Textbook On Scar Management

Luc Téot
Thomas A. Mustoe
Esther Middelkoop
Gerd G. Gauglitz
Editors
Textbook on Scar
Management
State of the Art Management
and Emerging Technologies
123
Textbook on Scar Management
Luc Téot • Thomas A. Mustoe • Esther Middelkoop
Gerd G. Gauglitz
Editors
Textbook on Scar
Management
State of the Art Management and Emerging Technologies
Editors Thomas A. Mustoe
Luc Téot Division of Plastic and Reconstructive
Department of Burns, Wound Healing and Surgery
Reconstructive Surgery Northwestern University School of Medicine
Montpellier University Hospital Chicago, Illinois, USA
Montpellier, France
Gerd G. Gauglitz
Esther Middelkoop Department of Dermatology and Allergy
Amsterdam UMC, Vrije Universiteit Ludwig Maximilian University Munich
Amsterdam, Department of Plastic, Munich, Germany
Reconstructive and Hand Surgery,
Amsterdam Movement Sciences, Amsterdam,
The Netherlands Association of Dutch Burn
Centers, Red Cross Hospital
Beverwijk, The Netherlands
This book is an open access publication.

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https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-44766-3
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V
Foreword
The interest in wound healing goes back to the beginning of history and has not dimin-
ished throughout the centuries also because practical implications of wound healing
studies have remained very relevant for public health. During the last century, much
progress has been made in the understanding of basic mechanisms of skin wound heal-
ing, and it has been realized that healing processes evolve similarly in various organs. It
has been established that fibrotic diseases are regulated by analogous mechanisms,
albeit less controlled, compared to those regulating wound healing. Moreover, many
advances, such as the use of antiseptics and, later, of antibiotics, as well as the intro-
duction of skin transplants have facilitated the treatment of wounds. It has been shown
that wound healing evolution depends on several factors including the type of injury
causing the damage, the tissue and/or organ affected, and the genetic or epigenetic
background of the patient.
This Compendium has the merit of discussing a broad spectrum of topics, including
the general biology of wound healing, modern diagnostic approaches, and therapeutic
tools, applied to many different clinical situations. It should be of interest to teachers,
students, and clinicians working in different aspects of wound healing biology and
pathology. I am sure that it will rapidly become an important reference book in these
fields.
Giulio Gabbiani
Emeritus Professor of Pathology
University of Geneva
Geneva, Switzerland
Preface
Scars represent the indelible cutaneous signature of aggression, surgery, traumas, and
other events occurring during life. Most of them cause no problem, but some of them
become sources of social exclusion, especially in a world where beauty is glorified. The
psychosocial aspects surrounding culture, religion, and uses may be determinant. Even
a transient redness may become source of suffering. Paradoxically, major keloids or
massive contractures cause definitive loss of function or social problems leading to
exclusion in developing countries, whereas simultaneously, we assist a rapid extension
of laser technology indications for minor scar problems in the same countries. When
we founded the Scar Club in 2006 together with Prof. Tom Mustoe, the aim was and
still is the diffusion of knowledge and the development of all types of mechanical
devices and antiscarring drugs.
Important financial support for researches in the field of growth factors and antis-
carring agents was recruited, aiming at controlling cell proliferation and secretion using
chemical compounds, but the results were modest. Mechanical control of keloids or
hypertrophic scars is proposed and reimbursed in some countries, applying medical
devices capable to exert forces over the suture during the post-operative period or over
post-burn scars.
This small group formed the Scar Club, composed of passionate colleagues who
attracted surgeons and dermatologists, researchers, and physiotherapists, becoming an
upmost scientific biannual rendezvous attracting colleagues from all over the world.
The Scar Club group is built like a club, focusing on researches, new organizations and
collaborations, new strategies, and development of guidelines.
The need for a larger educational initiative appeared since 2015 and the GScarS was
founded in 2016. In October 2018, the first GScarS meeting was held in Shanghai with
a successful event, grouping more than 600 colleagues. The idea came from the Board
to provide an educational book free of charge, open source, and downloadable from
anywhere. Patients and caregivers suffer most of the time from an insufficient profes-
sional training, and scar science is poorly represented in teaching courses at universi-
ties. Most of the proposed treatments are still based on cultural or anecdotal medicine.
It is time to propose a structuration of the scar knowledge based on evidence-based
medicine, consensus, guidelines, and key opinion leaders’ expertise.
This Compendium on scar management proposes a synthesis of the basic principles
in scar management, including the large armamentarium of medical devices having
proven efficacy and considered as the standards of care, and also the most recent tech-
niques accessible in scar management, provided by the most prominent specialists com-
ing from all over the world. It will be completed by a series of illustrations, schematic
strategies, and clinical cases accessible on the Springer website.
Luc Téot
Montpellier, France
VII
Contents
I Biology and Scar Formation

1 Fetal Wound Healing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Magda M. W. Ulrich
1.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.2 I nflammation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.3 Extracellular Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.4 Angiogenesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.5 Keratinocytes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.6 Fibroblasts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.7 Mechanical Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.8 Remodeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.9 Skin Appendix Formation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.10 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2 Mechanobiology of Cutaneous Scarring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

Rei Ogawa
2.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.2
Role of Mechanobiology in Cutaneous Scarring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.3 Cellular and Tissue Responses to Mechanical Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.4 Role of Mechanobiology in the Development of Pathological Scars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.5 A Pathological Scar Animal Model that Is Based on Mechanotransduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.6 Mechanotherapy for Scar Prevention and Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.7 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
3 Scar Formation: Cellular Mechanisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

Ian A. Darby and Alexis Desmoulière
3.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
3.2 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
3.3 General Mechanisms of Scar Formation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
3.4 Morphological and Biochemical Characteristics of Myofibroblast Phenotype . . . . . . . . . . 21
3.5 Cellular Origins of Myofibroblasts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
3.6 Regulation of Myofibroblast Phenotype . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
3.7 Role of Myofibroblasts in Pathological Scarring and Fibrosis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
3.8 The Role of Mechanical Tension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
3.9 Role of Innervation in Skin Healing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
3.10 Therapeutic Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
3.11 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
II Epidemiology of Scars and Their Consequences

4 The Epidemiology of Keloids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Chenyu Huang, Zhaozhao Wu, Yanan Du, and Rei Ogawa
4.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
4.2
Demographic Risk Factors That Shape Keloid Rates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
4.3 Genetic Risk Factors That Shape Keloid Rates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
4.4 Environmental Risk Factors That Shape Keloid Rates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
VIII Contents
4.5 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
5 Epidemiology of Scars and Their Consequences: Burn Scars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

Margriet E. van Baar
5.1 Burn Injuries and Their Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

5.2
Prevalence of Burn Scars and Their Consequences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
5.3 Factors Predicting Scar Outcome After Burns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
5.4 Clinical Relevance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
5.5 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
6 Scar Epidemiology and Consequences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

M. El Kinani and F. Duteille
6.1 Introduction and Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46

6.2
Reminder of the Spectrum of Scars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
6.3 Hypertrophic Scars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
6.4 Basic Epidemiology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
6.5 Keloid Scars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
6.6 Specific Situation: The Burnt Patient Healing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
6.7 Impact of Scars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
6.8 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
7 ther Scar Types: Optimal Functional and Aesthetic

O
Outcome of Scarring in Cleft Patients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
Wouter B. van der Sluis, Nirvana S. S. Kornmann, Robin A. Tan,
and Johan P. W. Don Griot
7.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
7.2
Objectives of Cleft Lip Surgery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
7.3 Treatment Protocol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
7.4 Cleft Lip Reconstruction: Surgical Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
7.5 Secondary Cleft Lip Reconstruction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
7.6 Evaluation of Aesthetic Outcome . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
7.7 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
Further Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
III Hypertrophic and Keloid Scar: Genetics

and Proteomic Studies
8 Genetics of Keloid Scarring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Alia Sadiq, Nonhlanhla P. Khumalo, and Ardeshir Bayat
8.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
8.2 LA Immunogenetics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
H 62
8.3 Linkage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
8.4 Large-Scale Population Single-Nucleotide Polymorphism (SNP) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
8.5 Gene Expression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
8.6 MicroRNAs (miRNA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
8.7 Long noncoding RNA (lncRNA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
8.8 Small Interfering RNA (siRNA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
8.9 Microarray Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
8.10 Epigenetics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
8.11 Mutations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
8.12 Copy Number Variation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
IX
Contents
8.13 FISH (Fluorescence In Situ Hybridization) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72

8.14 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
Further Readings/Additional Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
IV International Scar Classifications

9 International Scar Classification in 2019 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
Thomas A. Mustoe
9.1 Immature Scar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80

9.2 Mature Scar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
9.3 Atrophic Scar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
9.4 Linear Hypertrophic Scar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
9.5 Widespread Hypertrophic Scar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
9.6 Keloid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
V Scar Symptoms
10 Scar Symptoms: Pruritus and Pain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
Osama Farrukh and Ioannis Goutos
10.1 Pain: Definition and Subtypes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88

10.2 ain Pathway . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
P 88
10.3 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
11 Scar Symptom: Erythema and Thickness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103

Yating Yang, Xiaoli Wu, and Wei Liu
11.1 Mechanisms of Erythema in Scar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104

11.2
Contributions of Erythema to Scar Development and Associated Clinical Symptoms . . . 105
11.3 Scar Erythema and Scar Thickness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
11.4 Clinical Measurement of Scar Redness and Thickness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
11.6 Clinical Treatment for Thick Scar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
11.7 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
12 Scar Symptoms: Pigmentation Disorders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109

A. Pijpe, K. L. M. Gardien, R. E. van Meijeren-Hoogendoorn, E. Middelkoop,
and Paul P. M. van Zuijlen
12.1 Pathophysiology and Epidemiology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110

12.2 easurement Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
M 111
12.3 Therapies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
12.4 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
13 Scar Contractures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117

Marguerite Guillot Masanovic and Luc Téot
13.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118

13.2 General Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
13.3 Contractures of the Neck . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
13.4 Axillar Contractures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
13.5 Hand Contractures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
X Contents
13.6
Other Anatomical Sites of Scar Contractures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
13.7 Rehabilitation Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
13.8 Surgical Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
13.9 Z Plasties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
13.10 Skin Grafts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
13.11 Dermal Substitutes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
13.12 Flaps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
13.13 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
VI Scar Assessment Scales

14 Scar Assessment Scales . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
Michelle E. Carrière, Annekatrien L. van de Kar, and Paul P. M. van Zuijlen
14.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126

14.2 Domains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
14.3 Scar Assessment Scales . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
14.4 Measurement Properties/Clinimetrics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
14.5 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
15 J apan Scar Workshop (JSW) Scar Scale (JSS) for Assessing Keloids
and Hypertrophic Scars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
Rei Ogawa
15.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134

15.2
JSW Scar Scale (JSS) 2015 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
15.3 Classification Table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
15.4 Evaluation Table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
15.5 Clinical Suitability and Usefulness of the JSS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
15.6 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
VII Objective Assessment Technologies (Cutometer, Laser

Doppler, 3D Imaging, Stereophotogrammetry)
16 bjective Assessment Technologies: General Guidelines
O
for Scar Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
Julian Poetschke and Gerd G. Gauglitz
16.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144

16.2
Choosing the Right Tools for Each Scar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
16.3 Optimizing the Measurement Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
16.4 Interpreting Therapeutic Success with Objective Scar Assessment Technologies . . . . . . . 146
16.5 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
17 Objective Assessment Tools: Physical Parameters in Scar Assessment . . . . . 149

M. E. H. Jaspers and P. Moortgat
17.1 Clinimetrics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150

17.2 Color . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
17.3 Elasticity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
17.4 Perfusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
17.5 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
XI
Contents
18 bjective Assessment Techniques: Physiological Parameters

O
in Scar Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
Peter Moortgat, Mieke Anthonissen, Ulrike Van Daele, Jill Meirte,
Tine Vanhullebusch, and Koen Maertens
18.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160

18.2 Skin Hydration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
18.3 Transcutaneous Oxygen Tension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
18.4 Tactile Sensitivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
19 Structural Assessment of Scars Using Optical Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169

L. van Haasterecht, Paul P. M. van Zuijlen, and ML. Groot
19.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170

19.2 Experimental Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
19.3 Future Perspectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
20 Ethical Considerations: Scar Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179

Clarisse Ganier and Sonia Gaucher
20.1 there Truly a Need to Invoke Ethics When the Clinician Is Faced
Is
with Managing a Patient’s Scar? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
20.2 What Are the Dilemmas that a Clinician Will Confront in Their Daily
Practice When Managing a Patient’s Scar? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
VIII Treatment of Immature Scars: Evidence-Based Considerations

21 Ideal Wound Closure Methods for Minimizing Scarring After Surgery . . . . . . 185
Rei Ogawa
21.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186

21.2
Cutaneous Wound Healing and Mechanobiology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
21.3 Surgical Techniques that Can Minimize Dermal Tension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
21.4 Z-Plasty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
21.5 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
22 reatment of Immature Scars: Evidence-Based Techniques

T
and Treatments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
22.1 Techniques for the Treatment of Immature Scars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
22.2 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
23 Silicone Gel for Scar Prevention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203

Thomas A. Mustoe
23.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204

23.2
The Role of the Epithelium in Scar Formation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
24 Onion Extract . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209

24.1 Onion Extract . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
XII Contents
24.2 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
25 Treatment of Immature Scars: Manual Massages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215

Docteur N. Frasson
25.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216

25.2 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
25.3 Indications of Manual Massages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
25.4 Description of the Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
25.5 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
26 Treatment of Immature Scars with Botulinum Toxin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219

Alexandra Chambers
26.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220

26.2 hapter Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
C 220
26.3 Botulinum Exotoxin, Structure, and Mechanism of Action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
26.4 Clinical Application of BoNTA for Treatment of Scars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
26.5 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
27 ompression Therapy and Conservative Strategies

C
in Scar Management After Burn Injury . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
Eric Van den Kerckhove and Mieke Anthonissen
27.1 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
IX Minimal-Invasive Technologies for Treatment of HTS

and Keloids
28 inimally Invasive Technologies for the Treatment
M
of Hypertrophic Scars and Keloids: Intralesional Cryosurgery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
Yaron Har-Shai and Lior Har-Shai
28.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236

28.2
The Technology: Treatment Technique – CryoShape [5, 10] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
28.3 When to Use Contact or Intralesional Cryosurgery? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
28.4 How Many Cryosessions Are Needed for Contact or Intralesional Cryosurgery? . . . . . . . . 239
28.5 Combined Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
28.6 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
29 inimal-Invasive Technologies for Treatment of HTS and Keloids:

M
Corticosteroids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
Juhee Lee and Jihee Kim
29.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244

29.2 he Corticosteroids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
T 246
29.3 Pharmacology and Mechanism of Action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
29.4 Corticosteroid in Scar Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
29.5 Topical Steroids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
29.6 Intralesional Injection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
29.7 Further Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
29.8 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
XIII
Contents
30 inimally Invasive Technologies for Treatment of HTS and Keloids:

M
Low-Dose 5-Fluorouracil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
Wei Liu, Xiaoli Wu, Zheng Gao, and Lingling Xia
30.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253

30.2 The Rational of Using Low-Dose 5-FU Injection for Keloid Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
30.3 Clinical Protocol of Low-Dose 5-FU Injection Therapy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
30.4 Low-Dose 5-FU-Based Injection Therapy for HTS and Keloids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
30.5 5-FU-Based Injection Therapy for Recurrence Prevention of Surgically
Removed Keloids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
30.6 Anti-indications of Low-Dose 5-FU Injection Therapy Combined with Steroids . . . . . . . . . 257
30.7 Representative Case Reports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
30.8 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
31 inimally Invasive Technologies for Treatment of HTS

M
and Keloids: Pulsed-Dye Laser . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
Sebastian P. Nischwitz, David B. Lumenta, Stephan Spendel,
and Lars-Peter Kamolz
31.1 Historical Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264

31.2
Technique of a Laser . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
31.3 Tissue Interaction of Laser . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
31.4 Selective Photothermolysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
31.5 The PDL and Its Application on Hypertrophic Scars and Keloids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
31.6 Selected Studies and Evidence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
31.8 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
32 ong-Pulsed 1064 nm Nd:YAG Laser Treatment for Keloids

L
and Hypertrophic Scars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
Rei Ogawa
32.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272

32.2
Laser Therapies for Keloids and Hypertrophic Scars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
32.3 Indications and Limitations of Long-Pulsed 1064 nm Nd:YAG Laser for Keloids
and Hypertrophic Scars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
32.4 Treatment Settings of Long-Pulsed 1064 nm Nd:YAG Laser for Keloids
and Hypertrophic Scars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
32.5 Follow-Up of Keloids and Hypertrophic Scars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
32.6 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
33 inimally Invasive Technologies for Treatment of HTS

M
and Keloids: Fractional Laser . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
M. Tretti Clementoni and E. Azzopardi
33.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280

33.2 Method of Action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
33.3 Fractioned Laser Platforms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
33.4 Fractioned CO2 Laser . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
33.5 Settings for Ablative Fractional CO2 Laser . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
33.6 Fractioned Erbium:YAG . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
33.7 Fractional Non-ablative Laser . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
33.8 Picosecond, Fractioned, 1064 nm Nd:YAG . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
33.9 Cautions and Contraindications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
33.10 Preoperative and Postoperative Regimes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
XIV Contents
33.11 Expected Outcomes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282

33.12 otential Complications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
P 282
33.13 Fractioned CO2 Laser as a Method for Potentiating Transdermal
Laser-Assisted Drug Delivery (LADD) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
33.14 Consensus Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
34 inimal Invasive Technologies for Treatment of HTS

M
and Keloids: Medical Needling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
Antigona Aliu and Matthias Aust
34.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288

34.2 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
34.3 Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
34.4 Effects of Medical Needling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
34.5 Needling Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
34.6 Postinterventional Treatment Measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
34.7 Induction of the Post-Needling Wound-Healing Cascade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
34.8 Effects of Medical Needling Regarding Different Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
34.9 Dermal Remodeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
34.10 Improved Perfusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
34.11 Dermal Thickness and Erythema . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
34.12 Richness of Moisture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296
34.13 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
X Invasive Techniques in Scar Management

35 Usefulness of Local Flaps for Scar Contracture Release . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
Rei Ogawa
35.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302

35.2
Selection of Local Flaps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
35.3 Transposition Flaps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
35.4 The Square Flap Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304
35.5 Propeller Flaps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
35.6 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308
36 Scar Resurfacing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311

Fiona M. Wood
36.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312

36.2 The Mechanism of the Initial Skin Injury and Clinical Pathway of Healing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312
36.3 The Timing of the Intervention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
36.4 The Techniques for Preparing the Scar Wound Bed for Resurfacing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
36.5 The Techniques of Wound Repair for Resurfacing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314
36.6 Post-Intervention Scar Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
36.7 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316
37 Invasive Techniques in Scar Management: Skin Substitutes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317

F. W. Timmermans and E. Middelkoop
37.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318

37.2 ermanent Wound Coverage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318
P
37.3 Full-Skin Substitutes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
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Contents
37.4 Subcutaneous Fat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321

37.5 egulatory/Safety Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
R 322
37.6 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
38 Facial Scars Reconstruction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325

Luc Téot
38.1 Objectives of the Chapter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326

38.2 echniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
T 326
38.3 Critical Analysis of the Literature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331
39 Invasive Techniques in Scar Management: Fat Injections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333

F. Bassetto, C. Scarpa, and V. Vindigni
39.1 Adipose-Derived Stem Cells: Their Biological Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334

39.2 The Guidelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334
39.3 The Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335
39.4 The Free Fat Grafting and Scars [3–9] (. Figs. 39.5, 39.6, 39.7, and 39.8) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336
39.5 The Ancillary Procedures to Increase the Overall Survival of Adipose Cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340
39.6 Something to Discuss: The Oncological Point of View . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341
39.7 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342
40 Additional Invasive Techniques in Scar Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343

E. de Bakker, M. C. E. van Leeuwen, O. W. M. Meijer, and F. B. Niessen
40.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344

40.2 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344
40.3 Types of Radiation Therapy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344
40.4 Excision and Radiation Type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345
40.5 Recurrence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346
40.6 Safety Concerns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
40.7 Additional Thoughts on the Biomechanisms of Radiotherapy in Keloid Treatment . . . . . 347
40.8 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348
XI Specific Attention Areas in Scar Management

41 pecific Attention Areas in Scar Management: Management
S
of Atrophic Scars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353
Matteo Tretti Clementoni and Ernest Azzopardi
41.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354
41.2 trophic Acne Vulgaris Scarring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A 354
41.3 Striae Albae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358
41.4 Burn Atrophic Scars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360
41.5 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361
42 pecific Attention Areas in Scar Management: Specific

S
Scar Management Depending on Anatomical Features
(Face, Hair, Breast, Hand, Joints, Foot) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363
42.1 Scar Treatment Options for Different Anatomical Localizations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 364

XVI Contents
42.2 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370
43 Management of Scars in Skin of Color . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371

Huidi Tchero
43.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372

43.2
How Scars Evolve Differently in Skin of Color? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372
43.3 Management of Scars in the Skin of Color . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373
43.4 Management of Scars in Asian Skin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 376
43.5 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 376
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377
44 Scar and Scarring in the Elderly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379

Hester Colboc and Sylvie Meaume
44.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380

44.2 Epidemiology of the Elderly: A Factor to Consider . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380
44.3 Definition of Elderly in Medicine: Should We Make Distinctions? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380
44.4 From Skin Aging to Dermatoporosis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380
44.5 Consequences of Age on Wound Healing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381
44.6 Frequent Comorbidities Altering Wound Healing in the Elderly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381
44.7 What Scarring Problems Are Usually Observed in the Elderly? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382
44.8 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383
45 Management of Scarring Following Aesthetic Surgery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385

Alexandra Chambers
45.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 386

45.2 Patient Selection for Cosmetic Surgery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 386
45.3 Prophylactic Measures in Cosmetic Surgery to Reduce Excessive Scarring . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389
45.4 Treatment of Scars Following Aesthetic Surgery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391
45.5 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 394
46 Scars in Pediatric Patients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397

Anne Le Touze
46.1 Introduction/Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 398

46.2
Healing Specificities in Children . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 398
46.3 Pathological Scars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399
46.4 Defective or Disgracious Scars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403
46.5 Scars and Growth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403
46.6 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403
47 Genital Scars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 405

Ursula Mirastschijski
47.1 Epidemiology and Etiology of Genital Wounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406

47.2
Genital Skin Anatomy and Microstructure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408
47.3 Pathophysiology of Genital Wound Healing, Lymphedema and Scarring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 410
47.4 Acute Wound Repair of Genital Skin After Trauma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415
47.5 Chronic Inflammatory Diseases of the External Genitalia and Tissue Fibrosis . . . . . . . . . . 416
47.6 Treatment of Genital Wounds and Scars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 418
47.7 Postoperative Management for Scar Prevention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 423
47.8 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 424
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 424
XVII
Contents
XII Psychological Impact of Burn Injuries

48 Psychological Impact of Living with Scars Following Burn Injury . . . . . . . . . . . 429
Nancy E. E. Van Loey
48.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 430

48.2
Psychological Problems After a Burn Injury . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 430
48.3 Psychological and Social Impact of Living with Scars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 431
48.4 Factors Impacting Adjustment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 431
48.5 Interference of Psychological Problems with the Perception of the Scar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 432
48.6 Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 433
48.7 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 433
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 434
49 Makeup Therapy for Scars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 435

Joëlle Nonni
49.1 Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 436

49.2 Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 436
49.3 The Benefits of Medical Makeup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 436
49.4 Medical Makeup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 436
49.5 Medical Makeup Classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 440
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 440
XIII Emerging Technologies in Scar Management

50 merging Technologies in Scar Management: Laser-Assisted
E
Delivery of Therapeutic Agents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 443
50.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 444

50.2
Laser Systems Used for Laser-Assisted Delivery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 444
50.3 Carbon Dioxide (CO2) Laser and Erbium:Yttrim-Aluminum-Garnet (Er:YAG) Laser . . . . . . 445
50.4 Mechanism of Ablative Fractional Laser-Assisted Drug Delivery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 445
50.5 Technique and Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 446
50.6 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 448
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 449
51 merging Technologies in Scar Management:

E
The Role of Allogeneic Cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 451
51.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 452

51.2
Allogenic Cell Therapy Studied in Scar Management Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 452
51.3 Human Allogeneic Epidermal Sheets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 452
51.4 Cellular Dermal Substitutes and Human Dermal Fibroblasts Therapy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 452
51.5 Human Skin Equivalent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 453
51.6 Bioprinting of Skin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 453
51.7 Injections of Mesenchymal Stromal Cells (MSCs) for Skin Regeneration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 453
51.8 Promising Embryonic(-Like) Stem Cells Therapy for Scar Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 454
51.9 Conclusion/Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 454
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 455
52 New Drugs for Scar Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 457

Sun Hyung Kwon, Jagannath Padmanabhan, Dominic Henn, Kellen Chen,
and Geoffrey C. Gurtner
52.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 458

XVIII Contents
52.2 Objectives of the Proposed Chapter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 458

52.3
Description of the State-of-the-Art Historical Evolution: Recent Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 458
52.4 Transforming Growth Factor-β (TGF-β) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 459
52.5 Interleukins (IL) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 460
52.6 Mechanotransduction Pathway Inhibitors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 460
52.7 Supportive Articles in the EBM Literature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 461
52.9 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 462
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 463
53 merging Technologies in Scar Management: Remodeling

E
of Post-surgical Linear Scar Using Microplasma Radiofrequency . . . . . . . . . . . 465
Wei Liu
53.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 466

53.2 Procedures: Clinical Protocol for Microplasma-Based Tissue Remodeling (. Fig. 53.3) . . 467
53.3 Application Areas for FMRT-Mediated Tissue Remodeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 468
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 472
54 Vacuum Massage in the Treatment of Scars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 475

Peter Moortgat, Jill Meirte, Ulrike Van Daele, Mieke Anthonissen,
54.1 Working Mechanism of Vacuum Massage in Relation to Pathological Scarring . . . . . . . . . 477

54.2
The Effects of Vacuum Massage on Scars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 477
54.3 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 479
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 482
55 Shock Wave Therapy for Wound Healing and Scar Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 485
55.1
Working Mechanism of SWT in Relation to Skin Defects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 486
55.2 SWT Dose Effect Relationship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 487
55.3 The Effects of Shock Wave Therapy in Soft Tissue Defects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 487
55.4 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 488
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 489
56 ffectiveness of Corticosteroid Tapes and Plasters for Keloids and

E
Hypertrophic Scars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 491
Rei Ogawa
56.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 492

56.2 Difference Between Steroid Tapes/Plasters and Steroid Injection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 492
56.3 Typical Usage of Steroid Tapes/Plasters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 492
56.4 Difference Between Deprodone Propionate Plaster and Deprodone
Propionate Ointment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 493
56.5 Therapeutic Effect and Usage of Steroid Tape Preparations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 493
56.6 Side Effects of Steroid Tapes and Plasters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 495
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 496
57 Suture Edge Tension Control Technologies for Scar Improvement . . . . . . . . . . 497

Luc Téot, Sergiu Fluieraru, and Christian Herlin
57.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 498

57.2 I ntroduction/Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 498
57.3 Description of the State of the Art, Historical Evolution, and Recent Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 498
XIX
Contents
57.4 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 501

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 501
XIV Scars from a Clinical Perspective: Commented

Clinical Cases
58 Hyperpigmented Scar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 505
58.1 Medical History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 506

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 507
59 linical Case Reports: Scar Prevention by Laser Treatment

C
in Mastopexy With Implant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 509
Vincent Hunsinger, Martin Lhuaire, Ibrahim Dagher, and Laurent Lantieri
59.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 510

59.2 Case Report Number 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 511
59.3 Case Report Number 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 513
59.4 Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 513
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 515
60 Burn Hypertrophic Scar in Pediatric Patients: Clinical Case . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 517

Roohi Vinaik, Joel Fish, and Marc G. Jeschke
60.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 518

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 521
61 Clinical Case: Earlobe Keloid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 523

Luc Téot
61.1 Medical History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 524

Further Readings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 526
62 Scars After Breast Reconstruction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 527

Wouter B. van der Sluis
62.1 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 530

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 530
63 trophic Scars: Reinforcing the Flap Mattress Using Adipocyte Transfer

A
in Paraplegic Patients at Risk of Pressure Ulcer Recurrence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 531
Luc Téot
63.1 Medical History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 532

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 533
64 Secondary Lip Correction in a Cleft Lip Patient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 535

Wouter B. van der Sluis and Johan P. W. Don Griot
Suggested Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 537
Supplementary Information
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 541
Contributors
Antigona Aliu Johanniter GmbH, Waldkrankenhaus, Bonn, Germany
Mieke Anthonissen KU Leuven, Department of Rehabilitation Sciences, Leuven, Belgium

OSCARE, Organization for Burns, Scar After-Care and Research, Antwerp, Belgium
Matthias Aust Aust Aesthetics, Landsberg, Germany
Ernest Azzopardi Laserplast SrL StP, Milan, Italy

Welsh Laser Service, SBUHB, Wales, Swansea, UK
F. Bassetto Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery Clinic, Hospital-University of Padova,

Padova, Italy
Ardeshir Bayat Hair and Skin Research Laboratory, Division of Dermatology, Department of
Medicine, Faculty of Health Sciences University of Cape Town, Groote Schuur Hospital,
Observatory, South Africa
Michelle E. Carrière Burn Center and Department of Plastic, Reconstructive and Hand Surgery,
Association of Dutch Burn Centers (ADBC) Red Cross Hospital, Beverwijk, The Netherlands
Amsterdam UMC, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Department of Plastic, Reconstructive and
Hand Surgery, Amsterdam Movement Sciences, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
Amsterdam UMC, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics,
Amsterdam, The Netherlands
Alexandra Chambers MAP Hospital, Clinical Training Center of British Association of Body
Sculpting, London, UK
Kellen Chen Department of Surgery, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA
Matteo Tretti Clementoni Laserplast SrL StP, Milan, Italy
Hester Colboc Unit of Geriatric Wound Healing, Geriatric Department, Rothschild Hospital,
APHP Sorbonne University, Paris, France
Ibrahim Dagher Department of Minimally Invasive Digestive Surgery, Antoine-Beclère

Hospital, Clamart, France
Ian A. Darby Deakin University, School of Medicine, Faculty of Health, Burwood,

VIC, Australia
E. de Bakker Amsterdam UMC, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Department of Plastic, Recon-

structive and Hand Surgery, Amsterdam Movement Sciences, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
Amsterdam UMC, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Department of Molecular Cell Biology and
Immunology, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
Alexis Desmoulière University of Limoges, Department of Physiology, Faculty of Pharmacy,

and EA 6309, Limoges, France
Johan P. W. Don Griot Department of Plastic, Reconstructive and Hand Surgery, Amsterdam
University Medical Center, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
XXI
Contributors
F. Duteille Service de Chirurgie Plastique, Reconstructrice, Esthétique et Brûlés, Nantes,

France
Yanan Du Department of Biomedical Engineering, School of Medicine, Tsinghua University,

Beijing, China
M. El Kinani Service de Chirurgie Plastique, Reconstructrice, Esthétique et Brûlés, Nantes,

France
Osama Farrukh Department of Plastic Surgery, Royal London Hospital, Bart’s Health NHS
Trust, London, UK
Joel Fish Department of Surgery, Division of Plastic Surgery, University of Toronto, Toronto,
Canada
Sergiu Fluieraru Department of Plastic Surgery, Wound Healing and Burns, Montpellier Uni-
versity Hospital, Montpellier, France
Docteur N. Frasson Cliniques STER, Lamalou-les-Bains, France
Clarisse Ganier Laboratory of Genetic Skin Diseases, INSERM UMR 1163 and Imagine
Institute of Genetic Diseases, Paris, France
University Paris Descartes – Sorbonne Paris Cite, Paris, France
Zheng Gao Department of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Shanghai Key Laboratory of
Tissue Engineering Research, Shanghai Ninth People’s Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University
School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
K. L. M. Gardien Burn Center, Red Cross Hospital, Beverwijk, The Netherlands
Sonia Gaucher Laboratory of Genetic Skin Diseases, INSERM UMR 1163 and Imagine Insti-
tute of Genetic Diseases, Paris, France
University Paris Descartes – Sorbonne Paris Cite, Paris, France
Department of General Surgery, Plastic Surgery, and Ambulatory Surgery, AP-HP, HUPC,
Cochin Hospital, Paris, France
Gerd G. Gauglitz Department of Dermatology and Allergy, Ludwig Maximilian University

Munich, Munich, Germany
Ioannis Goutos Department of Plastic Surgery, Royal London Hospital, Bart’s Health NHS
Trust, London, UK
ML. Groot LaserLab Amsterdam, Department of Physics and Astronomy, Faculty of Sciences,
Vrije Universiteit, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
Geoffrey C. Gurtner Department of Surgery, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA
Lior Har-Shai Department of Plastic and Reconstruction Surgery, Rabin Medical Center, Petach
Tikva, Israel
Yaron Har-Shai Departments of Plastic Surgery, Carmel and Linn Medical Centers, Haifa,
Israel
The Ruth and Bruce Rappaport Faculty of Medicine, Technion-Israel Institute of Technology,
Haifa, Israel
XXII Contributors
Dominic Henn Department of Surgery, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA
Christian Herlin Department of Plastic Surgery, Wound Healing and Burns, Montpellier Uni-
Chenyu Huang Department of Dermatology, Beijing Tsinghua Changgung Hospital, School

of Clinical Medicine, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China
Vincent Hunsinger Clinique Blomet, Paris, France

Clinique des Princes, Boulogne, France
Department of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Georges-Pompidou European Hospital,
Paris, France
M. E. H. Jaspers Department of Surgery, Burn Centre, Red Cross Hospital, Beverwijk,

The Netherlands
Marc G. Jeschke Sunnybrook Research Institute, Toronto, Canada

Department of Surgery, Division of Plastic Surgery, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada
Department of Immunology, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada
Ross Tilley Burn Center, Sunnybrook Health Sciences Center, Toronto, Canada
Lars-Peter Kamolz Medical University of Graz, Department of Surgery, Division of Plastic,

Aesthetic and Reconstructive Surgery, Graz, Austria
JOANNEUM RESEARCH Forschungsgesellschaft mbH, COREMED – Cooperative Centre
for Regenerative Medicine, Graz, Austria
Nonhlanhla P. Khumalo Division of Dermatology, Department of Medicine, Faculty of Health

Sciences and Groote Schuur Hospital, University of Cape Town, Observatory, South Africa
Jihee Kim Department of Dermatology, Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul,

Republic of Korea
Scar Laser and Plastic Surgery Center, Yonsei Cancer Hospital, Seoul, Republic of Korea
Nirvana S. S. Kornmann Department of Plastic, Reconstructive and Hand Surgery, Amsterdam

Sun Hyung Kwon Department of Surgery, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA
Laurent Lantieri Department of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Georges-Pompidou

European Hospital, Paris, France
Juhee Lee Department of Dermatology, Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul,

Republic of Korea
Scar Laser and Plastic Surgery Center, Yonsei Cancer Hospital, Seoul, Republic of Korea
Anne Le Touze Paediatric and Plastic Surgery, Clocheville Paediatric Hospital, Tours, France
Martin Lhuaire Department of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Georges-Pompidou

European Hospital, Paris, France
Wei Liu Department of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Shanghai Key Laboratory of
Tissue Engineering Research, Shanghai Ninth People’s Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong Univer-
sity School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
XXIII
Contributors
David B. Lumenta Medical University of Graz, Department of Surgery, Division for Plastic,
Koen Maertens OSCARE, Organization for Burns, Scar After-Care and Research, Antwerp,
Belgium
Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Department of Clinical and Lifespan Psychology, Brussels, Belgium
Marguerite Guillot Masanovic University Hospital, Saint Denis de la Réunion, France
Sylvie Meaume Unit of Geriatric Wound Healing, Geriatric Department, Rothschild Hospital,
APHP Sorbonne University, Paris, France
O. W. M. Meijer Amsterdam UMC, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Department of Radiation

Oncology, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
Jill Meirte OSCARE, Organization for Burns, Scar After-Care and Research, Antwerp,
Belgium
University of Antwerp, Rehabilitation Sciences and Physiotherapy, Antwerp, Belgium
E. Middelkoop Amsterdam UMC, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Department of Plastic,

Reconstructive and Hand Surgery, Amsterdam Movement Sciences, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
Association of Dutch Burn Centers, Red Cross Hospital, Beverwijk, The Netherlands
Ursula Mirastschijski Mira-Beau Gender Esthetics, Berlin, Germany

Wound Repair Unit, CBIB, University of Bremen, Faculty of Biology and Biochemistry,
Bremen, Germany
Peter Moortgat OSCARE, Organization for Burns, Scar After-Care and Research, Antwerp,
Belgium
Thomas A. Mustoe Division of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Northwestern University

School of Medicine, Chicago, Illinois, USA
F. B. Niessen Amsterdam UMC, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Department of Plastic, Recon-

structive and Hand Surgery, Amsterdam Movement Sciences, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
Sebastian P. Nischwitz Medical University of Graz, Department of Surgery, Division for

Plastic, Aesthetic and Reconstructive Surgery, Graz, Austria
JOANNEUM RESEARCH Forschungsgesellschaft mbH, COREMED – Cooperative Centre
for Regenerative Medicine, Graz, Austria
Joëlle Nonni Avène Hydrotherapy Center, Avène, France
Rei Ogawa Department of Plastic, Reconstructive and Aesthetic Surgery, Nippon Medical
School, Tokyo, Japan
Jagannath Padmanabhan Department of Surgery, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA
A. Pijpe Burn Center, Red Cross Hospital, Beverwijk, The Netherlands
Julian Poetschke Department of Plastic and Hand surgery, Burn Center, Klinikum St. Georg
gGmbH, Leipzig, Germany
XXIV Contributors
Alia Sadiq Division of Dermatology, Department of Medicine, Faculty of Health Sciences and
Groote Schuur Hospital, University of Cape Town, Observatory, South Africa
C. Scarpa Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery Clinic, Hospital-University of Padova, Padova,

Italy
Stephan Spendel Medical University of Graz, Department of Surgery, Division of Plastic,

Robin A. Tan Department of Plastic, Reconstructive and Hand Surgery, Amsterdam University
Medical Center, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
Huidi Tchero Dept. orthopedie, Centre Hospitalier Louis Constant Fleming, Saint Martin,
Guadeloupe, France
Luc Téot Department of Burns, Wound Healing and Reconstructive Surgery, Montpellier Uni-
F. W. Timmermans Amsterdam UMC, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Department of Plastic,

Association of Dutch Burn Centers, Red Cross Hospital, Beverwijk, The Netherlands
Magda M.W. Ulrich Association of Dutch Burn Centers, Beverwijk, The Netherlands
Amsterdam University Medical Centers, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Depts. of Pathology and
Plastic, Reconstructive & Hand Surgery, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
Annekatrien L. van de Kar Amsterdam UMC, University of Amsterdam, Department of

Plastic, Reconstructive and Hand Surgery, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
Department of Plastic, Reconstructive and Hand Surgery, Onze Lieve Vrouwe Gasthuis,
Amsterdam, The Netherlands
Wouter B. van der Sluis Department of Plastic, Reconstructive and Hand Surgery, Amsterdam
Margriet E. van Baar Association of Dutch Burn Centres, Burn Centre Maasstad Hospital,
Rotterdam, The Netherlands
Ulrike Van Daele OSCARE, Organization for Burns, Scar After-Care and Research, Antwerp,
Belgium
L. van Haasterecht LaserLab Amsterdam, Department of Physics and Astronomy, Faculty of

Sciences, Vrije Universiteit, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
Amsterdam UMC, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Department of Plastic, Reconstructive and
Hand Surgery, Amsterdam Movement Sciences, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
Tine Vanhullebusch OSCARE, Organization for Burns, Scar After-Care and Research,
Antwerp, Belgium
XXV
Contributors
Eric Van den Kerckhove KU Leuven, Department of Rehabilitation Sciences, Leuven,

Belgium
UZ Leuven, Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation & Burn Center, Leuven,
Belgium
AZ Maastricht, Department of Plastic Surgery, Maastricht, The Netherlands
M. C. E. van Leeuwen Amsterdam UMC, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Department of Plastic,

Novo Nordisk Canada Inc., Mississauga, ON, Canada
Nancy E. E. Van Loey Association of Dutch Burn Centres, Beverwijk, Netherlands
R. E. van Meijeren-Hoogendoorn Department of Plastic, Reconstructive, and Hand Surgery,

Red Cross Hospital, Beverwijk, The Netherlands
Paul P. M. van Zuijlen Amsterdam University Medical Centers (location VUmc), Department of
Plastic, Reconstructive & Hand Surgery, Amsterdam Movement Sciences, Amsterdam, The
Netherlands
Burn Center & Department of Plastic, Reconstructive, and Hand Surgery, Red Cross Hospital,
Beverwijk, The Netherlands
Roohi Vinaik Sunnybrook Research Institute, Toronto, Canada
V. Vindigni Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery Clinic, Hospital-University of Padova,

Padova, Italy
Fiona M. Wood Burns Service of Western Australia, Fiona Stanley and Perth Children’s
Hospitals, Perth, WA, Australia
Burn Injury Research Unit, University of Western, Crawley, Australia
Xiaoli Wu Department of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Shanghai Key Laboratory of

Zhaozhao Wu Department of Biomedical Engineering, School of Medicine, Tsinghua

University, Beijing, China
Lingling Xia Department of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Shanghai Key Laboratory of
Yating Yang Department of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Shanghai Key Laboratory of
1 I
Biology and Scar

Formation
Contents
Chapter 1 Fetal Wound Healing – 3

Magda M.W. Ulrich
Chapter 2 Mechanobiology of Cutaneous Scarring – 11

Rei Ogawa
Chapter 3 Scar Formation: Cellular Mechanisms – 19

3 1
Fetal Wound Healing

Magda M.W.Ulrich
Contents
1.1 Background – 4
1.2 Inflammation – 4
1.3 Extracellular Matrix – 5
1.4 Angiogenesis – 5
1.5 Keratinocytes – 6
1.6 Fibroblasts – 7
1.7 Mechanical Forces – 7
1.8 Remodeling – 8
1.9 Skin Appendix Formation – 8
1.10 Conclusions – 8
References – 9
© The Author(s) 2020

L. Téot et al. (eds.), Textbook on Scar Management, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-44766-3_1
4 M. M.W. Ulrich
1.1 Background diminished inflammatory reaction, differences in com-

