1.

1- Huygens–Fresnel Principle: It is an analysis method, applied to wave

1- Applied optics: In this subject, we will propagation. It states that each point on a wavefront (FO) is a wave generator, figure
approach geometric optics, when light 1.1(a). Note that the points where FO touches the line emits waves, in this case we
propagates or reflects in a medium with have a wave deflection, or refraction, in case 1.1(b) a scattering or diffraction.
dimensions greater than that of visible light.
Figure 1.1- Representation of
wavefronts.

1.2- Principle of Fermat or the least path: It is the one in

which a ray of light when leaving A to B, travels the shortest
path. However this principle is not general, and a modern one
states that light travels the path of stationary time, not the
shortest. Neither minimum nor maximum, an inflection bridge
or saddle. The least occurs in reflection and refraction, in
mirrors and lenses. The maximum occurs in gravitational
lenses in outer space, figure 1.3 below (simulation).
Figure 1.2- Saddle
stitch.

Figure 1.3- A black hole passing in front of a galaxy, gravitational

lens.
1.4 About refraction: Refraction occurs when light passing from one medium to
another (air to water), changes its direction according to fig. 1.4. We have applied
the same, Snell's law, which states that:

The refractive index indicates how many times light is slower in a

physical medium, and it is dimensionless. It can be given by (0.1), c is
the speed of light in a vacuum (and air too) and is 3 . 108 m/s, and v
the velocity in the middle (water, glass, etc...)

Example 0: Light falls from air to water with an incidence angle of 60o
and refracts with 30o, find the refractive index of water knowing that the
one in air is 1.
Figure 1.4 – Ray of light hits
and refracts (breaks) when
If now, on the contrary, we were to make the light go out of the water
passing from air to water.
into the air, we would have the opposite effect of figure 1.4. We could
increase the angle with the normal until the point where the light doesn't
come out of the water anymore, that is, r = 90o, this effect being called
total internal reflection (the same as for optical fiber). Remember your
watch that is mirrored under the pool? The following are some
refractive indices: air 1.00; water 1.33; Glass 1.50; ethyl alcohol
1.36; diamond 2.42; acrylic 1.49; glycerin 1.90
2- The vision and the lenses: Our eye, besides being a modern
marvel, can be compared to a converging lens. What are lenses? (b)
Lenses are transparent objects made of glass or plastic that use the
refraction of light to increase or decrease the image (virtual or real) of
the objects.
In figure 2(b) we can see the types of existing lenses. Which
of these comes closest to our eye? There are generally only
two types of lenses, the converging (or convex) and the
diverging (concave) lenses. All that are bulky are the
convergent ones, and the thinner are the divergent ones.
Figure 2- (a) Human eye. (b) types of
lenses.

(a)
2.1- Images formed by the lenses: There are rules to form an image of
a lens, in the case of the converging lens in figure 2(a) (same as the
convex one) we have the following: 1st Every light ray that passes
parallel to the main axis refracts at focus F(and vice versa). 2nd Every
ray passing through the center A of the lens follows its course without
change in direction.

Figure 2.1- Image formation on

the (a) convex and (b) concave
lenses.
The rules above apply to both
types of lenses, the convergent
can have 5 types of images,
and the divergent only one type
(virtual, right and smaller).
Example 1: Draw below, with a ruler, the rays that make up the image, using the rules of
rays. And classify the image type (C is the center of curvature and f is the focus).

(a) (b) (c)

2.2- Types of images:

2.2.1- Convergent:

2.2.2- Divergent: Only virtual, straight and reduced.

