layer.
 It is produced by UV photons acting upon oxygen
molecules.
 It appears in day time and vanishes at the sunset.
F1-Layer
 There is another reflecting layer (F Layer) above
the different layers of E-region.
 There are 2 sub-layers in this region: F1 and F2.
 These two sub-layers are collectively known as the
"Appleton layer".
 The F1 appears during the day, but disappears at
night.
 This layer is especially important in long-distance
radio communication.
 It reflects the medium-and high-frequency radio
waves.
F2-Layer
 Like the F1-layer this layer is very important in
long-distance radio transmission.
 This layer is characterized by diurnal as well as
seasonal variability.
 It appears as directly related to sunspot activity.
 Its maximum development occurs shortly after
local noon and during the middle of winter.
G-Layer
 This reflecting layer is found above the F2-layer.
 Its existence came to be known as a result of the
latest exploration carried into the upper part of
the atmosphere.
 It is most probably present much of the time, but
it may not be detectable since the F-layer reflects
all waves reflected by this layer.
vi. Exosphere (बाह्यमण्डऱ) and
Magnetosphere
 Outermost layer of the earth‘s atmosphere.
 The base of the exosphere is between about 500
km and 750 km.
 At such great heights the density of atoms in the
atmosphere is extremely low.
 Here atoms of oxygen, hydrogen and helium
(about 1 % of which are ionized) form the
atmosphere.
 Hydrogen and helium gases predominate.
 This layer gradually merges with the outer space.
 No defined border - with increase in altitude it thins
out until there are no air molecules left.
 Gases are very sparse in this sphere due to the lack of
gravitational force. Therefore, the density of air is very
less here.
 Also known as the diffusion zone, where the
atmospheric gases diffuse into the open space.
 It is prevented, in part, by the earth's magnetic field,
which retains the ionized particles within the
magnetosphere.
 Ionized particles increase in frequency through the
exosphere and in the magnetosphere there are only
electrons (negative) and protons (positive).
 Much about the exosphere is yet to be known.
 The atmosphere in this layer is sufficiently
rarified for satellites to orbit the Earth, although
they still receive some atmospheric drag.
 The exact altitude at which the exosphere ends
and space begins is not well-defined, and
attempting to attach a specific value to it is not
particularly useful.
 Magnetosphere is the region where the Earth's
magnetic field interacts with the solar wind
(stream of charged particles).
 Its inner boundary is the ionosphere, but it
extends for tens of thousands of kilometers.
Modern Views Regarding the
Structure of Atmosphere
 On the basis of its chemical composition, the

atmosphere is divided into 2 broad spheres:

i. Homosphere (सममंडल)
ii. Heterosphere (विषम मंडल)
i. Homosphere (सममंडऱ)
 This is the lower part of the atmosphere.

 Extends up to a height of about 88 kilometers.

 It is characterized by uniformity in composition.

 In other words, the proportions of the component

gases of this sphere are uniform at different levels.

 The term 'homosphere' means the zone of

homogeneous composition.
 The homosphere has been subdivided into 3 sub-
layers:
a. troposphere,

b. stratosphere, and

c. mesosphere.

 Each sub layer is separated from the adjoining

one by a very shallow transition zone.
 Tropopause, stratopause and mesopause
represent such transition zones.
ii. Heterosphere (ववषम मंडऱ)
 The atmosphere above the homosphere is not
uniform in its composition.
 It has a heterogeneous composition, hence the
name 'heterosphere'.
 Different layers of the atmosphere in this part
differ from one another in their chemical and
physical properties.
 The heterosphere is also referred to as the
thermosphere, for in this layer temperature goes
on rising up to the outermost boundary of the
atmosphere.
 In the upper parts of the atmosphere, where the
gases are so rarefied, the high temperatures are
caused exclusively by the photochemical actions
of the ultraviolet solar radiation.
 In this sphere the gases are said to be arranged
into the following 4 roughly spherical shells, each
of which has its own distinctive composition:
a. nitrogen layer,
b. oxygen layer,
c. helium layer, and
d. hydrogen layer.
 The lowermost layer dominated by molecular
nitrogen is called the nitrogen layer - its average
height above the earth's surface is said to be from
88 to 200 kilometers.
 Above this layer is the oxygen layer consisting of
atomic oxygen - whose average height above the
surface is estimated to be from 200 to 1120
kilometers.
 This layer is overlaid by the helium layer which is
dominated by helium – its average height above
the earth's surface is from 1120 to 3520
kilometers.
 At the top there is the hydrogen layer extending up to

the outermost boundary of our atmosphere - its

principal component is hydrogen.

 The various layers of gases have been found to be

arranged in accordance with the weight of different

gases.

 Nitrogen being the heaviest makes up the lower layer.

 Hydrogen being the lightest is the fourth and the

highest layer.