1 position and architecture of the extracellular matrix,
Wound healing is a complex and tightly regulated pro- and mechanical load in fetal skin. Furthermore, fetal
cess and can be divided in three different overlapping skin differs from adult skin in many factors commonly
phases: the inflammatory phase, the proliferation phase, associated with scar formation such as proteolytic activ-
and the remodeling phase. The first phase begins directly ity and TGF-β secretion and sensitivity. This chapter
after wounding and is characterized by hemostasis and will discuss the different mechanisms during the three
inflammation. Platelets play an important role in the phases of wound healing proposed in the literature to be
formation of the blood clot to stop the bleeding, and involved in scarless healing.
through the secretion of chemokines, they recruit differ-
ent inflammatory cells such as neutrophils and mono-
cytes to the wound. The inflammatory cells clean the 1.2 Inflammation
wound by phagocytosis of invading microorganisms
and damaged tissue. The inflammatory cells also secrete Several studies have shown that the inflammatory
chemotactic signals which attract fibroblasts and endo- response to injury is strongly reduced in fetal skin
thelial cells to the wound which, together with the wounds, and induction of the local inflammation causes
inflammatory cells, form the granulation tissue. This is scar formation in early fetal skin.
the proliferation phase during which the destroyed tis- The inflammatory reaction involves recruitment of
sue is replaced. During this phase, the keratinocytes inflammatory cells which produce inflammatory media-
migrate over the granulation tissue to form a new epi- tors such as growth factors and cytokines. The growth
dermis to close the skin defect. factors and cytokines subsequently recruit more inflam-
The last phase in wound healing is the remodeling matory cells.
phase which is characterized by a decrease in cellularity Inflammation in adult wound healing starts off with
and vascularity by apoptosis and an increase of synthesis a pro-inflammatory cytokine and immune cell response
and deposition of the components of the extracellular and the activation of the acute phase response. During
matrix (ECM). In adults, this process results is scar for- this period, invading microorganisms and injured tissue
mation, whereas in fetal skin, complete regeneration of are cleared from the wound bed. Subsequently, the
the skin, including the formation of skin appendices such inflammatory reaction is skewed to an anti-inflammatory
as hairs and sebaceous and sweat glands, takes place. profile which initiates the healing response. Although
Since the 1950, studies on scarless healing in fetal the exact role of inflammatory cells in scar formation is
skin in animals have been published, and in the late not entirely elucidated, it is evident that they play an
1970s of the last century, the first publications appeared important role in the derailed wound healing process
describing scarless healing of fetal skin wounds in leading to scar formation. It was shown that in severely
humans. Since then, several experimental studies on this scarred wounds such as burn wounds, the acute (pro-)
subject have been published. From experimental animal inflammatory status is continued for a very long time.
and human studies it is known that scarless healing only Cells involved in the pro-inflammatory reaction are
occurs during the first period of gestation. Human neutrophils and the M1 subtype macrophages, while
fetuses lose the ability of skin regeneration around macrophages of the M2 subtypes and regulatory T cells
22 weeks of gestation. are anti-inflammatory, pro-healing cells.
Animal experiments in which adult, late gestational, Platelets are the first cells involved in the induction of
and early gestational fetal skin were transplanted on the inflammatory reaction. The platelets are activated
early gestational fetuses showed clear differences in and aggregate during the coagulation phase forming the
wound healing outcome. Incision wounds created in hemostatic plug. The activated platelets release cyto-
these transplants showed scar formation in adult and kines such as platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF),
late gestational fetal skin, whereas the wound created in interleukins (IL) 1 and 6, and transforming growth fac-
the fetal skin resulted in complete regeneration [1]. tor beta (TGF-β) into the wound environment. It was
These experiments show not only that this phenomenon shown that fetal platelets aggregate poorly when exposed
is an intrinsic property of the fetal skin itself but also to higher levels of hyaluronic acid, a component of the
that scarless healing is not triggered by the intrauterine extracellular matrix, which is more abundantly expressed
environment. Interestingly, the wounds at the fetal-adult in fetal skin than in adult skin, and subsequently release
interface also healed without scar formation implicating lower levels of platelet-derived cytokines.
that direct contact of a wound with fetal skin is suffi- The lower platelet-derived cytokines are most likely
cient to induce regeneration of the tissue [2]. responsible for the reduced inflammatory cell infiltra-
Several mechanisms have been suggested to be tion, such as neutrophils, macrophages, and lympho-
responsible for the scarless healing in fetal skin, e.g., a cytes, seen in fetal wounds at early gestational age [3].
Fetal Wound Healing
5 1
Not only recruitment of inflammatory cells from the Other important components of the ECM which are
circulation to the fetal wound is reduced, but also the differentially expressed between fetal and adult skin are
number of resident macrophages, mast cells, Langerhans glycosaminoglycans (GAGs) and proteoglycans. The
cells, dendritic cells and T cells in uninjured fetal skin is GAGs like hyaluronic acid (HA) contain long polysaccha-
reduced. Moreover, the immune cells present in the fetal ride chains which can absorb large amounts of water and
skin have the anti-inflammatory, pro-healing phenotype are important for hydration of the skin and determine the
as fetal skin contains higher numbers of regulatory T viscoelasticity of the skin. HA is thought to play an impor-
cells and macrophages of the M2 phenotype. In addi- tant role in regulation of the inflammatory reaction during
tion, chemoattractant cytokines such as CCL17, CCL21, wound healing. However, its effect is dependent on the
and CCL27 involved in recruitment of T cells and den- length of the polysaccharides. High- molecular-weight
dritic cells are reduced in fetal skin [4]. (HMW) HA suppresses the inflammatory reaction, while
Although the inflammatory growth factor TGF-β low-molecular-weight (LMW) HA fragments are immu-
plays an important role in scar formation, it is also nostimulatory and induce the inflammatory reaction [6].
involved in the resolution of the inflammatory reaction. Expression of HA in fetal skin is high and during
In fetal skin, high levels of all the components of the wound healing the expression is induced in adults. The
TGF-β pathway are present, and moreover, the pathway positive effect in fetal wound healing might be related to
seems to be highly activated. This highly activated the balance between HMW and LMW HA, which may be
TGF-β pathway might also result in fast suppression of caused by differential expression of enzymes s ynthesizing
the pro-inflammatory reaction in fetal wounds [4]. HA (hyaluronan synthases) and enzymes degrading HA
These findings indicate that indeed the (pro-)inflam- (hyaluronidases) between adult and fetal tissue. It was
matory immune reactions is reduced in fetal wound heal- shown that addition of hyaluronidases to fetal wounds
ing. However, the inflammatory component cannot be can induce fibroplasia, collagen deposition, and neovascu-
the key link to scarless healing since wounding of trans- larization, processes involved in scar formation.
planted adult sheep skin to a sheep fetus resulted in scar Besides the abovementioned component, elastin is also
formation despite the diminished inflammatory state of an important component of the ECM. This protein is
the fetus itself and the intrauterine environment. responsible for connective tissue pliability in the adult der-
mis; however, it is absent in early gestational skin, and its
role in scarless wound healing is not clear [7] (. Fig. 1.1).
1.3 Extracellular Matrix
The extracellular matrix of fetal skin is distinctly differ- 1.4 Angiogenesis

ent than adult skin matrix. Early gestational fetal skin
contains higher amounts of collagen type III, fibronec- Several studies have shown that reduced angiogenesis dur-
tin EIIIA, and hyaluronic acid (HA) and is deficient in ing adult wound healing reduces scar formation. However,
elastin. Similar expression profiles for ECM compo- indisputable evidence that this also plays a role during
nents were demonstrated for the (adult) oral mucosa, a fetal wound healing has not been provided although sev-
tissue also known for reduced scar formation. eral studies suggested lack of strong neovascularization
Although collagen type I is the major component in and reduced proangiogenic factors in fetal wounds.
both adult and fetal skin, in fetal skin, collagen type III/ Angiogenesis is much more prominent in adult
collagen type I ratio is higher compared to adult skin. The wound healing compared to fetal wound healing. Early
higher levels of collagen type III have effects on the ECM in adult wound healing, a dense capillary bed is created.
organization and collagen fiber diameter. Downregulation However, this capillary tangle lacks the assembly of a
of collagen type III expression results in increased scar functional network which is able to provide nutrition
formation and differentiation of fibroblasts into myofi- and oxygen to the wound bed [8].
broblasts, the main cell type involved in scar formation [5]. It was shown that HA degradation products induce
The properties of the ECM network do not depend angiogenesis; therefore, the reduced synthesis of hyal-
only on the presence and percentage of the different col- uronidases not only has a positive effect on suppression
lagen subtypes and other ECM components but also on of the inflammatory reaction but also reduces the exag-
cross-linking of the ECM components. Increased cross- gerated neovascularization seen in adult wounds.
linking results in ECM accumulation and increased However, this could also be attributed to reduced
rigidity. In fetal skin, most of the collagen fibers are not levels of angiogenic growth factors such as basic fibro-
cross-linked [5]. One of the enzymes involved in collagen blast growth factor and PDGF. Addition of angiogenic
and elastin cross-linking is lysyl oxidase (LOX). Early factors such as hyaluronidase and PDGF to fetal
gestational fetal wounds show reduced LOX expression wounds was shown to induce angiogenesis and lead to
in comparison to late gestational wounds. scar formation.
6 M. M.W. Ulrich
adult skin fetal skin

1
H&E
elastin
fibronectin
.. Fig. 1.1 Expression of different ECM components in adult and fetal skin. The specific ECM components are stained in brown
1.5 Keratinocytes wounds. In adult wound healing reepithelialization, the

basal keratinocytes at the wound edge undergo morpho-
One of the factors thought to play a role in scar forma- logical changes. They form actin containing cytoplasmic
tion is delayed wound closure by reepithelialization. elongations called lamellipodia through which they
Wound closure in fetal wounds is much faster in com- crawl over the extracellular matrix of the wound bed. To
parison to adult wounds. be able to migrate, the cells lose their ECM binding
Fetal keratinocytes not only have a higher prolifera- structures (hemidesmosomes) and the cell-cell binding
tion rate; also the mechanism of reepithelialization was sites (desmosomes). Fetal keratinocytes do not form
found to be distinctly different between adult and fetal lamellipodia but form an actin myosin II containing
Fetal Wound Healing
7 1
cables through the front keratinocytes at the wound edge plays a crucial role in this. TGF-β1 and TGF-β2 are
[9]. This cable runs from cell to cell most likely through thought to be profibrotic, whereas TGF-β3 has antifi-
the adherens junctions, another form of cell-cell junc- brotic properties. However, this segmentation is not
tion similar to the desmosome. The cable is formed completely indisputable. The balance between the profi-
within hours after wounding and by contraction pulls brotic and antifibrotic TGF-β isoforms in fetal skin is
the keratinocytes together to close the wound. shifted in comparison to adult skin: 99.5%:0.5% in adult
Integrins may also play a role in faster reepithelial- to 97.4%:2.6% in fetal skin. However, the absolute con-
ization in fetal wound healing. Integrins are heterodi- centrations of all TGF-β isoforms are much higher in
meric transmembrane receptors which can bind to fetal skin in comparison to adult skin.
specific ECM components. Different combinations of Several differences were observed between fetal skin
the subunit determine the specificity for the different fibroblasts and adult dermal fibroblasts: The fetal cells
ECM components, and they determine cellular pro- migrated much faster than adult fibroblasts and exhib-
cesses like cell proliferation and migration. In the fetus, ited a “hyperactive morphology.” They produced higher
it was shown that specific integrins were rapidly upregu- amounts of extracellular matrix components.
lated upon wounding and that this occurred much faster Furthermore, fetal cells produced a larger contraction
than in adult keratinocytes. effect when cultured in fibroblast-populated collagen
It is evident that there is an interaction between kera- lattices compared to adult fibroblasts.
tinocytes and fibroblasts in the dermis. In vitro experi- As in fetal keratinocytes, it was shown that fetal
ments have shown that fetal keratinocytes suppress fibroblasts express different integrins which results in
proliferation, myofibroblast differentiation, and ECM higher proliferation and migration rates. Inhibition of
production, in fibroblasts derived from hypertrophic one of the specific fetal integrins resulted in a more
scar, whereas fetal keratinocytes promote proliferation adultlike fibroblast phenotype.
and migration in fetal and adult healthy skin-derived Stimulation of fetal fibroblasts in vitro also induced
fibroblasts. myofibroblast differentiation and shows higher contrac-
tion of fibroblast-seeded collagen matrices [4].
Studies in which fetal skin cells have been applied to
1.6 Fibroblasts burn wounds show improved wound healing. Since it
was shown that the fetal cells were not incorporated into
Fibroblasts are the main cell type of the dermis; they the newly formed skin, it is thought that the cells secrete
produce the ECM and therefore play an important role growth factors or in any other form interact with the
in wound healing and scar formation. During wound host organism to accelerate wound healing.
healing, this cell type differentiates into myofibroblasts.
These latter cells produce high levels of ECM compo-
nents and contain the contractile protein alpha smooth 1.7 Mechanical Forces
muscle actin (αSMA) which is involved in tissue con-
traction seen in scar formation. The transition to a myo- Mechanical forces, extracellular as well as intracellular,
fibroblast population in the wound healing environment play an important role in skin homeostasis as it directs
and especially the persistence of this cell population are cell function and activity through a process called mech-
seen as the most important contributor to scar forma- anotransduction. In this process, the composition, vis-
tion. Transforming growth factor beta (TGF-β) plays an coelasticity, and stiffness of the ECM play an important
important role in this process. However, TGF-β also role. Adult skin contains thick collagen bundles mainly
plays an important role during embryonic and fetal consisting of type I fibrils, whereas fetal skin contains
development and thus is abundantly present in the fetus. thin collagen fibers which are high in collagen type III
TGF-β is stored as an inactive compound in the ECM. fibrils and show reduced resting stress.
In order to execute its role in the many processes this Through adhesion molecules on the surface of the
growth factor is involved in, it has to be activated which skin, the integrins, the ECM is connected to the cyto-
ultimately leads to the induction of various genes skeleton of the cell. The link between the ECM and the
including genes involved in fibrosis and the process of cytoskeleton is a dynamic complex, called focal adhe-
scar formation. It was shown that all of the components sions (FA), which are constantly assembled and disas-
are abundantly present in the fetal skin. In addition, the sembled. The FA are able to direct not only cell function
TGF-β pathway was also shown to be highly activated in such as gene expression but also cellular adhesion and
healthy fetal skin in comparison to adult skin, but this cell migration. Fibroblasts exposed to mechanical stress
does not result in fibrotic skin or scar formation. It was form supermature FA displaying a specific composition
suggested that differential expression in TGF-β isoforms of FA proteins such as paxilin (Pax). Fetal fibroblasts
8 M. M.W. Ulrich
were shown to have reduced FA protein expression finding may explain the accumulation of ECM seen in
1 among which Pax and different integrin subunits [4]. scar formation.
Also from clinical data, there is evidence that
mechanical stress plays an important role in scar forma-
tion. Collagen fibers in the ECM of the skin are aligned 1.9 Skin Appendix Formation
in a specific pattern depending on the location of the
body. This pattern forms the so-called Langer lines and Early gestational wound healing results not only in res-
determines the direction of the tension in the skin. From toration of the dermis and epidermis but also in the
surgery, it is known that incisions made parallel to these regeneration of skin appendages such as hair follicles
lines heal with less scar formation than incisions perpen- and sebaceous and sweat glands.
dicular to the Langer lines, suggesting that mechanical Hair follicles contain several stem cell niches and
load to the wound influences scar formation [10]. In play an important role in adult wound healing. In
fetal skin, the ECM is organized in a loose reticular net- partial-thickness wounds in which part of the hair folli-
work of collagen, while in adult skin, there are thicker cle is still intact, healing can occur without scar forma-
more compact collagen fibers. In fetal wound healing, tion.
the same reticular ECM network is formed indistin- Hair follicle development during embryogenesis
guishable from the unaffected surrounding, whereas in starts, depending on the anatomical location, between
adult wound healing, the collagen fibers are arranged in weeks 9 and 15. One could envision that early gesta-
dense parallel bundles [11]. tional skin contains stem cells and still has the mecha-
nisms available to induce skin appendage development
and create the stem niches but that these stem cells can
1.8 Remodeling also regenerate the skin. It was shown that allogeneic
cells derived from fetal skin could enhance burn wound
The last phase in wound healing is the remodeling phase. healing and reduce scar formation.
During this phase, cellularity decreases by apoptosis,
and the degradation of the excessive extracellular matrix
takes place. In adult wound healing, the predominant 1.10 Conclusions
type III collagen is replaced by type I collagen. However,
in fetal recovered skin, type III collagen remains the The fact that adult skin in an intrauterine environment
main subtype. still heal with scar formation despite the low inflamma-
The deposition of extracellular matrix is an interplay tory milieu, the presence of fetal growth factors, and
between synthesis and degradation of the components even fetal cells able to migrate into the adult tissue shows
of the ECM. Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) and that the processes leading to scarless healing or scar for-
tissue inhibitors of metalloproteinases (TIMPs) play an mation cannot be attributed to single individual mecha-
important role in this process. The MMP family consists nisms, cells, or other factors but that it is a result of
of more than 20 members which are able to degrade complex of interconnected processes.
most of the components of the ECM with different spe-
cific activities toward the different components. The
process of ECM degradation is controlled by specific
tissue inhibitors of metalloproteinases (TIMPs). Take-Home Messages
Currently, four TIMPs have been identified which pos- 55 Early to midgestational skin wounds result in skin
sess varying affinity to specific MMPs. An imbalance regeneration instead of scar formation.
between MMPs and TIMPs affects the deposition of 55 The exact mechanism behind scarless healing is
ECM. In scarring, reduced collagen degradation as a still unknown.
result of reduced MMP expression and increased TIMP 55 Several mechanisms have been indicated: reduced
expression causes accumulation of ECM components. inflammation, altered cytokine profile, and
Early gestational fetal skin and middle gestational fetal different ECM composition.
skin express lower MMP and TIMP levels than late ges- 55 The process of scarless healing is a result of a
tational skin and adult skin. During fetal wound heal- complex of interconnected processes.
ing, several MMPs were increased in early gestational 55 Several characteristics of fetal skin are shared with
fetal wounds, whereas later during gestation, when oral mucosa which is also known for its reduced
wounds heal with scar formation, MMP levels were scar formation.
reduced, and TIMP levels were increased [12]. This later
Fetal Wound Healing
9 1
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MT. Fibrotic healing of adult and late gestation fetal wounds
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healing and inflammation: embryos reveal the way to perfect
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4. Walraven M. Cellular and molecular mechanisms involved in
11. Lo DD, Zimmermann AS, Nauta A, Longaker MT, Lorenz
scarless wound healing in the fetal skin. Amsterdam: VU univer-
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11 2
Mechanobiology of Cutaneous
Scarring
Rei Ogawa
Contents
2.2 Role of Mechanobiology in Cutaneous Scarring – 12
2.3 Cellular and Tissue Responses to Mechanical Forces – 12
2.4 ole of Mechanobiology in the Development of

R
Pathological Scars – 13
2.5 Pathological Scar Animal Model that Is Based

A
on Mechanotransduction – 16
2.6 Mechanotherapy for Scar Prevention and Treatment – 16

2.6.1 S tabilization Materials – 16
2.6.2 Sutures – 16
2.6.3 Z-Plasty, Skin Grafting, and Local Flaps – 17
2.7 Conclusion – 17
References – 17

12 R. Ogawa
2.1 Background a
The last phase of cutaneous wound healing produces

2 the scar. Scars mainly consist of dermal-like collagens c
that are covered by the epidermis. The early stage of
scarring is marked by inflammation, whose purpose is
b
to close the wound gap. The source of the inflamma-
tion in the wound is the blood vessels, which exhibit
vascular permeability after wounding. This allows the
.. Fig. 2.1 Schematic depiction of the mechanosensors that allow
influx of inflammatory soluble factors and many types cells to sense extrinsic mechanical forces. (A) Mechanosensitive ATP
of immune cells from the circulation into the wound hemichannels and Ca2+ ion channels. (B) Mechanosensitive mole-
bed. Moreover, in the early stages of wound healing, cules on the cell membrane, including cell adhesion molecules. (C)
resident cells, including collagen-secreting fibroblasts, Cytoskeletal elements, including the actin filaments. When the extra-
cellular matrix is distorted by mechanical forces such as skin tension
accumulate in the damaged area. Finally, collagens,
(purple, blue, and orange triangles indicate different mechanical
blood vessels, and nerve fibers are produced, resulting forces), mechanosensors on and in the resident cells sense the forces
in an immature scar that is red, elevated, hard, and and initiate mechanosignaling pathways that lead to a large variety
painful. of molecular biological changes, including gene expression. The
mechanosensors include mechanosensitive cell membrane molecules
such as ATP hemichannels and Ca2+ ion channels (A, blue, red, and
green cylinder pairs). Others are cell adhesion molecules such as inte-
2.2 ole of Mechanobiology in Cutaneous
R grin (B, purple cylinder pairs). Cytoskeletal elements such as the
Scarring actin filaments (C, the beige ropelike bundles within the cell) also
play an important role in sensing and responding to extrinsic
mechanical forces
Under normal circumstances, the immature scar then
undergoes the scar maturation process over several
months. This process involves tissue remodeling, which perceived by mechanosensors on and in the cells that
associates with a natural decrease in the inflammation reside in the extracellular matrix as well as by nerve fiber
and the numbers of blood vessels, collagen fibers, and mechanoreceptors at the tissue level [4, 5].
fibroblasts. However, sometimes the scar maturation The cellular mechanosensors include mechanosen-
process is not properly engaged because inflammation sitive cell membrane molecules such as ATP hemi-
continues in the scar. Consequently, the immature scar channels, Ca2+ ion channels, and cell adhesion
stage is prolonged. This results in the pathological scars molecules such as integrin (. Fig. 2.1). Cytoskeletal
called hypertrophic scars and keloids. Many factors that components such as actin filaments also sense mechan-
prolong the inflammatory stage have been identified [1]. ical force: when they do, actin polymerization and
However, multiple lines of evidence acquired in recent depolymerization occur [6]. Thus, when the extracel-
years suggest that mechanical force can be an important lular matrix is distorted by mechanical forces such as
cause of pathological scar development (some of these skin tension, the cellular mechanosensors are trig-
lines of evidence will be described in more detail below) gered and initiate mechanosignaling pathways that
[2]. This notion is also supported by the empirically lead to a variety of molecular biological changes [7],
acquired clinical understanding that noticeable scarring including gene expression, cell proliferation, angio-
can be prevented by stabilizing surgical wounds with genesis, and epithelialization. The key mechanosignal-
sutures and postsurgical dressings: the sutures help to ing pathways [8] that are involved in scarring at the
approximate the wound edges with a small amount of cellular level appear to be the integrin, MAPK/G
intrinsic tension, while the dressings suppress the extrin- protein, TNF-α/NF-κB, Wnt/β-catenin, interleukin,
sic mechanical forces on the wound/scar edges [3]. When calcium ion, TGFβ/Smad, and FAK signaling path-
the mechanical forces on and in the scar are imbalanced, ways [9] (. Fig. 2.2).
a heavy scar can result. At the tissue level, sensory nerve fibers, namely,
mechanosensitive nociceptors, in the skin act as mecha-
noreceptors and thereby produce the somatic sensation
2.3 ellular and Tissue Responses
C of mechanical force [5]. Thus, when mechanical stimuli
to Mechanical Forces are received by mechanosensitive nociceptors some-
where on the body, electrical signals are transmitted to
The mechanical forces on scars/wounds include stretch- the dorsal root ganglia, which contain the neuronal cell
ing tension, shear force, scratch, compression, hydro- bodies of the afferent spinal nerves (. Fig. 2.3). This
static pressure, and osmotic pressure. These forces are causes the peripheral terminals of the primary afferent
Mechanobiology of Cutaneous Scarring
13 2
.. Fig. 2.2 Mechanosignaling pathways in cells subjected to then regulate cell proliferation, angiogenesis, and epithelialization.
mechanical forces. When the mechanosensors in or on the cells are (This figure is from reference [8] with copyright permission from the
triggered, they activate various mechanosignaling pathways that publisher. © All rights reserved)
sensory neurons that innervate the skin to release neuropeptide activity plays a role in the development of
ropeptides, including substance P, calcitonin gene-based burn and abnormal scars such as keloids and hypertro-
peptide (CGRP), neurokinin A, vasoactive intestinal phic scars [10].
peptide, and somatostatin. Since the peripheral termi-
nals of the neuropeptide-releasing neurons are often in
physical contact with cells in the wound/scar, the neuro-
peptides can directly target keratinocytes, fibroblasts, 2.4 Role of Mechanobiology
Langerhans, mast, dermal microvascular endothelium, in the Development of Pathological
and infiltrating immune cells. This can alter cell prolif- Scars
eration, cytokine production, antigen presentation, sen-
sory neurotransmission, mast cell degradation, and Traditionally, hypertrophic scars and keloids are diag-
vasodilation. The triggering of mechanonociceptors is nosed as separate clinical and pathological entities, even
particularly known to increase vascular permeability though both are characterized by prolonged and aber-
under both physiological and pathophysiological condi- rant extracellular matrix accumulation. The so-called
tions. All of these pro-inflammatory responses produce typical keloids grow beyond the confines of their origi-
what is termed neurogenic inflammation [4, 5]. Notably, nal wounds and exhibit accumulation of dermal thick
substance P and CGRP, which, respectively, act through eosinophilic collagen bundles with dermal nodules
the neurokinin 1 receptor and CGRP1 receptor, are under the microscope. By contrast, hypertrophic scars
synthesized during nerve growth factor regulation. It generally grow within the boundaries of wounds and are
has been suggested that neurogenic inflammation/neu- characterized histologically by dermal nodules alone.
14 R. Ogawa
.. Fig. 2.3 Mechanosensitive nociceptors shape somatic sensations the brain a. This produces the somatic sensations to the mechanical
and tissue responses to mechanical forces. Tissues such as skin force (e.g., pain and/or itch). Simultaneously, electrical signals return
respond to external mechanical forces such as tension via mechano- from the dorsal root ganglia to the skin mechanosensitive nocicep-
sensitive nociceptors, whose neuronal cell bodies are located in the tors b. This causes them to release neuropeptides from their periph-
dorsal root ganglia in the spinal cord c. Thus, when a mechanical eral terminals. Since these terminals are often in physical contact
force is placed on a scar, the mechanosensitive nociceptors in and with cells in the scar, including epidermal and dermal cells, the neu-
around the scar convert the mechanical stimuli into electrical signals ropeptides can induce neurogenic inflammation, thereby promoting
that travel to the dorsal root ganglia in the spinal cord and then to pathological scar formation and progression
One of the reasons why hypertrophic scars and keloids constantly or frequently subjected to mechanical forces,
are considered to be separate clinical and pathological including skin stretching due to daily body movements
entities is that keloids are relatively rare in the Caucasian [14]. Thus, the anterior chest skin is regularly stretched
population, which may have limited clinical experience horizontally by the upper limb movements, the shoulder
with these scars. However, even senior clinicians some- and scapula skin is constantly stretched by upper limb
times have difficulty in differentiating between the two movements and body bending motions, and the lower
conditions, particularly with the so-called atypical cases abdomen and suprapubic skin regions are stretched
that bear characteristics of both scar types. This is par- hundreds of time a day by sitting and standing motions.
ticularly true in Asian countries, where keloids are very Conversely, heavy scars rarely develop on the scalp,
common. We currently believe that hypertrophic scars upper eyelid, and anterior lower leg, even in patients
and keloids represent successive stages or alternative with extensive keloids or hypertrophic scars that cover
forms of the same underlying fibroproliferative patho- much of the body. This pattern is likely to reflect the
logical lesion and that their progression or development absence of tension on the skin in these regions. Thus,
into one or the other classical form may be determined even in cases of deep wounding on the scalp and ante-
by a variety of pro-inflammatory risk factors (. Fig. 2.4) rior lower leg, there is little tension on the wound
[11, 12]. One of these is mechanical forces. The impor- because the skin on these regions is stabilized by the
tance of this factor in pathological scarring is supported bones that lie directly below it. Moreover, there is little
by a number of observations, including the fact that tension on the upper eyelid during the opening and clos-
hypertrophic scars can be generated in experimental ani- ing of the eyes.
mal models by mechanical forces [13]. Moreover, an Another key piece of evidence that indicates the
analysis of Asian patients showed that keloids tend to importance of mechanical forces in pathological scar
occur at specific sites (the anterior chest, shoulder, scap- formation and progression is the fact that keloids grow
ular, and lower a bdomen-suprapubic regions) that are horizontally in the direction(s) of the predominant
15 2
.. Fig. 2.4 Difference between hypertrophic scars and keloids. The main difference between keloids and hypertrophic scars is that keloids
have stronger and more prolonged inflammation. a depicts the strength and/or duration of inflammation
.. Fig. 2.5 Typical shape of

keloids on specific regions of the
body. a The “butterfly” shape on
the anterior chest. b The “crab’s
claw” shape on the anterior
chest. c The “dumbbell” shape
on the upper arm. These
site-specific keloid shapes reflect
the predominant directions of
skin tension in these sites
a b c
forces on the wound/scar. This results in characteristic different inflammation that leads to hypertrophic scar
keloid shapes on specific locations. For example, keloids formation. This is supported by our previous finite ele-
on the anterior chest grow in a “crab’s claw” or “butter- ment analysis of the mechanical force distribution
fly” shape, whereas upper arm keloids grow in a around keloids [15], which showed that both the skin
“dumbbell”-like shape along the long axis of the limb tension on the keloid and the inflammation within the
(. Fig. 2.5). keloid are particularly high at the leading keloid edges
Keloids exhibit stronger and more prolonged inflam- (. Fig. 2.6). Thus, the mechanical forces coming from
mation than hypertrophic scars. This together with all the predominant direction(s) drive high inflammation at
of the mechanobiological observations described above the leading keloid edges: this provokes local collagen
suggests that keloid and hypertrophic scars largely differ production, which in turn causes the keloid to invade
because of the degree of skin tension on the wound/scar, further in the direction of the skin tension.
which in turn determines the degree of inflammation It should be noted, however, it is highly likely that the
(. Fig. 2.4). Thus, pronounced and highly repetitive inflammatory status in heavy scars is also shaped by
skin tension on the wound may lead to greater inflam- many other risk factors, including local, genetic, and
mation and keloid formation, while less strong or differ- systemic factors such as hypertension (high blood pres-
ent mechanical forces lead to a weaker or qualitatively sure) [16].
16 R. Ogawa
.. Fig. 2.6 Distribution of the

a
mechanical forces around
keloids. a A scapular keloid.
b Finite element analysis of the
2 mechanical force on the scapular
keloid. The inflamed and
elevated portions of the keloid
a match with the areas of high
tension in the keloid (red color
in b). This suggests that high
skin tension prolongs and
amplifies the inflammation in the
periphery of keloids. (The figure
is from reference [15] with b
copyright permission from the
publisher. © All rights reserved)
2.5 Pathological Scar Animal Model that

A 2.6 echanotherapy for Scar Prevention
M
Is Based on Mechanotransduction and Treatment
Many researchers have sought to develop animal 2.6.1 Stabilization Materials
models of heavy scars by using mice, rats, and rab-
bits. It should be noted that the scars of all of these To limit skin stretching and external mechanical stimuli
models, especially the keloid models, seem to be during wound healing/scarring, wounds and scars
driven more by an acute inflammatory response than should be covered by fixable materials such as tape, ban-
by chronic inflammation: consequently, the resulting dages, garments, and silicone gel sheets. Several ran-
scars are largely immature. Nevertheless, an interest- domized controlled trials have shown that such wound
ing model is the hypertrophic scar mouse model in stabilization reduces the incidence of hypertrophic scars
which heavy scars are induced by placing a mechani- or keloids. Our computer analysis of the mechanical
cal force on the edges of a cutaneous incision. forces around scars also showed that silicone gel sheeting
Analysis of this model shows that when scars are sub- reduces the tension at the scar edges [17].
jected to tension, they exhibit less apoptosis and that
inflammatory cells and mechanical forces promote
fibrosis [13]. In addition, studies with this model 2.6.2 Sutures
show that during pathological scar development, cel-
lular mechanosignaling pathways interact actively The fact that mechanical tension promotes keloid
with the extracellular matrix and crosstalk exten- and hypertrophic scar development together with the
sively with the hypoxia, inflammation, and angiogen- fact that these scars arise from the dermis (especially
esis pathways. the reticular dermis) suggests that closing surgical
17 2
wounds with sutures that place little tension on the skin flaps, which release tension on the wound, huge
wound dermis may reduce the risk of pathological scars can be successfully treated.
scar formation after surgery. Therefore, we use sub-
cutaneous/fascial tensile reduction sutures that place Take-Home Messages
the tension on the deep fascia and superficial fascia
55 Mechanical force can be an important cause of
layer rather than the dermis (see 7 Chap. 21). This
pathological scar development.
minimizes the use of dermal sutures; in fact, dermal
55 The mechanical forces on scars/wounds include
sutures can be avoided altogether if the wound edges
stretching tension, shear force, scratch, compression,
approximate each other closely after the fascial
hydrostatic pressure, and osmotic pressure.
sutures are placed.
55 An evidence that indicates the importance of
mechanical forces in pathological scar formation
and progression is the fact that keloids grow
2.6.3 -Plasty, Skin Grafting, and
Z
horizontally in the direction(s) of the predominant
Local Flaps forces on the wound/scar.
55 There is the hypertrophic scar mouse model in
In scar revision surgery, it is important to choose the
which heavy scars are induced by placing a
surgical approach that most effectively reduces tension
mechanical force on the edges of a cutaneous
on the scar. An excellent choice is the Z-plasty, which
incision.
disrupts the line of tension on linear scars (see
7 Chap. 21). Another choice is to use skin grafts. Full-
thickness skin grafts (FTSG) are a better choice than
split-thickness skin grafts (STSG) because the latter
associate with a greater risk of secondary contracture. References
However, if adjacent normal skin is available, it is better
to use local flaps rather than FTSG because they have a 1. Huang C, Murphy GF, Akaishi S, Ogawa R. Keloids and hyper-
much lower risk of contracture and better esthetic out- trophic scars: update and future directions. Plast Reconstr Surg
comes. Once the decision to use a local flap has been Glob Open. 2013;1(4):e25.
2. Ogawa R. Mechanobiology of scarring. Wound Repair Regen.
made, one then has to decide between an island flap and 2011;19(Suppl 1):s2–9.
a skin-pedicled flap. While this choice depends some- 3. Ogawa R, Akaishi S, Huang C, Dohi T, Aoki M, Omori Y, Koike
what on the scar geometry and other patient-specific S, Kobe K, Akimoto M, Hyakusoku H. Clinical applications of
variables, skin-pedicled flaps are generally the better basic research that shows reducing skin tension could prevent
choice because they have greater extensibility than island and treat abnormal scarring: the importance of fascial/subcuta-
neous tensile reduction sutures and flap surgery for keloid and
flaps and are therefore good for releasing the tension of hypertrophic scar reconstruction. J Nippon Med Sch.
a scar (see 7 Chap. 21). This greater extensibility prob- 2011;78(2):68–76.
ably reflects the fact that the entire perimeter of the 4. Ogawa R. Keloid and hypertrophic scarring may result from a
island flap is surrounded by new scar whereas the skin- mechanoreceptor or mechanosensitive nociceptor disorder. Med
pedicled flap maintains a connection with normal skin, Hypotheses. 2008;71(4):493–500.
5. Akaishi S, Ogawa R, Hyakusoku H. Keloid and hypertrophic
which is much more elastic than scar tissue. scar: neurogenic inflammation hypotheses. Med Hypotheses.
2008;71(1):32–8.
6. Hayakawa K, Tatsumi H, Sokabe M. Actin filaments function as
2.7 Conclusion a tension sensor by tension-dependent binding of cofilin to the
filament. J Cell Biol. 2011;195(5):721–7.
7. Tatsumi H, Furuichi T, Nakano M, Toyota M, Hayakawa K,
It is suggested that mechanical forces on the skin strongly Sokabe M, Iida H. Mechanosensitive channels are activated by
influence the cellular behavior that leads to scarring. stress in the actin stress fibres, and could be involved in gravity
These observations led us to focus on the importance of sensing in plants. Plant Biol (Stuttg). 2014;16(Suppl 1):18–22.
reducing skin tension when keloids and hypertrophic 8. Huang C, Akaishi S, Ogawa R. Mechanosignaling pathways in
cutaneous scarring. Arch Dermatol Res. 2012;304(8):589–97.
scars are surgically removed to prevent their recurrence.
9. Wong VW, Rustad KC, Akaishi S, Sorkin M, Glotzbach JP,
Clinical studies revealed that subcutaneous/fascial ten- Januszyk M, Nelson ER, Levi K, Paterno J, Vial IN, Kuang AA,
sile reduction sutures, which apply minimal tension on Longaker MT, Gurtner GC. Focal adhesion kinase links
the dermis, are effective in reducing recurrence. mechanical force to skin fibrosis via inflammatory signaling. Nat
Moreover, we have found that by using Z-plasty and Med. 2011;18(1):148–52.
18 R. Ogawa
10. Scott JR, Muangman P, Gibran NS. Making sense of hypertro- 14. Ogawa R, Okai K, Tokumura F, Mori K, Ohmori Y, Huang C,
phic scar: a role for nerves. Wound Repair Regen. 2007;15(Suppl Hyakusoku H, Akaishi S. The relationship between skin stretch-
1):S27–31. ing/contraction and pathologic scarring: the important role of
11. Huang C, Akaishi S, Hyakusoku H, Ogawa R. Are keloid and mechanical forces in keloid generation. Wound Repair Regen.
2 hypertrophic scar different forms of the same disorder? A fibro- 2012;20(2):149–57.
proliferative skin disorder hypothesis based on keloid findings. 15. Akaishi S, Akimoto M, Ogawa R, Hyakusoku H. The relation-
Int Wound J. 2014;11(5):517–22. ship between keloid growth pattern and stretching tension:
12. Ogawa R, Akaishi S, Kuribayashi S, Miyashita T. Keloids and visual analysis using the finite element method. Ann Plast Surg.
hypertrophic scars can now be cured completely: recent progress 2008;60(4):445–51.
in our understanding of the pathogenesis of keloids and hyper- 16. Arima J, Huang C, Rosner B, Akaishi S, Ogawa R. Hypertension:
trophic scars and the most promising current therapeutic strat- a systemic key to understanding local keloid severity. Wound
egy. J Nippon Med Sch. 2016;83(2):46–53. Repair Regen. 2015;23(2):213–21.
13. Aarabi S, Bhatt KA, Shi Y, Paterno J, Chang EI, Loh SA, 17. Akaishi S, Akimoto M, Hyakusoku H, Ogawa R. The tensile
Holmes JW, Longaker MT, Yee H, Gurtner GC. Mechanical reduction effects of silicone gel sheeting. Plast Reconstr Surg.
load initiates hypertrophic scar formation through decreased cel- 2010;126(2):109e–11e.
lular apoptosis. FASEB J. 2007;21(12):3250–61.
19 3
Scar Formation: Cellular

Mechanisms
Contents
3.2 Introduction – 20
3.3 General Mechanisms of Scar Formation – 20
3.4 orphological and Biochemical Characteristics

M
of Myofibroblast Phenotype – 21
3.5 Cellular Origins of Myofibroblasts – 21
3.6 Regulation of Myofibroblast Phenotype – 22
3.7 ole of Myofibroblasts in Pathological

R
Scarring and Fibrosis – 22
3.8 The Role of Mechanical Tension – 23
3.9 Role of Innervation in Skin Healing – 24
3.10 Therapeutic Options – 25
References – 26