Example 2: Draw the image type of a divergent lens. Tip(Instead of drawing the lens as in fig. 2.1,
adopt the symbols: for converging and for divergent).
2.3- Lens equations: To solve the problems involving lenses, below we have the equations, which apply to both
types: 3- Exercises (on some questions, draw to facilitate):

1. Whether a lens is convergent or divergent depends on:

a) the lens shape alone; b) only from the environment
where it is located; c) the material of which the lens is
made and the shape of the lens; d) the shape of the lens,
f is focus, p is object position, p' is image position, A is the material the lens is made of and the environment in
magnification, i is image size o object size and C is center of which it is found; e) n.d.a.
curvature.
2. An object is at distance p from a converging lens at
distance f. If p is greater than f and less than 2f, it can be
Example 3: (a) Find the position of a candle image 20 cm from said that the image will be: a) virtual and larger than the
a 5 cm converging focus lens. (b) The characteristics of the object; b) virtual and smaller than the object; c) real and
image. (c) Its magnification. larger than the object; d) real and smaller than the object;
e) real and equal to the object.

3. An object has a height o = 20 cm and is located at a

distance p = 30 cm from a lens. This object produces a
virtual image of height i = 4.0 cm. The image-to-lens
distance, focal length and lens type are, respectively:

4. A real object is situated 10 cm from a thin 10 cm focal

length divergent lens. The image of this object, conjugated
by this lens, is: a) virtual, located 5.0 cm from the lens; b)
real, located 10 cm from the lens; c) improper, located at
infinity; d) real, located at 20 cm in height; e) virtual,
located 10 cm from the lens
4- Flat and spherical mirrors: the flat mirror is the one we have in
our homes. Polished, flat surface. Produces a virtual image
(behind the mirror), right (head up) and the same size as the
object. The distance p from the person to the glass is the same i
as the image to the glass. Hence p = - i (see figure 4 on the side).
Example 4: How big is a flat mirror so
that a player 6 feet tall can be seen fully?

Example 5: A person approaches a Figure 4- Rays of light in object

mirror at 1.2 m/s, find the speed of this and image in a plane mirror.
person in relation to the image.

Example 6: Place a flat mirror in a deep

dish with water. Take it to the sun and
reflect the submerged part of the wall.
Explain.
4.1- Spherical mirrors: These are polished and curved surfaces generated by a
spherical cap, which reflect light. The reflective part can be internal (concave) or
external (convex). The spherical mirror is an approximation of the parabolic mirror, as
the latter is more difficult to construct.
The mirror equations are the same as for
Figure 4.1- (a) Cap.
the lenses, taking care to establish the
position references, for real image +, and
virtual image - .
4.2- Types of concave mirror
images: There are five types of
images. It is the “inner” side of the
spoon.

4.3- Types of convex mirror images: There is only

one type.Virtual, erect and smaller. This is the same
mirror used in stores to monitor customers.
Concave mirrors
Convex mirror
1- In a car headlight there is a reflector made up of a spherical mirror and a small filament that can emit light. The headlamp works well
when the mirror is: a) concave and the filament is in the center of the mirror; b) concave and the filament is in the mirror focus; c) convex
and the filament is in the center of the mirror; d) convex and the filament is in the mirror focus; e) convex and the filament is midway
between the focus and the center of the mirror.
2- In front of a concave spherical mirror, a real object is placed at the midpoint of the segment defined by the main focus and the center of
curvature. If the radius of curvature of this mirror is 2.4m, the distance between the object and its conjugate image is:
3- A spherical mirror combines a real object, 40cm from its vertex, with a straight image twice smaller. It can be said that the mirror is:

4- A young student to shave more efficiently, decides to buy a spherical mirror that increases twice the image of his face when he is
placed 50cm away from him. What kind of mirror should he use and what is the radius of curvature?

5- An object is on the axis of a concave spherical mirror. The distance between the object and the mirror is greater than the radius of
curvature of the mirror. The object's image is:

6- What is the type of mirror used in HUBBLE?

7. Review the following statements and tick the correct one:

a) It is impossible to get an image larger than the subject with a diverging lens. b) When an object is located at a distance that is twice the focal length
of a concave mirror, the image size is twice the object's size. c) A divergent lens can correct astigmatism. d) To light a match, a divergent lens looking
at the sun is used.