20 I. A. Darby and A. Desmoulière
3.1 Background phase (with the development of the granulation tissue)

and reepithelialization phase, and the remodeling phase
Tissue repair after injury is a complex phenomenon which includes maturation and scar formation. The
involving intricate and coordinated mechanisms. Even inflammatory phase begins with capillary damage,
though during the last decade, many studies have where blood loss results in a clot forming, which consists
increased our knowledge on the different cellular players of fibrin and fibronectin and stops further blood loss.
3 involved in this process [16], many gray areas remain, The wound space is thus filled with a provisional matrix
particularly concerning the dialogue between different that provides a scaffold into which various cells can
cell populations acting during wound healing and scar migrate. The initial source of chemokines in the wound
formation. Interestingly, an abnormal course of the is platelets that are present in the clot, and these degran-
inflammatory phase at the beginning of the healing pro- ulate and provide multiple factors that stimulate the
cess appears to have effects long after scar formation. In recruitment of inflammatory cells, neutrophils, and
addition, the relationships between cells and the extra- macrophages. At the same time, fibroblasts and endo-
cellular matrix remain a key aspect in understanding the thelial cells are attracted by growth factors that are
normal development and remodeling of scars. chemotactic for these cells. The proliferative phase of
healing which follows includes angiogenesis, the growth
of new vessels into the wound. Angiogenesis is vital for
3.2 Introduction tissue repair since it provides vascular perfusion of the
wound, delivering oxygen and nutrients and thus con-
The skin provides the primary protection against exter- tributing to cell proliferation, including the proliferation
nal injuries for the body and is also essential in the of fibroblasts. The wound is initially hypoxic, as it lacks
maintenance of general homeostasis. Located beneath normal perfusion, and hypoxia itself is an important
the epidermis, the dermis represents the thickest com- stimulus for the release of growth factors, including
partment of the skin and is composed mainly of a dense those that regulate angiogenesis. During the prolifera-
extracellular matrix network of collagen fibers sup- tive phase, angiogenesis proceeds and eventually rees-
porting the specific dermal appendages, including hair tablishes a more normal level of perfusion. The
follicles, sebaceous glands, and sweat glands. Dermal regulation of angiogenesis may represent a target for
(myo)fibroblasts play a major role in the synthesis and improving wound repair, particularly in those cases
maintenance of the extracellular matrix as well as in the where delayed or abnormal angiogenesis has been sug-
wound-healing process [4]. During healing, fibroblasts gested to play a role in healing impairment. Fibroblasts
proliferate and migrate into the wound space, though present in the granulation tissue become activated and
the origin of these cells remains to be clearly eluci- are then termed myofibroblasts. These myofibroblasts
dated. Moreover, research on progenitor cells present are responsible for the synthesis and deposition of extra-
in the skin, which can differentiate into many different cellular matrix components which progressively replace
cell types, represents an interesting source of cells that the provisional matrix [6]. Myofibroblasts also show
may be able to promote (when correctly stimulated) contractile properties, playing a major role in the con-
wound healing, improve the repair process in impaired traction and maturation of the granulation tissue. Scar
or difficult-to-heal wounds or be able to modify the pro- formation, which is the third phase of healing, involves
cess of excessive scarring. In this chapter, these different progressive remodeling of the granulation tissue
aspects will be expanded on, including the biochemical, (. Fig. 3.1). A major role in this process is played by
cellular, and physical factors that are involved in regulat- proteolytic enzymes, particularly the family of matrix
ing healing and scarring in skin wounds (e.g., cytokines, metalloproteinases (MMPs) and their inhibitors (tissue
mechanical tension, and innervation). inhibitor of metalloproteinases [TIMPs]). Synthesis of
extracellular matrix is then reduced, though not com-
pletely stopped, and the components that make up the
3.3 General Mechanisms of Scar Formation matrix are modified as the matrix is remodeled. Collagen
type III, the major collagen present in granulation tis-
Immediately after wounding, the healing process com- sue, is progressively replaced by collagen type I, the main
mences leading to (partial) restoration of the injured tis- structural protein in normal unwounded dermis. Finally,
sue. Wound healing passes through three dynamic and elastin which is largely responsible for the elasticity of
interrelated phases which temporally overlap [3]. Based the skin and which is absent in granulation tissue also
on morphological changes seen in the wound tissue dur- reappears. In deep human wounds, elastin fibers do not
ing the course of the healing process, these phases are show complete regeneration after wound healing being
defined as the inflammatory phase, the proliferative both deficient and not showing normal structural
Scar Formation: Cellular Mechanisms
21 3
Inflammatory Proliferation Maturation in connective tissue, and they may be induced by

step step step mechanical stress; however, to undergo full differentia-
tion into myofibroblasts, they require stimulation with
transforming growth factor (TGF)-β1 (see below). Fully
Response intensity
differentiated myofibroblasts are then capable of exert-

ing increased force due to contraction. The expression
pattern of myofibroblasts and smooth muscle cells
Deposition Development of Scar shows several differences. Smooth muscle cells express
of a the granulation formation smooth muscle myosin heavy chain, smoothelin, and
provisional tissue (and re- h-caldesmon, while myofibroblasts are generally nega-
matrix epithelialization) tive for these markers. Desmin, an intermediate fila-
ment protein which is normally expressed in muscle
cells, has also been used as a negative marker of myofi-
Time broblasts, since during normal wound healing myofi-
broblasts have been found to be desmin-negative. In
.. Fig. 3.1 The various phases of the healing process. After dam- some conditions of pathological scarring, myofibro-
age, inflammation leads to the formation of granulation tissue dur-
ing which myofibroblasts appear. A significant neoangiogenesis is
blasts have been observed to be desmin-positive. Overall
also observed. A new epidermis can then develop over this granula- though α-smooth muscle actin is also expressed in
tion tissue. Subsequently, remodeling of this granulation tissue smooth muscle cells and pericytes, it still represents the
occurs via apoptosis of the cells present in the granulation tissue most reliable phenotypic marker of myofibroblast phe-
(myofibroblasts and vascular cells), and the extracellular matrix is notype.
gradually reorganized
Given the important roles of myofibroblasts in tis-
sue repair and scarring, in particular their role in con-
rganization. During the resolution phase of wound
o traction, the exact mechanisms regulating contraction
healing, apoptosis of both vascular cells and myofibro- in such tissues need to be clearly identified.
blasts results in a significant reduction in cell number in Examination of spontaneous intracellular Ca2+ oscil-
the granulation tissue. Whether myofibroblasts can reac- lations has shown that intracellular Ca2+ oscillations
quire a quiescent phenotype thus returning to a “nor- are coordinated between contracting myofibroblasts
mal” dermal fibroblast phenotype is still open to via adherens junctions but occur randomly between
question. fibroblasts and non-contacting cells. Therefore the fol-
lowing model of mechanical coupling for myofibro-
blasts can be proposed: individual cell contraction is
3.4 Morphological and Biochemical transmitted via adherens junctions leading to the
Characteristics of Myofibroblast opening of mechanosensitive ion channels in adjacent
Phenotype cells. The resulting Ca2+ influx induces a contraction
that can feed back on the first cell and/or stimulate
The earliest descriptions of myofibroblasts, based on other contacting cells allowing the cells to work like a
their electron microscopic morphology, identified ultra- syncytium. This mechanism of coordination of myofi-
structural specializations showing some similarity to broblast activity may improve the remodeling of cell-
those of smooth muscle cells, in particular prominent dense tissue [8].
bundles of cytoplasmic microfilaments. Further ultra-
structural and molecular markers that define myofibro-
blasts have since been identified, including cell-cell and 3.5 Cellular Origins of Myofibroblasts
cell-matrix adhesions, stress fibers, and expression of
α-smooth muscle actin [9]. Both in vivo and in vitro, the Recruitment of fibroblasts from the local connective
presence of fibroblasts exhibiting prominent microfila- tissue is generally accepted to be the major source of
ment bundles in their cytoplasm (known as stress fibers) myofibroblasts in the wound. Dermal fibroblasts that
can be observed; however, these cells do not necessarily are located at the wound margins can acquire a myo-
contain α-smooth muscle actin-positive microfilaments. fibroblastic phenotype and then play a role in tissue
In vitro, these fibroblasts can also be shown to secrete a repair. However, there is considerable heterogeneity in
splice-variant form of fibronectin, ED-A fibronectin. fibroblastic cell subpopulations. These fibroblast sub-
These cells have been termed proto-myofibroblasts, and populations are present in different locations within
their stress fibers contain only β- and γ-cytoplasmic the skin and have specific activation and deactivation
actin. Proto-myofibroblasts can exert tractional forces properties. At least three subpopulations have been
identified in the dermis: superficial (or papillary) 3.6 Regulation of Myofibroblast

fibroblasts (the papillary dermis is approximately Phenotype
300–400 μm in depth and is arranged as a ridgelike
structure), reticular fibroblasts which are present in Wound healing and skin homeostasis are regulated by a
the deep dermis (which consists of thick collagen and number of cytokines and growth factors. Some growth
elastin fibers that are arranged parallel to the surface
3 of the skin), and fibroblasts which are associated with
factors act directly on granulation tissue formation and
fibroblasts activity, while others have effects on vascular
hair follicles. These cell subpopulations can be iso- and epithelial cells. Of the factors with direct effects on
lated for cell culture and then, depending on the age fibroblasts, TGF-β1 is notable as it is a potent inducer of
and nature of the skin sample, show distinct differ- myofibroblast differentiation [18]. In addition to its role
ences in phenotype in vitro. in inducing expression of α-smooth muscle actin, TGF-
It has been recently suggested that local mesenchy- β1 also powerfully stimulates the synthesis of extracel-
mal stem cells may also be involved in the tissue repair lular matrix proteins. TGF-β1 also favors the deposition
process. These progenitor cells have been identified in of matrix by an effect on the balance between MMPs
the dermal sheath that surrounds the exterior of hair and their inhibitors, TIMPs, by reducing MMP activity
follicles, facing the epithelial stem cells. These cells are while stimulating TIMP expression. The action of TGF-
involved in regeneration of the dermal papilla and can β1 on fibroblast to myofibroblast differentiation requires
also differentiate into wound-healing myofibroblasts the presence of ED-A fibronectin, underlining the close
after damage or injury. relationship between growth factor activation, the extra-
Recent data has also suggested a role for circulating cellular matrix, and regulation of cellular function
cells, termed fibrocytes, in the tissue repair process. (. Fig. 3.2). It is interesting to note that granulocyte
Fibrocytes may enter damaged skin together at the same macrophage colony stimulating factor can also increase
time as inflammatory cells and may then acquire a myo- the number of myofibroblasts in vivo; however, this is
fibroblastic phenotype. In burn wound, fibrocytes may most likely due to its activation and recruitment of mac-
infiltrate the wound where they both stimulate a local rophages which in turn increases the levels and availabil-
inflammatory response and additionally secrete extra- ity of TGF-β1 [15]. Finally, microRNAs (miRNAs) have
cellular matrix proteins, thus contributing to the patho- also been implicated in the induction of myofibroblasts
logical (hypertrophic) scarring that can be seen postburn in both fibrotic conditions and in cancer. Specifically,
injury. expression of miR-21 appears to be correlated with high
Another bone marrow-derived circulating cell has levels of TGF-β1 stimulation of the myofibroblast phe-
also been suggested to play a role in tissue repair. notype. A recent study has suggested that the mecha-
Mesenchymal stem cells are bone marrow-derived non- nism underlying this may be through effects on TGF-β1
hematopoietic precursor cells that may be present in inhibitory pathways. Improvements in our understand-
both normal and damaged connective tissue, where they ing of the effects of miRNAs in regulating fibrosis,
infiltrate the tissue and then contribute to the mainte- potentially through actions on myofibroblast differenti-
nance and repair of the tissue. Indeed, these cells have ation and activity, may allow miRNAs to be targeted in
the capacity to seed into several organs and then differ- therapies aimed at inhibition of fibrosis and scarring.
entiate into myofibroblasts, similar to those seen during
wound healing. The degree to which damaged tissues or
organs are infiltrated by these cells is dependent on the
severity of tissue injury. 3.7 ole of Myofibroblasts in Pathological
R
Lastly, epithelial- or endothelial-to-mesenchymal Scarring and Fibrosis
transition of either differentiated or malignant epithe-
lium (or endothelium) can result in a phenotypic change In some cases, wound healing proceeds in a pathological
to fibroblasts or myofibroblasts that are then responsible course resulting in pathological scarring [17]. Such
for extracellular matrix production. Although this abnormal repair processes may be the result of impaired
mechanism is now accepted as playing an important role remodeling of the granulation tissue resulting in, for
in fibrogenesis after tissue injury, it appears to play a less example, abnormal repair of the skin in the form of
prominent role in normal tissue repair. Overall, myofi- hypertrophic or keloid scars and to fibrosis in internal
broblasts derived from circulating fibrocytes, mesenchy- organs. In the case of excessive scarring in the skin such
mal stem cells, epithelial- or endothelial-to-mesenchymal as hypertrophic scars, normal healing fails and the gran-
transition, or bone marrow-derived cells may supple- ulation tissue continues to expand, likely due to abnor-
ment local fibroblast recruitment and differentiation mal and excessive secretion of growth factors and/or to
where their numbers are insufficient for the repair and a lack of molecules that in normal healing are responsi-
remodeling process [14]. ble for induction of apoptosis or remodeling of the
23 3
Fibroblast Myofibroblast
stress fibres (alpha-
smooth muscle actin)
Growth factors, ECM deposition
cytokines, contraction
ECM
ECM
Proto-myofibroblast TGF-β1,
ED-A fibronectin,
migration, proliferation mechanical tension
cytoplasmic actins
Normal Abnormal
environment environment
Apoptosis
ECM remodelling
RESOLUTION Proliferation
ECM deposition
HYPERTROPHIC SCAR
or FIBROSIS
.. Fig. 3.2 Illustration showing the evolution of the fibroblast phe- fibronectin, and/or the mechanical microenvironment are all involved
notype during normal and pathological conditions. Changes observed in myofibroblastic differentiation. The myofibroblast may then disap-
in fibroblast phenotype as cells differentiate towards a myofibroblast pear by apoptosis, while deactivation, leading to a quiescent pheno-
phenotype begin with the appearance of proto-myofibroblasts. These type, has not been clearly demonstrated at least in vivo. If the
cells possess stress fibers composed of β- and γ-cytoplasmic actins. remodeling phase of the granulation tissue does not occur (with no
These then evolve, at least in some cases, into fully differentiated myo- apoptosis of the myofibroblasts and vascular cells present in the gran-
fibroblasts. These cells possess stress fibers containing α-smooth mus- ulation tissue nor reorganization of the extracellular matrix), myofi-
cle actin. Soluble factors such as transforming growth factor-β1 broblasts may then persist, leading to pathological conditions
(TGF-β1), extracellular matrix (ECM) components such as ED-A characterized by excessive scarring
extracellular matrix. When the stimulus driving the phic scars is frequently observed after severe burns, and
response to injury persists in internal organs, excessive it appears that prolonged inflammation contributes to
deposition of extracellular matrix then leads to organ the increased risk of hypertrophic scarring. Conversely
fibrosis. As is observed in pathological healing in the chronic wounds, such as venous leg ulcers, can also show
skin, the occurrence of fibrosis and its chronic nature prolonged inflammation with the mixture of pro-
may be a consequence of an imbalance between matrix inflammatory cytokines and MMPs leading to a failure
deposition and matrix degradation. The mechanism of matrix deposition and repair. It is therefore suggested
underlying this is most likely an imbalance in the levels that after cleansing of the wound, treatment should be
of MMPs and their inhibitors, TIMPs. aimed at producing the most rapid recovery possible
Hypertrophic scars and keloids are both character- with the aim of limiting the time spent in the inflamma-
ized by an abnormal accumulation of extracellular tory stage of healing.
matrix; however, they represent two very different cuta-
neous pathologies. In the case of hypertrophic scars,
these do not extend beyond the periphery of the lesion, 3.8 The Role of Mechanical Tension
while keloids do extend beyond the margins of the orig-
inal lesion. α-Smooth muscle-positive myofibroblasts Due to both their contractile nature and their intimate
are abundant in hypertrophic scars, and these cells con- relationship with the extracellular matrix, myofibro-
tract, inducing retraction of the scar, particularly when blasts are sensitive to their mechanical environment, and
the scar tissue is located in a region that is subjected to mechanical signaling has been shown to play important
mechanical tension. This is particularly the case when roles in regulating the activity of myofibroblasts [10].
the scar is adjacent to joints including the shoulders, Differentiation markers of myofibroblasts, including
elbows, wrists, knees, and ankles. Conversely, retraction stress fibers, ED-A fibronectin, and α-smooth muscle
does not occur in keloids. The development of hypertro- actin expression, appear earlier in granulation tissue
that is subjected to increased mechanical tension. This able to modulate the activity of MMP-2 and MMP-9,
has been shown in experiments using splinting of a full- both of which play important roles in granulation tissue
thickness wound with a plastic frame and comparing remodeling and scar formation. Additionally, these neu-
this to unsplinted, normally healing granulation tissue. ropeptides also act on collagen type I and type III syn-
Additionally, mechanical forces can be altered by cultur- thesis during skin wound healing, promoting dermal
ing fibroblasts on substrates of varying stiffness, and fibroblast adhesion and their differentiation into myofi-
3 these experiments have shown alterations in fibroblast broblasts. The effects of these neuropeptides on the
phenotype dependent on substrate compliance. In cul- composition of the extracellular matrix and its organi-
ture, fibroblasts grown on soft, compliant substrates do zation are certainly essential since it is well-established
not show stress fiber expression, while increasing the that the mechanical microenvironment, which is depen-
stiffness of the substrate induces a rapid change in mor- dent on the organization of the extracellular matrix, can
phology and the appearance of stress fibers. In cultured affect fibroblast to myofibroblast differentiation. Lastly,
fibroblasts, shear forces, from movement of fluid, are regulation of MMPs can also affect the subsequent acti-
also able to increase TGF-β1 synthesis and thus stimu- vation of latent TGF-β1 which involves MMPs.
late fibroblast differentiation to a myofibroblast pheno- Injury to the skin induces the release of a number of
type. Shear forces are able to affect fibroblast inflammatory mediators, from both immune cells and
differentiation in the absence of other stimuli that are sensory nerve endings. These include interleukin-1β,
normally involved in their differentiation, for example, tumor necrosis factor-α, bradykinin, substance P, calci-
exposure to cytokines or pre-straining of the extracel- tonin gene-related peptide, nerve growth factor, and
lular matrix which regulates TGF-β1 bioavailability. As prostaglandins, and their release by these cells contrib-
mentioned above, the role of mechanical stress in stimu- utes to the “inflammatory soup” present in the wound.
lating myofibroblast activity has also been shown in It has been suggested that changes in substance P levels
experiments using mechanically stressed skin wounds in may be involved in the aberrant wound-healing response
mice. These wounds are stretched or splinted, resulting seen in hypertrophic scarring. Furthermore, it has been
in an increased mechanical load that in turn increases observed that in cocultures of fibroblasts and neurites,
myofibroblast activity and results in increased scar for- the direct contact of these cells is able to induce myofi-
mation. These models to some extent mimic hypertro- broblast differentiation leading to increased retraction
phic scarring that is sometimes observed in humans. The of collagen lattices, mimicking the contraction seen in
mechanical environment of the wound and the tension wound repair.
present are thus essential factors that need to be taken In keloids, nerve fiber density is significantly higher
into account and managed in order to reduce scarring. than in normal skin samples, and symptoms including
To this end controlled immobilization of the wound itch, pain, abnormal thermal sensory thresholds to heat
should be employed. Interestingly, devices that manage as well as cold, and pain associated with heat sensation
the mechanical environment and tension of the wound are all reported suggesting the involvement of small
are now appearing on the market (e.g., Embrace® from nerve fibers in the pathogenesis of this disease. In hyper-
Neodyne Biosciences, Inc. or Zip® from ZipLine trophic scars, published data are inconsistent with either
Medical, Inc.). a decrease or an increase of the number nerve fibers hav-
ing been reported. Nevertheless, in burn patients with
chronic pain, abnormal cutaneous innervation has been
3.9 Role of Innervation in Skin Healing reported. A recent pilot study has been published which
compared healthy skin versus postburn scars from the
Recently it has been shown that innervation of the skin same patient [2]. These authors examined the expression
plays an important role in both normal and pathological of genes involved in regulation of innervation and addi-
wound healing. However, the precise roles of sensory tionally looked at the intraepidermal density of nerve
and autonomic innervation during wound healing endings. Significant differences in the patterns of expres-
remain to be clearly established [12]. Keratinocytes, sion were observed when comparing healthy skin and
melanocytes, fibroblasts, and myofibroblasts have all postburn scars. Based on studies of a mouse model of
been shown to express a variety of neurotrophins includ- hypertrophic scarring induced by mechanical loading, it
ing nerve growth factor, neurotophin-3, brain-derived has been suggested that innervation of the skin and the
neurotrophic factor, as well as their receptors, and these level of inflammation present may both play roles in the
promote cellular proliferation and differentiation. development of hypertrophic scars.
Neuropeptides including calcitonin gene-related pep- The role of the sensory nervous system in wound
tide, substance P, and vasoactive intestinal peptide are healing in the skin has been examined using several ani-
25 3
mal models of denervation. Surgical denervation has after grafting and also leading to the presence of elastic
been employed, as has chemical denervation, and mice fibers, which were detectable 6–9 months after grafting.
with genetic modifications resulting in denervation have Therefore, it seems apparent that tissue engineering
also been used. Studies using surgical denervation have approaches to normal repair require fibroblasts and
shown that wound healing is retarded in these animals, myofibroblasts to be effective [7]. It is, however, very
with a reduction observed in the number of inflamma- important to keep in mind that many different popula-
tory cells infiltrating the wound, delayed contraction of tions of fibroblasts exist and that these have different
the wound, and a delay in reepithelialization. Another properties. These recent observations thus offer new per-
skin denervation model, which used chemical sympa- spectives for skin repair and for tissue engineering. In
thectomy induced by intraperitoneal administration of addition, promotion of normal reinnervation and ade-
6-hydroxydopamine, also showed that denervation quate levels of neuropeptides during the healing process
interfered with wound healing. 6-Hydroxydopamine- certainly appear to be crucial for improving skin healing
induced sympathectomy has also been shown to modify and to avoid the occurrence of pathological repair pro-
wound healing with an increase in wound contraction, a cesses and scarring [13]. Despite the existence of many
reduction in mast cell migration and delayed reepitheli- areas that still require elucidation in myofibroblast biol-
alization. These alterations in healing are associated ogy, it seems clear that myofibroblasts are pivotal cells
with a decrease in neurogenic inflammation. Lastly, for the control of extracellular matrix deposition and
these studies have definitively shown that neuropeptides remodeling during normal repair and are also important
released by sensory fibers play an important role during in pathological conditions such as excessive scarring.
wound healing, affecting the granulation tissue in Myofibroblasts thus definitively represent an essential
particular. target to be considered when developing new therapeu-
tic strategies.
3.10 Therapeutic Options

3.11 Conclusion
It has been recently shown, in human pulmonary fibro-
sis, that mechanical stretching of tissue can contribute Myofibroblasts are key cells during wound healing. It
to the development of fibrosis via mechanical activation has become increasingly evident that a lack of myofibro-
of TGF-β1 [5]. Stretching of the extracellular matrix in blast apoptosis is a major mechanism leading to exces-
the lungs, due either to breathing or to mechanical ven- sive scarring [11]. Blocking pro-survival mechanisms,
tilation that is employed to support breathing in cases of particularly those linked to the mechanical environment,
lung injury or lung disease, may contribute to TGF-β1- and modifying the myofibroblast phenotype to obtain
driven disease progression. Since it is not possible to cells able to remodel the excessive deposition of extra-
stop breathing to avoid mechanical TGF-β1 activation cellular matrix certainly represent new ways to develop
from established fibrotic tissue, therapeutic intervention therapeutic options that could positively modulate scar
might however be possible aimed at the cellular side of formation.
mechanical TGF-β1 activation. Thus, in organs that are
subjected to mechanical stress, such as the lungs and Take-Home Messages
skin, the role of TGF-β1 in excessive scarring and fibro- 55 Myofibroblasts play a major role during granula-
sis is clearly crucial, and the mechanisms involved in tion tissue formation with transforming growth
activation of TGF-β1 represent an important therapeu- factor-β1 being the main soluble factor involved in
tic target. myofibroblastic differentiation.
The presence and activity of fibroblasts is vital for 55 Myofibroblasts, through mechanotransduction
normal skin homeostasis, while the presence of myofi- pathways, are very sensitive to their mechanical
broblasts is crucial for tissue repair and has evolved to environment.
speed the process of normal tissue repair [1]. The impor- 55 Myofibroblast apoptosis and extracellular matrix
tance of fibroblast activity in normal repair has been remodeling are necessary for normal scar forma-
very well documented using in vitro models of dermal tion.
substitutes. For example, a living dermal equivalent 55 Abnormal mechanical tension facilitates the devel-
(containing fibroblasts) that has been applied to skin opment of hypertrophic scars.
graft beds was found to reduce pain, improve hemosta- 55 Normal innervation and neuropeptide secretion
sis, and also improve the mechanical and cosmetic prop- are necessary to maintain skin homeostasis and
erties of the graft, in particular, producing a normal normal wound healing.
undulating dermal-epidermal junction by 3–4 months
References 9. Hinz B, Phan SH, Thannickal VJ, Prunotto M, Desmoulière A,

Varga J, De Wever O, Mareel M, Gabbiani G. Recent develop-
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tions. F1000Res. 2016;5:pii: F1000 Faculty Rev-752. https://doi.
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factor-β1: tale of a strained relationship. Matrix Biol.
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C, Desmoulière A, Misery L. Heterogeneity of skin re-
2015;47:54–65. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matbio.2015.05.006.
11. Hinz B, Lagares D. Evasion of apoptosis by myofibroblasts: a
innervation after burns and factors involved in its regulation: a
hallmark of fibrotic diseases. Nat Rev Rheumatol. 2020;16(1):11–
pilot study. Acta Derm Venereol. 2018;98(2):280–1. https://doi.
31. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41584-019-0324-5.
org/10.2340/00015555-2826.
12. Laverdet B, Danigo A, Girard D, Magy L, Demiot C,
3. Darby IA, Laverdet B, Bonté F, Desmoulière A. Fibroblasts and
Desmoulière A. Skin innervation: important roles during nor-
myofibroblasts in wound healing. Clin Cosmet Investig
mal and pathological cutaneous repair. Histol Histopathol.
Dermatol. 2014;7:301–11. https://doi.org/10.2147/CCID.
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13. Lebonvallet N, Laverdet B, Misery L, Desmoulière A, Girard
4. Darby IA, Zakuan N, Billet F, Desmoulière A. The myofibro-
D. New insights into the roles of myofibroblasts and innervation
blast, a key cell in normal and pathological tissue repair. Cell
during skin healing and innovative therapies to improve scar
Mol Life Sci. 2016;73(6):1145–57. https://doi.org/10.1007/
innervation. Exp Dermatol. 2018;27(9):950–8. https://doi.
s00018-015-2110-0.
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5. Froese AR, Shimbori C, Bellaye PS, Inman M, Obex S, Fatima
14. Micallef L, Vedrenne N, Billet F, Coulomb B, Darby IA,
S, Jenkins G, Gauldie J, Ask K, Kolb M. Stretch-induced activa-
Desmoulière A. The myofibroblast, multiple origins for major
tion of transforming growth factor-β1 in pulmonary fibrosis. Am
roles in normal and pathological tissue repair. Fibrogenesis
J Respir Crit Care Med. 2016;194(1):84–96. https://doi.
Tissue Repair. 2012;5(Suppl 1):S5. https://doi.org/10.1186/1755-
org/10.1164/rccm.201508-1638OC.
1536-5-S1-S5.
6. Girard D, Laverdet D, Desmoulière A. (Myo)fibroblasts and
15. Pakshir P, Hinz B. The big five in fibrosis: macrophages, myofi-
extracellular matrix in skin wound and aging. In: Quan T, editor.
broblasts, matrix, mechanics, and miscommunication. Matrix
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7. Girard D, Laverdet B, Buhé V, Trouillas M, Ghazi K, Alexaline
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MM, Egles C, Misery L, Coulomb B, Lataillade JJ, Berthod F,
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journal.pone.0064560.
27 II
Epidemiology of Scars
and Their Consequences
Contents
Chapter 4 The Epidemiology of Keloids – 29

Chapter 5 Epidemiology of Scars and Their Consequences:

Burn Scars – 37
Chapter 6 Scar Epidemiology and Consequences – 45

Chapter 7 Other Scar Types: Optimal Functional and Aesthetic

Outcome of Scarring in Cleft Patients – 51
Wouter B. van der Sluis, Nirvana S. S. Kornmann,
Robin A. Tan, and Johan P. W. Don Griot
29 4
The Epidemiology of Keloids

Contents
4.2 Demographic Risk Factors That Shape Keloid Rates – 30
4.3 Genetic Risk Factors That Shape Keloid Rates – 32
4.4 Environmental Risk Factors That Shape Keloid Rates – 32
References – 34

30 C. Huang et al.
Take-Home Messages
.. Table 4.1 The incidences of keloid reported in different
55 Despite the fact that keloids are common through-
countries
out the world, their epidemiology has not been
adequately investigated. Country Keloid incidence (%) Reference
55 The demographic distribution of keloids, mainly
on the geographical regions and ethnic racies. England 0.09% [2, 3]
55 Genetic risk factors can shape keloid rates, in Japan 0.10% [6]
particular certain diseases appear to amplify or
4 suppress keloid formations.
Kenya 8.50% [5]
55 Environmental factors also contribute to keloid Zambia 9% [4]

development and progression and therefore shape Zaire 16% [2, 3]
keloid rates, such as local mechanical stimuli.
from 0.09% in England to 16% in Zaire [2, 3]. While

these reviews did not indicate how these incidences were
4.1 Background determined, they are somewhat supported by the few
large-scale studies on geographical incidence that have
Keloids are pathological scars that are characterized been performed. One of these was a review of the 5735
histologically by an overwhelming aggregation of fibro- patients who underwent surgery in the 33 surgical facili-
blasts and collagen type I within the inflammatory retic- ties in Zambia between 1993 and 2008: the study showed
ular dermis [1]. Their clinical characteristics include that of the 5774 surgical diagnoses, 514 are related to
continuous growth and invasion into the neighboring keloids. Thus, keloids accounted for nearly 9% of all
healthy skin beyond the original wound boundary via those surgical cases in Zambia during the study period
an erythematous and pruritic leading edge. They also [4]. Moreover in Kenya, the keloid prevalence is 8.5%
show a strong tendency to recur when they are surgi- among people with normally pigmented skins [5]. By
cally excised in the absence of adjuvant therapies. contrast, the keloid incidence in Japan is around 0.1% [6]
Despite the fact that keloids are common throughout (. Table 4.1). Considering that the keloid incidence data
the world, their epidemiology has not been adequately is limited and scattered, which can hardly be comparable
investigated. in a strictly defined background covering key factors
In this chapter, we will summarize the limited epide- such as statistical period/cycle, population size/composi-
miological data on keloids that exists to date. Most of tion, and diagnostic criteria on scar type/severity, it is
these data are from English language papers that are still difficult to depict an accurate keloid distribution
listed in PubMed. Below, we will describe what is known map at this time. And the average keloid incidence can
about (1) the demographic distribution of keloids, only be estimated as 5–10% in African, 0–0.1% in Asian,
mainly on the geographical regions and ethnic races; (2) and <0.1% in other countries, as seen in . Fig. 4.1.
the internal genetic factors that shape keloid rates; and It is suspected that this large geographical variation
(3) the external environmental factors that influence in keloid rate may reflect racial differences in skin pig-
keloid epidemiology. The aim of the chapter is to facili- mentation (. Fig. 4.2). However, the data on keloid
tate a greater understanding of the complexity and prevalence in various races is conflicting. First, Louw
diversity of keloids from an epidemiological perspective, states that both Blacks and Asians are more susceptible
thereby potentiating further and deeper explorations to keloid formation than Caucasians [3]. Indeed, the
into individualized strategies that prevent and treat Black/Caucasian ratio was reported varying from 14:1
keloids. to 2:1 [7]. However, the above reports may suggest that
Asians could have similarly low incidences of keloid as
Caucasians (0.1% in Japan versus 0.09% in England) [2,
4.2 emographic Risk Factors That Shape
D 3, 6]. Two studies also suggest that at least one specific
Keloid Rates type of keloid, acne keloidalis nuchae (AKN), is much
more common in Blacks than in Asians. Na et al. showed
The studies on the demographic distribution of keloids that of 254,785 patients who attended the dermatology
in the world are sparse and occasionally contradictory. department of a Korean hospital in 2005–2017, 17 had
However, keloid rates can be affected by geography and AKN (0.007%) [8]. By contrast, another study showed
ethnicity. that of 13,422 new patients who visited a large univer-
In terms of geographical distribution, it has long sity hospital in Benin in 1993–2002, 0.7% (90 cases) had
been cited that the incidence of keloids ranges widely AKN, and the prevalence was reported as 0.37% (90
31 4
Incidence
0~0.1%
0.1~1%
5~10%
.. Fig. 4.1 Heatmap of keloid epidemiology in the world. The average keloid incidence can only be estimated as 5–10% in African, 0–0.1%
in Asian, and <0.1% in other countries
.. Fig. 4.2 Chest and shoulder keloids in different racial groups of Bayat et al. with permission (Bayat et al. [12]). 4. 2.3 The images are
Asians, Africans, and Caucasians. 4.2.1 The images are from Huang from Shaheen et al. with permission (Shaheen et al. [13]. © All rights
et al. with permission (Huang et al. [11]). 4. 2.2 The images are from reserved)
cases out of 26,522 patients overall) [9]. The latter study cial schools in Tanzania. Of the 1416 African people
is supported by several other studies that show that who were recruited, 1185 had normally pigmented skin,
AKN is common in Blacks. For example, as high as and 231 had albinism. And 954 among the 1416 people
4.7% of Black boys in the last year of high school in have scars on their body. For them, the total prevalence
South Africa can develop AKN [10]. Moreover, the pos- of keloid was 8.3%. The subjects with normal pigmenta-
tulated relationship between high skin pigmentation and tion did not differ significantly from the subjects with
greater susceptibility to keloid formation is not borne albinism in terms of keloid prevalence (8.5% versus
out by two studies. One is a cross-sectional study on ran- 7.8%; P = 0.599) [5]. The second study described the 175
domly selected villages in Kenya and people with albi- keloid patients who visited the General Hospital in
nism who were recruited via an albino association in Kuala Lumpur in West Malaysia in 1959–1967. West
Kenya and dermatology training center clinics and spe- Malaysia has a multiracial population. An analysis of
32 C. Huang et al.
the ethnicities of the keloid patient cohort showed that mobility. The causal mutation is filamin A (FLNA) sub-
keloid was more common in the relatively fair-skinned stitution G1576R [26]. Other syndromes that may asso-
Chinese: while 56% of the keloid patients were Chinese, ciate with spontaneous keloid formation include the
this ethnicity accounted for only 47.47% of the popula- Dubowitz syndrome [27], the Noonan syndrome [28],
tion. By contrast, 22.86% and 17.14% of the keloid and the Goeminne syndrome [29], which are inherited in
patients were darker-skinned Indians and Malays, autosomal recessive, autosomal dominant, and sex-
respectively; these ethnicities accounted for 19.52% and linked incomplete dominant ways, respectively, though
29.58% of the population, respectively [7]. the actual gene mutation remained unclear.
4 The diseases that associate with protection from
severe pathological scarring are Hansen’s disease and von
4.3 enetic Risk Factors That Shape Keloid
G Recklinghausen’s disease. Hansen’s disease (also known
Rates as leprosy) is a chronic disease that arises after infec-
tion with Mycobacterium leprae and Mycobacterium
The effect of ethnicity on keloidogenesis suggests that lepromatosis. It is characterized by granulomas of the
keloid formation is somewhat underpinned by genetic nerves, respiratory tract, skin, and eyes and the grad-
variation. This is borne out by multiple genetic studies ual destruction of the intraepidermal innervation.
that show that keloidogenesis associates with certain Extensive scarring is extremely rare in patients with
gene mutations or polymorphism [14]. Keloids also Hansen’s disease [30, 31]. von Recklinghausen’s disease
show a familial tendency [15]. Here, we will discuss less is also known as neurofibromatosis type I (NF-I). It is
well-known genetic associations with keloids, namely, characterized by the growth of tumors on the nerves.
certain diseases that appear to amplify or, conversely, A study of 30 Nigerian patients with neurofibromato-
suppress keloid rates. sis who underwent surgery showed that none of them
The diseases that associate with an increased risk of developed keloid or hypertrophic scars after surgery,
keloid include the Rubinstein-Taybi syndrome (RSTS), even though their wound healing was poor and some of
the Ehlers-Danlos syndrome, the Lowe syndrome, and their wounds were closed under tension [32]. Similarly,
the novel X-linked syndrome, and others (. Table 4.2). a worldwide multicenter study on 57 patients with
RSTS is also called broad thumb-hallux syndrome. It is von Recklinghausen’s disease showed that none of the
characterized by broad thumbs and toes, facial abnor- patients developed hypertrophic scar or keloid after sur-
malities, and short stature [16]. The etiological mutation gery: in general, their wounds healed remarkably well.
lies in gene encoding the cyclic AMP response element- The main complications were the development of hema-
binding protein (CBP) on chromosome 16p13.3 [17] and toma and wide white scar in six patients. By contrast,
E1A-binding protein (EP300) gene which encodes p300 two of the 35 patients with a solitary neurofibroma who
protein (a cAMP response element-binding protein were included in the study developed hypertrophic scars
homologue) [18]. Keloid is reported to occur in 24% after surgery [33].
(15/62) of RSTS patients, either spontaneously or sec-
ondary to minor trauma [19]. The Ehlers-Danlos syn-
drome type IV (the vascular subtype) is an inherited 4.4 nvironmental Risk Factors That Shape
E
disorder of connective tissue that is characterized by Keloid Rates
acrogeria, translucent skin, propensity to bruising, and
significant arterial, digestive, and uterine complications Environmental factors also contribute to keloid devel-
[20]. The causative mutation is in COL3A1 gene, which opment and progression and therefore shape keloid
encodes the pro-α1(III) chain of collagen type III [21]. rates. One such factor is local mechanical stimulus. An
Several case reports show that this syndrome can para- interesting feature of keloids is that they show a distinct
doxically associate with extensive keloid formation [22]. site specificity. When we analyzed 1500 keloids in
The Lowe syndrome (also called the oculocerebrorenal 483 Japanese patients (the keloids generated from arti-
syndrome of Lowe [OCRL]) affects the eyes, nervous ficially created wounds, namely, those created by sur-
system, and kidneys [23]. It is caused by a mutation in gery and piercing, were excluded), we found they tended
the OCRL gene that reduces the amount of the OCRL-1 to occur on the anterior chest region (48.9%), scapular
protein [24]. The formation of corneal keloids in patients regions (26.9%), lower jaw/neck region (12.1%), upper
with Lowe syndrome is relatively common. It is gener- arm (4.8%), dorsal regions (2.5%), lower abdomen
ally provoked by corneal contact lens use or after intra- (1.9%), femoral regions (1.7%), knee (0.5%) and upper
ocular lens implantation [25]. Novel X-linked syndrome abdomen (0.5%) [34]. All of these regions are charac-
is characterized by symptoms of cardiac valvular dis- terized by high skin tension/friction. That skin tension
ease, spontaneous keloid scarring, and reduced joint promotes keloid development is also shown by the fact
.. Table 4.2 The syndromes associated with keloidogenesis
Syndrome Other names Characteristic features Keloid lesions Genes or inheritance concerned Reference
Rubinstein-Taybi Broad thumb-hallux Broad thumbs and toes, facial 24% CBP on chromosome 16p13.3; EP300 [16–19]
syndrome (RSTS) syndrome abnormalities, short stature
Ehlers-Danlos syndrome Acrogeria, translucent skin, Extensive keloid formation COL3A1 gene that encodes the [20–22]
type IV (vascular type) propensity to bruising, and pro-α1(III) chain of collagen type III
significant arterial, digestive, and
uterine complications
Lowe syndrome Oculocerebrorenal Affects the eyes, nervous system, Corneal keloids OCRL gene that reduces the amount [23–25]
syndrome of Lowe and kidneys of the OCRL-1 protein
(OCRL)
Novel X-linked syndrome Cardiac valvular disease, Spontaneous keloid scarring A G1576R mutation in filamin A [26]
spontaneous keloid scarring, and (FLNA)
reduced joint mobility
Dubowitz syndrome Intrauterine growth retardation, Spontaneous keloidal lesions Autosomal recessive transmission [27]
low neonatal weight, short stature,
characteristic facies, atopic
dermatitis, and mental retardation
Noonan syndrome Craniofacial appearance, Keloidal tissue formation Autosomal dominant inheritance [28]
congenital cardiac defects,
orthopedic abnormalities,
psychomotor and growth
retardation, and some skin changes
including keloidal tissue formation
Goeminne syndrome Congenital muscular torticollis, Multiple spontaneous keloids Sex-linked incomplete dominant [29]
multiple keloids, cryptorchidism, inheritance
and renal dysplasia
4 33
34 C. Huang et al.
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37 5
Epidemiology of Scars
and Their Consequences:
Burn Scars
Contents
5.1 Burn Injuries and Their Treatment – 38

5.1.1 urn Care – 38
B
5.1.2 Acute Phase – 38
5.2 Prevalence of Burn Scars and Their Consequences – 39

5.2.1 efinition of Scars – 39
D
5.2.2 Prevalence of Hypertrophic Scarring – 39
5.2.3 Prevalence of Contractures – 40
5.2.4 Scar Quality Assessment – 40
5.2.5 Prevalence of Reconstructive Surgery – 40
5.2.6 Maturation Pattern – 40
5.3 Factors Predicting Scar Outcome After Burns – 41

5.3.1 atient Characteristics – 41
P
5.3.2 Injury and Treatment Characteristics – 41
5.3.3 Patient, Injury and Treatment Characteristics Combined – 42
5.4 Clinical Relevance – 42
References – 43

38 M. E. van Baar
surgical techniques including skin substitutes, full skin

Background transplantations and ReCell are also applied.
This chapter focuses on the epidemiology of burn scars In high-income countries, a trend is described
and their consequences. Burn scars are the result of a towards a growing specialized burn care. In the
pathological healing process in specific burn injuries. Netherlands, the majority of these hospital admissions
The occurrence of burn injuries and resulting scars are seen in specialized burn centres. This is in line with
and their consequences will be discussed. This includes the trend towards further specialization of health care in
scar contractures and reconstructive surgery. Next, the general and also because of limited travel distances in
predisposing factors for the occurrence of burn scars our country. In addition, it has been suggested that
will be addresses. The chapter ends with the clinical im- many patients are transferred towards tertiary care facil-
5 plications. ities because of a lack of basic skills in the assessment
and care of burn wounds at community and rural hospi-
tals.
5.1 Burn Injuries and Their Treatment

5.1.2 Acute Phase
Burn injuries are a global public health problem.
According to estimates of the WHO, burn injuries cause The acute treatment of burn injuries is guided by their
180,000 deaths every year. The majority of these deaths severity, indicated by the burn size and the burn depth.
occur in low- and middle-income countries. Two-third Burn size is represented by the percentage of the total
of these deaths occur in the WHO regions of Africa and body surface area burned (TBSA). The burn depth is
Southeast Asia. related to the dermal layers which are affected by the
The nonfatal burns are a leading cause of morbidity, burn injury. Accurate diagnosis of both burn size and
including long hospitalizations, disability and problems burn depth is crucial to start appropriate treatment at
in returning to normal life. In the United States annu- the correct level of care required. It guides the initiation
ally, 486,000 burn injuries receive medical treatment. In of fluid resuscitation, acute escharotomy in case of cir-
addition, 40,000 hospitalizations are related to burn cumferential deep burns and the decision for conserva-
injuries. tive or surgical wound treatment. Burn size also has an
National burn injury incidence data are scarce. In important prognostic value in predicting burn-related
Europe, incidence rates of hospitalized burn injuries are mortality. Both burn size and burn depth are of prog-
reported between 2 and 29 per 100,000 inhabitants; in nostic value for eventual burn scar pathology.
Australia, 36 per 100,000 has been reported. The most widely used classification for burn injuries
Reviews on burn injury incidence data describe a divides burns into three categories of increasing depth:
decline in the incidence rates of burn-related hospital superficial partial-thickness, deep partial-thickness and
admissions in both low- and middle-income coun- full-thickness burns. Superficial partial-thickness burns
tries. In high-income countries, a similar trend is involve only the epidermal layer and the superficial part
observed. of the dermis. In deep partial-thickness burns, the epider-
mis and the majority of the dermis are destroyed, with
damage to deeper skin structures such as blood vessels,
5.1.1 Burn Care nerves and hair follicles. In full-thickness burns, all layers
of the skin are destroyed, and there may also be damage
In the past decades, there has been a shift in focus from to subdermal structures, such as the muscle, cartilage or
mortality to morbidity in burn care in high-income coun- bone. In these wounds, no viable epidermal appendages
tries. Recently, the European Burns Association stated in remain in the bottom of the wound, which makes sponta-
its guidelines that “the main goal of burn care is to ensure neous healing from the wound bed impossible.
optimum resuscitation in the emergency period and then In superficial partial-thickness burns, conservative
to reach re-epithelialization of injured or destroyed skin treatment will be chosen to support spontaneous wound
either by support of spontaneous healing or by surgical healing, which is expected within 10–14 days. In deep
necrectomy and grafting with split thickness skin graft. partial-thickness burns, surgical treatment is sometimes
Subsequent treatment is to ensure the optimum post necessary to reach wound closure. In full-thickness
burn quality of life”. This goal only includes the mini- burns, surgical wound closure will be necessary in the
mum surgical procedure. In nowadays burn care, other majority of wounds, except in the very small-sized ones.
Epidemiology of Scars and Their Consequences: Burn Scars
39 5
Other important parts of burn care include oedema ence or absence of several visual, tactile and sensational
management, early mobilization and scar management. features [2]. For research purposes, an ideal scar evalua-
Treatment protocols vary between burn centres, tion protocol should include both subjective and objec-
including wound dressings, early mobilization and tim- tive measurements. These different perspectives will
ing of surgery. According to Dokter et al., in the result in different scar assessment tools and different scar
Netherlands, 45% of all burn injury patients admitted to outcomes. Results indicate the level of scar morbidity
burn centres receive surgery approximately 15 days post and not the mere presence or absence of scar pathology.
burn. In burn centres in Australia and New Zealand, a Examples of frequently used scar assessment scales
similar proportion is operated upon (47.2%) in general are the Vancouver Scar Scale and the Patient and
within 1 week post burn (mean 6 days post burn). Observer Scar Assessment Scale (POSAS; see 7 www.
posas.org).
A final approximation of burn scarring is the occur-
rence of reconstructive surgery after burns. The need for
5.2 revalence of Burn Scars and Their
P reconstructive surgery after burn injuries can be viewed
Consequences upon as an indicator for problematic scar development,
requiring a surgical intervention to relieve scar morbid-
5.2.1 Definition of Scars ity.
The consequences of burns can be severe, affecting mul-

tiple domains. The focus in this chapter is on the preva- 5.2.2 Prevalence of Hypertrophic Scarring
lence of pathological physical scar formation and its
consequences. The estimates of prevalence of scarring vary widely.
Burn scars can cause aesthetic and functional prob- Prevalences of hypertrophic scarring between 8% and
lems, resulting in limitations in activities of daily living, 67% are reported [3]. These data are all related to burn
the return to normal social roles and impacted quality centre populations in high-income countries.
of life. The psychological consequences will be further One of the first reports was written by Deitch et al. in
elucidated elsewhere in this book. 1983, based on a combined retrospective and prospective
Early studies on pathological scarring in burn study in a mixed population of children and adults.
wounds have distinguished between hypertrophic scars They reported hypertrophic scars after conservative
and contractures (Magliacani (1997) in [1]). wound healing in 30% of their patients with a dark skin
Hypertrophic scars are a dominant type of patho- and in 15% of their Caucasian/White patients at 9 to
logical scar formation after burns. Nowadays, hypertro- 18 months post burn. Hypertrophic scars were docu-
phic scarring is described as “the greatest unmet mented in case of increased thickness or elevation of the
challenge after burn injury.” burn wound; changes in colour or pigmentation alone
Hypertrophic scars are generally elevated, firm and were not classified as hypertrophy.
erythematous. They can also tend to be pruritic and ten- Two decades later, Bombardo reported a prevalence
der. By definition, they are limited to the site of the orig- of 67% of hypertrophic scars in a dominantly Caucasian
inal wound and grow in size by pushing out the scar sample of patients after major burns. Again, data were
margins. Hypertrophic scarring is known to decrease based on retrospective chart analysis in patients after
with time. major burns, examining the mentioning of the word
Next to hypertrophic scars, contractures are another hypertrophic in the charts. No description was provided
important type of pathological scar formation after on the timing of the scar assessments.
burns. A contracture is defined as the pathological result More recently, estimates of prevalence of hypertro-
of excessive scarring and ongoing scar contraction that phic scars are derived on assessments using validated
results in loss of range of motion (ROM) over joint instruments. The Vancouver Scar Scale is traditionally a
areas. Scar contractures may limit daily functioning and well-known scale to evaluate burn scars. In 2017, Wallace
as a result affect health-related quality of life after burns. et al. assessed the prevalence of hypertrophic scars,
Modern scar assessment addresses a broader range using the Modified Vancouver Scar Scale. Raised hyper-
of scar features from both the patients’ perspective and trophic scarring over 1 mm was reported in 7.8% of the
the perspective of the health-care professional. Scar patients treated in a Western Australian burns unit up to
quality from a patient perspective depends on the pres- 1 year post burn [4].
40 M. E. van Baar
5.2.3 Prevalence of Contractures with “normal skin” whereas 10 represents the “worst
scar imaginable.”
Although contractures are a dominant feature after Using the POSAS, substantial scar morbidity is
burn injuries, data on prevalence of burn scar contrac- reported, even several years after the burn injury. In
tures are scarce. In a recent review by Oosterwijk [5] patients after mild to intermediate burn injuries, mean
et al., only 10 relevant studies were available for inclu- self-reported patient POSAS scores varied between 1.8
sion. The prevalence at discharge was 38–54% and and 2.9 more than 2 years post [7]. In a similar sample 5
decreased with an increasing time post burns. years post burn, these patient POSAS scores were even
The included studies indicated an elevated risk for higher, reflecting more scar morbidity. The mean patient
contractures in deep or surgically treated burn injuries, POSAS was 3.0, and 7% had a POSAS score above 4 (on
5 in females and children. In addition, contractures a scale from 1 to 10) on all six scar characteristics.
In patients after severe burns (with a mean TBSA of
seemed to occur more frequently in the upper extremity
joints, specifically in the shoulder and elbows. 24.0%), scar morbidity was higher, with a patient
Assessment of scar contractures was based on POSAS of 4.5 (SD 2.0) [8].
range of motion measurement in six studies; in four
studies, the method of scar contracture assessment was
not described. In addition, study design, study period, 5.2.5 Prevalence of Reconstructive Surgery
study population and timing of scar contracture
assessment varied largely. Consequently, the authors The need for reconstructive surgery after burn injuries
concluded that “prevalence of scar contractures after can be viewed upon as an indicator for problematic scar
burn is insufficiently reported and varies considerably development, requiring a surgical intervention to relieve
between studies.” This impedes the analysis of deter- scar morbidity. Of course, the possibilities to perform
minants of scar contractures and possible interven- reconstructive surgery will influence the occurrence of
tions [5]. reconstructive surgery.
Recently, Schouten et al. assessed scar contractures Recent studies in patients after a burn centre admis-
in a prospective cohort study using passive ROM assess- sion in the Netherlands showed that 13.0% of these
ments up to 12 months. Scar contractures one year post patients received reconstructive surgery in a ten-year
burn were only found in operated burned joints. Scar follow-up period after burn injuries. In patients with
contractures at discharge in non-operated joints all head and neck burns, the prevalence of reconstructive
returned back to normal in 6 to 9 months. Again, scar surgery was 8.9% [9]. Vlies et al. reported a prevalence of
contractures were more often seen in the upper part of 15% in patients after hand burns. These prevalences are
the body, especially in the shoulder [6]. lower than the one reported in the early 1990s by Prasad
et al. (19.9%). This can probably be related not only to
improvements in acute burn care between the 1970–1985
5.2.4 Scar Quality Assessment and 1990 but also to the more frequent use of non-surgi-
cal therapies in the rehabilitation phase, like silicones
In contrast to the assessment of scar hypertrophy or scar and laser therapy. Another explanation for these differ-
contractures, scar quality assessment addresses a ences may be the higher burn size in the study of Prasad
broader assessment of scar-related characteristics, with a mean TBSA of 16.4% and 5.8% full-thickness
including colour, thickness, relief, pliability, pain and burns, compared to our sample (9.8 and 3.4%). Also
pruritus. The Patient Scar Assessment Scale and the follow-up time differed; patients in the study of Prasad
Patient and Observer Scar Assessment Scale (POSAS), were followed for a variable period of 5 to 20 years.
for example, consist of the two six-item numeric scales Another Dutch study by Hoogewerf et al. in patients
reflecting the patient’s perspective and the observer’s after head and neck burns described a prevalence of
perspective. This is in contrast to another frequently 5.3% reconstructive surgery. This prevalence is lower
used scale, the Vancouver Scar Scale, which reflects the than the one found in the 10-year follow-up period,
observer perspective only and has some methodological probably because of the shorter follow-up period of
difficulties, especially concerning the item “pigmenta- 2–7 years post burn.
tion.”
The POSAS was introduced in 2004. Both the self-
reported mean patient POSAS and the observer POSAS 5.2.6 Maturation Pattern
are based on scores on six individual scar characteristics.
These scar characteristics are scored on a numerical In general, hypertrophic scars develop in the first months
10-point scale, in which 1 represents a scar comparable after the burn injury. Then, scar hypertrophy is described
41 5
Total Population female participants two years post burn, but the females
5,0
themselves reported similar scar quality, compared to
their male counterparts. However, after taking skin type
and surgical treatment into account, scar quality was
4,0
similar [7].
In patients five years after burns, female participants
POSAS score
reported a similar overall patient POSAS score but a

3,0
poorer overall scar opinion, compared to men. This sex
differences remained, also after controlling for other rel-
evant factors including length of hospital stay [8].
2,0
In an Australian study predicting raised scars
(<1 mm) in adults, based on the Modified Vancouver
Scar Scale, females had an increased risk of raised scars,
1,0
also after taking into account other relevant factors [4].
3 months 6 months 9 months 12 months
In a similar study in children, no gender differences were
Time found.
Vascularisation Pliability
However, in earlier studies, using a variety of
scar assessments, this gender difference was not
Pigmentation Relief
observed [1].
Thickness Overall impression Age: An older age has been shown to reduce the risk
for pathological scarring in several studies. The risk for
.. Fig. 5.1 Maturation pattern after burn injuries, assessed with raised scars was reduced in patients over 45 years of age,
observer scales of POSAS (Van der Wal et al., personal communica-
compared to patients 30 years of age and under [2]. In a
tion; see also Wound Repair Regen. 2012;20:676–87)
paediatric study, the youngest children (0–5 years) were
at higher risk to develop raised scars [10].
to increase up to 6 months. At 12 months, there is a ten-
Skin type: Skin type is a well-known factor influenc-
dency to regress, according to several studies [2].
ing the scar formation and scar quality. In one of the
Individual scar characteristics have an individual
first studies on prediction of scar quality from Deitch in
maturation pattern. Vascularization shows a continuous
1983, scar hypertrophy was more often reported in
decrease from 3 months post burn onwards, and relief
patients with a darker skin. In recent studies, skin type is
and thickness show increased scar morbidity during at
often classified using the Fitzpatrick skin type test. This
least the first year post injury (. Fig. 5.1).
score classifies skin types in six categories, from type I
(palest) to type VI (deeply pigmented dark brown to
darkest brown). Having skin types V or VI was associ-
5.3 actors Predicting Scar Outcome
F ated with a poorer scar quality, based on both the patient
After Burns and observer POSAS [7]. In addition, darker skin (skin
types IV–VI) has an increased risk on raised scars [4]. In
Several studies investigated the predictors of pathologi- children, this association was not reported [10].
cal scar formation after burn injuries.
Some groups of predictors can be distinguished,
including patient, injury and treatment characteristics. 5.3.2 Injury and Treatment Characteristics
Several injury and treatment characteristics have been

5.3.1 Patient Characteristics documented to influence scar formation and scar
quality.
A few patient characteristics are recognized for their These include several burn severity indicators,
predictive value in pathological scar formation. including increased burn size (percentage of total body
Sex: The relation between sex and scar quality is surface area burned (TBSA)), high %TBSA full thick-
ambiguous. ness, wound complications and a longer time to wound
There are several studies reporting a poorer scar healing.
quality in females. In Dutch studies using the Patient In addition, several treatment characteristics have
and Observer Scar Assessment Scale (POSAS), a poorer been described to be related to poor scar quality,
scar quality was reported in females two and five years including a prolonged hospital stay, type of surgery

after burns. Observers reported a poorer scar quality in (none, ReCell, skin grafting, dermal substitute), multi-
42 M. E. van Baar
ple surgeries, repeated surgery in the same wound, outcome. This includes the risk factors the female gen-
reconstructive surgery and artificial ventilation [4, 10]. der and also a younger age and darker skin.
Again, all these treatment features are related to the An important limitation of three of the aforemen-
severity of the burn injuries, complexity of wound heal- tioned studies is the sample size. In sample sizes up to
ing and possible complications. Length of stay in these 251 patients, only a limited number of predictors can be
analyses is the representation or proxy for the severity of revealed in multivariate analysis. This was illustrated by
the burn injuries and the complexity of the burn care the results of the adult study from Wallace et al.; their
process including wound healing and possible complica- analyses on 616 people after burns revealed seven sig-
tions. nificant predictors [4, 10], compared to the maximum of
three predictors in the other smaller-sized studies.
5 5.3.3 atient, Injury and Treatment
P
Characteristics Combined 5.4 Clinical Relevance
To identify the independent predictors of poor scar Knowledge on risk factors for poor scar outcome can be
outcome, the potential predictors have to be taken into used to tailor treatment, aftercare and scar prevention
account together in one analysis, which requires ade- to these patients with a high-risk profile.
quate numbers to reach significant power of the analy- Current evidence shows that injury- and treatment-
sis. Some examples of such studies are summarized related characteristics are the main predictors of scar
here. outcomes after burn injury. These characteristics are
Raised scars in children up to 16 years of age, one related to burn size (%TBSA) and burn depth (number
year post burn, could be predicted by greater burn size or type of surgery) or the overall healing process in gen-
(%TBSA), a prolonged healing time (over 14 days) and eral (length of stay, wound healing complications).
multiple surgical procedures. Patient characteristics did Intrinsic patient-related risk factors seem to play a role
not contribute to this prediction of scars after burn inju- as well but are less consistent predictors of scar out-
ries in children [10]. come. This includes the risk factors the female gender
Raised scars in adults one year post burn could be and also a younger age and darker skin.
predicted again by increasing burn size (%TBSA) and by Future studies, with greater sample sizes, will proba-
the type of surgical intervention (as a proxy for burn bly reveal additional predictors for scar outcome.
depth), wound complications and prolonged hospital Especially, paediatric scar outcome is not yet well
stay. In addition, patient predictors were found, being a studied.
young age (<30), the female gender and darker skin were
for raised scars in adults [4].
Reported scar quality 2 years post burn could be 5.5 Conclusion
predicted by one patient-related and one injury/
treatment-related characteristic: a dark skin type and Early studies on pathological scarring in burn wounds
more than one operation in the same wound were inde- have distinguished between hypertrophic scars and con-
pendently related to lower long-term scar quality, tractures. Prevalences of hypertrophic scarring after
2 years after the injury [7]. Self-reported scar quality 5 burn injuries are reported between 8% and 67%; a recent
years post burn was predicted by length of hospital prospective study revealed a prevalence of 8%. Data on
stay. In addition, the female gender predicted the over- prevalence of burn scar contractures are limited;
all scar opinion. Thus, all other patient-, injury- or reported prevalence at discharge varied between 38 and
treatment-related potential risk factor predictors did 54% and decreased with an increasing time post burn.
no longer predict scar quality, after taking these predic- Prevalence of reconstructive surgery after burn varied
tors into account [8]. between 5 and 20%, up to 10 years post injury.
Some general remarks can be made based on these Factors predicting pathological scar formation after
findings. Firstly, injury- and treatment-related charac- burn injuries include patient, injury and treatment char-
teristics are the main predictors of scar outcomes after acteristics. Injury- and treatment-related characteristics
burn injury. These characteristics are related to burn are the main predictors of scar outcomes after burn
size (total body surface area burned) and burn depth injury. These characteristics are related to burn size
(number or type of surgery) or the overall healing pro- (total body surface area burned) and burn depth (num-
cess in general (length of stay, wound healing complica- ber or type of surgery) or the overall healing process in
tions). Intrinsic patient-related risk factors seem to play general (length of stay, wound healing complications).
a role as well but are less consistent predictors of scar Intrinsic patient-related risk factors seem to play a role
43 5
as well but are less consistent predictors of scar outcome. References
This includes the risk factors the female gender and also
a younger age and darker skin. 1. Gangemi EN, Gregori D, Berchialla P, et al. Epidemiology and
Knowledge on risk factors for poor scar outcome risk factors for pathologic scarring after burn wounds. Arch
Facial Plast Surg. 2008;10:93–102. https://doi.org/10.1001/arch-
can be used to tailor treatment, aftercare and scar pre-
faci.10.2.93.
vention to these patients with a high-risk profile. 2. van der Wal MB, Verhaegen PD, Middelkoop E, et al. A clini-
metric overview of scar assessment scales. J Burn Care Res:
Official Publication of the American Burn Association.
Take-Home Messages 2012;33:e79–87. https://doi.org/10.1097/
55 Pathological scarring in burn wounds can result in BCR.0b013e318239f5dd.
hypertrophic scars and/or contractures. 3. Bombaro KM, Engrav LH, Carrougher GJ, et al. What is the
prevalence of hypertrophic scarring following burns? Burns.
55 Reported prevalence of hypertrophic scarring
2003;29:299–302. DOI: S0305417903000676 [pii].
after burn injuries varied between 8% and 67%. 4. Wallace HJ, Fear MW, Crowe MM, et al. Identification of fac-
55 Reported prevalence of burn scar contractures tors predicting scar outcome after burn in adults: a prospective
varied between 38 and 54%. case–control study. Burns. 2017;43:1271–83.
55 About 5 to 20% of patient after burn injuries 5. Oosterwijk AM, Mouton LJ, Schouten H, et al. Prevalence of
scar contractures after burn: a systematic review. Burns.
receive reconstructive surgery, reflecting scar
2017;43:41–9.
pathology. 6. Schouten HJ, Nieuwenhuis MK, van Baar M E, et al. The preva-
55 Factors predicting pathological scar formation lence and development of burn scar contractures. A prospective
after burn injuries include patient, injury and multicentre cohort study. Submitted.
treatment characteristics. 7. Goei H, van der Vlies CH, Hop MJ, et al. Long-term scar quality
in burns with three distinct healing potentials: a multicenter pro-
55 Injury- and treatment-related characteristics are
spective cohort study. Wound Repair Regen. 2016;24:721–30.
the main predictors of scar outcomes after burn 8. Spronk I, Polinder S, Haagsma J, et al. Patient-reported scar
injury, including burn size (TBSA burned), burn quality of adults after burn injuries: a five-year multicenter fol-
depth (number of type of surgery) or the overall low-up study. Wound Repair Regen Acc.
healing process in general (length of stay, wound 9. Hop MJ, Langenberg LC, Hiddingh J, et al. Reconstructive sur-
gery after burns: a 10-year follow-up study. Burns. 2014;40:1544–
healing complications).
51. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.burns.2014.04.014.
55 Intrinsic patient-related risk factors, including the 10. Wallace HJ, Fear MW, Crowe MM, et al. Identification of fac-
female gender and also a younger age and darker tors predicting scar outcome after burn injury in children: a pro-
skin, are less consistent predictors of scar outcome. spective case-control study. Burns Trauma. 2017;5:19.
55 Knowledge on risk factors for poor scar outcome
should be used to tailor treatment, aftercare and Further Reading
scar prevention to these patients with a high-risk Finnerty CC, Jeschke MG, Branski LK, Barret JP, Dziewulski P,
Herndon DN. Hypertrophic scarring: the greatest unmet chal-
profile.
lenge after burn injury. Lancet. 2016;388:1427–36.
45 6
Scar Epidemiology
and Consequences
Contents
6.1 Introduction and Background – 46
6.2 Reminder of the Spectrum of Scars – 46

6.2.1 ontractures – 46
C
6.2.2 Extended Scar – 46
6.2.3 Atrophic Scar – 46
6.2.4 Hypertrophic Scar – 46
6.2.5 Keloid Scar – 46
6.3 Hypertrophic Scars – 46
6.4 Basic Epidemiology – 46

6.4.1 Risk Factors – 47
6.5 Keloid Scars – 47

6.5.1 asic Epidemiology – 47
B
6.5.2 Risk Factors – 47
6.6 Specific Situation: The Burnt Patient Healing – 47

6.6.1 S carred Hypertrophy in Burned Patients: Epidemiology – 48
6.6.2 Retracted Scars – 48
6.7 Impact of Scars – 48

References – 48

46 M. El Kinani and F. Duteille
6.1 Introduction and Background distinguished from keloid scars by their spontaneous
regression within two years of the onset of the wound.
Cutaneous scarring is a dynamic process following a They are often itchy and even painful.
physical alteration of the cutaneous barrier. It is a slow
process, taking place in three phases: debridement, gran-
ulation and epidermization, each of these phases bring- 6.2.5 Keloid Scar
ing into play different cellular mediators. Then comes
the maturation phase of the scar, which reaches its final Unlike hypertrophic scars, keloid scars extend beyond
appearance usually after two years of evolution. the margins and also affect healthy skin around the scar.
It is important to distinguish between defective scars, Functional symptoms (itching and pain) are very com-
which may result out of poor surgical technique, issuing mon and hinder quality of life. They have no tendency
to a dermal separation, keeping the epidermal layer in to regress. After excision, the rate of recurrence is major,
continuity. These scars are stable over time and do not making the management of these scars, which must be
6 belong to the same category than pathological scars, multimodal, complex.
which are true evolutionary abnormalities of cutaneous Pathological (hypertrophic or keloid) healing is a
scarring, linked to abnormal cell proliferation of myofi- complex process, resulting from many factors. During
broblasts, with different scenarios depending on the normal healing, the myofibroblasts participating in the
degree of anarchy of the collagenic bundles. cutaneous contraction enter apoptosis. A lack of apop-
tosis of these myofibroblasts, and consequently their
excessive accumulation, explains the occurrence of
6.2 Reminder of the Spectrum of Scars raised and inflammatory scars [1]. Another factor con-
tributing to the pathogenesis of these scars is an accu-
6.2.1 Contractures mulation of immature collagen [2].
Located generally opposite the joints or when a wound

is perpendicular to the lines of Langer, they can alter 6.3 Hypertrophic Scars
considerably the function according to their importance
and their localization. They are particularly common in Hypertrophic scars are the result of excessive prolifera-
burned patients or after a thin or semi-thick skin graft. tion of myofibroblasts and increased deposition of colla-
gen within the scar [1, 2]. The scar then exceeds to the
surface of the healthy peripheral skin, can be inflamma-
6.2.2 Extended Scar tory and itchy, and even painful. They differ from keloid
scars due to their tendency to regress within two years and
They are mainly observed from the first postoperative because they never exceed the scarred margins [3, 4, 5].
weeks. Most often pale, asymptomatic, they pose mostly However, diagnostic errors are still common in practice.
aesthetic problems without functional discomfort.
Stretch marks (often abdominal) are a type of enlarged
scar and a consequence of a rupture of the dermis, with- 6.4 Basic Epidemiology
out epidermal alteration. The absence of elevation or
thickening differentiates them from hypertrophic scars. The frequent confusion between hypertrophic scars and
keloids (despite the above definitions) means that there
is little data on their epidemiology. The studies found
6.2.3 Atrophic Scar are often of low level of evidence, centered on a given
geographic population. Mahdavian Belavary et al [5]
The plan of these scars lies under the plan of healthy studied the rate of hypertrophic scars after breast reduc-
peripheral skin. They are usually small. Frequent on the tion or median sternotomy. At three months, 60% of
face, they are mostly consequences of acne or chicken pox. patients developed hypertrophic scars. At one year, there
was persistent hypertrophy in 32% of patients included.
These figures are consistent with previous studies, found
6.2.4 Hypertrophic Scar between 38% and 68% postoperative hypertrophic scars
[6]. An analysis of data over time would be interesting,
They are characterized clinically by an elevation of the in order to evaluate the average duration of evolution of
plane of the scar which is thickened, inflammatory, but these scars. No sex ratio was found in the literature, as
which remains limited to the cicatricial banks. They men and women were similarly affected by the occur-
never invade the healthy peripheral skin. They are also rence of hypertrophic scars.
Scar Epidemiology and Consequences
47 6
6.4.1 Risk Factors 6.5.2 Risk Factors
Many risk factors for the occurrence of scarring hyper- Keloid scars may be found on all localizations, but are
trophy are admitted. There are many studies in the litera- more frequent in some areas [11, 12]:
ture but many are of a low level of proof (levels IV–V). 55 Ear lobe
Butzelaar et al. [7] found as major risk factors the age, the 55 Pre-stern and deltoid region
existence of allergic terrain, the existence of bacterial 55 Under umbilical area (pubic area)
colonization (with or without infection) within the
wound, and cutaneous tension. Most of the hypertrophic These are areas where skin tension is important, thus
scars are found between the ages of 11 and 30 years. This joining the frequent locations of hypertrophic scars.
can be explained by the presence of sagging skin with age By definition, they do not touch the mucous mem-
and a decrease in the inflammatory response [8]. It is branes.
often accepted that a dark phototype (African skin) is a They can be observed at any age but peak frequency
is between 10 and 30 years [13, 18]. Some authors
risk factor for hypertrophic scars. Nevertheless, in the lit-
erature, the studies are of a low level of proof and the explain this by the role of cutaneous tension which is
opinion of the authors is partaged, not allowing to bring more important in young subjects [3]. There also
a valid and reliable conclusion to this idea. Unlike keloid appears to be a hormonal factor, keloid scars being
scars, there does not appear to be a genetic cause for the more frequent in the pubertal period [3]. The hor-
occurrence of hypertrophic scars [9]. Butzelaar et al [7] monal role is still discussed: if they are actually more
found a protective trend of smoking for the development common in pubertal period, keloids that appear at
of hypertrophic scars. Cancer chemotherapy also seems these ages also have a tendency to hyperpigmentation.
to be a protective factor; however, there are many con- During pregnancy, some authors have observed a
founding factors to consider in the studies in question more frequent appearance or enlargement of keloid
(role of cancer itself, possible undernutrition). scars [14].
It is also accepted that subjects with a dark photo-
type are more frequently affected, although we may
6.5 Keloid Scars experience keloid scars in all phototypes [15, 16].
The hypothesis of a genetic predisposition is begin-
The keloid scar is an abnormality of cutaneous healing ning to be well anchored. It is estimated that 5 to 10%
specific to humans. The main problems, apart from their of cases have family keloids [17]. Marneros et al. [18]
unattractive and annoying appearance, are their non- found that transmission is autosomal-dominant mode,
improvement in the time and frequency of recurrence the clinical penetrance is incomplete, and the expres-
despite the medical and surgical treatments undertaken. sion is highly variable. There appears to be susceptibil-
They can even be aggravated by surgical resection if it is ity to the development of keloids in Japanese and
not strictly intra-lesional. African-American families in relation to chromosomes
2 and 7 [19].
There are cases of spontaneous keloids in the litera-
6.5.1 Basic Epidemiology ture, but these would ultimately be due to undetected
microtrauma [20]
Again, few studies have investigated the prevalence or
incidence of keloid scars. Yet each year, it is estimated
that about 100 million scars are developed, and among 6.6 Specific Situation: The Burnt Patient
them 11 million would become keloids [10]. Healing
In the literature, the prevalence varies widely accord-
ing to the population studied [3, 11].The estimations are Hypertrophic scarring after a burn (whether it has
as follows: healed spontaneously or required skin grafting) is a
55 4.5 to 16% in black and Hispanic populations of common problem in clinical practice. In addition to
American origin being dysgraculous, these scars are generally itchy and
55 16% in Zaire even painful and can significantly alter function and
55 only 0.09% in England quality of life, especially if they are responsible for skin
retraction. Since this type of healing is quite specific to
They are responsible for pruritus or pain in 20–40% of the burned patient, we chose to treat it in a separate
cases [3]. chapter.
48 M. El Kinani and F. Duteille
6.6.1 carred Hypertrophy in Burned

S contractures, 28% combining both). They also found as
Patients: Epidemiology risk factors the female sex, the young age, localization of
the burning of the upper limb or the neck, the repetition
The data of the literature are very variable on this sub- of the surgical procedures, and the expansion of the skin
ject. In the majority of cases, the studies are small, and grafts when these are realized.
few distinctions are made between the different popula-
tions (adults vs. children, light phototype vs. dark pho-
totype, spontaneously scarred burn vs. transplanted). 6.7 Impact of Scars
Deitch et al [21] found a prevalence of 15% (white
patients) to 30% (black patients) in burn patients who Although many studies concern the epidemiology and
healed spontaneously. management of scars, very few have been interested in
Mc Donald and Deitch [22] analyzed the prevalence the consequences of these scars. However, it is estimated
of scar hypertrophy in patients treated with thin skin that more than one in two patients are not satisfied with
6 grafts. Of the children included, 75% had cicatricial the appearance of their scars, 20% of patients suffer
hypertrophy. In adults, the prevalence was 50% in from anxiety, and more than 50% feel that their privacy
patients with black skin, compared to 7% in patients is affected by the presence of their scars [29].
with fair skin.
Spurr and Shakespeare [23] followed 82 children and
found 65% hypertrophic scars. Bombaro et al. [24] 6.8 Conclusion
reported an average of 67% cicatricial hypertrophy (up
to 100% in children with non-white skin). Finally, Few studies have really focused on the epidemiology of
Delavary et al. [25] found a rate of 60% hypertrophic scars and their consequences. When studies are con-
scars in burn patients, mainly in the first three months ducted, they often concentrate around a given geo-
after the onset of the burn. According to them, young graphic population and report only a small number of
and non-smoking subjects are more likely to develop patients. There are probably many lost sight, since many
hypertrophic scars. In each of these studies, the number patients live surely with their scars (hypertrophic,
of patients remains low and the population monocen- keloids) without consulting. Larger scale studies should
tric. Further and larger studies would be needed to bet- be carried out to determine the frequency of occurrence
ter identify populations at risk. The risk factors identified of these scarring abnormalities, in order to better iden-
to date are young age, location of the upper limbs or tify them and, consequently, to better treat them.
neck, dark phototype, repetition of surgical procedures,
initial severity of burn, and time to heal [25]. Lawrence Take Home Message
et al [26] also find these risk factors in the literature, in The epidemiology of pathologic scars is diverse.
addition to the female sex and skin grafts that required Sixty percent of scars located on the thorax may
expansion (mesh-graft). Their review of the literature become hypertrophic, and a patient from Zaire has
found a prevalence of hypertrophic scars ranging 100% more risks to develop a keloid than a patient
between 32 and 72%. native from England. Burns may issue up to 77% of
pathologic scars, combining hypertrophic, retractile,
and keloid scars. The role of hormonal status,
6.6.2 Retracted Scars nutrition, and many other factors has been suspected
in keloids.
Retraction or contraction of the skin following a burn
results from an excessive, hypertrophic scarring, of
which we have just spoken. Functional consequences
can be major and threaten the socio-professional future
of patients. They are frequent and particularly disabling
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51 7
Other Scar Types: Optimal

Functional and Aesthetic
Outcome of Scarring in Cleft
Patients
Wouter B. van der Sluis, Nirvana S. S. Kornmann, Robin A. Tan,
and Johan P. W. Don Griot
Contents
7.2 Objectives of Cleft Lip Surgery – 52
7.3 Treatment Protocol – 52
7.4 Cleft Lip Reconstruction: Surgical Techniques – 52

7.4.1 nilateral Cleft Lip – 53
U
7.4.2 Bilateral Cleft Lip – 53
7.4.3 Additional Measures to Improve Scarring – 53
7.5 Secondary Cleft Lip Reconstruction – 55
7.6 Evaluation of Aesthetic Outcome – 55

7.6.1 Palatal Scarring – 55
Further Reading – 57

52 W. B. van der Sluis et al.
7.1 Background .. Table 7.1 Short overview of the “surgical treatment of

cleft patients” protocol of the Amsterdam University
Cleft lip and palate are facial and oral malformation due Medical Center
to failures in the embryologic craniofacial development
during early pregnancy. They occur in approximately Unilateral cleft lip Bilateral cleft lip Cleft palate
and palate and palate
1 in 750/1000 births in Europe, which makes it the most
common congenital craniofacial abnormality. Different 3 months: Lip 3 months: Lip
variations in phenotype of this malformation exist. It closure closure
can occur unilateral (left or right) or bilateral, with
9 months: 9 months: 9 months:
involvement of lip and/or alveolus and/or palate and Palatography Palatography Palatography
can be microform, incomplete, or complete. Unilateral
7–9 years: 7–9 years: 7–9 years: Hard
cleft lip and palate are the most common type, whereby
If necessary, If necessary, palate closure
the upper lip, the orbicularis muscle, the alveolar bone, hard palate hard palate
the floor of the nose, and the hard and soft palate are closure closure
interrupted, creating an open communication between If necessary, if necessary,
7 nasopharynx and oropharynx. orthognathic orthognathic
surgery surgery
Patients with a cleft lip and palate are treated in spe-
cialized cleft centers by a multidisciplinary team, con- >15 years >15 years >15 years
sisting of geneticists; (plastic) surgeons; orthodontists; If necessary, If necessary, If necessary,
secondary secondary secondary
dentists; ear, nose, and throat (ENT) doctors; speech
corrections corrections corrections
and language therapists; and psychologists. All surgical
interventions aimed at closure of the cleft lip and palate >17 years >17 years
If necessary, If necessary,
induce restriction of maxillary growth. Surgical timing,
rhinoplasty rhinoplasty
staging, and techniques differ between treatment cen-
ters. The lip is usually closed at 3–6 months after birth
and the soft palate at 6–12 months. In some cleft centers,
the hard palate is closed before 12 months after birth in symmetrical shape of the nose. Closure of a cleft lip,
either a one-stage or two-stage procedure. Other cleft also called “cheilorrhaphy,” is a functional and aesthetic
centers prefer to close the hard palate later in life, at reconstruction of the upper lip, orbicularis muscle, nasal
18 months to 3 years, or during the closure of the alveo- floor, and ala.
lar gap at the age of 8–11 years.
Having cleft lip and/or palate has a noteworthy
impact on quality of life and psychosocial functioning. 7.3 Treatment Protocol
Postoperative scarring is a common cause of patient dis-
satisfaction. The degree of postoperative scarring in As stated above, surgical timing, staging, and techniques
cleft patients is associated with symptoms of anxiety, differ between treatment centers. In . Table 7.1, a short
depression, and a lower self-esteem. For cleft surgeons, overview of the “surgical treatment of cleft patients”
every possible measure to optimize functional and aes- protocol of the Amsterdam University Medical Center
thetic outcome is important. is provided.
7.2 Objectives of Cleft Lip Surgery 7.4 left Lip Reconstruction: Surgical
C
Techniques
The goal of cleft lip surgery is to close the lip separation,
provide optimal function in terms of speech, mastica- Precise surgical technique and adequate aligning of ana-
tion, dental protection, breathing and feeding, and pro- tomical structures is important for the postoperative
vide an aesthetically pleasing facial scar and optimal aesthetic result and scar formation. Patients with a cleft
shape of nose and nostril. The visible facial scar and its lip have, besides the obvious interrupted upper lip, a
effect on nose and lip aesthetics are a daily reminder to typical flared nostril and a septum deviation. As stated
the patient of its underlying cause. Over the years, dif- above, different surgical techniques are used to recon-
ferent surgical techniques have been described regarding struct this defect, each with its pros and cons. Though
surgical closure of the cleft lip. The ideal technique many approaches exist, the Millard (rotation advance-
should create a balanced lip, allow for easy adjustments, ment) and Fisher (anatomic subunit) approaches are
and produce a favorable scar pattern combined with a historically most frequently performed.
Other Scar Types: Optimal Functional and Aesthetic Outcome of Scarring in Cleft Patients
53 7
7.4.1 Unilateral Cleft Lip gap is closed, and orbicularis oris continuity and lip
continuity are restored. Ideally, both scars are posi-
7.4.1.1 Millard Lip Closure tioned symmetrically at the philtral ridge.
Since the 1950s, the Millard rotation advancement tech- In several cleft centers these surgical techniques are
nique for surgical lip closure was the most popular combined with preoperative nasoalveolar molding
among cleft surgeons. It consists of downward rotation (NAM). The aim of NAM is to improve the shape and
of the medial cleft component and a lateral lip advance- form of the alveolar wall and nose and to bring the
ment flap. The majority of the scar can be placed at the divided lip together with an orthodontic plate, nasal
philtral column. A disadvantage of this approach is that spring, and tape (Plaatje). In our center NAM is only
the superior part of the scar crosses the philtrum per- used in cases with bilateral cleft lips. Furthermore, a
pendicularly at the columellar base. Various modifica- nasal conformer is used in unilateral cases to improve
tions of the traditional Millard technique have been the shape of the affected nostril postoperative.
developed to overcome this disadvantage.
7.4.1.2 Fisher Lip Closure 7.4.3 dditional Measures to Improve

A
In 2005, Fisher published his lip closure technique, in Scarring
which the anatomical subunit principles guide lip
repair. In this technique, a circumferential incision at Visible facial scarring after cleft lip repair is inevitable.
the cleft side of the columella is continued to the There are however some perioperative measures that can
Cupid’s bow top in a straight manner. This mirrors the be taken to minimize scar morbidity in terms of hyper-
unaffected philtral ridge. To lengthen the medial flap, trophy and contraction.
small inlet incisions are frequently necessary. To pre-
vent upper lip shortening, a triangular flap above the 7.4.3.1 Perioperative Botulinum Toxin
cutaneous roll can be incorporated (. Figs. 7.1, 7.2, After surgical correction of the lip and philtrum, the
and 7.3). underlying orbicularis oris muscle contracts in a direction
perpendicular to the cutaneous scar. This results in accen-
tuation of dynamic rhytides, which may slowly result in
7.4.2 Bilateral Cleft Lip widening of the surgical scar. Some surgical teams tempo-
rarily paralyze the orbicularis oris muscle, by intraopera-
“Bilateral cleft lip” can manifest in different ways, in tively injecting it with botulinum toxin. Several studies
which symmetrical complete bilateral showed a beneficial effect on postoperative scar width;
cleft lip–cleft palate is the most prevalent. When however, the sample size is relatively small in most studies,
looking at the lip alone, the bilateral symmetrical com- and objective assessment tools are scarcely employed.
plete variant accounts for 50% of cases, bilateral incom-
plete for 25%, and asymmetrical bilateral (complete/ 7.4.3.2 Sutureless Skin Closure
incomplete) for 25%. A one-stage surgical approach is Using (too many) cutaneous sutures in a facial wound
advocated in most centers. may cause a foreign body reaction and subsequent sub-
The Millard–Mulliken technique is frequently optimal scarring. The possibility of visible cross-
employed. A cranially based philtrum flap is created, the hatching of sutures is unappealing.
.. Fig. 7.1 Preoperative planning for Millard (left) and Fisher (right) lip closure
.. Fig. 7.2 Postoperative scar pattern after Millard (left) and Fisher (right) lip closure. Note, different surgeons use different modifications
of both techniques
.. Fig. 7.3 Preoperative (upper),

planning (middle), and direct
postoperative (lower) result of the
Fisher lip closing technique in a
patient with complete unilateral
cleft lip and palate
55 7
Some advocate the use of sutureless skin closure, in ple, volume deficiencies of the lip, can be restored in the
which the cutaneous layer approximation is performed same procedure with lipofilling or dermal fat grafts.
using surgical glue, such as butyl cyanoacrylate or amc-
rylate. An additional advantage is that is generally faster
to perform, which reduces intraoperative time. No large, 7.6 Evaluation of Aesthetic Outcome
prospective comparative studies are performed on this
subject. One of the goals in the treatment of cleft lip (and palate)
repair is improving nasolabial aesthetics by restoring
7.4.3.3 Silicone Application symmetry and proportion of the nose and lip.
Topical silicone application is used for treating/prevent- Traditionally, aesthetic assessment is performed by sym-
ing hypertrophic scars in different body locations. This metry measurements with a caliper. The last two decades,
is also the case for cheiloplasty scars. To which extent several scoring systems have been proposed for a simpler
hypertrophic cheiloplasty scars can be treated/prevented and quicker assessment. Most of these scoring systems
with this application is unknown. Side effects of this use two-dimensional (2D) photographs in combination
treatment comprise skin rash and fusibility problems, with Likert or visual analog (VAS) scales. The most fre-
such as loss of adhesiveness. Using silicone gel seems to quently used method is the Asher–McDade (AMD) sys-
be non-inferior to silicone sheeting. tem, which utilizes a five-point Likert scale ranging from
“excellent” to “very poor” to grade four anatomical
7.4.3.4 Postoperative Laser Therapy nasal and lip structures. In 2016, the Cleft Aesthetic
Use of carbon dioxide fractional laser, sometimes com- Rating Scale (CARS) was developed as a new tool to
bined with intense pulsed light treatment, in the direct allow rapid assessment of the nose and lip separately.
postoperative phase is shown to improve scars in terms The majority of assessment methods are focusing on
of pliability and color. Though proven safe, pain during symmetry and on the shape of the nose and lip, whereas
the session and crust formation are frequently reported. the scar appears to be of secondary importance. In 2010,
the Patient and Observer Scar Assessment Scale
7.4.3.5 Hair Transplantation (POSAS) was proposed to assess the scar after cleft lip
In male cleft patients, limited or missing moustache repair. Nevertheless, it remains unknown to which
growth may be noticeable in the scarred area, especially extend visible scarring plays a role in facial aesthetics
in men with dark hair and ample hair growth. Hair graft after cleft surgery.
transplantation can be performed; however, the poor To determine the aesthetic outcome in a more objec-
vascularization of scar tissue poses a problem, because tive way, measurements using three-dimensional (3D)
this is not a good bed for graft survival. Some use fat photographs seem to be promising nowadays. These
grafting of the scar before hair transplantation to opti- methods show a high reliability, but these techniques
mize graft survival. require expertise and costly equipment and are therefore
not readily available worldwide. To compromise,
computer- based programs, like SymNose, have been
7.5 Secondary Cleft Lip Reconstruction developed. These programs allow symmetry measure-
ments on 2D images of the nose and lip by tracing the
Secondary cleft lip reconstruction is frequently per- outline of the upper lip and the lower border of the
formed due to scar contracture, which has a negative nose. By reflecting the left side of the midline over the
impact on lip, philtrum, and nose aesthetics. The exact right, the percentage mismatch of the nonoverlapping
incidence of secondary lip correction is unknown and area is calculated.
dependent on many factors, for example, patient factors, However, an internationally accepted assessment
treatment protocol, access to health care services, etc. In method for the aesthetic evaluation of cleft lips is still
the Western world, the estimated incidence is 40–60%. not available.
Conservative management of these cases is seldom suc-
cessful. Surgical correction typically employs use of the
Rose–Thompson effect (in which a scar is lengthened by 7.6.1 Palatal Scarring
using concave excisions of the scar, which is subse-
quently closed in a straight line), one or multiple 7.6.1.1 Palatal Closure
Z-plasties, or a combination of these strategies. Some Both the hard palate and soft palate can be involved in
perform fat grafting of the scar to loosen it and provide palatal clefts, resulting in a gap from anterior to poste-
more length. Remaining volume deficiencies, for exam- rior, affecting the maxilla, the mucosa, the levator veli
palatini muscle, the tensor veli palatini muscle, and uvula 7.6.1.4 Speech Development
muscle. An open communication between the nasophar- Due to a congenital short palate, hypernasal speech,
ynx and oropharynx prevents the infant to create an and nasal air emission during speech are common
intraoral negative pressure, which is mandatory for pro- findings in children after a cleft palate repair.
ductive suckling during (breast)feeding. A positive oro- Hypernasality and nasal air leakage are often the
pharyngeal pressure and elevation of the palate allows result of velopharyngeal insufficiency, which means
for the normal articulation of the oral consonants, most that the velopharyngeal valve does not close com-
notably the oral stop-plosives, [p, t, k, b, d, g] in English. pletely and consistently during the production of oral
This can only be achieved by partitioning the orophar- sounds. As scarring tissue tends to contract in longi-
ynx from the nasopharynx. Therefore, the aim of palatal tudinal direction, the palate frequently becomes even
closure, also called “palatography” or “palatoplasty,” is shorter or movement of the soft palate becomes inad-
functional reconstruction of structures that are neces- equate, preventing the soft palate to make contact
sary for feeding and speech development early in life. with the pharyngeal wall. Several techniques have
Different types of palatoplasties have been described to been described to create more length of the palate,
close the soft and the hard palate whereby several surgi- such as the V–Y pushback repair (Veau–Wardill–
7 cal considerations must be addressed. The most impor- Kilner), the buccal mucosal flap, the double opposing
tant anatomical structure, which should not be harmed Z-plasty (Furlow), or the lengthening of the soft pal-
during surgery is the greater palatine neurovascular bun- ate with a pharyngoplasty.
dle, proceeding through the greater palatine foramen
through the lateral posterior hard palate. It is essential to
obtain a tension-free closure of the palatal flaps, prevent- 7.7 Conclusion
ing compression or stretching of the neurovascular bun-
dle. Releasing incisions may be necessary to achieve Cleft lip and palate scars influence lip, philtrum, and
complete closure from anterior to posterior. nose aesthetics, as well as speech and growth of the max-
illa. Optimal scar management can be divided in surgi-
7.6.1.2 Timing of Palatal Closure cal (precise surgical technique, planning, and adequate
Impaired maxillary growth and an abnormal speech aligning of anatomical structures) and nonsurgical
development are common findings in methods (botulinum toxin, silicone application, carbon
patients after repaired cleft lip and palate. Delayed dioxide fractional laser).
closure of the palate beyond 12 years or no closure at all
minimizes abnormal facial growth, yet early closure of
the palate, that is, before 12 months after birth, is neces-
Take-Home Message
sary for normal speech development. Studies on speech
development, maxillary growth, and timing of palatal 55 Cleft lip and palate are facial and oral malforma-
closure show different results due to confounding vari- tion due to failures in the embryologic craniofacial
ables as surgical technique, surgeon’s experience level, development during early pregnancy.
and lack of standardized speech outcome or standard- 55 The goal of cleft lip surgery is to close the lip
ized indications for secondary maxillary surgery. separation; provide optimal function in terms of
Therefore, consensus on the optimal timing of palatal speech, mastication, dental protection, breathing
closure has not yet been reached. and feeding; and provide an aesthetically pleasing
facial scar.
7.6.1.3 Maxillary Growth 55 Cleft lip scars influence lip, philtrum, and nose
Impaired maxillary growth in cleft patients often results aesthetics.
in typical features as crowding, lateral crossbite, and 55 Optimal scar management can be divided in
open bite. The exact pathophysiology of abnormal facial surgical (precise surgical technique, planning, and
growth after cleft lip and palate repair remains unclear. adequate aligning of anatomical structures).
It is a widely accepted hypothesis that abnormal maxil- 55 And nonsurgical methods (botulinum toxin,
lary growth has an iatrogenic cause and is secondary to silicone application, carbon dioxide fractional
surgical intervention due to scarring. However, other laser).
studies suggest that intrinsic maxillary underdevelop- 55 In secondary lip correction, cleft surgeons typically
ment contribute to impaired facial growth as well. It is make use of the Rose–Thompson effect, one or
most likely that a combination of intrinsic and iatro- multiple Z-plasties, or a combination of these
genic factors is responsible, making it mandatory for a strategies.
surgeon to minimize scarring in the oral cavity.
57 7
Further Reading Akdag O, Evin N, Karamese M, Tosun Z. Camouflaging cleft lip
scar using follicular unit extraction hair transplantation com-
bined with autologous fat grafting. Plast Reconstr Surg.
Fu KJ, Teichgraeber JF, Greives MR. Botulinum toxin use in pediat-
2018;141(1):148–51.
ric plastic surgery. Ann Plast Surg. 2016;77(5):577–82.
Mosmuller DGM, Mennes LM, Prahl C, Kramer GJC, Disse MA,
Chang CS, Wallace CG, Hsiao YC, Huang JJ, Chen ZC, Chang CJ,
van Couwelaar GM, Niessen FB, Griot JPWD. The develop-
Lo LJ, Chen PK, Chen JP, Chen YR. Clinical evaluation of sili-
ment of the cleft aesthetic rating scale: a new rating scale for the
cone gel in the treatment of cleft lip scars. Sci Rep. 2018;8(1):7422.
assessment of nasolabial appearance in complete unilateral cleft
Fisher DM. Unilateral cleft lip repair: an anatomical subunit
lip and palate patients. Cleft Palate Craniofac J. 2017;54(5):
approximation technique. Plast Reconstr Surg. 2005;116(1):
555–61.
61–71.
Pigott RW, Pigott BB. Quantitative measurement of symmetry from
Millard DR. Refinements in rotation advancement cleft lip tech-
photographs following surgery for unilateral cleft lip and palate.
nique. Plast Reconstr Surg. 1964;33:26–38.
Cleft Palate Craniofac J. 2010;47(4):363–7.
Akdag O, Evin N, Karamese M, Tosun Z. Camouflaging cleft lip
scar using follicular unit extraction hair transplantation com-
bined with autologous fat grafting. Plast Reconstr Surg.
2018;141(1):148–51.
59 III
Hypertrophic and Keloid