8. You have a luminous object located in one of the main focuses of a converging lens. The object moves away from the lens, moving about its main
axis. We can say that the image of the object, as it moves: a) grows continuously; b) changes from virtual to real; c) moves further and further away
from the lens. d) approaches the other main focus of the lens e) goes from real to virtual
9. Part of a parallel-ray beam of light that strikes a thin converging lens, refracts and converges to a point located 30cm from the lens.
What is the focal length of the lens?

10. A magnifying glass is constructed with a 3.0cm focal length converging lens. For an observer to see an object magnified
by a factor of 3, the distance between the magnifying glass and the object must be, in centimeters: a) 1.5 ; b) 2.0; c) 3.0
; d) 6.0; e) 25

11. The devices that produce inverted real images are: a) astronomical telescope, magnifying glass and photographic
camera; b) slide projector, camera and human eye; c) camera, human eye and terrestrial telescope; d) magnifying glass,
human eye and compound microscope; e) photographic camera, terrestrial telescope and compound microscope.

12. Two students propose to build each of them a simple photographic camera, using a converging lens as an objective and placing it in
a closed box so that the film is in the focal plane of the lens. Student A used a 4.0 cm focal length lens and Student B a 10.0 cm focal
length lens. Both went to test their cameras by photographing an object situated 1.0 m away from their respective lenses. Disregarding
all other effects (such as lens aberrations), the result of the experiment was:

I. that student A's photo was more "in focus" than student B's;
II. that both were equally "in focus";
III. that the images were always between the film and the lens.
In this case, you agree that:
a) only statement II is true;
b) only I and III are true;
c) only III is true;
d) only statement I is true;
e) it is not possible to obtain a photograph in such conditions.
13. A magnifying glass, when producing an image 30 cm from the lens, to provide a 16-fold magnification capability must have its
focal length of: a) 2.0 cm;
b) 2.5 cm; c) 3.0 cm; d) 3.5 cm; e) 4.0 cm

14. Mark the alternative corresponding to the optical instrument which, under normal conditions of use, provides a virtual image: a)
Slide projector;
b) Movie projector; c) Human eye lens; d) Photo camera;
e) Magnifying glass (magnifying glass)
15. A lens is used to project an image of a slide onto a wall, magnified 4 times the original size of the slide. The distance between the
lens and the wall is 2.0 m. The type of lens used and its focal length module are, respectively: a) divergent, 2.0 m; b) convergent, 40
cm; c) divergent, 40 cm; d) divergent, 25 cm; e) convergent, 25 cm
Extra information
In Figure 33-16b, the beams of
light in the photograph are
represented with an incident ray, a
reflected ray, and a refracted ray
(and wavefronts). Each ray is
oriented with respect to a line,
called the normal, that is
perpendicular to the surface at the
point of reflection and refraction.
In Fig. 33-16b, the angle of
incidence
is u1, the angle of reflection is ,
and the angle of refraction is u2,
all measured relative to the
normal. The plane containing the
incident ray and the normal is the
plane of incidence, which is in the
plane of the page in Fig. 33-16b.
 (a)

(b)
(c
)
Solved
exercises
Mirrors
Point F is called the focal point (or focus)
of the mirror, and its distance from the
center of the mirror c is the focal length f
of the mirror.
The size of an object or image, as measured perpendicular to the
mirror’s central axis, is called the object or image height. Let h’
represent the height of the object, and h the height of the image.
Fig. 34-14 (a) Rays initially parallel to the
central axis of a converging lens are made to
converge to a real focal point F2 by the
lens.The lens is thinner than drawn, with a
width like that of the vertical line through it.We
shall consider all the bending of rays as
occurring at this central line. (b) An
enlargement of the top part of the lens of (a);
normals to the surfaces are shown dashed. Note
that both refractions bend the ray downward,
toward the central axis. (c) The same initially
parallel rays are made to diverge by a diverging
lens. Extensions of the diverging rays pass
through a virtual focal point F2. (d) An
enlargement of the top part of the lens of (c).
Note that both refractions bend the ray upward,
away from the central axis.
Solved
exercises mirror

4.30m

5.00m
d

4.30m 3.30m