Scar: Genetics and
Proteomic Studies
Contents
Chapter 8 Genetics of Keloid Scarring – 61

61 8
Genetics of Keloid Scarring

Contents
8.2 HLA Immunogenetics – 62
8.3 Linkage – 63
8.4 L arge-Scale Population Single-Nucleotide

Polymorphism (SNP) – 64
8.5 Gene Expression – 65
8.6 MicroRNAs (miRNA) – 65
8.7 Long noncoding RNA (lncRNA) – 65
8.8 Small Interfering RNA (siRNA) – 65
8.9 Microarray Analysis – 70
8.10 Epigenetics – 71
8.10.1 ethylation – 71
M
8.10.2 Histone Modifications – 71
8.11 Mutations – 72
8.12 Copy Number Variation – 72
8.13 FISH (Fluorescence In Situ Hybridization) – 72

Further Readings/Additional Resources – 73

62 A. Sadiq et al.
8.1 Background leukocyte antigen) polymorphism, epigenetics, and eth-

nic populations [88]. Currently, none of hypothesized
Overview Keloid disease (KD) is an aesthetically and mechanisms can directly explain the disease pathol-
physically distressing skin disorder [74]. KD is considered ogy. Moreover, the lack of effective treatment options
a benign tumor of the dermis that develops as a result of underlines the lack of understanding about disease pro-
a dysregulated healing response to cutaneous wounding cess and complex and multivariable pathogenesis [74].
[88]. Phenotypically, it is an exophytic proliferative fibrous
growth of ill-defined etiopathogenesis [15, 17]. Keloid Objectives The objectives of this review are to investi-
scarring is an enigma and a challenge to clinicians espe- gate the evidence related to the genetic basis and its asso-
cially dermatologists and surgeons [87], due to its poor ciation with keloid disease. A comprehensive literature
response to clinical management [88]. search was performed using PubMed, Google Scholar,
Keloids are reported to have a high incidence in CNKI and Embase databases, by applying combinations
darker skin races and certain ethnicities of Afro- of relevant MeSH (Medical Subject Headings) words as
Caribbean origin [4]. The incidence of keloid cases is title. The key search terms included “Keloid, HLA immu-
16% in black Africans [15] and keloid predominance in nogenetics, Linkage, and Large scale population SNP
females as compared to the males might be due to more analysis.” The appropriate keywords included “Keloid,
piercing trends in females [82]. RNA Sequence analysis, Microarray, Micro RNA,
Methylation, Mutation, Epigenetics, and FISH.” All
8 This benign skin disease can either occur sporadi-
retrieved records were compiled in the study for compre-
cally, or can exhibit a familial pattern. Keloid disease
is considered a genetic disease due to a strong genetic hensive review and evaluated based on significance, meth-
susceptibility to keloid formation as it occurs predomi- odology, evidence, and reproducibility (. Fig. 8.1).
nantly in people of African and Asian descent, runs
in families, and has been found in twins. However, a
well-defined comprehensive mode of inheritance still 8.2 HLA Immunogenetics
remains unknown due to insufficient studies to uncover
the genetic basis of keloid formation. Nevertheless, Human leukocyte antigen (HLA) is the only complex
inheritance patterns for X-Linked or autosomal domi- genetic polymorphic system present on the 6th chromo-
nant trait have been found in families with keloids some (short arm) and is involved in presentation and pro-
[71]. Although no specific genes have been identified, cessing of peptide antigens via HLA class I and II [23].
that is directly linked to the development of keloids, The association or involvement of HLA in keloid etiol-
a few genetic loci have been reported to have a poten- ogy remains elusive as the pathology of dermal fibrosis
tial role in disease susceptibility. A study conducted in and poor wound-healing remain ill understood [74].
a Japanese population revealed four potential SNPs A study conducted in Caucasians and Chinese Hans
(single-nucleotide polymorphisms) in three chromo- populations demonstrated the involvement of immuno-
somal regions [76]. Anatomical sites affected with KD genetics (HLA alleles) in keloid etiology. Generally,
also vary in different keloid-prone families [9]. Keloid environmental exposure during the wound-healing pro-
scarring may comprise of multiple genes, and affected cess alters the antigen presentation and expression levels
individuals could possess variable genetic susceptibil- of HLA molecules that trigger respective immune
ity for a set of genes or gene mutations associated with response including prolonged inflammation and subse-
keloid phenotype [4]. Association studies for keloids quent release of profibrotic cytokine/chemokines con-
such as gene polymorphisms and mutations have been tributing to the excessive extracellular matrix (ECM)
conducted for some genes including SMAD3, SMAD7, deposition, leading to the development of the keloid
and SMAD6, TGF-β1–3, and TGF-βRI-III to inves- phenotype. The presence of (altered) immune cells in
tigate the respective genetic basis of disease pathol- keloids, provides the insight into the disease pathology.
ogy. Some genetic networks such as cellular apoptosis, Variable/altered gene and protein expression in keloids
MAPKs, TGF-β, IL-6 and PAI-1 have also been stud- supports the contribution of a dysregulated immune
ied in keloid pathology [8, 10–13, 15, 99] and also found system for disease progression or development [4]. The
associated with immunogenic processes as well as other association of immunogenic molecules with the keloid
biological pathways (PAI-1, Bcl-2, p53, and collagen phenotype, has been shown by a study, in which periph-
deposition) [88]. Complexity and differences in the eral blood mononuclear cells of keloid patient exhibited
inheritance modes and familial keloid scarring reflect increased expression levels of HLA-DR, -DQ, -DP and
the variability and heterogeneity in genetic susceptibil- CD1a molecules in keloid patients [57].
ity, family history, twin genetic makeup, inheritance The association of keloids with HLA-I alleles, has
patterns, linkage, genetic associations, variation in gene been studied in Chinese Han population (192 patients
expression and respective gene pathways, HLA (human and 252 healthy individuals) to find out the HLA status
63 8
G eneti c s o f K elo i ds
HLA L a r ge s c a l e
I mmu nog e netics Linkage Mutat i o n G en e ex p r es s i o n
gen et i c a n a ly s i s
Single nucleotide Copy number F lu o r es c en c e i n s i t u

Microarray
po lymo r phism ( S N P) variation hybridization (FISH)
MicroRN As L o n g n o n -c o d i n g S m a l l i n t er fer i n g
Ep i gen et i c s
( miRN A) R NA ( I n c R NA ) R NA ( s i R NA )
Histone
M et h y la t i o n
m o d i fic a t i on s
.. Fig. 8.1 Association of various genetic elements with keloid development
as a potential contributor to the keloids formation. The Association between HLA-DRB1 phenotype and
frequencies of HLA-A*03, A*25, Cw*0802, and B*07 keloid etiology has been studied in Caucasians popu-
were significantly high in keloid group but, the frequency lations of Northern European origin (keloid cases n =
of HLA-A*01 was highly decreased in comparison 67, control n = 537). It was revealed that frequency of
with healthy individuals. This study described high risk HLA-DRB1*15 was high (38.8%) in Caucasians keloid
haplotypes (A*03-B*07, A*25-B*07, A*03-Cw*0802, cases, which appeared as a risk factor of developing KD
A*25-Cw*0802, and B*07-Cw*0802) as contributing following injury [17]. Frequencies of serologically detect-
components in keloid formation. Interestingly, keloid able HLA antigens, i.e., HLA-B14 and HLA- Bw16,
site specificities, number, severity and details of fam- were subsequently found to be more (25%) common as
ily inheritance were also associated with specific alleles compared to the control, which further suggests that, the
of HLA class. It shows that maybe these alleles are individuals having HLA-B14 or HLABwl6 phenotype
linked (linkage) with genes, which are responsible for may be at risk for keloid formation [51].
keloid susceptibility [65]. Of note, HLA-I alleles (A*01, It seems that most likely there is an association
A*03, A*25, B*07 and Cw*08:02, HLA-DQA1 and between alleles of HLA class and/or shield against der-
DQB1) previously associated with KD in participants mal fibrosis, because allele loci (DQ and DR) from class
of Chinese ethnicity were shown to have no significant II is a promising genetic marker owing significance con-
differences in allele frequencies in keloid cases from tribution in poor wound healing and fibrosis [74]. All of
Jamaican Afro-Caribbean ethnic group [4]. these investigations deliver a strong statement about sig-
Keloid patients were also found to have an association nificant involvement of immunogenic component in
with blood type A and human leukocyte antigens HLA- keloid pathogenesis [19, 23].
B14, HLA-B21, HLA-BW35, HLA−DR5, HLA-DRB1,
HLA−DQA1, HLA-DQB1, and HLA-DQW3 [78, 88,
110]. The association of HLA-I histocompatibility anti- 8.3 Linkage
gens, patient’s family history with earlobe keloids pathol-
ogy, has been studied in females of Black ethnic group. The prevalence of KD in identical twins, in families, in
This study revealed some factors that appear in high fre- certain ethnicities, and at multiple sites strongly sup-
quency and acts as a risk factor when associated with: (i) ports a genetic predisposition in the development of
HLA-A 9, (ii) HLA-A 23, (iii) HLA-Aw 34, (iv) HLA-Cw keloid phenotype [9, 71]. Certainly, the risk of KD
2 antigens, history of (v) hypertension and (vi) post-ear occurrence is higher in genetically susceptible individu-
piercing infection [29]. als (Bayat et al. [8, 12, 16]). In addition to that, recur-
64 A. Sadiq et al.
rence rate (50%) is also higher in the African population in fibrotic disorders, and their association with keloid dis-
with family history having positive keloid cases [9]. The ease susceptibility was also studied in Jamaican keloid
linkage loci of KD were initially found to be on chromo- patients. Thirty-five SNPs across these genes were geno-
somes 2q23 and 7p11 by Marneros et al. [72], but no typed using time-of-flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-
putative gene target was further identified. TOF MS) and iPLEX assay. Linkage disequilibrium (LD)
Single-nucleotide polymorphisms (commonly found was established between several of the SNPs investigated.
to be useful genetic markers in various association stud- These findings indicated that the SMAD SNPs were not
ies) may also confer a risk for keloid disease develop- significantly associated with high risk of keloid formation
ment, such as PTEN (The phosphatase and tensin in the Jamaican population. This study also highlighted
homolog) gene polymorphisms at rs2299939, rs17431184, the importance of identification of genetic bio-markers as
rs555895, and rs701848) were found significantly related a candidate such as SMAD, which can be helpful diagnos-
with high risk of keloid development in Chinese Han tic, prognostic tool and can provide hope for development
population. In addition, it was found that CC genotype of new therapeutics for keloid scar management [15].
from rs2299939 appeared as a risk factor in keloid Keloid predisposition loci at chromosome 7p11 was
patients as compared to ACTC haplotype prevalence in studied in a Chinese population pedigree [21] consist-
population, which seems protective factor against keloid ing of 5 affected generations and a total of 32 mem-
formation [55, 56]. bers. Four microsatellites on chromosome 7p11 were
The GWAS (genome-wide association study) identi- selected as the genetic markers. This study provided the
8 fied three keloid susceptibility loci (rs873549 at 1q41, first genetic indication that keloid predisposition loci
rs8032158 at 15p21.3 and rs940187 and rs1511412 at did not locate on chromosome 7p11 in Chinese popula-
3q22.3) in a Japanese population. Furthermore, an asso- tion, furthermore, it suggested that familial keloid pre-
ciation study of these susceptibility loci was also investi- disposition loci are heterogeneous.
gated in keloid patients from Chinese Han population. Recently in another research study, analysis was con-
The SNPs 1q41 (rs873549, and rs1442440,) and 15q21.3 ducted through whole genome sequence data, and identi-
(rs2271289 present in NEDD4) revealed significant fied “Leu401Pro variant” in ASAH1 (N-acylsphingosine
association with keloid in the Chinese Han population. amidohydrolase) gene, that revealed co-segregation pat-
In addition, AG haplotype was identified as risk factor tern with keloid phenotype in a large population of
whereas, GA and AA haplotypes appeared as protective Yoruba family. This genetic variant is known to play a
factors from rs1442440 and rs873549 SNPs. It is also role in tumor formation, inflammation and cell prolif-
suggested that 15q21.3 and 1q41 loci shows genetic eration, which suggested that it may be involve in keloid
association and predisposition for keloid formation in development through various other mechanisms. This
Japanese and Chinese Han populations [116]. study also found some rare coding variants but their sus-
Predisposing genes also showed linkage association ceptibility for non-syndromic development of keloid is
with keloid susceptibility genes. A study conducted in a not known [85].
selected Han Chinese keloid pedigree, mapped to the
region about 1 Mbp on chromosomes 10q23.31, between
Fas gene marker D10S1765 and D10S1735, provides the 8.4 Large-Scale Population
first genetic evidence of a predisposing Fas gene linkage Single-Nucleotide Polymorphism (SNP)
association with keloid susceptibility genes [22].
Another genome-wide association research study Researchers have started to investigate deeper into the
(keloid cases =824, Healthy cases= 3205) found strong human genome by using high-throughput microarray
association of keloid cases with four more SNP loci pres- genotyping technologies with an objective to develop
ent at three chromosomal locations (3q22.3–23, 1q41, high-density SNPs map arrays in families with keloid
and 15q21.3) in a Japanese population. It was found that history. Previously genome-wide case-control associa-
SNP rs873549 at chromosome 1 showed the most signifi- tion study described three susceptibility loci (i) 1q41, (ii)
cant association with keloid cases [76]. 3q22.3-23, and (iii) 15q21.3 in association with keloid
The linkage between the susceptibility locus (18q21.1, disease, in a Japanese population [76]. NEDD4 gene
SMAD, and PIAS2) to keloid and two loci, 18q21.1and present in 15q21.3 chromosomal locus, is involve in up
15q22.31-q23, was also investigated through pedigree regulation of collagen type 1 and fibronectin, that result
linkage analysis in a five-generation Han Chinese keloid in extracellular matrix formation [24].
family. Seven critical regions of microsatellite markers on An independent case-control study was conducted to
chromosomes 18q21.1 and 15q22.31-q23 and were find correlation between SNPS i: e rs2118610, rs873549,
included in analysis. Out of the seven markers, only two rs2271289, rs1511412) and phenotypes of keloid cases in
(D18S460, D18S467) showed linkage to the disease locus Chinese Han population. This study revealed that inheri-
[108]. SMAD genes 3, 6, and 7 are known to be involved tance patterns of four SNPs (particularly SNP rs2271289)
65 8
were dominant in severe keloid cases, in comparison with revealed that microRNAs play a key regulatory role in
mild cases and control groups. Similar pattern of associa- keloid fibroblasts, for instance, miR200b was found
tion of SNP rs2271289 with keloid cases, appeared in associated with abnormal proliferation in fibroblasts
family with no case history of keloids as well as in groups and miR200c was involved in radiation-induced cell
having multiple keloid sites. These associations revealed apoptosis pathway [50, 55, 56, 61, 117]. These microR-
that SNP rs2271289 is a strong contributing factor and a NAs may be considered potential candidates for thera-
likely candidate in keloid pathology [114]. peutic targets for keloids [33]. Three common miRNAs,
Association of FOXL2 gene, keloid and SNP has-miR-21, has-miR-199a-5p and has-miR-214 were
rs1511412 have also been identified in Japanese found in some studies [69, 104, 105] among them, has-
population [76], but this association wasn’t significant miRNA-21 exhibited variable expression [40].
in the Chinese Han population [116] may be due to low Comparative expression profiles study of miRNA was
frequency of this variant. Another SNP rs1511412 further extended and found that, keloid derived fibro-
showed significant association with FOXL2 gene and blasts have total nine different miRNAs as compared to
keloid cases, which appeared as genetic risk factor for the normal skin fibroblasts. Out of nine, six were up-
keloid development in various ethnic groups of Asian regulated (hsv1-miR- H7, miR-320c, miR-31- 5p, miR-
population [64]. 23b-3p, miR-152, miR-30a-5p) and three (miR-143-3p,
A comprehensive study of familial keloids, based miR-4328 and miR-145-5p) were down-regulated [54,
on genetic and clinical parameters, was conducted in 66]. Some of the key miRNAs that appear differentially
mostly African Americans, White, Japanese, and expressed in keloid cells have been assessed in more
African Caribbean families. Individuals affected with detail the table below (. Table 8.2).
keloids exhibited a variable pattern of expression
within the families, for example some family members
had minor keloids on earlobes and other had large 8.7 Long noncoding RNA (lncRNA)
body areas highly affected with severe keloids. In same
family, seven members were identified as unaffected Long noncoding RNA, remains uncovered with
but obligate carriers for keloid phenotype. The genetic respect to their association with keloid pathology.
analysis revealed an autosomal dominant inheritance The advanced microarray technology was used first
pattern along with variable phenotypic expression [71]. time to investigate the keloids in 2015 by Liang et al.
group that demonstrated constantly up-regulated (total
1,731) and down-regulated (782) lncRNAs in keloids.
8.5 Gene Expression In this study, a total of 55 pathways were highlighted:
out of which 11 pathways were related to the upregu-
Gene regulation and unique genetic components have lated transcripts and 44 with downregulated transcripts
also been studied in keloid dermal fibroblasts (KDF). in keloids. In addition to that, it has been found that
Studies revealed up-/downregulated expression of vari- the CACNA1G-AS1, as one of the selected lncRNA,
ous genes (. Table 8.1). The specific genes and their dif- may have a potential role in keloid development [58].
ferentially regulated expression may have direct The lncRNAs regulating encoding transcripts/genes are
implications toward understanding the keloid develop- considered to participate in Wnt signaling pathway in
ment [25]. keloids [95]. The lncRNA H19 stimulate cell prolifera-
tion in keloid fibroblasts which reversed by H19 siRNA
treatment on keloid fibroblasts [113].
8.6 MicroRNAs (miRNA)
MicroRNAs are 21–23 nucleotide molecules, targeting 8.8 Small Interfering RNA (siRNA)
the 3’UTR of mRNA and microRNA deregulation
may indicate a potential need for clinical intervention RNA interference is an evolutionally conserved genetic
[2]. Role of various miRNAs has been established for regulatory mechanism involving inhibition of target
activation of fibroblasts. A study reported 32 microR- gene expression at transcriptional, or translational level,
NAs differentially expressed in keloid tissues [63], in or by degrading the mRNA [101]. Advances in gene
which total 23 miRNAs (e.g. miR-4269, miR-21, miR- silencing [102] provide the opportunity to apply RNA
382) were up-regulated and 9 miRNAs (e.g. miR-205, interference technology to uncover the details of molec-
miR-203, miR-200b/c) were down-regulated. These ular mechanisms maintain keloid tissue growth [6]. It is
miRNAs are involved in various cellular signaling net- found that β-catenin expression significantly increased in
works particularly wound- healing, development of keloid tissue [18] and has been shown to have a role in
scar and collagen synthesis [39]. Various studies the regulation of keloid scarring. Knockdown of
8
66
.. Table 8.1 Differential gene/protein expression markers in keloid-derived primary fibroblasts
S. No Cellular genetic marker Expression Level Role in keloid fibroblasts Sample source Role in normal dermal Reference
studies fibroblasts
1 TGF-β1 mRNA Slightly more Fibrosis-inducing factors Primary Proliferation, [14, 46, 60]
A. Sadiq et al.
Site-specific gene Fibronectin biosynthesis keloid-derived collagen

expression by qRT-PCR Leads to overproduction fibro P2–P4 Deposition and
of ECM transdifferentiation
2 TGF-β3 mRNA Low Fibrosis-inducing factors Primary reduces connective [14]
keloid-derived tissue (collagen)
fibro P2–P4 deposition
3 TGF-βRII mRNA Low Fibrosis-inducing factors Primary TGF-β downstream [14]
keloid-derived signaling
fibro P2–P4
4 TGF-βRI/TGF-βRII mRNA by real-time High Enhanced collagen Primary TGF-β downstream [14]
PCR synthesis keloid-derived signaling
Immunohistochemistry fibro P2–P4
5 Versican mRNA by real-time PCR High Excessive deposition Keloid tissue and Cell adhesion, [107]
(CS/DS–proteoglycan protein by dot blot, contributes significantly to primary migration,
(PG) Western blot, and keloid volume keloid-derived proliferation,
(VCAN) immunostaining fibroblast differentiation
6 Lumican (LUM) Microarray analysis High // Primary // //
(mRNA KL Fb/mRNA keloid-derived Fb,
normal Fb) passage 2 and 4
7 Aggrecan // // // // // //
8 Collagen a1 (X) // // ECM component // // //
9 Collagen a1 (II) // // // // // //
10 Collagen a2 (IX) // // // // // //
11 Collagen a1 (XI) // // // // // //
12 Collagen a1 (VIII) // // // // // //
13 Thrombospondin 1 // // // //
14 Collagen a1 (XVII) // // // // // //
15 Collagen a3 (IX) // // // // // //
16 HIF1A mRNA by real-time PCR // Transcriptional regulator, Keloid tissue and [68, 115]
(Hypoxia-inducible Protein by which helps the cells to primary
factor1, alpha) immunohistochemistry, adapt in the hypoxic keloid-derived
immunofluorescence microenvironment. fibroblast
staining, Western blot Indicators are ECM
accumulation and cell
proliferation, invasion,
and differentiation/
transformation (transition
of human dermal
fibroblasts to a
myofibroblast-like
phenotype via the
TGF-β1/Smad3 pathway)
17 Vimentin // // Mesenchymal marker // EMT marker //
18 Fibronectin // // Mesenchymal marker // EMT marker //
19 Connective tissue growth qRT-PCR // Fibrosis // Cell adhesion, [46, 115, 49]
factor (CTGF) Protein by Western blot Keratinocyte- migration,
Immunohistochemistry fibroblast proliferation,
coculture angiogenesis
20 Atypical chemokine qRT-PCR // Cholesterol biosynthesis I/ Keloid tissue and [46]
receptor 3 (ACKR3) II, primary
Vasculo-/angiogenesis keloid-derived
cancer tissue morphology fibroblast
21 Tumor necrosis factor // // // // //
(TNF)
22 Ephrin receptor B4 // // // // //
(EPHB4)
23 Forkhead // // // // //
box F2 (FOXF2)
24 Insulin-like growth factor // // Activating collagen // [86]
(IGF) binding protein 3 synthesis and cell
(IGFBP3) proliferation, decreasing
apoptosis
25 Transgelin // // Early detecting cell // Proteins responsible //
transformation marker for changes in cell
shape and structure
67
26 Annexin A2 (ANXA2) // // Marker of apoptosis // Apoptosis //

27 Ribosomal protein S18 // // Protein synthesis // Protein synthesis //
(continued)
8
8
68
.. Table 8.1
S. No Cellular genetic marker Expression Level Role in keloid fibroblasts Sample source Role in normal dermal Reference
studies fibroblasts
28 60 S ribosomal protein Clontech’s Atlas™ Low Protein synthesis // Protein synthesis [25]
(L36a) Human cDNA Expression
A. Sadiq et al.
Array
29 Nuclease-sensitive element Clontech’s Atlas™ Low Transcription // Transcription and [25]
DNA binding protein Human cDNA Expression regulation of
(NSEP) Array essential growth
control genes
30 Interleukin-6 (IL-6) Translational study for // IL-6-induced cell Primary Immunoregulatory [106, 38]
IL-6, Pro-hybridization proliferation keloid-derived cytokine known for
and ELISA fibroblast, role in fibrotic
passages 4 to 8 autoimmune diseases
31 Vascular endothelial VEGF-ELISA kit // Increases Primary Angiogenesis [93, 38]
growth factor granulation-tissue keloid-derived
(VEGF) formation fibroblast
passages 2
Abbreviations: KL keloid; Fb fibroblasts. Symbols: //, same as above

69 8
.. Table 8.2 Differential expression of miRNAs and their effects on keloid fibroblasts
S. No Type of microRNA Expression level Role in keloid phenotype Reference

in keloid
fibroblasts
1. miR-7 Low Induce excessive collagen expression [31]

2. miR-29a Low Collagen I and III expression regulation, [73, 41, 112]
TGF-β/Smad signaling pathway, fibrosis
3. miR-199a Low Influence proliferation of keloid fibroblasts via cell [104, 105, 109]
cycle regulation
4. miR-21 High Stimulate fibroblast proliferation and apoptosis via [62, 75, 100]
P13K/AKT pathway and synthesis of extracellular
matrix
5. miR-196a High Regulates the stabilized elevated expression of [1, 48, 54]
COL1A1 and COL3A1 genes
6. miR-152 High It promotes keloid fibroblast proliferation and [54, 63]
collagen synthesis
β-catenin/siRNA inhibits cell proliferation and induces fibronectin in keloid. PTB/siRNA knockdown shift the
arrest in G0/G1 phase of cell cycle. It also induces apop- alternative splicing of RTN4 and USP, and caused sig-
tosis in fibroblasts via down-regulation of cyclin D1 and nificant reduction in fibroblasts proliferation and depo-
Wnt2 pathways. Keloid fibroblasts (KFs) overexpress sition of COL3A1 and FN1, that resulting in the fast
AMF (autocrine motility factor), which acts through regression of keloid tissues.
RhoA/ROCK1 signaling network, to enhance their cell Silencing the Smad2 (Sma and Drosophila mothers
migration and proliferation. Knocking down AMF/ against decapentaplegic homolog 2) downregulate the
siRNA significantly reduces the migration as well as pro- TGF-β-induced synthesis of procollagen, in keloid
liferation potential of KFs that ultimately reduces keloid derived fibroblasts [35]. The role of siRNA during
size [98]. Smad3 (Sma and Drosophila mothers against decapen-
TIMP-1 and small interfering RNA regulation has an taplegic homolog 3)-induced TGF-β signaling in keloid
important role in keloid pathology. Generally, it is known pathogenesis has been studied. Smad3 is recently char-
that keloid phenotype appears as a result of dispropor- acterized as an intracellular effector of TGF-β signaling
tion between synthesis and degradation of extracellular pathway. TGF-β participate as key component in fibrotic
matrix. There are two main vital components (i) Matrix pathology by stimulating keloid fibroblasts to synthesize
metalloproteinase (ii) Tissue inhibitors of metallopro- extracellular matrix excessively, including collagen I and
teinase, which regulate the process of synthesis degrada- III. The knockdown of Smad3/siRNA expression
tion and remodeling of ECM. Knockdown of TIMPs caused significantly and uniquely decrease in types I and
(siTIMP-1 or siTIMP-2)/siRNA resulted in suppression III procollagen level. Thus Smad3 is thought to play a
of MMP-1/TIMP-1 and MMP-1/TIMP-2 complex mol- significant role in the TGF-β-induced keloid fibrosis
ecules but upregulation of MMP-2 and increased colla- [101].
gen type I degradation. KFs also showed increased Keloid derived fibroblasts over expressed NLRC5
apoptosis and reduced cell viability [3]. (NOD-like receptor family CARD domain containing
The role of siRNA during TGF-β-induced regula- 5) belongs to the family of nucleotide-binding domain
tion of of PTB (Polypyrimidine Tract-Binding Protein) and leucine-rich repeat. It has been shown that silencing
in keloid pathophysiology has been demonstrated of NLRC5 results inhibition of proliferation and expres-
recently [43]. It is a splicing regulator and known to play sion of ECM in keloid derived fibroblasts via inhibition
an important role in tumor cell proliferation, invasion of TGF-β1/Smad signaling network, suggesting poten-
and metastasis. TGF-β1 stimulation caused over expres- tial therapeutic target keloids [67]. Increased expression
sion of PTB along with its upstream regulatory compo- of Stat3 (signal transducer and activator of transcrip-
nent (C-MYC) in keloid derived fibroblasts, resulting in tion 3) was also found in keloid tissue. Stat3 is a latent
dysregulation of alternative splicing events, leads to transcription factor activated under the stimulation of
enhanced fibroblast proliferation and deposition of various growth factors and cytokines during wound-
70 A. Sadiq et al.
healing process. Short interfering RNA inhibited its signaling pathway in fibroblast migration and the role of
expression and subsequent phosphorylation and siRNA have been investigated in keloid development.
resulted in reduction of collagen synthesis, cell prolifera- Keloid fibroblasts exhibit upregulation of the polypep-
tion and migration in keloid derived fibroblasts, hence tide growth factor neuregulin-1 (NRG1) and receptor
suggesting another therapeutic candidate for the treat- tyrosine-protein kinase erbB-2 (ErbB2) oncogene that
ment of keloids [59]. contributes to altered cytokine expression profiles,
Keloid fibroblasts characteristically showed overex- increased Src and protein tyrosine kinase 2 (PTK2/FAK)
pression of collagen and PAI-1. Short interfering RNA gene expression, and migration in keloid fibroblast.
targeted treatment results in reduction the collagen siRNA knockdown of ErbB2 gene resulted in reduced
deposition, which showed that PAI-1-targeted siRNA migration and Src/PTK2 expression but didn’t affect the
interference may offer therapeutic alternative in keloid NRG/ErbB2/Src/PTK2 network, revealing the possibility
formation [99]. Another study showed that silencing of that this network may affect migrating potential of keloid
PAI-1 caused significant reduction in keloid volume up fibroblasts indirectly [47]. Therefore, siRNA silencing on
to 28% in fourth week. It also decreased the synthesis of various targeted mechanisms such as Smad2,3-TGF-β,
collagen I and III and resulted in shrinkage of keloid HIF-1α- EMT, PAI-1-VEGF production, and NRG1/
tissue mass [96]. ErbB2/Src/PTK2 signaling pathway in keloid pathogene-
VEGF (vascular endothelial growth factor) plays vital sis, proposes that their production can be modulated by
roles in the regulation of inflammation and angiogenesis using siRNA based regulation, and this strategy seems
8 during wound-healing process. The role of vector-based promising candidate for keloid therapeutics.
RNAi (shRNA) for inhibition of VEGF expression in
keloid fibroblasts has been studied. siRNA sequences
(clone of three potential short interfering RNA sequences) 8.9 Microarray Analysis
were used to silence the VEGF gene in keloid fibroblasts
that resulted in significantly inhibited VEGF gene expres- Various advanced molecular biology techniques such as
sion and fibroblasts growth. In addition, the expression of PCR, cDNA approaches, cloning, whole genome
plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 (PAI-1) was also down- sequencing provides the huge platform to investigate the
regulated. This study provides the insight about the modu- differentially regulated genes in term of microarray
lation of VEGF production as a potential therapeutic analysis from variety of biological samples [70].
strategy for keloid [111]. Functional genomic provides a tool to probe and moni-
Silencing by HIF-1α siRNA in keratinocytes resulted tor the genetic interactions [27]. Complex pattern of
in decreased expression levels of fibronectin and vimen- genotypic differences and respective multiple fibrosis-
tin, whereas ZO-1 and E-cadherin expression levels were related pathways in keloid fibroblasts have been studied
restored. This indicated that HIF-1α stimulation can by microarray approach. Comparative Affymetrix-
regulate the respective mesenchymal changes, caused by based microarray analysis was carried out on keloid
hypoxia in the keloid derived keratinocytes during keloid fibroblast RNA. Approximately 500 genes were found
development [68]. differentially regulated out of total the total 38,000
Knockdown of PAI-2, Hsp27, α2β1-integrin/siRNA genes observed. Interestingly, study also revealed that
also cause significant reduction in ECM deposition, cell increase in expression of various IGF-binding protein
anchorage, and mobility in keloid derived fibroblasts and related protein in comparison with set of protein
[94]. Hsp70/siRNA and Hsp47-shRNA knockdown related to Wnt signaling pathway, who exhibited
decreased collagen synthesis in keloid derived fibroblasts decrease in expression [91]. Total 2,215 differentially
[20, 90]. hTERT gene regulates telomere length homeo- expressed genes (DEGs) have been found in compara-
stasis and influences cell cycle of fibroblasts. Knockdown tive analysis of after and before normal wound, and sur-
of hTERT-siRNA in keloid fibroblasts was shown to prisingly total 3,161 DEGs have been identified in
reduce telomere length and fibroblast growth [87]. keloid-prone individuals. Among those genes, only 513
The role of siRNA in apoptosis of keloid fibroblasts genes were related to normal individuals, total set of
has also been investigated. Keloids exhibited increased 1,449 genes were found specifically related to keloid phe-
reactive oxygen species (ROS) production and disrupted notype. Moreover, hierarchical distribution of differen-
apoptosis mechanisms. ROS plays an important role in tially expressed keloid-specific genes resulted into two
the induction of apoptosis under pathological conditions. distinct clusters. Further probing into keloid-specific
Cellular defense mechanisms against oxidative stress and pathways revealed 24 pathways linked with differentially
apoptosis are regulated by nuclear factor erythroid activated genes. Most importantly, some other vital sig-
2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) through activation of B-cell lym- naling pathways like NOTCH, MAPKs, TLRs and insu-
phoma 2 (Bcl-2) protein. Transfection of fibroblasts with lin regulation, have also been found altered during
the Nrf2-specific siRNA resulted in increased apoptosis post-wounding analysis in keloid prone individuals.
and decreased cell viability [53]. NRG1/ErbB2/Src/PTK2 Furthermore, Genetic association network analysis
71 8
revealed, divergent gene expression profile of key genes its involvement in keloid scar formation. Furthermore,
that contribute in cytokines signaling pathways [79, 83]. different DNA methylation patterns have also been stud-
ied in keloid vs normal cells and tissue and analyzed via
large scale genome profiling using advanced approach
8.10 Epigenetics (Infinium Human Methylation 450 BeadChip), results
explained that 152 unique genes showed total 192 dif-
Study of inheritable characteristics of genome that ferent methylation patterns in promoter region CpGs.
doesn’t affect the genetic sequences but only gene func- Moreover respective gene network analysis, revealed four
tion, comes under the term of epigenetics. It is also common hierarchical regulatory networks, consisting of
known to contribute significantly in regulation of vari- four key regulators, (i) PENK (ii) PRKG2, (iii) pryox-
ous gene expressions. Recently, there is further extension amide (iv) tributyrin, and total 19 intermediate regula-
to this terminology that is epigenetic modification, tory molecules. This analysis highlighted the involvement
which is currently being applied to get comprehension of regulatory networks in keloid phenotype development
of molecular aspects of keloid pathology. This study [36, 45] and with the development of this study approach
revealed that there are some evidences pointing the in recent research since last five years, methylome of
involvement of epigenetic changes/modifications trig- keloid have been characterized as most hypo-methylated
gering the constant activation of fibroblasts in keloid rather than hyper-methylated [45].
[30]. These epigenetic alterations include changes in List of hyper-methylated genes includes CACNB2,
microRNAs, DNA methylation as well as histone modi- ACTR3C, PAQR4, SLCO2B1, C1orf109, LRRC61,
fications. These three event are well known crucial events AHDC1, FYCO1, CMKLR1 and CCDC34 as com-
that involve in early cellular growth, differentiation and pared to hypo-methylated group of genes, which are
development, hence these aspects of molecular features GHDC, DENND1C, MX2, ANKRD11, SCML4,
have also been included as an important candidate for GALNT3, IFFO1, WIPF1, PPP1R13L and CFH.
investigations to understand their role/associations in Recently, further analysis was carried out using bioinfor-
keloid pathology [28]. Recent studies are coming up matics approach by applying Ingenuity Pathway Analysis
with findings about the epigenetic mechanisms that may (IPA) software on data set, obtained from keloid sam-
contribute in keloid formation [42]. ples, revealed some key pathways shows significant asso-
ciation with keloids. These pathways include (i) histidine
degradation VI (ii) metastasis signaling pathway of
8.10.1 Methylation colorectal cancer (iii) phospholipase C signaling (iv) P2Y
purinergic receptor signaling and (v) Gai signaling path-
DNA methylation is the well-known aspect of epigene- way [44]. Keloid fibroblasts having multiple genes with
tic modification [103]. It has been hypothesized that differential methylation, exhibited significant difference
DNA methylation is responsible to maintain the myofi- in expression profile of genes related to fibrosis such as
broblats transformation of fibroblasts during the pro- IGFBP5 (IGF/IGF-binding protein 5), JAG1 (Jagged 1),
cess of fibrosis in wound healing events, this modification SFRP1 (secreted frizzled-related protein1), MMP3
set the basis for deviation from normal wound-healing (matrix mettallopeptidase 3), CTGF (connective tissue
mechanism. Gene expression profile acquired by myofi- growth factor) and DPT (dermatopontin) [84]. These
broblasts is significantly differ from fibroblasts [81, 97]. finding support the statement about the involvement of
Therefore it is crucial to understand respective epigene- DNA methylation in keloid formation, but needs further
tic modifications that resulted in acquiring highly dif- extension of research studies to explore respective key
ferentiated gene expression profile in my myofibroblasts changes/modification that leads subsequent stages of
that will help to trace the respective network leading to development resulted in keloid pathogenesis [36, 44, 45].
fibrotic phenotype in keloids [77]. Previous research
study found that keloid fibroblasts showed alternations
in DNA methylation [84]. Involvement and significance 8.10.2 Histone Modifications
of epigenetic modification in keloid pathology has been
revealed in recent study, that showed reversal of expres- Histone modifications include changes in distal N-amino
sion profile in TGF-β1, phosphor-smad2, 3 (down-regu- acids specifically, phosphorylation at Threonine or
lation) and smad7 (up-regulation) by the treatment of Serine, ubiquitination at Arginine or Lysine and acetyla-
5-aza-dC (5-aza-2 deoxycytidine), which is an inhibitor tion at Lysine amino acid. There are some enzyme such
of DNA methyltransferase [118]. as histone deacetylases (HDACs) and acetyltransferases
Expression of DNA methyltransferase 1 (DNMT1) (HATs), which are involve in these modifications, and
was found 100% elevated in keloid as compared to the result in altered gene expression profile [7]. Interestingly,
fibroblast (8%) from normal skin samples [32], suggesting it has been noted that histone deacetylases over expressed
72 A. Sadiq et al.
in keloid tissue. This over expression pattern has also proteins in keloid derived fibroblasts. Proteomic analy-
been observed under TGF-β1 induced stimulation in sis revealed that there are sixteen different spots which
normal fibroblasts and murine Swiss 3T3 fibroblasts differentiate keloid fibroblasts from normal fibroblasts,
[34]. In vitro research study showed that treating the among all, Hsp70 was most up-regulated protein in
keloid fibroblasts with HDAC inhibitor resulted in keloid derived fibroblasts. These results were also vali-
decreased production of collagen [92]. Inhibition of his- dated by immunohistochemical and western blot anal-
tone acetyltransferases caused anti-fibrotic affects, ysis conducted on keloid vs normal skin tissue. This
increased expression of p300 (which is a cofactor, essen- study indicated that Hsp70 overexpression may be
tial for acetylase activity) in fibroblasts (isolated from associated with keloid pathology and its inhibition can
scleroderma patients samples) [37]. be studied for therapeutic purpose [52].
These studies suggest that both DNA methylation and
histone modification are crucial to cause differential gene
expression profile, exhibited by keloid fibroblasts, further- 8.14 Conclusions
more, as such, any sustainable modification responsible to
deliver epigenetic changes, can leads towards phenotypic Keloids are benign dermal tumors that develop as a
alteration of keloid fibroblasts. This scenario recommend- result of a dysregulated cutaneous wound-healing pro-
ing that inhibitors of histone modification can be an cess. Several research findings support the idea that
important candidate to consider with therapeutic point of
8 view for management of keloid pathology [5, 80, 84].
there is an association between various genetic elements
such as linkage, autosomal-dominant, oligo-genic or
additive inheritance in families and keloid development,
predominantly in people of African and Asian descent.
8.11 Mutations In addition to that, differential gene expression studies
in families and keloid fibroblasts indicate heterogeneous
Role of mutations was investigated in a study conducted in genetic events, revealing complexity of underlying
keloid cases from a Caucasian population (95 cases). genetic basis of keloids. Therefore, it’s quite obvious
Large scale genome wide analysis in the exon (1–7) and that single gene phenomena is not a possible causative
promoter regions showed presence of some novel muta- factor for keloid formation. To address this complexity,
tions in Caucasian population [13]. But up till now, none a likely scenario may involve the understanding of
of the gene mutations have been found associated with genetic pathway interactions including environmental
keloid cases [88]. One in vitro study reported a p53 muta- factors, healing mechanisms, wound matrix degrada-
tion that was found in keloid fibroblasts from cultured tion, and immunologic response.
cells [26], that may suggest the role of acquired inheritable
gene changes in keloid cells [88].
Take-Home Messages
1. Keloid is a complex skin pathology with varied
8.12 Copy Number Variation susceptibilities and ethnicities. This disease is a
clinical challenge because it lacks effective treat-
Copy number variations (CNVs) are known to be asso- ment and often recurs after excision.
ciated with various human disorders including skin dis- 2. Well-defined comprehensive mode of inheritance
eases. Research study conducted in keloid cases from is still not known because of insufficient genetic
Caucasian population revealed that CNVs found at investigations.
11q11, 8p23.1, 19p13.1, 22q13.1, 17q12, and 2q14.3, 3. HLA system represents the highest level of diver-
specifically 6p21.32 (that contain HLA-DRB5 region) sity of any functional genetic association with
are associated with keloid pathology [89]. keloid disease.
4. Recent advanced approaches like high-throughput
microarray facilitating the genetics and epigenetic
8.13 ISH (Fluorescence In Situ
F investigations may be helpful in understanding the
Hybridization) underlying complex basis of keloid formation.
5. There could be a possibility to identifying poten-
Keloid derived fibroblasts exhibited differential pheno- tial candidate set of genetic markers for diagnos-
typic and genotypic expression as compared to neigh- tic or prognostic purpose.
boring normal skin fibroblasts. Real-time RT-PCR and 6. There is need to uncover the specific biological
proteomics tools (2-DAGE, immunoblot analysis, and mechanism and respective signaling networks of
immunohistochemistry) have been used to investigate keloid fibroblasts.
these differentially expressed specific set of genes and
73 8
Acknowledgments This study was supported by the factor beta receptor gene polymorphisms are not associated
National Research Foundation and the South African with keloid disease. Exp Dermatol. 2004;13(2):120–4.
13. Bayat A, Walter JM, Bock O, Mrowietz U, Ollier WER,
Medical Research Council grants. Ferguson MWJ. Genetic susceptibility to keloid disease: muta-
tion screening of the TGF-β3 gene. Br J Plast Surg. 2005;58:
914–21.
Further Readings/Additional Resources 14. Bock O, Yu H, Zitron S, Bayat A, Ferguson MWJ, Mrowietz U.
Studies of transforming growth factors Beta 1–3 and their
receptors I and II in fibroblast of keloids and hypertrophic
N. Jumper, T. Hodgkinson, R. Paus, A. Bayat. Site-specific gene
scars. Acta Derm Venereol. 2005;85:216–20.
expression profiling as a novel strategy for unravelling keloid dis-
15. Brown JJ, Ollier W, Arscott G, Ke X, Lamb J, Day P, Bayat A.
ease pathobiology. PLoS ONE. 12(3):e0172955. https://doi.
Genetic susceptibility to keloid scarring: SMAD gene SNP fre-
org/10.1371/journal.pone.0172955.
quencies in afro-Caribbeans. Exp Dermatol. 2008;17(7):610–3.
Tabib T, Morse C, Wang T, Chen W, Lafyatis R. SRP2/DPP4 and
16. Brown JJ, Bayat A. Genetic susceptibility to raised dermal scar-
FMO1/LSP1 Define major fibroblast populations in human
ring. Br J Dermatol. 2009;161(1):8–18.
skin. J Invest Dermatol. 2018;138(4):802–10. https://doi.
17. Brown JJ, Ollier WE, Thomson W, Bayat A. Positive associa-
org/10.1016/j.jid.2017.09.045
tion of HLA-DRB1∗15 with keloid disease in Caucasians. Int J
Sun HJ, Meng XY, Hu CT. MicroRNA-200c inhibits cell prolifera-
Immunogenet. 2008;35(4–5):303–7.
tion and collagen synthesis in human keloid fibroblasts via
18. Cai Y, Zhu S, Yang W, Pan M, Wang C, Wu W. Downregulation
TGF-β/Smad pathway. Chinese J Aesthet Med. 2012;21:
of β-catenin blocks fibrosis via Wnt2 signaling in human keloid
1539–42.
fibroblasts. Tumor Biol. 2017;39(6):1–8.
Xue Z, Lan D, Ning S, Ran L. miR-183 inhibits connective tissue
19. Charron D. HLA, immunogenetics, pharmacogenetics and per-
growth factor (CTGF) production in TGF-β1-treated keloid
sonalized medicine. Vox Sang. 2011;100(1):163–6.
fibroblasts in vitro. Int J Clin Exp Pathol. 2017;10(6):6425–34.
20. Chen JJ, Jin PS, Zhao S, Cen Y, Liu Y, Xu XW, Duan WQ,
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77 IV
International Scar
Classifications
Contents
Chapter 9 International Scar Classification in 2019 – 79

Thomas A. Mustoe
79 9
International Scar Classification

in 2019
Thomas A. Mustoe
Contents
9.1 Immature Scar – 80
9.2 Mature Scar – 80
9.3 Atrophic Scar – 82
9.4 Linear Hypertrophic Scar – 82

9.5 Widespread Hypertrophic Scar – 82
9.6 Keloid – 83
9.6.1 inor Keloid – 83
M
9.6.2 Major Keloid – 83
Bibliography – 84

80 T. A. Mustoe
There has been a wide variety of therapies proposed for from a mix of type 1 and type 3 collagen to almost
the treatment of scars, most of them with a lack of firm entirely type 1 collagen with increased cross-linking, and
randomized controlled clinical trials to support their continued increase in tensile strength. The gains in scar
efficacy, and among other deficiencies, there has been strength are due to improvement in collagen organiza-
often a lack of appropriate labeling or classification of tion and cross-linking rather than an increase in colla-
scars to allow optimal evaluation of existing literature. gen. A useful analogy is to compare the difference
There is a real benefit to a consistent classification of between raw wool from a sheared sheep, versus the fine
different types of scars so that different clinicians use a knit of a woolen coat. The amount of wool is the same,
consistent vocabulary allowing a systematic evaluation but the woven wool is far stronger. However, although
of treatments and outcomes. One problem has always the strength of a scar is maximal in approximately
been the changes in scars over time so that improve- 6 months, complete scar maturation as measured by
ments may not necessarily be due to the treatment inter- resolution of erythema typically takes a year or even
vention but simply scar maturation. longer. In a human volunteer study conducted by
Scar classifications have previously been published Renovo, superficial scars took longer than a year for the
including notably the 2002 publication in PRS which erythema to fully resolve in one-third of patients. In
gained widespread acceptance because it represented the scars in thicker skin with more depth, or in a group of
consensus of 12 experts from an international group patients with more active scarring process, it probably
incorporating Europe, North America, and Australia. takes even longer. In my own clinical practice with
In subsequent publications, this classification has been approximately 20,000 patients of all ages and ethnic
found to sound and not needing further modification. backgrounds, my experience mirrors the study by
9 We will use this classification again in this updated text- Renovo (. Table 9.1).
book. The resolution of erythema is a useful marker of scar
Scarring is the inevitable consequence of tissue maturity (. Fig. 9.1). In all scars, erythema eventually
injury as opposed to tissue regeneration which is the resolves, but in a few percent of patients, I have seen it
true restoration of the normal architecture of the skin. take longer than 2 years and in a rare hypertrophic scar
True tissue regeneration after injury occurs only in the as long as 10 years. In a study we conducted on burn
fetus during the first two trimesters and in amphibians patients, we found that the average scar elasticity (a
who can even regenerate amputated limbs. In the opti- measure of collagen remodeling), as measured by a
mal outcome of a thin flat thin linear scar, the sequence device that applied a constant force to the skin and mea-
of tissue repair after injury is tightly regulated. After sured how much it stretched, continued to increase over
initial platelet aggegation, provisional matrix is depos- 5 years (Bartell et al). Although the patients were not
ited, followed by influx of inflammatory cells and sub- followed longitudinally, we simply correlated elasticity
sequent cell proliferation including fibroplasia and to the age of the scar, and it can be inferred that it can
angiogenesis. Wound healing overlap, and are followed take a long time indeed for a scar to reach full maturity.
by cellular apoptosis with resolution of inflammation. In an immature scar histologically, there are an
Permanent matrix deposition (collagen) begins within increased number of inflammatory cells. After 2 weeks
3 days. Maximal collagen deposition occurs in the first or so, the predominant inflammatory cells are macro-
few weeks with a combination of type 1 and type 3, fol- phages with scattered lymphocytes and an occasional
lowed by many months of collagen breakdown and mast cell. There are increased numbers of fibroblasts
synthesis with increasing type 1 collagen with increased including myofibroblasts, increased numbers of blood
organization and scar strength. These phases of inflam- vessels, and for a period of up to a few months epider-
mation, cell proliferation and collagen remodeling mal hyperplasia. The visual appearance is a scar that is
result in a fine line scar in the scenario of an incison erythematous and slightly raised due to increased fluid
(“normal” scar), and a wider flat scar in the scenario of in the tissues and increased collagen as well as increased
an injury over a broader area. cellularity.
9.1 Immature Scar 9.2 Mature Scar
Even a normal scar goes through a period when it is In undergoing the transition from an immature scar to a
immature, meaning it is pink, often with a healing ridge mature scar, the key visual marker is resolution of ery-
(edema plus collagen synthesis). Collagen accumulation thema (. Fig. 9.2). At this point, the inflammatory
typically peaks about 3 weeks after surgery and then cells, endothelial cells, and most of the fibroblasts have
goes through about 6 months of remodeling with undergone apoptosis, and the epithelium looks com-
steadily increasing collagen organization, conversion pletely normal as compared to the adjacent unwounded
International Scar Classification in 2019
81 9
.. Table 9.1 Scar Classification
Scar type Description
Immature Pink slightly raised

scar
Sometimes itchy
Firm but not hard
Begins soon after injury, months to resolve
Peaks at a few weeks after injury
Mature flat Flat scar without erythema, stable
scar
No symptoms
Hypertrophic Ropy (elevated) and pink or red
linear scar
Evolves from immature scar within several
weeks
Progressive enlargement for months before
slow decrease in activity
Often itchy or slightly sore to touch
Resolution results in a persistently elevated
scar that is no longer pink
Hypertrophic Elevated, pink or red
wide scar
Arises from widespread injury such as a burn
Frequently with severe pruritis and can be
tender .. Fig. 9.1 Immature scar
Very stiff with limitation of mobility across
joint surface
Minor keloid Round or elevated, extends beyond scar
Most often at site of pierced earring or
surgical incision
Strong genetic component which is different
than hypertrophic scars
Simple surgical excision with very high rate
of recurrence
Major keloid Elevated, large often irregular in shape (i.e.,
butterfly appearance)
Frequently seen in multiple locations on
person
Initial injury can be very minor
Often symptoms of pain and pruritis are
debilitating
Treatment options are limited
.. Fig. 9.2 Mature scar
skin. What is left is a band of collagen fibers that are ing on the genetics of the patient and the underlying
clearly demarcated from the surrounding dermis histo- tension placed on the healing immature scar. There is no
logically lacking the completely ordered collagen orga- longer any increased fluid in the tissues (edema) and so
nization characteristic of normal skin. The collagen the scar is flat. The color of the scar ranges from white
fibers go in multiple directions giving the scar stiffer bio- (absence of melanocytes) to hyperpigmented (often
mechanical properties and are of variable width depend- characteristic of ethnicities with increased melanocytes
82 T. A. Mustoe
in the basal layer of the epidermis such as Asian, South 9.4 Linear Hypertrophic Scar
Asian, Middle Eastern, Mediterranean, and Latin
American or patients with brown skin). In many cases, scars fail to transition normally from
immature to mature with resolution of inflammation
and an equilibrium of collagen synthesis and break-
9.3 Atrophic Scar down. Collagen continues to accumulate, and the scar
widens and becomes elevated or ropy in appearance and
In some cases, a scar will become depressed or thinned the erythema fails to resolve. This active process of scar
as it transitions from an immature scar (. Fig. 9.3). growth can continue for many months but eventually
This can occur when collagen synthesis is depressed and slowly resolves, with resolution of erythema that can
inflammation is less than usual. Examples of atrophic take years. The collagen accumulation stabilizes but
scars are the stretch marks or striae that can be a com- with a residual scar that is elevated and wider than a
plication of systemic steroid excess either from exoge- normal mature scar (. Fig. 9.4). During the period of
nous steroids or Cushing’s disease or in some scars after active collagen accumulation and erythema, the scar can
radiation therapy. be itchy and/or painful. The residual scar is less elastic
(stiffer) than normal skin and, if it crosses a joint, can
limit motion. A key feature of hypertrophic scar (versus
keloid) is that the scar tissue remains within the confines
of the original scar (although it may be widened).
Hypertrophic scars are more common in patients of
9 color, particularly East Asians, and the susceptibility to
hypertrophic scars is often inherited. Prolonged inflam-
mation for any reason (delays in epithelization, blocked
sebaceous glands, ingrown hairs, and tension) contrib-
utes significantly to the incidence of hypertrophic scars.
Frequently portions of a scar will be hypertrophic in
hair-bearing areas, while the adjacent scars evolve into
normal mature scars.
9.5 Widespread Hypertrophic Scar
In many cases, most notably from burns, the initial

injury is not linear but covers a larger area (. Fig. 9.5).
In general, when epithelization (complete epithelial
.. Fig. 9.3 Atrophic mature scar resurfacing) is not completed within 2 weeks, the risk of
.. Fig. 9.4 Linear hypertrophic scar

International Scar Classification in 2019
83 9
hypertrophic scar increases, particularly in children and original scar. The keloid often has a mushroom or cauli-
in adults under the age of 40. In a hypertrophic scar, the flower type of appearance. Keloids are frequently symp-
period of collagen accumulation is prolonged up to tomatic with pain or itch. The genetics of keloids are
6–12 months resulting in a scar that is elevated and quite complex and beyond the scope of this chapter, but
thickened and is very stiff. Erythema will be prolonged many are familial and are much more common among
and the scars are often intensely pruritic or even painful. many African tribes and to a lesser degree among
Asians. The central portion of a keloid is very dense
fibers with a characteristic pattern histologically and
9.6 Keloid relatively acellular, while the active spreading edge has a
significant inflammatory and cellular component.
A keloid unlike a hypertrophic scar behaves more like a
tumor in that growth can occur even years after the orig-
inal injury and extend far beyond the confines of the 9.6.1 Minor Keloid
Most keloids arise from localized injuries such as a

pierced ear (the most common location of minor keloid),
and although they extend beyond the margins of the
original scar, their growth stabilizes and allows more
options for treatment including surgical excision com-
bined with other modalities such as steroid injections or
radiation therapy (. Fig. 9.6).
9.6.2 Major Keloid
In extreme situations in patients with a very strong

genetic predisposition, keloids can extend into large
plagues with a very actively growing outer edge that in
some areas has a characteristic butterfly pattern
(. Fig. 9.7a) due to forces on the keloid exerted by the
surrounding skin. The peripheral edge of the keloid is
active, while the central portion is less active with less
cell proliferation. Often the original injury can be as
minor as a scratch or seemingly spontaneous
.. Fig. 9.5 Hypertrophic broad scar (. Fig. 9.7b Keloid arising from small tracheotomy
.. Fig. 9.6 Minor keloid

84 T. A. Mustoe
a b
.. Fig. 9.7 Major keloid. a Chest keloid with typical butterfly pattern. b Major keloid
scar), and the unfortunate patients with major keloids 3. Gold MH, Berman B, Clementoni MT, Gauglitz GG, Nahai F,
can form them all over their body. These are extraordi- McGuire M, Mustoe TA, Pusic A, Sachdev M, Teo L, Waibel J.
9 narily difficult to treat and are both deforming and
International clinical recommendations on scar management:
part 1 – evaluating the evidence and updated international clini-
debilitating. Intensive research on the defining genetic cal recommendations on scar management: part 2 – algorithms
characteristics and pathogenesis of keloids continues, for scar prevention and treatment. Dermatol Surg.
and in a few cases genetic loci have been identified, but 2014;40(8):825–31.
the genetics are complex, as well as the pathogenesis. 4. Bartell TH, Monafo WW, Mustoe TA. Noninvasive in vivo
quantification of elastic properties of hypertrophic scar: hand
held elastometry. J Burn Care Rehabil. 1988;9:657–60.
5. Widgerow AD, Chait LA. Scar management practice and sci-
Bibliography ence: a comprehensive approach to controlling scar tissue and
avoiding hypertrophic scarring. Adv Skin Wound Care.
1. Mustoe TA, Cooter R, Gold M, Hobbs R, Ramelet AA, 2011;24(12):555–61. (meta-analysis).
Shakespeare P, Stella M, Teot L, Wood F, Ziegler U. International 6. Al-Attar A, Mess S, Thomassen JM, et al. Keloid pathogenesis
clinical guidelines for scar management. Plast Reconstr Surg. and treatment. Plast Reconstr Surg. 2006;117(1):286–300.
2002;110:560–72. 7. Wolfram D, Tzankov A, Pulzi P, Piza-Katzer H. A review of
2. Kim S, Choi TH, Liu W, Ogawa R, Mustoe TA. Update on scar hypertrophic scars and keloids-their pathophysiology, risk fac-
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Reconstr Surg. 2013;132:1580–9.
85 V
Scar Symptoms
Contents
Chapter 10 Scar Symptoms: Pruritus and Pain – 87

Chapter 11 Scar Symptom: Erythema and Thickness – 103

Chapter 12 Scar Symptoms: Pigmentation Disorders – 109

A. Pijpe, K. L. M. Gardien,
R. E. van Meijeren-Hoogendoorn,
E. Middelkoop, and Paul P. M. van Zuijlen
Chapter 13 Scar Contractures – 117

87 10
Scar Symptoms: Pruritus

and Pain
Contents
10.1 Pain: Definition and Subtypes – 88
10.2 Pain Pathway – 88

10.2.1 eripheral Receptor Activation – 88
P
10.2.2 Ascending Pathway – 88
10.2.3 Descending Pathway – 88
10.2.4 Peripheral Sensitization – 89
10.2.5 Central Sensitization – 90
10.2.6 Pruritus: Definition and Subtypes – 90
10.2.7 Pruritic Pathway – 90
10.2.8 Peripheral Nerve Fibers (PNF) – 91
10.2.9 Spinal Cord/Itch Specific Neurons – 91
10.2.10 Thalamocortical Level – 91
10.2.11 Non-pharmacological Adjuncts – 93
10.2.12 Transcutaneous Electrical Nerve Stimulation (TENS) – 94
10.2.13 Pharmacological Adjuncts – 94
10.2.14 Emerging Modalities – 96
References – 98

88 O. Farrukh and I. Goutos
10.1 Pain: Definition and Subtypes tion of the reflex response associated with painful stim-
uli; they transmit pain faster than unmyelinated C fibers
Pain is defined as a distressing sensory experience asso- and contain the neurotransmitter L-glutamate.
ciated with potential or actual tissue damage with cogni- C-fibers: These fibers are unmyelinated, have a high
tive, emotional, and social components [1]. Pain can be threshold for activation, and their stimulation causes
classified into acute and chronic, based on the duration delayed perception of pain that is often described as dif-
of symptoms as well as nociceptive and non-nociceptive fuse stabbing or burning. As well as glutamate, they con-
subtypes with regards to the neurophysiological pro- tain other neurotransmitters like substance P (SP) and
cesses involved. calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP).
Acute pain is the predicted physiological response Second-order neurons start from the dorsal horn
to an adverse mechanical, thermal, or chemical stimu- and cross over to the contralateral side of the ascend-
lus and most frequently occurs after traumatic injury/ ing spinothalamic tract to reach the thalamus and pons.
surgery as part of the inflammatory response. Chronic The components of the dorsal horn involved in noci-
pain is defined as pain lasting for three or more months ception express several receptors including α-amino-3-
showing no resolution to treatment [1]. hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionic acid (AMPA),
Nociceptive pain can be defined as pain arising from voltage-gated calcium channels, N-methyl-D-aspartate
the sensitization/activation of peripheral nociceptors and (NMDA), as well as gamma-aminobutyric acid–alpha
will only continue if the inciting stimulus is maintained (GABA-A) receptors [4].
[2]. Non-nociceptive pain can be classified into neuro- Third-order neurons start at the thalamus and end at
pathic and psychogenic pain. Neuropathic pain denotes a number of different cerebral loci.
a primary anatomical or biochemical abnormality aris- Processing regarding the magnitude and spatial char-
ing within the CNS, resulting in persistent and chronic acteristics of painful stimuli is provided by the somato-
10 sensory disturbance following the initial injury [3]. It sensory cortex and the ventral posterior thalamic nuclei.
occurs as a result of damage to neural tissue in periph- At the same time affective and motivational aspects of
eral and central nervous system and relates to aberrant pain are processed by the ventromedial posterior tha-
somatosensory processing. While a detailed account of lamic nucleus and its cortical connections [6].
psychogenic pain is outside the remit for this review, we Furthermore, positron emission tomography stud-
will elaborate extensively on neuropathic phenomena ies have proposed that pain-related activation of ante-
since they are frequently observed in scar practice. rior cingulate cortex (ACC) has a direct relationship
with an individual’s emotional and behavioural reac-
tions to pain [7]. Midbrain periaqueductal gray mat-
10.2 Pain Pathway ter, the region responsible for fight or flight response
has also been shown to have interconnections with the
10.2.1 Peripheral Receptor Activation ACC [8].
Specialized sensory nociceptor fibers in peripheral tis-

sues are activated by a broad spectrum of stimuli includ- 10.2.3 Descending Pathway
ing mechanical, thermal as well as chemical with the
most frequent being acetylcholine, bradykinin, adenos- The dorsal horn of the spinal cord receives input from
ine triphosphate, and prostaglandins [4]. higher centers, which can modulate the peripheral noci-
ceptor input barrage by the descending pathway.
The descending pathway starts at the limbic system
10.2.2 Ascending Pathway of the brain area, namely the periaqueductal gray/para-
brachial area, rostral ventromedial medulla, and nucleus
First-order neuron pathways are responsible for car- raphae magnus, whose stimulation, in turn, inhibit noci-
rying impulses to the dorsal column initially and then ceptors in the laminae of the spinal cord. Key transmit-
other parts of the CNS as part of the ascending pathway ters involved include noradrenaline, serotonin, as well as
and comprise the following different subtypes [5]. endogenous endorphins and encephalins [9].
A-beta fibers: These are low stimulation threshold, Aside from descending signals, nociceptive impulses
myelinated fibers, activated by vibration and touch; can also be modulated by segmental input from A-beta
under normal conditions, they convey nonpainful fibers under the gate control theory of pain. In other
stimuli; nevertheless, they play a crucial role in carrying words, non-nociceptive fiber signals carried by the large
painful sensations in chronic neuropathic pain. diameter A fibers can interrupt the transmission of pain
A-delta fibers: These thinly myelinated fibers have a indirectly by inhibiting the effect of pain fibers (“closing
high threshold potential and are involved in the initia- the gate”) [10].
Scar Symptoms: Pruritus and Pain
89 10
Synaptic
cortical reorganisation
Loss of afferent Aβ
myelinated fiber input to
CNS
+
Loss of
descending
pathway inhibition
+
Increased
Injured afferent / activity in
intact dorsal root
nociceptor activity ganglion
Degeneration of inhibitory
CNS neurons
.. Fig. 10.1 Schematic diagram of several mechanisms of periph- atory neurotransmitter glutamate [13]; loss of Aβ-myelinated fibers
eral and central nervous system neuropathies. Peripheral sensitiza- input causing loss of afferent inhibition resulting in more noxious
tion include injured afferent hypothesis when a neuroma formed stimuli reaching the CNS (Deafferentation theory) [14]; degenra-
by injury to peripheral afferent fibres causes increased sesitvity to tion of inhibitory CNS neurons (GABA interneurons) in the dorsal
different stimuli resulting in abnormal excitability [11]; intact nocio- horn resulting in decreased inhibtion of nociceptive pathways caus-
ceptor hypothesis in which spontaneous activity may develop in the ing chronic pain [15]; loss of anti-nociceptive descending pathways
nocioceptors that survived peripherally after injury innervating the resulting in increased excitability to the CNS resulting in increased
region of the transected nerve secreting agents altering the activity pain [16]; abnormal cotical input as a result of misdirected axonal
of uninjured afferents [12] Central sensitization include increased growths at the site of injury causing reorganization of the somato-
activity in of the dorsal horn projection neurons in the dorsal root sensory cortex with distorted skin mapping of the area innervated by
ganglion after a peripheral nerve injury causing the release of excit- the injured afferent [17]
Neuropathic pain refers to a type of non-nociceptive 55 Injured afferent hypothesis: According to this the-
pain, which has many neurophysiological phenomena cen- ory, a neuroma formed by injury to the peripheral
tral to its genesis and symptom maintenance. These can afferent fibers causes growth of unmyelinated C
involve the central nervous system primarily or second- fibers from damaged axons and results in abnormal
arily due to changes to the peripheral nervous system com- excitability. This spontaneous activity occurs due to
ponents (sensitization). . Figure 10.1 provides a pictorial increased sensitivity to mechanical, chemical, and
representation of key processes involving the peripheral thermal stimuli [11, 12].
and central nervous system in neuropathic states. 55 Intact nociceptor hypothesis: This concept proposes
that intact nociceptors (i.e., those surviving the origi-
nal injury in the periphery and innervating the region
10.2.4 Peripheral Sensitization affected by the transected nerve fibers) develop sponta-
neous activity [11]. Changes in ion channels, expression
Different mechanisms have been proposed for the occur- of receptors, and secretion of agents like prostaglan-
rence of abnormal signals in the peripheral nervous sys- din, bradykinin, and tumor necrosis factor-alpha have
tem capable of ultimately sensitizing the central system, the potential to sensitize nociceptors, thereby altering
including: the properties of uninjured afferents [12].
10.2.5 Central Sensitization 10.2.6 Pruritus: Definition and Subtypes
The following mechanisms have been proposed to Pruritus is derived from the Latin word prurio, which
underlie central sensitization: means “to itch” and can be defined as the unpleasant
55 Increased activity of dorsal horn projection neurons: sensation, which leads to the desire to scratch [21]. It
There is an upregulation of α2δ subunit of calcium can be divided into acute and chronic as well as into
channels in the dorsal root ganglion and spinal different subtypes based on the pathophysiological
cord after a peripheral nerve injury; this results in processes involved. In terms of chronicity, the acute
increased release of excitatory neurotransmitter glu- itch has been proposed to last up to 6 months post-
tamate [13]. injury/insult to the skin in burns patients, correspond-
55 Deafferentation theory (loss of afferent inhibition): ing to the early remodeling phase of wound healing
Tissue injury causes loss of Aβ-myelinated fibers [22]. Pruritic sensations in the healing wound could
input, which is the primary mechanism promoting potentially be explained on the basis of histamine
hypoactivity of interneurons. These interneurons release as part of the inflammatory response and partly
primarily inhibit nociceptive afferents resulting in by virtue of abundant mast cell present in hypertro-
more noxious stimuli reaching the CNS centers [14]. phic scars [23]. Nevertheless, the persistence of these
55 Loss of CNS inhibitory neurons: γ-Aminobutyric symptoms beyond the wound healing and into scarring
acid (GABA) interneurons in the dorsal horn nerve phase could not be solely explained on a histaminergic
fibers undergo degeneration, causing decreased inhi- basis (see below).
bition of the nociceptive pathway contributing to Twycross et al. [24] has classified pruritus into the
chronic pain and hypersensitivity [15]. following four main subtypes:
55 Loss of descending inhibition: Inhibition of the 55 Pruritogenic: Arising in the skin because of injury/
10 anti-nociceptive descending pathways can result in inflammation
increased excitability of the CNS, and this is thought 55 Neuropathic: Stemming from within the afferent
to cause loss of sensory input following peripheral neurologic pathway
nerve injury [16]. 55 Neurogenic: Having a central nervous system origin
55 Synaptic reorganization: Acute deafferentation in in the absence of neurologic pathology
the nervous system is thought to stem from periph- 55 Psychogenic: Associated with psychiatric conditions
eral nerve transection resulting in a misdirected axo-
nal growth at the site of injury and cause abnormal While a number of non-skin pruritic disorders may
cortical input. This mediates somatosensory cortex appear to consistently fit in one discreet category, the
reorganization with distorted skin mapping origi- scar-related itch is thought to have a number of non-
nally innervated by the injured afferent [17]. pruritogenic origins.
The sensitization phenomena described above appear

to play a key role in the generation and maintenance 10.2.7 Pruritic Pathway
of chronic sensory phenomena in burn scars (see the
following section) as well as keloid scars. It is inter- 10.2.7.1 Peripheral Receptor Activation
esting to note that the clinical profile of symptoms in A wide variety of substances have been implicated in
keloids is such that pain in keloid is felt at the center the generation and propagation of antegrade pruritic
while itch is mostly felt at the periphery raising the stimuli including:
suspicion of a small fiber neuropathic state. Its sever-
ity has been suggested to correlate with pruritic inten- Histamine
sity with a disproportionate number of regenerating A number of histamine receptors have been described in
unmyelinated C fibers at the periphery causing itch. the literature. The surface of sensory nerve endings have
Keloids with itch have also demonstrated an overall H1 and H2 receptors that are activated by histamine
lower epidermal innervation density pointing toward stored in the keratinocytes and mast cells [25]; H3 and
mechanisms of peripheral nervous sensitization [18, H4 receptors are also found on peripheral and central
19]. Another study reporting a large number of thin- neurons regulating neurotransmitter release and mast
ner nerve fibers in deeper layers of keloidal skin has cells [26, 27]. As a by-product of collagen production,
hypothesized the presence of the intensive fibrous histamine synthesis is increased in the healing wound,
compression (entrapment neuropathy) accounting for and this can account for the generation of pruritic stim-
painful symptoms [20]. uli in the healing wound/freshly formed scar [28].
91 10
Acetylcholine supplementary motor area). The cingulate gyrus and
Human keratinocytes have been shown to synthesize, prefrontal cortex have also been implicated in neuronal
store, and release acetylcholine, which, through the acti- transmission and this may potentially be the reason for
vation of M3 muscarinic receptors in the skin, can pro- the associated emotional component seen in scratching
duce an itch-associated response [29, 30]. behaviour of patients suffering from pruritus [37].
The generation and maintenance of pruritic symp-
Bradykinin toms into a chronic state has been postulated to relate
Histamine release can be caused by bradykinin secretion to a state of central nervous system sensitization, based
through mast cell degranulation [31]. It also stimulates on a combination of clinical, neurophysiological, as well
the release of calcitonin gene-related peptide, substance as pharmacological data [38]. The salient observations
P, and prostaglandin E2 at the site of tissue injury result- supporting a neuropathic state in chronic pruritus in
ing in inflammation [32]. burns patients are summarized below.
(a) Emerging pharmacological evidence behind the
Proteinases effectiveness of antihistamines at different time-
Dermal mast cells synthesize proteinases, including points during rehabilitation indicates that in the
tryptase and chymase, which interact with proteinase- later phases of healing, wounds and scars become
activated-receptor-2 located on C fibers neurons, con- unresponsive to antihistamine therapy [39, 40, 41].
tributing to impulse generation [33]. This may point toward the involvement of the cen-
tral nervous system in the maintenance of these
symptoms and is further supported by the superior-
10.2.8 Peripheral Nerve Fibers (PNF) ity of centrally acting agents including gabapentin
and pregabalin [34, 35, 42, 43] and transcutaneous
A specific group of “unmyelinated C fibers” appears to electrical nerve stimulation modalities in symptom
be responsible for the transmission of itch; they start management [41, 44].
at the dermo-epidermal junction and reach the spinal (b) Neurophysiological studies in burn scars show that
cord via the dorsal root ganglion. These fibers have a phenomena similar to those occurring in chronic
characteristic slow conduction velocity (0.5 m/sec) with neuropathic pain exist in terms of the presence of
a prolonged histamine response and extensive termi- increased sensitivity to stimuli (hyperalgesia/hyper-
nal branching. The main transmitters released include kinesis) on the background of otherwise overall
substance P and calcitonin gene-related peptide [34]. decreased sensibility. This finding provides some
evidence of possible deafferentation as a mechanism
for CNS sensitization [44, 45].
10.2.9 Spinal Cord/Itch Specific Neurons (c) Clinical presentation highlights a pattern of symp-
tom exacerbation at night time, which is found typi-
Andrew and Craig, in their experiments on cats, showed cally in neuropathic states [46, 47].
“itch-specific” neurons to be located in the superficial (d) The neurological pathways of both symptoms share
part of the dorsal lamina I of spinothalamic tract [35]. common features including the role of substance P
They are characterized by their lack of ongoing dis- and CGRP as well as similar areas of the central
charge and low conduction velocities and terminate at nervous system activated in the generation of symp-
the thalamus before crossing over to the contralateral toms as in neuropathic pain [48, 49].
side in the spinal cord. (e) Neuropeptide expression data. Hypertrophic scar
biopsies in patients with pain and itch demonstrated
a higher density of neuropeptides (SP and CGRP)
10.2.10 Thalamocortical Level compared to controls, whereas these were absent
in non-hypertrophic scars providing a link between
The exact parts of the brain activated by the pruritic neuropeptide expression and impulse transmission.
pathway are still not fully characterized; lamina I of the Interestingly, SP immunoreactivity was present in
spinothalamic tract was originally postulated to termi- the densely packed areas of scar hypertrophy [50].
nate in the medial dorsal and ventral medial nucleus of Another study in grafted burn skin showed the
the thalamus in primates [36]. However, positron emis- coexistence of overall decrease in axonal population
sion tomography studies have failed to show any subcor- and a preferential increase in SP fibers correlating
tical activation in healthy individuals and instead show with pruritic symptoms; this provides a link between
significant activation in contralateral somatosensory a state of SP hyperinnervation in a milieu of deaf-
cortex and in both ipsilateral and contralateral motor ferentation possibly leading to a neuropathic state
areas (premotor cortex, primary motor cortex, and [32]. Furthermore, neuropeptides like SP are thought
to play a key role in perpetuating fibroproliferative respectively. Predictors of itch at three months post-
pathology establishing a cycle of nociception and burn included total burned surface area (TBSA), female
scar hypertrophy [50, 51]. gender, number of surgical procedures (deep dermal
injury), and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD)
Other authors have proposed the role of opioids in the symptoms at two weeks post-injury. Interestingly, at
generation of pruritic impulses in hypertrophic burn 24 months the only predictors for itch complaints were
scars [52]. the latter two (PTSD at two weeks post-injury and the
presence of deep dermal injury). The authors proposed
10.2.10.1 Incidence/Prevalence of Pain that acute itch (up to 6 months) corresponding to the
and Itch in Scars early remodeling phase of wound healing effects, both
Pain is a major sensory disturbance and has been partial and full-thickness burn injuries. Chronic itch, on
described as contributing to the “hidden cost” of cutane- the other hand, affects patients with certain predispos-
ous scars. According to a study based on semi-structured ing factors, providing a link between the chronicity of
interviews in a UK scar specialist service, it has been symptoms and markers of injury severity as well as psy-
identified that 26% and 44% of patients reported pain chological stress [59].
and itch in association with their scars, affecting their Another multicenter, large cohort study of adult
physical comfort and functioning [53]. burn survivors, reported high prevalence and severity
In a corroborative study, pain and itch have been of post-burn pruritus. Two cohorts of individual with
found to correlate with physical impairment (P ≤ 0.001) burns were studied; the first included 637 patients fol-
in a study of 100 patients with keloid and hypertro- lowed prospectively over a 2-year period and identified
phic scarring attending a German dermatology depart- that pruritus initially affected more than 90% of individ-
ment using the Questionnaire on Experience with Skin uals and persisted in more than 40% of burn survivors in
10 Complaints. Similar work utilizing the Dermatology the long term. The second cohort comprised 336 patients
Life Quality Index (DLQI) tool confirmed that keloids who sustained burn injury 4–10 years before assessment
have a statistically significant effect on the quality of using the 5-D itch scale. Pruritus was reported as severe
life compared to physiologic scars (p < 0.001); addition- in 76% patients within this group, moderate in 29%, and
ally, they are associated with a statistically significant mild in 52% [60].
increase in pain and itch disturbances (P < 0.01 and Schneider et al. [61] conducted a retrospective review
0.001 respectively) [54]. of 430 pediatric burn survivors with a mean TBSA of
A cross-sectional health-related quality of life 40.8%. Findings included that pruritus is present in most
(HRQL) assessment study focused on indicators of the children (93%) and is of moderate intensity at discharge.
burden for 106 keloid patients using one disease-specific The frequency and intensity of symptoms decreased over
(Skindex-29) and two generic (SF-36 and EQ-5D-5L) time; nevertheless continued to affect 63% of children at
HRQL measures; results indicated that pain and itch two years post-injury; furthermore, regression analysis
were the strongest predictors of impairment and related showed significant correlations between pain and itch
to low mental and emotional status [55]. intensity at each time point. Most interestingly, no asso-
A study evaluating chronic pain due to central sen- ciation was identified between pruritic intensity and burn
sitization in burn scars showed a 35% prevalence of etiology, age, gender, or burn size.
pain in scarred tissue one or more years after injury [56,
57]. Additionally, work evaluating 98 burn survivors, 10.2.10.2 Management of Symptoms
reported 25% of patients having painful scars and 20% Sensory symptoms in scars can be managed using a
experiencing shooting pain more than 30 years post- variety of approaches; undoubtedly, the most important
injury [21]. A retrospective review involving 72 patients initial step toward successful management relies on reli-
suggested that the first complaint of neuropathic pain able and consistent monitoring of symptoms. A pleth-
presents on average at 4.3 months after injury and that ora of clinical measurement scales have been described
there is a qualitative progression pattern; symptoms in the literature; some of the most commonly utilized
are initially reported as “pins and needles,” then being mono-dimensional scales include verbal, visual, as well
predominantly stabbing or burning pain followed by as numerical analogue scales [62]. Other evaluation
“shooting” sensory qualities [58]. methods like the “itch man scale” incorporate a picto-
A multicenter cohort involving 510 patients was used rial element, which makes them more suitable for pediat-
to evaluate the incidence and prevalence of burns itch. ric patients or those unable to complete analogue scales
In this long-term prospective study, 64% of individuals [63]. Multidimensional tools including the 5-D Pruritus
reported itch to be a significant problem over a 2-year Scale have the advantage of incorporating components
period. At three months, 87% of individuals reported of the sensory experience other than intensity, including
severe itching; this fell to 70% at 12 and 64% at 24 months duration and disability, hence offering the opportunity
93 10
to capture the degree of disturbance in a more compre- (P = 0.001); additionally, symptoms recurred later com-
hensive manner [64]. paratively (P ≤ 0.001), and the use of antipruritic medi-
A variety of pharmacological and non-pharma- cations was lower (P = 0.023) [72].
cological adjuncts are available and frequently using a A different literature report compared the effects of
combination of modalities provides an optimal thera- hydrocolloid dressing versus moisturizer in 20 patients
peutic approach. with keloid and hypertrophic scars over a 2-month
period in a randomized controlled prospective manner.
Results indicate that both products achieved a similar
10.2.11 Non-pharmacological Adjuncts reduction in itch (P < 0.03) and pain (P < 0.08) presum-
ably by virtue of scar hydration [73].
10.2.11.1 Psychological Support One of the most interesting reports in the litera-
A multidisciplinary approach toward treating sensory ture focused on the comparison between a hydrat-
disturbances in scars is vital, and psychological support ing gel-cream and three fluid silicones in a group of
has been suggested as an integral part of the manage- healthy volunteers. The moisturizer Alhydran (BAP
ment plan [65]. This is particularly pertinent given the Medical, Belgium) has been found to have an equiva-
association between psychological stress and persever- lent effect on hydration and occlusion suggesting that
ance of sensory symptoms into a chronic state [38]. these may be the most important in topical scar care
preparations as opposed to active substances like sili-
10.2.11.2 Cooling cone, which have become extremely popular in recent
The application of cooling agents as part of wound care decades [74].
and scar management can help temporarily relieve pru-
ritic sensations. The beneficial effect of cooling can be 10.2.11.4 Massage
explained by the temperature-sensitive activation of cer- Massage has been shown to be effective for the manage-
tain excitatory ion channels, including vanilloid receptor ment of pain, itch, and anxiety associated with scars in
1 as well as ascending pathway C fibers [34, 66]. a number of studies [75–77]. The first randomized study
included 20 patients in the remodeling phase of scar
10.2.11.3 Hydration/Moisturization formation; these were divided into either a 30-minute
Two recent literature reviews have found that there is lim- massage with cocoa butter to a moderate-sized scar tis-
ited and low-level evidence behind the optimal choice of sue area twice a week for five weeks or standard therapy
a moisturizing and hydrating product for burn scars [67], (cocoa butter application to scars applied by physical
with a small number of studies investigating the value of therapists without massage motions). The massage ther-
different products available. The rationale for moistur- apy group showed reduced pain, itch (both measured
ization of a scar relates to addressing the increased rate using visual analogue scales), as well as anxiety scores
of transepidermal water loss (TEWL) seen in scars and consistently throughout the study period [75]. Similar
potentially inhibits the fibrogenic action of fibroblasts by results were obtained in a study with a comparable
virtue of the hydrating effect [68]. design with regards to pain, itch, and anxiety in adoles-
The ideal moisturizer should have both occlusive as cent burn victims [78].
well as humectant ingredients. Occlusive substances (e.g., A Korean group investigated the effects of skin reha-
oils) function to impede water loss, whereas humectants bilitation massage for three months in a group of 18 burn
(e.g., glycerin, propylene glycol, etc.) attract water from the survivors; this involved the combination of light stroking
dermis into the stratum corneum. The presence of a defec- movements followed by acupressure using oil as a medium
tive barrier against transepidermal water loss in scarred applied for 30 minutes once a week for three months.
skin implies that a humectant-only-based preparation Results indicated a statistically significant improvement
would enhance fluid loss, hence should be avoided [69]. of pruritus in the massage group (t = −2.942, p = 0.006)
A small randomized study has indicated that mugwort as well as depression (t = −2.920, p = 0.007) [76]. The
lotion is a promising topical agent for the relief of an itch underlying mechanisms of action of massage include the
in burns hypertrophic scarring [70]; additionally, a non- principles of the “gate theory” of pain modulation as
prescription moisturizer containing a blend of protease well as the increased vagal activity, reducing stress hor-
enzymes (Provase) applied every 8 hours for four weeks mone levels in the recipient [10, 79, 80].
has been shown to reduce itch severity parameters as well
as the affective burden significantly [71]. 10.2.11.5 Silicone Gels/Sheets
A similar randomized controlled study among Silicone is widely used for the treatment of symptomatic
52 patients with postburn itch found that a prepara- hypertrophic scars. The proposed beneficial mechanisms
tion of beeswax and herbal oil had a statistically signifi- involved include increased skin hydration (by virtue of
cant better effect on itch compared to aqueous cream occlusion) and a decrease in fibroblastic activity [81, 82].
The literature contains a number of high-quality that the enhanced compliance to silicone-based treat-
studies regarding the role of silicone for the preven- ments relates to the painless and noninvasive nature of
tion of hypertrophy including a randomized placebo- silicone-based adjuncts.
controlled, double-blind prospective trial on sternotomy
wounds showing a statistically significant effect on pain
and itch symptoms [83]. 10.2.12 ranscutaneous Electrical Nerve
T
Topical application of silicone gel versus placebo gel Stimulation (TENS)
has been investigated in a randomized within-subject
comparative clinical trial. Results suggested that sili- TENS involves the application of low-voltage electrical
cone gel promoted maturation of early burn scars (mean impulses to the nervous system by means of electrodes
age of scars in the study 4 months) and a decrease in placed on the skin [90]. The underlying mechanism of
itch symptoms in a statistically significant manner [84]. action involves the stimulation of rapidly conducting
Similar beneficial effects were reproduced in a differ- A-fibers, which inhibit the transmission of noxious stim-
ent study employing silicone gel application to burns uli carried by the slower C fibers according to the “gate
hypertrophic scarring showing a significant difference in theory of pain” [10].
terms of scar vascularity starting at the first month of A pilot study involving 20 patients with healed burns
application [85]. complaining of severe itch following burns demon-
Another study utilized silicone gel sheets in the strated a statistically significant change in the reported
conservative management of six keloid patients for visual analogue scale compared with placebo over a
24 weeks. Symptoms of pain and itch showed a decrease 3-week period [90].
after four weeks of the gel sheeting application and dis-
appeared after 12 weeks. After 24 weeks, a histologi-
10 cal decrease in the number of mast cells was observed, 10.2.13 Pharmacological Adjuncts
which may explain the therapeutic benefit seen by vir-
tue of a decreased concentration of mast cells derived 10.2.13.1 Capsaicin
mediators [86]. This is a naturally occurring alkaloid compound, which
A number of comparative studies exist in the litera- interacts with the transient receptor potential V1 recep-
ture, which aimed to elucidate the role of silicone prod- tor resulting in the depletion of neuropeptides from
ucts in the scar care arena. peripheral nerves. Despite the fact that capsaicin forms
A randomized clinical trial of 45 post-traumatic one of the mainstay topical agents in many chronic pain
hypertrophic scars found that silicone gel sheeting services, a double-blind placebo-controlled random-
applied 24 hours/day for six months was superior to ized trial using 0.025% capsaicin cream on 30 patients
15-minute-long daily massage in reducing scar thickness with pruritic wounds revealed no significant effects on
in a statistically significant manner (p < 0.001); of par- pruritic symptom relief [91, 92, 93]. Further work is
ticular note is that pain and itch reduction did not reach warranted involving preparations with different concen-
statistical significance in this study [87]. trations of this agent in order to elucidate its exact role
A separate prospective single-blinded study com- in the management of symptomatic scars.
pared the efficacy of 585 nm flashlamp-pumped pulsed
dye laser and silicone gel sheeting and control in the 10.2.13.2 Antihistamines
management of 20 patients with hypertrophic scars; Antihistamines have traditionally been used as first-line
results showed an overall reduction of blood flow, vol- agents for the management of pruritus. First-generation
ume, and pruritus for all the study subgroups but failed compounds (diphenhydramine, hydroxyzine, cyprohep-
to show any statistically significant difference between tadine, and chlorphenamine) act on histaminic, sero-
treatment and control groups [88]. tonergic, muscarinic, and alpha-adrenergic receptors.
A prospective split sternotomy scar study [89] Second-generation compounds, like cetirizine, have
involving 14 patients randomized to treat one-half minimal activity on non-histaminic receptors and hence
of the scar with triamcinolone acetonide (TAC) and have a more favourable side effect profile as well as a
the other with silicone gel sheeting worn for 12 hours longer duration of action [94, 95]. The pharmacologi-
for 12 weeks. The primary outcome of patient prefer- cal action of antihistamine relates primarily to a reverse
ence was analyzed, and recruitment was terminated agonist action at histaminic receptors as well a central
after 11 patients had completed the study, 10 of whom nervous system sedative effect (the latter action refers to
favoured silicone gel treatment. The average time for the first-generation compounds).
symptomatic improvement of silicone-treated patients One of the initial studies involving 35 burns patient
was 3.9 days as compared to triamcinolone acetonide, complaining of severe itching after discharge assessed
which was 6.8 days (p < 0.05). The authors proposed the efficacy of three first-generation antihistamines,
95 10
namely chlorpheniramine, hydroxyzine, and diphen- beneficial effects were first recorded in literature in the
hydramine. The results of the study pointed toward no 1950s [100]. The international advisory panel in 2002
significant difference in therapeutic efficacy between the recommended triamcinolone acetonide (TAC) as the
three compounds and only a 20% complete relief of first-line treatment modality for keloid and second-line
symptoms in the cohort [96]. treatment for linear hypertrophic scar in reducing sub-
jective symptoms associated with keloid and hypertro-
10.2.13.3 Gabapentin/Pregabalin phic scar like pain and pruritus [101].
Gabapentin is a useful agent for the management of In 2014, a protocol re-evaluation was undertaken,
neuropathic pain associated with a variety of condi- which reinforced the prominent position of steroids in
tions, including post-herpetic neuralgia [97]. scar management albeit supported a combined approach
The mechanism of action of gabapentin involves a incorporating the use of other agents including 5 fluo-
number of mechanisms, including: rouracil, cryotherapy, laser, and silicone products [102].
1. Blockade of the α2δ subunits of voltage-gated Ca Darvi evaluated the use of intralesional triamcino-
channels resulting in a reduced release of excitatory lone acetonide in treating hypertrophic and keloid scars
neurotransmitters [98]. in 65 patients with a 10-year follow-up. The dosage of
2. Increased synthesis and release of γ-aminobutyric TAC for 1–2 cm2 of scar surface area was determined to
acid in the CNS [99]. be 20–40 mg, 40–80 mg for 2–3 cm2, and 60–120 mg for
scar surface area of 4–6 cm2. In this study four injections
A comparative study appraised two different therapeu- of TAC were given for the total dose delivered to the
tic protocols for the management of burns pruritus in scar at 1–2-week intervals with an ensuing symptomatic
patients with healing and healed burns in a UK burn relief seen in 71% of patients; furthermore, a dramatic
center incorporating a mixture of antihistamines and improvement of symptoms with full flattening of hyper-
gabapentin; the authors concluded that gabapentin as trophic scars was seen in 50% and 71% in patients with
monotherapy as well as in combination with another keloid scars [103].
two antihistamines was more efficacious compared Manuskiatti [104] and colleagues performed a ran-
to chlorpheniramine alone and in combination with domized controlled trial comparing the effects of intra-
another two antihistamines (t = 3.70, df = 89, P < 0.001 lesional triamcinolone acetonide with 5-fluorouracil or
for monotherapy and x2 = 12.2, df = 1, P = 0.001 for alone with 585 nm pulse dye laser. TAC-treated scars had
polytherapy). Additionally, patients with higher initial better improvements in clinical symptoms (pain, itching)
pruritus scores needed a combination of pharmacologi- and scar induration, although the results were not statis-
cal agents for effective symptomatic relief. This study tically significant. Intralesional triamcinolone acetonide
raised the value of centrally acting agents in itch man- treatment, however, did produce side effects, including
agement and proposed the combination of peripherally skin atrophy, telangiectasia, and hypopigmentation
and centrally acting agents in the treatment for burns in 50% of the TAC-treated group. Boutli-Kasapidou
pruritus [41]. and colleagues [105] evaluated a polytherapy protocol,
Another landmark study comprised a four-arm, including three triamcinolone acetonide intralesional
double-blind, randomized and placebo-controlled study injections every month combined with 12 monthly
of pregabalin in the management of postburn pruritus. cycles of cryotherapy and 12-hour silicone dressing for
Pregabalin is a newer analogue of gabapentin with com- 12 months. Patient satisfaction scale was used to grade
paratively better anxiolytic and pharmacokinetic prop- the appearance cosmetically and subjective symptoms
erties. The study compared the following four groups: (pain, burning, and tension post 12 months). Similarly,
pregabalin; cetirizine and pheniramine maleate; the an investigator satisfaction scale was used as well. The
combination of pregabalin, cetirizine, and pheniramine results showed that compared to monotherapy, poly-
maleate; and placebo. Results indicated that for moder- therapy group had a major improvement in control of
ate to severe pruritus (VAS 6-10) a centrally acting agent symptoms and appearance, reported by the patient and
like pregabalin is indicated to significantly decrease itch; observed by the physician (P < 0.01). They concluded
patients with milder itch (VAS 4-5) are best served with the beneficial effects of each treatment acting synergis-
the addition of pregabalin even if massage and antihista- tically: Steroids downregulating the excessive collagen
mines can provide some control because of quicker, pre- expression in keloids and making it softer, ischemic
dictable response with the added benefit of anxiolysis [77]. destruction and subsequent necrosis of keloids with
cryotherapy, and silicon downregulating mastocytes.
10.2.13.4 Steroids Tan and colleagues [106] conducted a patient-
Steroid delivery to hypertrophic and keloidal scars is controlled prospective study for 12 weeks with patients
a well-established modality for the alleviation of scar- receiving intralesional triamcinolone acetonide (40 mg/
related symptoms, including pain and itch, and their mL), silicone gel sheeting, or no treatment (control).
The dose of triamcinolone acetonide varied between cebo versus triamcinolone acetonide and botulinum
0.1 ml to 0.5 ml of 40 mg/mL of TAC depending upon toxin (20IU) for keloid scars injected every four weeks
the size of the lesion. In this trial, 12% of silicone- for a total of 12 weeks. Although the difference in
treated keloids showed a significant reduction (>50%) height, vascularization, and the pliability were not sig-
in size compared with 94% of triamcinolone acetonide nificant between the two groups, there was a significant
group (RR: 33.00, 95% CI: 2.14–509.33). There was also difference in favour of the botulinum group in terms of
a significant improvement in erythema (RR: 21.00, 95% pain and pruritus control ((p < 0.001) at the end of the
CI: 1.33–332.06). The improvement in itch and pain was study [112].
not statistically significant when compared to control. Similar results in terms of the superior alleviating
Martin et al. studied the combination of carbon effect of botulinum toxin have been reached in another
dioxide fractional laser (10,600 nm), a pulsed dye laser randomized, single-blind study in 32 keloid patients [113].
(585 nm), and triamcinolone acetonide (40 mg/ml) injec- The use of botulinum toxin has been reported in the
tions monthly for seven sessions in a cohort of keloid burns literature as part of a pilot study involving nine
scars; they reported favourable results in regards to pru- patients, eight of which had skin grafts for deep par-
ritic relief [107]. tial-thickness to full-thickness burns, with an average
Steroids can also be delivered to scars in the form of TBSA of 24%. At the beginning of the study, 87.5% of
tape application. Advantages of this modality include the patients rated their burns itch as being severe (>7/10),
noninvasive nature and the ability to maintain a continu- which fell to 0 at four weeks following the administra-
ous level of steroid concentration to the symptomatic scar, tion of toxin [114].
which can ameliorate the inflammatory milieu responsible Further studies are warranted to delineate the exact
for the bulk as well as sensory symptoms [108]. role of botulinum toxin in scar symptom management.
10.2.13.5 Botulinum Toxin

10 10.2.14 Emerging Modalities
Botulinum toxin is a protein neurotoxin produced by
the spore-forming bacteria Clostridium Botulinum; it
works by preventing the release of acetylcholine at the 10.2.14.1 Autologous Fat Grafting
neuromuscular junction and causing chemoimmobiliza- Autologous fat grafting has been widely used for the treat-
tion as well as affecting a variety of cell types including ment of contour deformities and increasingly employed
fibroblasts [109]. It is an established adjunct in a variety to remodel and regenerate tissue by virtue of mesenchy-
of medical and aesthetic interventions and over the last mal stem cells present in adipose tissue [115, 116].
number of years has been trialed in the scar manage- The proposed mechanism supporting the alleviation
ment arena. The rationale for its use rests on the ability of scar symptoms is suggested to relate to the mechanical
to decrease muscular tension underlying a scar as well as release of adhesions, neovascularization, and remodel-
the ability to alter a host of fibroblast related pathways, ing of scar tissue architecture [117]. Other mechanisms
including their proliferation and cell cycle [110]. proposed for controlling neuropathic pain symptoms
A randomized, double-blind comparative trial [111] include blockade of nociceptive impulses and an overall
involving 24 females with idiopathic or post-traumatic reduction of the signal input to the central nervous sys-
keloids employed the use of either intralesional triam- tem [118].
cinolone (10 mg/cc), given every four weeks for six ses- Fredman et al. [119] in a retrospective case review
sions or 5 IU/cm3 intralesional botulinum toxin every evaluated the effectiveness of fat grafting in neuropathic
eight weeks for three sessions; in both groups, therapy burn scars using the patient-reported outcome mea-
was continued until complete improvement of keloid surement information system (PROMIS) to assess pain
was noted. The authors concluded that the effects of following two fat-grafting sessions eight weeks apart.
intralesional botulinum toxin A comparable to that of Results showed a statistically significant improvement in
intralesional steroids with a significant reduction in vol- subjective outcomes at 1-year follow-up.
ume height and redness of scar in both groups (p < 0.01). Huang et al. [120] evaluated autologous fat grafting
In the 7-month follow up both treated groups had a stain 13 patients with neuropathic scar pain. Pain evalua-
tistically significant reduction in subjective symptoms of tions were undertaken using the Visual Analogue Scale
pain and itching with a statistically significant difference (VAS) and Neuropathic Pain Symptom Inventory
in favour of the botulinum toxin A treated group with (NPSI) preoperatively and at 1, 4, and 24 weeks
the added advantage of no side effects which were typi- postoperatively. Both VAS and NPSI scores showed
cally seen in steroid-treated patients. a significant decrease starting at one week, alleviat-
Another blind study compared the effect of triam- ing neuropathic scar pain in the short term, which
cinolone acetonide (maximum of 40 mg dose) plus pla- were statistically significant (P = 0.009 and P = 0.007
97 10
respectively). The NPSI score continued to decrease (COX) and prostaglandin E2 [130], as well as the fast
at four weeks (P = 0.0009) till 24 weeks (P = 0.0008) axonal flow and microtubule disruption of Aδ and C
with the most significant improvement in paresthesia, fibers transmission [131].
dysesthesia and evoked pain (P < 0.001). They con- Alster and Williams [132], in an investigator-blinded
cluded the autologous fat provides insulation and acts split scar study of patients with keloid scarring, per-
as a cushion to block abnormal sensations and prevent formed two sessions of flash pump 585 nm pulse-dyed
stimulation. laser treatment to half of the scar at 6–8-week intervals.
Two systematic reviews of the literature pertaining They reported a significant improvement in the texture
to the use of fat grafting and adipose-derived stem cells of the skin surface, scar height, erythema, pruritus with
in scarring have shown improvements in scar character- coarse, loose collagen, and increase number of mast
istics including texture and size, improved pain profiles, cells seen histologically in the laser-treated side.
increased angiogenesis, and an earlier return to function A prospective randomized controlled trial investi-
[121, 122]. It is clear that the use of fat-derived cells will gated the outcomes following ablative fractional CO2
play an important role in the future of scar treatments in laser on 19 patients with burn scars (minimum age of
the field of regenerative medicine. scars for inclusion six months). Results demonstrated
that three treatments of ablative fractional CO2 laser
10.2.14.2 Lasers (Deep FX setting on UltraPulse®, Lumenis; treatment
Laser stands for “Light Amplification by Stimulated parameters: single pass of 300 Hz, 5% density, and 50 mJ
Emission of Radiation” and exerts its effect on the tis- energy) significantly improved scar pain, itch based on
sue through photochemical/thermal/mechanical mecha- Patient and Observer Scar Assessment Scale (POSAS)
nisms [123]. scores (p = 0.047 and <0.01 respectively). Additional
The photothermal effect or photothermolysis is the findings included an improved dermal architecture at
most relevant mechanism in scar treatment with the six weeks post-treatment [133].
main target being either blood vessels (pulsed dye laser)
or water (CO2 and Er:YAG laser). Lasers can be fur-
ther subdivided into ablative and non-ablative based on 10.3 Conclusion
whether the epidermis is affected or not and fractional
and non-fractional: based on whether intact columns of Pain and itch represent the most common sensory symp-
skin are left behind or not after the treatment [124]. toms accompanying scars and can have a significant
Pulsed Dye Laser is a vascular specific laser with impact on patients’ quality of life. Over the last number
haemoglobin being the target chromophore. Selective of decades, our understanding of the pertinent patho-
photothermolysis [125] with a short pulse duration leads physiological mechanisms has improved considerably,
to selective absorption of heat by haemoglobin, leading especially with regards to the contribution of the central
to thrombosis and vasculitis [126]. nervous system in the generation and maintenance of
Ebid et al. [127] in a double-blind, randomized, nociceptive and pruritic stimuli. Consistent and reliable
placebo-controlled trial, compared the effects of pulsed monitoring of symptoms combined with a multimodal
high-intensity laser in the treatment of post-burn pruri- approach to treatment should be integral parts of holis-
tus. They showed that a combination of a long period of tic scar management.
high-intensity pulsed laser, antihistamine, and massage
could effectively control moderate to severe burn pruri-
tus, raising the value of incorporating laser modalities in
antipruritic protocols. Take-Home Messages
Vasheghani and colleagues [128] showed that low- 55 Itch and pain can have a significant impact on
level laser therapy in second-degree cutaneous burns individuals with scars.
decreases the total number of mast cells in the remod- 55 The contribution of the central nervous system in
eling phase while increasing the number of mast cells the generation and maintenance of symptoms is
in the proliferative and inflammatory phases. Increased paramount.
level of growth factors and anti-inflammatory cytokines 55 Accurate assessment and monitoring of symptoms
and decreased level of pro-inflammatory cytokines are central to successful scar management.
like interleukin alpha and beta have been shown after 55 Multimodal approaches which target both periph-
treatment with laser therapy [129] elucidating potential eral and central nervous system components and
mechanisms for the action of laser on pruritic pathways. incorporate non-pharmacological adjuncts are
Other proposed mechanisms include the direct action recommended.
on reactive oxygen species, inhibition of cyclooxygenase
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103 11
Scar Symptom: Erythema

and Thickness
Contents
11.1 Mechanisms of Erythema in Scar – 104

11.1.1 I nflammation-Induced Capillary Perfusion Is Crucial for Erythema
Initiation – 104
11.1.2 Vascularization Dynamically Participates in the Erythema
Development – 104
11.1.3 Thinner Epidermis Is Directly Responsible for the Transparency
in Erythematous Scars with Skin Barrier Defect – 105
11.2 ontributions of Erythema to Scar Development

C
and Associated Clinical Symptoms – 105
11.3 Scar Erythema and Scar Thickness – 105
11.4 Clinical Measurement of Scar Redness and Thickness – 105

11.5.1 Clinical Treatment Strategies of Erythema in Scars – 106
11.6 Clinical Treatment for Thick Scar – 107
References – 107

104 Y. Yang et al.
inflammatory acne or other inflammatory skin condi-

Definition tions [5]. To be specific, the symptom of erythema per-
Erythema is derived from the Greek erythros, which sists all along the inflammatory stage of wound healing
refers to the redness of skin or mucous membrane. and plays multiple roles in this process.
Erythema is common in pathological scars (hypertrophic
scar and keloid) and premature physiological scars where
inflammation-induced angiogenesis and capillary dilation 11.1.2 Vascularization Dynamically
are mostly responsible. Different from the temporary and Participates in the Erythema
self-relieving redness in normal skin caused by allergy or Development
mechanical friction (such as massage), the existence and
severity of erythema in scar tissues are consistent with The chronic inflammatory stimulation and hyperprolif-
their maturity and inflammation state inside, serving as a eration of scar tissues deteriorate the local hypoxia and
convenient monitor of scar quality and treatment promote the secretion of angiogenic factors, such as vas-
response. Scar thickness indirectly reflects the extent of cular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), basic fibro-
scar development by collagen deposition. blast growth factor (BFGF), and hypoxia-induced
factor 1 (HIF-1) [2, 6]. As reported by Amadeu et al.,
hypertrophic scars contain an increased number of
11.1 Mechanisms of Erythema in Scar dilated vessels in papillary and reticular dermis com-
pared to normal skin [7]. The increased capillary density
In general, the common causes of erythema can be and dilated vessel diameter then contribute to the for-
roughly categorized into four groups: inflammation, mation of erythema, in line with the study of Fullerton,
mechanical stimulation (massage, waxing, and tweezing who stated that erythema is determined by the blood
of hairs), radiation (sunburn, radiotherapy), allergies volume under a given area, and not by the product of
and other chemical agents. Despite the pervasive nature erythrocyte velocity and concentration [8]. Clinically,
of erythema in both physiological and pathological
11 scars, the development mechanisms remain to be rela-
erythema disappears on finger pressure (blanching),
which also suggests that the vascular remodeling is
tively less explored and therefore limited effective treat- involved.
ment options are available. However, previous studies Scar erythema, blood flow, microvessels, and redness
demonstrated that inflammation, vascularization, and are four features of scar that are often interchangeably
sometimes epidermis defect are the three major mecha- used under the item “vascularization” or “vascularity.”
nisms that contribute to the erythema in scars. However, by directly measuring erythema with colorim-
etry, blood flow with laser Doppler imaging (LDI), ves-
sels with immunohistochemistry, and subjective scale of
11.1.1 Inflammation-Induced Capillary redness with POSAS, respectively, Jaspers et al. found
Perfusion Is Crucial for Erythema only significant relevance between erythema and subjec-
Initiation tive redness, but no correlations between the others. In
contrast, Mermans et al. found that erythema was asso-
Accumulated studies have confirmed that the inflamma- ciated with blood flow, but this correlation was not con-
tion induced by various reasons (infection, foreign body, sistent at different test moments [9]. Moreover, Kischer
immune dysfunction, etc.) is greatly associated with the et al. reported that most microvessels were occluded in
formation of scars, especially hypertrophic scars and hypertrophic scars due to an excessive number of endo-
keloids [1]. Stimulated by inflammatory cytokines, capil- thelial cells [10, 11]. And the higher hematocrit and the
laries constrict to increase the local blood flow and ves- enlarged vessels would then result in a more sluggish
sel permeability, resulting in erythema and sometimes blood velocity and lower blood flow values. Taken
elevated skin temperature [2]. It was shown that signifi- together, it is now understood that the term “vascular-
cant increase of blood flow values was detected in ery- ity” describes a dynamic process, and the four criteria
thematous scars when compared to healthy skin [3, 4]. mentioned above can attribute to the redness either
Besides, erythema (measured by colorimetry) is often independently or interact with each other at different
interpreted as an indirect measurement of the blood stages of scar development. These exploration studies
flow in clinical practice as it indicates the hyperemia in express well the complexity of erythema formation and
superficial capillaries. Bae-Harboe et al. first introduced enlighten us to view this process dynamically instead of
the term “postinflammatory erythema” (PIE) in 2013 to simply putting them under the umbrella of “vasculariza-
describe erythema often seen after the resolution of tion,” especially in clinical practice.
Scar Symptom: Erythema and Thickness
105 11
11.1.3 hinner Epidermis Is Directly
T [4], researchers found statistically significant correlation
Responsible for the Transparency between erythema values (colorimetry) and subjective
redness assessment (Patient and Observer Scar
in Erythematous Scars with Skin
Assessment Scale, POSAS) (r = 0.403, p = 0.030) [4],
Barrier Defect proving the reliability of subjective erythema measure-
ment in clinical practice.
The epidermal thickness and collagen synthesis are Similarly, erythematous scars are more likely to suf-
directly associated with the transparency of skin. fer from pain or pruritus as a result of inflammatory
Oliveira et al. and Busch et al. identified a thinned-out stimulation and suspicious vulnerability of scar fibro-
skin texture in burn scar that makes the intense circula- blasts (previous studies detected an elevation of
tion of blood becoming more apparent [3, 12]. They α-adrenoreceptors expression on keloid fibroblasts and
argued that increased skin redness is not only considered predicted that it might be related to paresthesia in scar
as an inflammatory symptom but also the structural tissues [16]).
modification of subdermal components. And the induc- Elevated temperature is directly associated with
tion of percutaneous collagen (IPC) and angiogenesis overperfusion of vessels especially arteries in deeper
therapies (medical needling and fractional laser) has layer of the skin [4] and is not common in thickened scar
been proven to be effective to adjust the skin color after tissues, but the existence of which could be explained as
repetitive treatments [12]. a sign of infection or active inflammatory state.
Different from the thinner epidermis in physiological Generally, erythema reflects the inflammation and
scars resulting from normal wound-healing process, angiogenesis activity, as well as structural remodeling of
keloids and hypertrophic scars are characterized by scar tissues to serve as a monitor of scar maturation and
extra collagen deposition and increased epidermal thick- quality. Since patients and clinicians often determine the
ness [13]. But recent studies also hypothesized a skin success of treatment by the visual appearance of a scar,
barrier defect in keloid scars, which may possibly alter erythema measured by POSAS could be an accessible
the opacity of epidermis [14]. method to evaluate the treatment response and help to
set the endpoint for the course.
11.2 ontributions of Erythema to Scar

C
Development and Associated Clinical 11.3 Scar Erythema and Scar Thickness
Symptoms
There is no direct relation between scar erythema and
The wound-healing process contains three chrono- scar thickness, because the former reflects the level
logical but partially overlapped phases: inflammatory of inflammation and angiogenesis process, whereas
stage (day 1–6), proliferation stage (day 4–week 3), the latter indicates the extent of cell proliferation and
and remodeling stage (week 3–1 year). Parallel with extracellular matrix production and deposition. Such
this process, Van Der Wal et al. reported that the ery- phenomenon has been frequently observed in clinical
thema index scores of scars reduce significantly within practice that a highly inflamed scar with sever erythema
12 months [15] as a result of the common pathological might be thin and soft in texture, whereas a dark-col-
mechanisms they shared. To be specific, the allevia- ored keloid could be thick and abundant with collagen.
tion and deterioration of erythema are closely associ- However, enhanced erythema by strong angiogenesis
ated with the scar development since they indirectly provides nutrition for fibroblast proliferation and matrix
reflect the inflammatory state and angiogenic activity production, and therefore reducing erythema also helps
beneath the skin. And since the redness of erythema to prevent scar thickening.
(from pink to scarlet to purple) is the result of dif-
ferent proportion of hemoglobin (the red oxygenated
state, absorbed at 660 nm) and deoxyhemoglobin 11.4 linical Measurement of Scar Redness
C
(dark red, absorbed at 940 nm) in the capillaries of and Thickness
the dermis, the color of scarred skin can serve as a
monitor of local hypoxia, angiogenesis, and microcir- Colorimetric plate along with photography is the con-
culation. ventional methodology to semi-objectively measure the
Although the most commonly used principles for redness of scars. Doppler ultrasound can detect blood
measuring scar color are narrow-band reflectance spec- flow inside a scar, but it reflects activity in a relatively
trophotometry and tristimulus reflectance colorimetry deep blood vessel. For superficial blood flow inside the
106 Y. Yang et al.
surface capillaries, laser speckle might be the technique ing eschar and coagulated tissue can improve various
to quantitatively measure the erythema change. features of burn scars including erythema. Kawecki
Manual measurement is the conventional way to et al. observed that 31% of hypertrophic burn scar
assess scar thickness. With advances in technology, patients had resolution of erythema with resulting nor-
ultrasound and nuclear magnetic resonance can quanti- mal skin tone after ablative fractional laser treatment
tatively provide data of scar thickness. In addition, 3D [19]. Coagulating microvessels with the selective photo-
scanner not only provides the gross view of a thick scar, thermolysis of wavelengths around 595 nm, pulsed dye
but also provides quantitative data of scar thickness and laser (PDL) can decrease inflammation and edema in
volume. erythematous scars and shows satisfactory outcomes in
color repair. Similarly, Q-switched Nd:YAG lasers with
a wavelength of 1064 nm in very short pulses are prom-
11.5 Clinical Relevance ising solutions to superficial angiogenesis of erythema-
tous skin, especially in decreasing the vascular
11.5.1 Clinical Treatment Strategies prominence in PIE [17, 18, 20]. Studies have demon-
of Erythema in Scars strated minimal side effects including atrophic scarring
(0.8%), hyperpigmentation (1%), hypopigmentation
Traditional clinical treatments of erythema in scar tissues (2.6%), and dermatitis (2%), among 500 patients treated
mainly target on anti-inflammation and anti-proliferation, with PDL [21]. Notably, although PDL and Nd:YAG
such as topical glucocorticoid and compression garments. have shown good results in reducing the red color of
The spreading applications of laser treatments and medi- scars, skin erythema itself is one common adverse effect
cal needling provide therapists with powerful arms that of laser treatment, which suggests that the laser therapy
can interfere with erythema formation from various per- should be carefully selected and be practiced with cau-
spectives. Besides, systematic elements including imbal- tions especially in patients with a history of post-treat-
anced diets, stressful lifestyles, and even genetic ment erythema or scar constitution.
11 predisposition may also be responsible.
11.5.1.3 Compression Therapy
11.5.1.1 Anti-inflammation Strategies Compression therapy (or occlusive dressings) has
to Alleviate Erythema and Hinder been widely applied to hypertrophic scar patients as
Scars Development a first-line agent with good results in decreasing ery-
Inflammation is one of the major risk factors of both thema, thickness, and hardness of burn scars [22,
scar development and erythema. Since corticoid can 23]. A total of 60% of patients treated with compres-
effectively reduce the production of pro-inflammatory sion devices showed 75–100% enhancement in scar
mediators and inhibit inflammatory processes in the condition according to previous studies [17]. The
dermis, the intralesional triamcinolone acetonide (TCA) anti-scar effects of occlusive garments are thought to
injection has been widely used alone or as an adjuvant be related to occlusion and hydration [7, 17]. Some
therapy to treat hypertrophic scars and keloids [17]. literature reported that this change is likely because
Besides, although the application of triamcinolone tapes of the inhibition of transforming growth factor
is limited by its penetrating ability, it can be stuck to the (TGF)-β1 release and ultimately decreased fibroblast
scar area and release the drug all day long. Moreover, activity [24].
clinical studies observed a better performance of triam-
cinolone when combined with 5-Fluorouracil [17]. Other 11.5.1.4 Medical Needling
topical anti-inflammation treatment such as silicone gel Although sounding contradictory, the bleeding process
sheeting that increases the elasticity of burn scar tissue of medical needling can influence vascularization by
also showed a reduction in pruritus, erythema, and scar stimulating angiogenesis in the post-wound healing cas-
thickness [18]. Systematic glucocorticoid application is cade and improve the vital thickness of the epidermis
not recommended for risks of complications such as dia- (directly related to skin transparency) by inducing per-
betes, infections, and Cushing’s syndrome. cutaneous collagen synthesis.
Based on the outcomes of objective measurements,
11.5.1.2 Laser Treatments to Interfere medical needling achieves a normalization of the skin
with Erythema from Multiple color and an adjustment to healthy skin after repetitive
Perspective treatments [12], and it has clinically shown to improve the
Laser therapy is one of the most widely used methods abnormal vascular proliferation that occurs in
to treat erythema in scars. Ablative fractional lasers PIE. Similarly, fractional resurfacing lasers have been used
that create columns of vaporized tissue with surround- to induce structural remodeling and skin regeneration.
Scar Symptom: Erythema and Thickness
107 11
11.6 Clinical Treatment for Thick Scar cross sectional study showing different features that require pre-
cise definitions. Burns. 2017;43:1044–50.
5. Bae-Harboe YS, Graber EM. Easy as pie (postinflammatory ery-
Contracture and functional disability caused by hyper- thema). J Clin Aesthet Dermatol. 2013;6:46–7.
trophic scars need surgical interventions. As for thick 6. Sorg H, Tilkorn DJ, Hager S, Hauser J, Mirastschijski U. Skin
keloids, surgical therapy is also preferred. In addition, wound healing: an update on the current knowledge and con-
intralesional injection with 5-fluorouracil and steroid, cepts. Eur Surg Res. 2017;58:81–94.
7. Amadeu T, Braune A, Mandarim-de-Lacerda C, Porto LC,
cryotherapy, pressure therapy, and radiotherapy are all Desmouliere A, Costa A. Vascularization pattern in hypertrophic
potential therapeutic options for thick scars, and these scars and keloids: a stereological analysis. Pathol Res Pract.
will be introduced in various chapters of this book and 2003;199:469–73.
thus will not be the focus of this chapter. 8. Fullerton A, Fischer T, Lahti A, Wilhelm KP, Takiwaki H,
Serup J. Guidelines for measurement of skin colour and ery-
thema. A report from the standardization group of the european
11.7 Conclusion society of contact dermatitis. Contact Dermatitis. 1996;35:
1–10.
9. Mermans JF, Peeters WJ, Dikmans R, Serroyen J, van der Hulst
The scar erythema is a burden for patients, as it amplifies RR, Van den Kerckhove E. A comparative study of colour and
the cosmetic problems and is associated with other perfusion between two different post surgical scars. Do the laser
unpleasant feelings such as pain and itching. Moreover, doppler imager and the colorimeter measure the same features
the development of erythema parallels with the dynamic of a scar? Skin Res Technol. 2013;19:107–14.
10. Kischer CW, Thies AC, Chvapil M. Perivascular myofibroblasts
process of inflammation, angiogenesis, scar formation,
and microvascular occlusion in hypertrophic scars and keloids.
and thickening. Although most studies consider erythema Hum Pathol. 1982;13:819–24.
as a concomitant byproduct following wound healing, it 11. Kischer CW, Shetlar MR. Microvasculature in hypertrophic
also promotes scar development via enhancing angiogen- scars and the effects of pressure. J Trauma. 1979;19:757–64.
esis to provide scar fibroblasts essential nutrition for col- 12. Busch KH, Aliu A, Walezko N, Aust M. Medical needling: effect on
skin erythema of hypertrophic burn scars. Cureus. 2018;10:e3260.
lagen production and deposition, and thus it has become
13. Limandjaja GC, van den Broek LJ, Waaijman T, van Veen HA,
an important therapeutic target as well. Although many Everts V, Monstrey S, Scheper RJ, Niessen FB, Gibbs
issues remain to be explored such as what determines ery- S. Increased epidermal thickness and abnormal epidermal dif-
thema presence, persistence, and disappearance, the ery- ferentiation in keloid scars. Br J Dermatol. 2017;176:116–26.
thema/redness itself can serve as a visible symptom 14. Limandjaja GC, Belien JM, Scheper RJ, Niessen FB, Gibbs
S. Hypertrophic and keloid scars fail to progress from the
reflecting treatment response and thus help both patients
cd34(−) /alpha-smooth muscle actin (alpha-sma)(+) immature
and therapists to set a relevant endpoint. scar phenotype and show gradient differences in alpha-sma and
p16 expression. Br J Dermatol. 2020;82(4):974–86. https://doi.
Take-Home Messages org/10.1111/bjd.18219.
Both erythema and thickness are key characteristics 15. van der Wal MB, Vloemans JF, Tuinebreijer WE, van de Ven P,
van Unen E, van Zuijlen PP, Middelkoop E. Outcome after burns:
of scar, which can be used to monitor scar development an observational study on burn scar maturation and predictors for
and therapy efficacy. Angiogenesis represented by scar severe scarring. Wound Repair Regen. 2012;20:676–87.
redness is a key contributor to pathological scar 16. Drummond PD, Drummond ES, Dawson LF, Mitchell V, Finch
development due to enhanced inflammation, which PM, Vaughan CW, Phillips JK. Upregulation of alpha1-
can also serve as an important therapeutic target. adrenoceptors on cutaneous nerve fibres after partial sciatic
nerve ligation and in complex regional pain syndrome type ii.
Pain. 2014;155:606–16.
17. Berman B, Maderal A, Raphael B. Keloids and hypertrophic
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1. Ogawa R. Keloid and hypertrophic scars are the result of chronic review. J Cosmet Laser Ther. 2018;20:424–35.
inflammation in the reticular dermis. Int J Mol Sci. 2017;18:606. 19. Kawecki M, Bernad-Wisniewska T, Sakiel S, Nowak
2. Colgan SP, Campbell EL, Kominsky DJ. Hypoxia and mucosal MAndriessen A. Laser in the treatment of hypertrophic burn
inflammation. Annu Rev Pathol. 2016;11:77–100. scars. Int Wound J. 2008;5:87–97.
3. Oliveira GV, Chinkes D, Mitchell C, Oliveras G, Hawkins HK, 20. Anderson RR, Farinelli W, Laubach H, Manstein D, Yaroslavsky
Herndon DN. Objective assessment of burn scar vascularity, AN, Gubeli J 3rd, Dylla HF. Selective photothermolysis of lipid-rich
erythema, pliability, thickness, and planimetry. Dermatol Surg. tissues: a free electron laser study. Lasers Surg Med. 2006;38:913–9.
2005;31:48–58. 21. Levine VJ, Geronemus RG. Adverse effects associated with the
4. Jaspers M, Stekelenburg CM, Simons JM, Brouwer KM, Vlig 577- and 585-nanometer pulsed dye laser in the treatment of
M, van den Kerckhove E, van Zuijlen P. Assessing blood flow, cutaneous vascular lesions: a study of 500 patients. J Am Acad
microvasculature, erythema and redness in hypertrophic scars: a Dermatol. 1995;32:613–7.
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22. Friedstat JS, Hultman CS. Hypertrophic burn scar management: 24. Atiyeh BS, El Khatib A, MDibo SA. Pressure garment therapy
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23. Anthonissen M, Daly D, Janssens T, Van den Kerckhove E. The
effects of conservative treatments on burn scars: a systematic
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11
109 12
Scar Symptoms: Pigmentation

Disorders
A. Pijpe, K. L. M. Gardien, R. E. van Meijeren-Hoogendoorn,
E. Middelkoop, and Paul P. M. van Zuijlen
Contents
12.1 Pathophysiology and Epidemiology – 110

12.1.1 ypopigmentation – 110
H
12.1.2 Hyperpigmentation – 110
12.1.3 Maturation – 111
12.2 Measurement Techniques – 111

12.2.1 bjective Measurement Instruments – 112
O
12.2.2 Scar Assessment Scales – 112
12.3 Therapies – 112

12.3.1 ypopigmentation – 112
H
12.3.2 Hyperpigmentation – 114
References – 115

110 A. Pijpe et al.
Background
To a significant degree, vascularization and pigmentation
determine the color of scars. Pigmentation problems
are often even more persistent than deviations in
vascularization. Pigmentation problems are a common
consequence after partial and full-thickness burns, skin
pathology such as vitiligo, other skin trauma, and surgical
procedures. Almost all these patients experience at least
some pigmentation problems. Both hypopigmentation
and hyperpigmentation can cause esthetic and
psychological issues which affect the quality of life of
patients. Information on the role and pathways of
melanocytes in pigmentation problems and the changes .. Fig. 12.1 Hypopigmentation in a hand after burn injury
that occur during scar maturation is increasingly more
understood. Different subjective and objective methods
are available to determine scar color. Hypo- and hyperpig- Data on the prevalence of these conditions after burn
mentation management options include surgical and injury are scarce.
nonsurgical techniques. Vitiligo is an autoimmune disease where melano-
cytes are affected. The condition affects approximately
0.5–1% of the population, occurs in patients of all ages,
equally affects men and women, with an early onset in
12.1 Pathophysiology and Epidemiology
many cases (<20 years). There is no difference in preva-
lence with respect to skin type or race.
Altered skin pigmentation, or pigmentation disorders,
can result from increased or decreased melanin, abnor-
mal melanin distribution, decreased hemoglobin, or
deposition of exogenous substances. Melanin is pro- 12.1.2 Hyperpigmentation
12 duced by melanocytes, specialized cells of neural crest
origin that reside in the basal layer of the epidermis. The Hyperpigmentation is the darkening or increase in the
biosynthesis of melanin occurs in lysosome-like organ- natural color of the skin and results from overproduc-
elles called melanosomes, which are transported to the tion or abnormal release of melanin in the epidermis
cell periphery and transferred from the dendritic tips of and/or dermis in response to either endogenous or exog-
the melanocytes to the surrounding keratinocytes. Each enous inflammatory conditions [2]. Superficial hyper-
melanocyte is associated with approximately 36 basal pigmentation is located in the epidermis and causes a
keratinocytes to form the so-called “epidermal melanin light- to dark-brown discoloration. As soon as the pig-
unit.” ment lies deeper in the skin (dermal pigmentation), the
hyperpigmentation acquires a gray-brown to gray-blue
glow. Like hypopigmentation, hyperpigmentation disor-
12.1.1 Hypopigmentation ders may be congenital or acquired.
Postinflammatory hyperpigmentation is a reactive
Hypopigmentation is characterized by skin becoming hypermelanosis of the skin that occurs as a sequela of
lighter than the individuals own color, but not com- cutaneous inflammation. Common causes of include
pletely lacking pigment (. Fig. 12.1). This should not acne vulgaris, eczematous dermatoses, and burn injury.
be confused with depigmentation, which is the absence Postinflammatory hyperpigmentation may also occur as
of all pigment. Hypopigmentation is common and a complication of a chemical peeling.
approximately 1 in 20 have at least one hypopigmented Although this pigmentary change can be observed
macule [1]. Common causes include vitiligo, postinflam- in all skin types, it more frequently affects individu-
matory hypopigmentation, pityriasis versicolor, pityria- als with higher degrees of skin pigmentation (meaning
sis alba, and halo naevi. Hypopigmentation disorders Fitzpatrick skin types IV–VI) due to increased reactivity
may be congenital or acquired. Acquired hypopigmen- of melanocytes within the skin. The modified Fitzpatrick
tation may be the result of inflammatory conditions or skin type classification system contains six categories
trauma like a burn injury. In burn scars, hypopigmen- with types I–IV describing different types of white skin
tation is a frequent pathology. Although the condition and type V “brown” and type VI “black” skin.
often improves over time with scar maturation, lasting Severe burns significantly affect the process of pig-
depigmented or hypopigmented lesions may remain. mentation as it is tightly regulated by cell proliferation
Scar Symptoms: Pigmentation Disorders
111 12
a
.. Fig. 12.3 (a) Pressure on the scar with a finger reduces blood
flow in the scar. (b) Immediately after release of the pressure, level of
.. Fig. 12.2 Burn scar with hyperpigmented and hypopigmented areas pigmentation of the scar is visible
and differentiation of melanocytes and melanocyte stem or transparent ruler like made from plexiglass, the blood
cells which are located in the epidermis and hair follicles flow is reduced and degree of pigmentation can be better
of the skin. Almost all burn patients with deep partial- established (. Fig. 12.3).
thickness wounds and full-thickness wounds experience Van der Wal et al. performed the first longitudinal
at least some pigmentation problems (. Fig. 12.2). study on the maturation pattern of individual scar char-
Superficial burn wounds generally heal without pigmen- acteristics and predictors of severe scarring in a repre-
tation problems. Although scar-related hypo- and hyper- sentative burn population [3]. They conducted a detailed
pigmentation are not harmful, it can cause significant analysis on the clinical changes of burn scars in 474
cosmetic problems and become a great psychological patients following a longitudinal scar assessment proto-
burden for patients which influences their quality of life. col. The observations of the POSAS Observer Scale (see
7 Sect. 2.2) showed that all scar parameters, except vas-
cularization, become more apparent in the first 6 months
12.1.3 Maturation after the injury. After 12 months, mean POSAS scores
were significantly lower for vascularization, pigmenta-
Maturation is the fourth and final stage of the wound tion, and pliability compared with the 6-month follow-
healing process and is commonly referred to as remodel- up. Statistical significant improvement at 12 months was
ing. The cellular changes that occur during scar matu- also found for the parameters vascularization and pig-
ration are increasingly understood. They are associated mentation compared with the 3-month evaluation.
with remodeling of the extracellular matrix as well as
normalization of the ratio of type III to type I collagen.
However, the process of scar maturation with regard 12.2 Measurement Techniques
to changes in clinical appearance over time is the least
understood part of wound healing. Most studies suggest For the diagnosis, evaluation of progress of disease
a mean maturation period of 1, 2, or several years. In and/or therapy it is of major importance to be able to
this active stage it can be difficult to determine to what measure skin or scar color in a noninvasive, valid, and
extent deviant skin color is caused by vascularization reliable way. Outcome measures receive more and more
and/or pigmentation. By pressing the scar with a finger attention to evaluate therapies on an individual basis as
112 A. Pijpe et al.
well as at group level for efficacy studies. For this, vali- skin: There is some influence on the erythema index by
dated techniques are a prerequisite. the melanin index, in that the erythema index appar-
To determine scar color, different subjective and ently increases with increasing melanin index. Also, the
objective methods are developed and available. melanin index is influenced by the oxygen saturation
level of hemoglobin, since reduced hemoglobin absorbs
more red light than oxyhemoglobin. For example, low-
12.2.1 Objective Measurement Instruments ering the arm of a subject to be measured will lower the
oxygenation, and give an increase in both erythema and
Several instruments are available to measure skin or scar melanin indices. Therefore, a standardized position for
color. The output is generally a combination of redness the measurements is recommended.
(erythema) and melanin (pigment). Most instruments
use either narrow band spectrophotometry or reflec-
tance colorimetry. The tristimulus reflectance colorim- 12.2.2 Scar Assessment Scales
etry measures color through three broad wavelengths
filters representing brightness, redness, and pigmen- Today, many scales exist to evaluate skin and scar char-
tation. This system is suitable to measure any kind of acteristics [6]. One of the earliest and frequently reported
color in the standard color space defined by Commission is the Vancouver Scar Scale (VSS) [7]. Despite the fact
Internationale de l’Eclairage (CIE), where the output in that it is frequently used as a scale, especially the items
L∗a∗b coordinates is defined as CIELAB color space “erythema” and “pigmentation” are nominal categories
values [4]. The LAB values express color as three values: rather than ordinal ones. For the item “pigmentation”
L∗ for the lightness (black to white), a∗ from green to categories are normal, hypo, mixed, or hyper pigmen-
red, and b∗ from blue to yellow. tation; and for the item ‘erythema’ they are normal,
Narrow-band reflectance spectrophotometers mea- pink, red, and purple. The VSS gives no intensity value
sure erythema and melanin index, representing vas- of these parameters and therefore the numbers that are
cularization and pigmentation, based on differences often attributed to these categories cannot be added to
in light absorption by hemoglobin and melanocytes, give a “severity score” for total scar characteristics. This
respectively, in selected bands of the light spectrum is specifically important for pigmentation problems,
12 corresponding to hemoglobin and melanin absorption since “hypopigmentation” cannot generally be consid-
ered to be less severe than “hyperpigmentation,” which
spectra.
Van der Wal et al. performed a study where the reli- would be a consequence if the VSS categories would be
ability, validity, and feasibility of narrow-band reflec- used as a true scale.
tance spectrophotometry and tristimulus reflectance To overcome these difficulties, the Patient and
colorimetry on normal skin and scar tissue were studied Observer Scar Assessment Scale (POSAS) was designed
[5]. All three devices included in this study, Mexameter and validated [8]. The POSAS questionnaire represent
(narrow band spectrophotometer) and Colorimeter the severity of burn scar quality including parameters
(tristimulus reflectance) (both from Courage & Khazaka that indicate skin color and pigmentation on a numeri-
Electronic GmbH, Cologne, Germany) and DSM II cal 10-point rating scale. Furthermore, the categories
ColorMeter (narrow band spectrophotometer) (Cortex “pale, pink, red, purple, mix” and “hypo, hyper, mix”
Technology, Hadsund, Denmark), obtained reliable are added for each assessment. Within these categories,
results after a single measurement, performed by one the numerical data can be added to present an overall
observer. scar severity score.
Some aspects of these measurements need to be
considered when using skin color data for therapeutic
evaluation: Skin color is generally adapted to seasonal
12.3 Therapies
differences and is likely to be different on various ana-
tomical regions of the body. Therefore, measurements 12.3.1 Hypopigmentation
of skin or scar lesions on specific locations need to be
compared to the relevant normal skin of a nearby or 12.3.1.1Nonsurgical Techniques
contralateral comparative anatomical region. For nar- Laser Therapy
row band spectrophotometric measurements, this needs Laser therapy can be used to treat pigment disorders in
to be performed by subtraction of the data of the normal a scar. If there is hypopigmentation of a scar, it can be
skin from the lesional data. Furthermore, for the nar- treated with the Excimer laser (308 nm) [9]. This laser
row band spectrophotometers, some caution is needed produces a stimulation of melanocytes, thereby correct-
in interpretation of the data from highly pigmented ing hypopigmentation in the scar tissue.
113 12
Other pigment lasers mainly focus on the presence of donor area with a thickness of 0.15 mm is identified to
hyperpigmentation and induce pigment reduction. achieve optimal outcomes as the basal layer of the epi-
dermis and a complement of melanocytes remain intact.
Dermatography The full-thickness graft provides better functional
Dermatography, also known as medical tattooing, is an and cosmetic outcomes in terms of scarring compared
alternative method to improve the scar color, particu- to the SSG. The entire epidermis and dermis are trans-
larly in hypopigmented areas. Chemical-based pigments planted. For correction of pigment disorders, this is
are injected into the dermis, as with other sorts of tat- only indicated if the general quality of the scar is unac-
tooing. Dermatography can be repeated if the color ceptable/problematic and the scar area is limited.
fades over time. In skin grafting, selecting a donor site of healthy skin
with suitable normal pigmentation is key to ensure opti-
Camouflage Therapy mal outcomes.
Camouflage therapy offers a temporary solution to hide Small full-thickness punch biopsies are harvested
a (hypopigmented) scar or make it less visible. Often a from healthy skin from a concealed body part, normally
cream, spray, or powder that is close to the original skin the upper arm or upper leg. The size of the biopsies
color is used. Once the correct color has been deter- can be 1–4 mm in diameter. Repigmentation occurs in
mined, the application can be used independently in the 70% of the cases. Melanocytes migrate from the punch
home situation. biopsies into the adjacent area in a centrifugal manner.
A disadvantage of punch grafting is the cobblestone
Surgical Techniques
12.3.1.2 appearance that may remain in the long term.
Dermabrasion Grafting of suction blisters is an interesting and suc-
Dermabrasion can help to treat the hypopigmentation cessful technique for the treatment of hypopigmentation
of a scar. disorders. Negative pressure is exerted on healthy skin
By abrasion, the epidermis and a very small layer of the patient to create epidermal blisters. Devices such
of the dermis are removed layer by layer, resulting in a as a suction pump, vacuum bottle, hoses, or suction cups
superficial wound. can be used for harvesting. This blister is harvested sub-
Normally, the abrasia is done until the whitish der- sequently and transplanted to the depigmented area.
mal layer is exposed with no more than fractional bleed- The donor site generally heals spontaneously with
ing present. no or minimal scarring. Minor adverse effects such as
Dermabrasion is performed as a single treatment donor site hyperpigmentation and color mismatching
modality or in combination with other treatments such may be encountered.
as skin transplantation or cell spray. If it is used as a
single treatment modality, the superficial wound has to Cell Therapy
recover by itself. In those cases abrasia must be carried An autologous epidermal cell suspension spray can be
out carefully to prevent wound-healing problems if the used to enhance repigmentation. The suspension can
wound becomes too deep. This method is mainly used in be sprayed on top of the wound after dermabrasion or
case of hyperpigmentation where the excess pigment is injected in the hypopigmented area. This was studied by
shaved off and the new epidermis hopefully has a more Falabella et al. already in 1971 and measured both by
balanced pigment and therefore color (see below). clinical score and by melanocyte counts, but the differ-
In hypopigmentation the dermabrasion is mostly ence between the groups was not statistically significant
combined with a method to transplant melanocytes in either case [10].
from healthy skin to the depigmented regions like skin Later the RECELL® Autologous Cell Harvesting
grafting or cell therapy. Device (AVITA Medical Europe Ltd., Melbourne,
UK) became available, which uses an on-site device to
Skin Grafting isolate epidermal cells from a small piece of split skin
Skin-grafting techniques include split-thickness skin graft.
grafts, full-thickness skin grafts, punch-grafting, and Similar to the treatment of vitiligo, melanocytes are
epidermal grafts, such as grafts from suction blisters. directly isolated and harvested from skin grafts prior to
The split skin graft (SSG) contains the entire epider- transplantation to the depigmented injured area. These
mis with only a thin layer of dermis. The skin is har- cell-based treatments can be divided into (i) non-cultured
vested with a dermatome preferably from a suitable, cell suspension, (ii) cultured melanocyte suspension,
color-matching concealed donor site. A pigmented (iii) cultured keratinocyte/melanocyte suspension, (iv)
114 A. Pijpe et al.
tissue-engineered melanocyte grafts. For current clinical 12.3.2 Hyperpigmentation

practice mainly the non-cultured cell suspension is used.
The other, more sophisticated options may be interest- 12.3.2.1 Nonsurgical Treatment
ing but are rarely used as clinical therapy so far. These Topical Treatments
therapies are expensive and laborious and currently it
Hydroquinone, either as monotherapy or in combination
has not been conclusively demonstrated that they are
with alpha-hydroxy acid, ascorbic acid, retinoids, corti-
cost effective.
costeroids, and antioxidants, is a commonly used depig-
A limitation of cell transplantation is a poten-
menting agent [2]. Its working mechanism is thought to
tially uneven cell dispersion across the recipient site.
inhibit melanogenesis by acting as an alternative substrate
Furthermore, poor attachment of transplanted melano-
for the enzyme tyrosinase. Hydroquinone may also result
cytes to the recipient skin and unfavorable wound condi-
in inhibition of DNA/RNA synthesis, destruction of
tions may also affect cell survival and outcome.
melanocytes, and degradation of melanosomes.
Topical retinoids, including tretinoin (all-trans-
Microneedling retinoic acid), tazarotene, and adapalene, are also used
Microneedling is a relatively new therapeutic modal- as monotherapy for treatment of hyperpigmented
ity in dermatology. It has shown promising results as lesions. Retinoids are supposed to act by inhibition
an adjuvant therapy for enhanced drug delivery in the of tyrosinase, induction of melanocyte apoptosis, and
treatment of atrophic scars, alopecia, actinic keratoses, acceleration of epidermal cell turnover.
and disorders of pigmentation such as melisma [11]. The Also azelaic acid is thought to inhibit tyrosinase and
efficacy in treatment of vitiligo remains limited. decrease melanogenesis.
Excision Chemical Peels

Excision of the hypopigmented area can be performed A commonly used acid against hyperpigmentation is the
and needs to be combined with a technique for wound use of lactic acid. Lactic acid is particularly known to
closure. For small areas direct wound closure is the first prevent the formation of tyrosinase so that pigment cells
choice. For larger areas and in the case of considerable can form less pigment. In addition, the accelerated exfo-
tension on the wound edges, additional closing tech- liation of the skin cells fades the pigment cells present.
12 niques such as the skin stretching technique or tissue The mechanism of this effect might be due to epidermal
expansion can be performed. remodeling and accelerated desquamation, which would
The skin stretch technique is suitable for closing result in quick pigment dispersion.
defects after excision of scars and wounds of limited size.
The skin stretcher is a device that can stretch two widely Laser Therapy
spaced wound edges together. The force with which this Hyperpigmentation can be treated with laser therapy,
goes can be set, but is usually in the order of 30 Newton. based on selective photothermolysis. Selecting the right
The best result is obtained when working in cycles of wavelength can tackle pigment selectively. Selective pho-
4 minutes of stretch and 1 minute of rest. After a few tothermolysis suggests that laser therapy would allow
cycles, the wound tension has dropped and the wound discriminating destruction of pigment without injuring
can be closed under acceptable tension. In a large study, the surrounding tissue. Selective melanin photother-
the number of wound dehiscence was limited [12]. molysis can be obtained with any laser light having a
With the help of a tissue expander large areas of scar wavelength in the absorption spectrum of melanin and
can be normally excised. The tissue expander technique sufficient energy levels to target melanosomes (mostly
is widespread and is frequently used for reconstruction used: the Q-switched ruby laser (694 nm), Q-switched
of large scar areas such as alopecia areas of the hairy Nd:YAG laser (532 nm, 1064 nm), and the Q-switched
head. During the first operation, an expander is placed alexandrite laser (755 nm)). Laser induces extreme heat-
under flexible skin in the area of the scar area that needs ing of melanosomes with subsequent thermal expan-
to be reconstructed. This extension is a special balloon sion, local vaporization and generation of acoustic
with a filling port. The filling port is also placed under waves that damage the nucleus and eventually destroy
the skin. The fill port can be triggered through the skin so the pigment-laden cells. The released melanin is then
the balloon can be filled in tempi until sufficient texture removed through transepidermal elimination or phago-
has been expanded for the scar reconstruction. However, cytosis by dermal macrophages. To be effective and spe-
despite good results, two interventions are needed, the cific, wavelengths that avoid absorption by other skin
total procedure may take several weeks to months with chromophores and penetrate to the desired depth have
frequent visits to the clinic to fill the balloon. to be used [13].
115 12
Surgical Treatment
12.3.2.2 Take-Home Messages
Dermabrasion 55 Pigment abnormalities are divided into hyperpig-
As mentioned above, dermabrasion can help to reduce mentation and hypopigmentation.
hypo- and hyperpigmentation of a scar. In the case of 55 Pigmentation disorders are difficult to treat.
hyperpigmentation, dermabrasion is usually performed 55 Nonsurgical and surgical options are available.
as a single treatment modality, that is, it is not combined 55 Wait until the area has matured.
with another treatment such as skin transplantation. The 55 First try the conservative options. If possible, first
idea is to easily remove the epidermis including the mela- test the response to the therapy in a test area.
nocytes and the pigment and let it heal spontaneously 55 Dose the treatment to prevent overshoot and com-
resulting in an epidermis with a lower concentration plications.
of melanocytes. It is not recommended to go too deep
because the regeneration capacity of the skin is limited
in scars, due to lowered presence or even absence of hair References
follicles and sweat glands. If the wounds are too deep and
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winter season to anticipate low UV light exposure to reduce
mentation: epidemiology, clinical presentation, pathogenesis
the risk of excessive new pigmentation. It is also recom- and treatment. Am J Clin Dermatol. 2018;19(4):489–503.
mended to start dermabrasion with a small test area, pref- 3. van der Wal MB, et al. Outcome after burns: an observational
erably in an area that can be easily evaluated by the patient. study on burn scar maturation and predictors for severe scar-
ring. Wound Repair Regen. 2012;20(5):676–87.
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for hyperpigmented lesions that are limited in size (see performance of three devices on normal skin and scar tissue. J
above under hypopigmentation). It should be taken into Burn Care Res. 2013;34(3):e187–94.
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scales. J Burn Care Res. 2012;33(2):e79–87.
may be more severe than the original situation.
7. Sullivan T, et al. Rating the burn scar. J Burn Care Rehabil.
1990;11(3):256–60.
8. Draaijers LJ, et al. The patient and observer scar assessment
12.4 Conclusion scale: a reliable and feasible tool for scar evaluation. Plast
Reconstr Surg. 2004;113(7):1960–5; discussion 1966–7.
9. Alexiades-Armenakas MR, et al. The safety and efficacy of the
Pigmentation problems are an important feature of scar 308-nm excimer laser for pigment correction of hypopigmented
quality and partly determine the visual characteristics scars and striae alba. Arch Dermatol. 2004;140(8):955–60.
of a scar. Both hypopigmentation and hyperpigmenta- 10. Falabella R. Epidermal grafting. An original technique and its
tion can cause aesthetic and psychological issues which application in achromic and granulating areas. Arch Dermatol.
influences quality of life. Pigmentation disorders are 1971;104(6):592–600.
11. Iriarte C, et al. Review of applications of microneedling in der-
difficult to treat. Treatment options include camouflage matology. Clin Cosmet Investig Dermatol. 2017;10:289–98.
therapy, topical treatments, chemical peels, laser ther- 12. Verhaegen PD, et al. Sustainable effect of skin stretching for
apy, dermatography, dermabrasion, microneedling, skin burn scar excision: long-term results of a multicenter random-
grafting, cell therapy, and excision. It is advised to first ized controlled trial. Burns. 2011;37(7):1222–8.
try the conservative options and to dose the treatment to 13. Briganti S, Camera E, Picardo M. Chemical and instrumental
approaches to treat hyperpigmentation. Pigment Cell Res.
prevent overshoot and complications. 2003;16(2):101–10.
117 13
Scar Contractures
Contents
13.2 General Features – 118
13.3 Contractures of the Neck – 118
13.4 Axillar Contractures – 119
13.5 Hand Contractures – 119

13.6 Other Anatomical Sites of Scar Contractures – 120
13.7 Rehabilitation Programs – 120
13.8 Surgical Strategies – 121
13.9 Z Plasties – 121
13.10 Skin Grafts – 121
13.11 Dermal Substitutes – 121
13.12 Flaps – 121
References – 122

118 M. G. Masanovic and L. Téot
13.1 Introduction limitation is observed at the level of the metartarso-

phalangeal joints (in flexion) and the grip is impacted.
The prevalence of contractures is high, especially after Contractures may variably limit the amplitude of
burns and may vary, depending on the age, the depth of the movements, some of them being only observed during
initial burns, and the time between burns and the occur- full movements, others imposing a severe stiffness and
rence of the contractures. Young patients and children are a blockade of any movement. Neck contractures may
more likely candidates to develop contractures. When skin simply affect the extreme degrees of lateral movements
grafting after burn is performed in due time, the prevalence or realize a vertical contracture (chin to thorax) impos-
is lower. Contractures are more likely to occur in more ing strong difficulties to maintain the horizontal sight, a
severe burns, flame burns, children, females, on the cervical situation extremely difficult to live with.
spine and in the upper extremity. The absence of physio- Web contractures may limit multidirectional move-
therapy and an abnormal long period awaiting spontane- ments on the neck or the shoulder, others will limit
ous healing without skin grafting will progressively induce opening of orifices (mouth, nostrils, perineal areas) with
severe contractures. This is still frequently observed on the concentric contractures, a cause of difficulties to feeding.
upper limbs in burn patients in developing countries. Early Contractures may vary along time. An early inflam-
excision and skin grafting is the best option to reduce the mation is frequently observed in children or young adults
incidence of contractures. Other causes of contractures are after burns, lasting some months especially on mobile
less frequently observed, but may be seen after trauma or areas like the thorax and the upper limb. This situation
infection, linked to noncompliance, a too long immobili- may be transiently observed during the first 2 years and
zation, a joint destruction, an epiphysiodesis in children. may disappear afterward. This period should be covered
This chapter proposes to give an overview of the func- by adapted physiotherapy programs, aiming at an aug-
tional limitations of the skin contractures and the need for mented range of movements and a less red skin.
an adapted early rehabilitation program starting during
the healing stage and carried on during the next 2 years
post burns and other causes of skin limitation. 13.3 Contractures of the Neck
Neck skin is extremely mobile over the underlying struc-

tures. This mobility will be quickly limited in burns, due
13.2 General Features to a skin retraction linked to wound healing and par-
ticularly to the mechanical action of myofibroblasts, but
13 Incidence of contractures has been recently analyzed [1, 2]
also to the pain during movements inducing a voluntary
on patients presenting acute burns across or adjacent to the
restriction of movement during the healing stage. These
neck, shoulder, elbow, wrist, hip, knee, and ankle. Passive
combined factors induce a centripetal retraction and may
range of motion was measured at 3–6–9–12 months after
lead to different situations, ranging from a single line of
burn. Limited range of motion of non-operated burned
skin tension in the lateral movements (. Fig. 13.1) to
joints was restored back to normal within 6–9 months.
severe vertical and horizontal loss of movements. The
From the operated burned joints, 58.6% demonstrated a
subcutaneous muscles, embedded in the scarring process,
limited range of motion at 3–6 weeks declining to 20.9%
at 12 months. The upper part of the body was affected
more often by scar contracture than the lower part.
Reconstructive surgery was performed in 13.3% of the
operated burned joints. This study confirms that a quick
skin grafting is a good option to prevent severe contrac-
tures, but not enough to prevent all of them.
Contractures may clinically present with differ-
ent characteristics, like bands of skin partially limiting
the range of joint movements to a complete impossi-
bility to move, all joints being glued in deep stiffness.
Contractures are more or less severe, depending if the
deep structures (tendons, aponeurosis, subcutaneous
muscles, or fascia) are involved in the process, and the
type of contracture, static or dynamic.
Skin capacity is particularly limited in burns of the
dorsal aspect of the hand, if an adapted rehabilitation
program including staged splinting of the hand before,
during, and after skin grafting, as well as slow move-
ments during the inflammation stage and more active .. Fig. 13.1 Neck contracture persistent in spite of several surgical
after some months is not properly done. The usual procedures
Scar Contractures
119 13
contribute to skin limitation. In severe situations the hor-
izontal sight may be impacted, bending permanently the
neck and imposing a difficult surgery.
13.4 Axillar Contractures
Three different areas may be impacted by retractile scars,

the anterior and posterior pillars, and the central axilla.
Skin contractures may affect any one or the three of these
areas, with different possible extensions on the anterior or
posterior thorax. The shoulder is mobile anteriorly, pos-
teriorly, and laterally, needing a full skin mobility in all
aspects of the region. A large range of functional deficits
may be encountered in burns, with a good reactivity to early
physiotherapy and specifically to range axilla orthotic, as
demonstrated [3] (. Figs. 13.2, 13.3, and 13.4).
13.5 Hand Contractures
Burns usually affect the dorsal aspect of the hand, with

a centripetal retraction impairing the complete com-
bined flexion of all digits together. The deficit in terms
.. Fig. 13.4 Severe postburn neck contracture on a young female

treated by an orthesis worn initially 24/7 during 2 months and then
at night
of grip may be crucial; other situations may limit one

or two digits in flexion. When the situation has become
chronic, tendon shortening and bone deformities may
be observed, imposing complex surgical procedures
including bone shortening, joint arthrodesis, and ten-
don lengthening to restore function.
The dorsal aspects of the interdigital webs are
frequently involved, with consequences on the sepa-
rate movements of each digit, a quadrige effect often
observed in poorly managed deep burns.
The palmar aspect of the hand is less frequently
touched but more frequent in children, but the very deep
scarring tissues may sometimes reach more than 2 cm
depth, inducing tendons blockade. Usually these severe
scars embed totally the underlying structures, nerves,
vessels, tendons, and muscles (. Fig. 13.5).
Persistent contractures observed in young adults
having been submitted to burns that occurred during
childhood, with retracted wrists and elbows or com-
pletely locked axillas, which sometimes require bone
resection or amputation, are less observed now with the
.. Figs. 13.2 and 13.3 Postburn axillar contracture treated by an development and diffusion of NGO programs acting in
orthotic orlen realized at fashion underdeveloped countries.
.. Fig. 13.6 Hand splint in complete digital flexion used for

.. Fig. 13.5 Palmar contracture embedding the whole palmar area, mechanical tension over the dorsal aspect
creating a maximal web between the I and the IV. Surgery is needed
13.6 ther Anatomical Sites of Scar

O
Contractures
Lower limbs may develop contractures at the level of
hips (in flexion), knee, and foot (dorsal positioning of
toes). These contractures are better managed by an
adapted rehabilitation, completed by surgical proce-
dures if needed.
13
13.7 Rehabilitation Programs
During the wound-healing stage, splinting of the burned

hands, the neck, the axillar, and the lower limbs are
needed to prevent contractures. Most of the burns cen-
.. Fig. 13.7 Hand splint in complete digital extension used for
ters benefit of a specific rehabilitation team included in mechanical tension on the palmar aspect. In case of contracture
the organization of the center. Passive movements dur- touching both the aspects of the hand, alternative positioning in flex-
ing the dressing change and positioning of joints into ion during night and in extension during the day may be proposed
adapted customized splints in position of maximum
extension capacity will efficiently limit the develop-
ment of contractures (. Fig. 13.6). Exercise is allowed Pruritus and the risk of stretching are prevented
as soon as the inflammatory period is under control, using hydration and drugs. Capsaicin and cooling
immobilization being the most anti-inflammatory agent. are frequently used to limit pain and inflammation.
After skin closure, active and passive movements will These programs are long, painful, and psychologically
be encouraged but it is essential not to exert an exces- demanding. A limited compliance of the patients may
sive mechanical tension on contractures, relayed and explain some of the poor results sometimes observed,
completed by the design of compressive garments, and but most of the patients get benefit of these treatments.
mechanical compression of the involved areas. Specific Once the inflammation stage is completed, more
rehabilitation centers for severely burned patients exist active compressive techniques like endermology, motor-
in some countries, proposing multiprograms to soften ized skin manipulations (LPG), stretching posture, high
the scar, manipulate joints, and efficiently prevent the power jets, or other types of physiotherapy are pro-
occurrence of the contractures using positioning, espe- posed, with good results at 2 years. More than 90% of
cially on the axillar region, the neck, and the hands the patients come back to a normal function if the pro-
(. Figs. 13.7 and 13.8). gram is done properly.
Scar Contractures
121 13
vested with a scalpel and needing a defatting before
application. The donor sites of STG heal by rapid re-
epithelialization (like a superficial abrasion) while the
donor site of FTG must be closed primarily for healing,
so their use is limited to smaller defects. The main disad-
vantage of STG is the lack of dermal component, mean-
ing a risk of recurrence higher than when using a flap.
13.11 Dermal Substitutes
Since three decades the introduction of acellular dermal

substitute has changed the profile of skin grafting. The
dermal component brought by the use of collagen (and
.. Fig. 13.8 Bilateral contracture of the mouth web, combined elastin) inside the dermal substitute limits the secondary
with a red lip loss of substance. Surgery using W–Y-5 plasties, plus retraction of the thin skin graft applied to cover it, even
advancement of the mucosa will be proposed if some shrinking is sometimes observed [7]. Different
devices are proposed, with or without elastin, the col-
Despite clear international recommendations [4] the lagen coming from different animals like cows, sharks,
studies on the modalities of application and the type of or pigs with different combination with elastin, and with
splints cover only a limited number of cases, therefore or without a protective film in silicone, depending if the
the evidence for these strategies is limited [5]. product is immediately covered by skin graft or sec-
ondarily after 3 weeks, the device being slowly incorpo-
rated in the new dermis before skin coverage. Hori et al.
13.8 Surgical Strategies recently compared the contraction capacity, pores size,
and shape of the different proposed devices [7] which
Contracture release creates a large skin defect, and the may induce a secondary contraction.
aim of surgery is to restore as far as possible a full skin
disponibility after surgery and to prevent recurrence.
13.12 Flaps
13.9 Z Plasties Large contractures have to be excised and replacement
using different types of flaps.
Z plasty is the most frequently used surgical technique Random skin flaps are frequently used [8], coming
[6]. Based on the principle of skin disponibility and from the adjacent area when scar-free, but pedicled
softness of adjacent areas, the triangles designed by fasciocutaneous flaps bring a rich vascular network.
the Z-shape incisions break the linear scar contracture Branches from this plexus reach the skin as direct or
with a new scar without any mechanical tension. The indirect perforators. They can be used locally or region-
cosmetic result is usually acceptable. Linear contrac- ally, and rotated into the defect [9].
tures are better managed using Z plasties, multiple Z Perforator flaps, more recently developed, are based
plasties. Web contracture may be treated using W–Y 5 on a fine dissection of the perforator vessels going
plasties combing 2 Z plasties and an advancement flap, through the fascia to vascularize the overlying skin
or omega plasties using the contracted skin but needing island. This increases the range of motion of these
two small full skin grafts on the edges. pedicled flaps and it reduces significantly the donor site
morbidity.
Free flaps enlarge even further the armamentarium
13.10 Skin Grafts for tissue transfer. In principle, all axial flaps can be
transferred as a free vascularized flap: the artery and
Skin grafts are by definition free skin transfers from the vein (eventually also the nerve) are transected at
one site to another without any vascular connection. the donor site and re-anastomosed microsurgically
Depending on their thickness, skin grafts form two dif- with a recipient vessel at another part of the body. Till
ferent techniques, split-thickness skin grafts (STG) lim- recently, free fasciocutaneous flaps and perforator flaps
ited to epidermis and a thin layer of dermis, harvested were most frequently used for coverage of contracture
using a dermatome and full-thickness skin grafts (FTG), defects. Both can however result in significant donor site
which include the epidermis and the entire dermis; har- morbidity by harvesting structurally important fascia.
13.13 Conclusion References
In summary, contractures after burns are difficult to pre- 1. Kwan PO, Tredget EE. Etiological principles of scar and contrac-
ture. Hand Clin. 2017;33(2):277–92. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
vent, some areas like axilla, neck, and upper limbs being
hcl.2016.12.004. Epub 2017 Mar 1.
predominantly affected. Early skin grafting may prevent 2. Schouten HJ, Nieuwenhuis MK, van Baar ME, van der Schans
contractures, but an adapted rehabilitation program CP, Niemeijer AS, van Zuijlen PPM. The prevalence and
should be established and redefined during the regular development of burn scar contractures: a prospective mul-
check-up done by the burns team. When constituted, ticenter cohort study. Burns. 2019;45(4):783–90. https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.burns.2019.03.007, pii: S0305-4179(19)30144-5.
a precise analysis of the lacking skin surface should be
3. Thomas R, Wicks S, Toose C, Pacey V. Outcomes of early use of
done by the surgical team, issuing to a covering program an end of range axilla orthotic in children following burn injury.
depending on the area involved and the expertise of the J Burns Care Res. 2019;40(5):678–88. https://doi.org/10.1093/
team. Function may efficiently be restored using dif- jbcr/irz058.
ferent techniques, skin grafting and dermal substitutes 4. Monstrey S, Middelkoop E, Vranckx JJ, Bassetto F, Ziegler UE,
Meaume S, Téot L. Updated scar management practical guide-
being more adapted in term of volumes, flap providing
lines: non-invasive and invasive measures. J Plast Reconstr Aes-
a suppler skin. thet Surg. 2014;67:1017–25.
5. Richard R, Wards RS. Splinting and controversies. J Burn Care
Rehabil. 2005;26(5):392–6.
Take-Home Message 6. Kim YH, Hwang KT, Kim KH, Sung IH, Kim SW. Application
of acellular human dermis and skin grafts for lower extremity
Contractures may form a severe functional deficit. reconstruction. J Wound Care. 2019;28(Suppl 4):S12–7. https://
Early prevention is mandatory, with a combination doi.org/10.12968/jowc.2019.28.Sup4.S12.
of exercise and positioning to prevent skin retraction. 7. Hori K, Osada A, Isago T, Sakurai H. Comparison of contrac-
In specific situations like the burned hand immobili- tion among three dermal substitutes: morphological differences
in scaffolds. Burns. 2017;43(4):846–51. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
zation can be done in both positions: flexion during
burns.2016.10.017. Epub 2016 Nov 17.
the night and extension during the day. Treatment 8. Hifny MA. The square flap technique for burn contractures:
is difficult, and a balance should be sought between clinical experience and analysis of length gain. Ann Burns Fire
surgery, which always means a restart in the reha- Disasters. 2018;31(4):306–12.
bilitation process, and the rehabilitation limits which 9. Teot L, Bosse JP. The use of scapular skin island flaps in the
treatment of axillary postburn scar contractures. Br J Plast Surg.
should be established in close conjunction together
1994;47(2):108–11.
with the team in charge. Recurrence is a risk if the
13 postoperative management is not properly realized.
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123 VI
Scar Assessment Scales

Contents
Chapter 14 Scar Assessment Scales – 125

Michelle E. Carrière, Annekatrien L. van de Kar,
Chapter 15 Japan Scar Workshop (JSW) Scar Scale (JSS) for

Assessing Keloids and Hypertrophic Scars – 133
Rei Ogawa
125 14

Michelle E. Carrière, Annekatrien L. van de Kar,
Contents
14.2 Domains – 126
14.3 Scar Assessment Scales – 126
14.4 Measurement Properties/Clinimetrics – 127

References – 131

126 M. E. Carrière et al.
14.1 Background reported scar scales allow for the evaluation of addi-
tional health domains that cannot be observed by
Over the last decades, standardized measurements of clinicians, such as scar symptoms and quality of life.
medical treatment outcome have become increasingly
important. First of all, application of evidence-based
medicine requires that the research field evaluates the 14.3 Scar Assessment Scales
effectiveness of new and existing treatments. Therefore,
no clinical trial can exist without the appropriate out- . Table 14.1 provides an overview of consecutive devel-
come measurement instruments to determine the study oped scar assessment scales, the constructs measured,
outcomes in a reliable and valid way. These outcome and whether it is reported by the patient or clinician.
measurement instruments are not only vital in the . Table 14.2 shows which scar aspects are assessed in
research setting but also indispensable in daily clinical the most frequently used scales. The first concepts of
practice to monitor scars in individual patients. scar assessment scales were reported in the late 1980s,
Furthermore, standardized scar measurements are per- but the first widely used, validated scar scale was devel-
formed and recorded in clinical registries with the aim tooped in 1990 by Sullivan et al., which became widely
improve the quality of care and patient health outcomes. known as the Vancouver Scar Scale (VSS) [1]. The VSS
Scar outcome measurement instruments can be consists of four items: vascularity, pigmentation, thick-
either measurement devices or scar assessment scales. ness, and pliability. Since this first introduction to scar
Measurement devices are often seen as objective instru- assessment scales, the development of many other scales
ments that provide solid quantitative analyses of scar followed. Various authors modified the original version
characteristics. However, measurement devices have to of the VSS by adding extra items to the scale or altering
be purchased for sometimes high prices and can only be the answering categories of the existing items [2–4]. This
used at one place at a time. Another disadvantage may resulted in an abundance of modified VSS versions—of
be that most devices are only able to evaluate one scar which the modified VSS by Baryza et al. is the most
characteristic. In addition, cutting-edge measurement widely used [2]. The Seattle, Hamilton, and Manchester
technologies often involve time-consuming measure- scar scales were consecutively developed from 1997 to
ments and analyses that require training of the observer, 1998 [5–7]. The Seattle and Hamilton scales were both
which might be appropriate in research settings but is developed for photographic evaluation of scar [5, 6].
less suitable in clinical practice. Contrary to measure- The Manchester scar scale introduced two new items: an
ment devices, scar assessment scales are qualitative eval-“overall assessment,” rated on a VAS scale (0–10), and if
uations of multiple scar characteristics provided by an the scar appeared matte or shiny [7]. Until 2000, the
focus remained on the clinician/observer, as all developed
individual, either the patient or the clinician/researcher.
14 Scar assessment scales are sometimes criticized by their scales were clinician-reported, focusing on visual and
subjective nature. However, advantages of scar assess- physical scar characteristics. This changed when Nedelec
et al. added a symptomatic assessment (i.e., items of
ment scales are their ability to provide fast evaluation of
pain and itch) to the original VSS [3]. However, it was
multiple scar characteristics, their (usually) free and easy
accessibility, and their ability to capture the patient’s not until 2004 that in addition to symptoms such as pain
view on their scars. The latter is especially important asand itch, the patient’s opinion on visual and physical
nowadays patients are receiving more information about scar characteristics was incorporated into a scar assess-
treatment options and are getting more involved in mak- ment scale called the Patient and Observer Scar
ing treatment decisions and in reporting treatment out- Assessment Scale (POSAS) [8]. The POSAS captures
comes. In this chapter, an overview of the content and both the clinician’s (observer’s) and the patient’s per-
development of most frequently used scar assessment spective on multiple-characteristics scar quality. A few
scales is provided. years after the introduction of the POSAS, Bock et al.
made it possible to evaluate the quality of life of patients
with keloid and hypertrophic scars by the development
14.2 Domains of the Bock Quality of Life Scale [9]. This was the first
patient-reported scar scale measuring at the level of
Scars can influence patients in several health domains, quality of life. Around the same time, the Stony Brooks
ranging from appearance to quality of life. These differ- Scar Evaluation Scale was introduced, which is a
ent domains require different levels of measurements. clinician-reported scar scale specifically designed for the
Measurements acquired with clinician-reported scales assessment of surgical scars [10]. Therefore, it included
are limited to observable aspects of the scar, such as an item to evaluate the presence of suture marks. The
appearance, physical characteristics, and functional Patient Scar Assessment Questionnaire, Patient-Reported
impairment of the scar. On the other hand, patient- Impact of Scars Measure (PSAQ), and Brisbane Burn
127 14
.. Table 14.1 Overview of consecutive developed scar assessment scales
Scar scale Year Clinician- Patient- Type of scars Construct

reported reported
Vancouver Scar Scale 1990 X Burn Physical characteristics and appearance

Modified Vancouver Scar Scale 1995 X Burn Physical characteristics and appearance
by Baryza et al.
Seattle Scar Scale 1997 X Burn Physical characteristics and appearance
Hamilton Scar Scale 1998 X Mix Physical characteristics and appearance
Manchester Scar Scale 1998 X Mix Physical characteristics and appearance
Modified Vancouver Scar Scale 2000 (X) Burn Physical characteristics and appearance,
by Nedelec et al. scar sensation
Patient and Observer Scar 2004 X X Mix Physical characteristics and appearance,
Assessment Scale scar sensation
Bock Quality of Life 2006 X Hypertrophic/ Quality of life
keloid
Stony Brooks Scar Evaluation 2007 X Surgical Scar characteristics and appearance
Scale
Patient Scar Assessment 2009 X Surgical Scar characteristics and appearance,
Questionnaire scar sensation
Consciousness (body image and
confidence)
Patient-Reported Impact of 2010 X Surgical Scar sensation
Scars Measure Quality of life
Brisbane Burn Scar Impact 2016 X Burns Scar characteristics and appearance
Profile Scar sensation
Quality of life
Scar Cosmesis Assessment and 2016 (X) Surgical Scar characteristics and appearance
Rating scale Scar sensation
Scar Q 2018 X Mix Scar characteristics and appearance
Symptoms
Psychological problems
(X) = Clinician-reported scale in which the presence of pain and itch is included
Scar Impact Profile (BSSIP) are more recently devel- validity is the degree to which the content of a measure
oped patient-reported scales which measure aspects of is an adequate reflection of the construct to be measured
quality of life, in addition visual and physical scar char- [15]. Good content validity means that all items included
acteristics, symptoms, and/or satisfaction [11–13]. Most in the scale are relevant and no relevant items are miss-
recently, the Scar Q was developed for the evaluation of ing for the construct of interest (within a specific popu-
physical characteristics, scar appearance, symptoms, lation and context of use). Furthermore, it means that
and physiological problems [14]. patients should understand the content as intended.
Lack of content validity can influence all other mea-
surement properties [16]. To ensure good content valid-
14.4 Measurement Properties/Clinimetrics ity, it is important that well-designed scale development
studies are performed that use qualitative methods to
To evaluate the quality of available scar assessment gain patient/professional input on the content of the
scales, several measurement properties must be consid- scale. In addition, the draft scale must be pilot tested to
ered, i.e. ,validity, reliability, and responsiveness [15]. ensure its content is relevant, comprehensive, and com-
The most important property is content validity. Content prehensible for patients. In . Table 14.3, it is noted if
14
128
.. Table 14.2 Overview of the content of most frequently used scar assessment scales
VSS Modified VSS Manchester POSAS (2.0) Bock Quality of SBSES PSAQ PRISM BBSIP Scar Q
by Baryza et al. Scar Scale Life
Number of 1 1 1 2 1 1 5 2 10 2
subscales
Number of 4 4 6 14 15 5 39 37 66 24
M. E. Carrière et al.
itemsa
Visual and physical scar characteristics
Vascularity X X X X
Pigmentation X X X X
Color X X X X X X
Thickness X X X X X X X X
Pliability/ X X X X X X
hardness
Roughness X X
Surface X X X X
irregularities
Distortion X X
Shiny surface X X
Hatch marks X
Width X X X
Length X X
Overall X X X X X
appearance
Symptoms
Pain X X X X X
Itch X X X X X X
Stinging X
Burning X
Discomfort X X
Numbness X X
(Hyper) X X X
Sensitivity
Tingling X X X
Tightness X X X
Impaired X X X
movement
Dryness X X
Sensitive to X X X
temperature
(changes)
Swelling X
Inflammation X
Open wounds X
Tiredness X
Psychosocial
Self- X X
consciousness
Self-confidence X X X
Embarrassment X X X
Unhappy X X X
feelings
Angry feelings X X
Sexual concerns X X
Feeling X X
unattractive
Not accepting X
129
scars
Hiding scars X X
(continued)
14
14
130
M. E. Carrière et al.
.. Table 14.2 (continued)
Avoid talking X
about scars
Reactions of X X X X
others
Impact on X X X
social
interactions
and activities
Impact of scar X
treatments
Suicidal X
thoughts
Satisfaction
Overall
satisfaction
Appearance X
Symptoms X
aNot
all items included in the scales are scored in this table. VSS Vancouver Scar Scale, POSAS Patient and Observer Scar Assessment Scale, SBSES Stony Brooks Scar Evaluation Scale,
PSAQ Patient Scar Assessment Questionnaire, PRISM Patient-Reported Impact of Scars Measure, BBSIP Brisbane Burn Scar Impact Profile
131 14
.. Table 14.3 Methods used for the development of most frequently used scar assessment scales
VSS Modified Manchester POSAS Bock SBSES PSAQ PRISM BBSIP Scar Q
VSS by Scar Scale (2.0) Quality
Baryza et al. of Life
Scale development
Literature X X X X X X X
search
Expert opinion X X X X X X X X X X
Patient X X X X
interviews
Pilot testing X X X X X
VSS Vancouver Scar Scale, POSAS Patient and Observer Scar Assessment Scale, SBSES Stony Brooks Scar Evaluation Scale, PSAQ
Patient Scar Assessment Questionnaire, PRISM Patient-Reported Impact of Scars Measure, BBSIP Brisbane Burn Scar Impact Profile
these requirements were met for the included scar assess- content and development. It is of paramount impor-
ment scales. Besides content validity, reliability is an tance to evaluate the clinimetric properties of an instru-
important clinimetric property. Reliability refers to the ment prior to using it for scar assessments for clinical or
extent to which scores for patients who have not changed research purposes in order to prevent measurements
are the same for repeated measurements [15]. Reliability obtained by poor-quality instruments.
and measurement error are related but distinct measure-
ment properties. Reliability refers to the ability of a Take-Home Messages
measure to distinguish between patients, and measure-
ment error refers to the systematic and random error 55 Scar assessment scales are important to evaluate
attributed to the measurement instrument [17]. The the effectiveness of scar treatments and to monitor
responsiveness is the ability of a scale to detect changes patients over time.
over time in the construct to be measured (e.g., scar 55 Traditional scar scales are clinician/researcher-
quality) [15]. All measurement properties should be reported, focusing on the appearance and physical
evaluated in the specific population in which it will be characteristics of the scar, while more recently, devel-
used. The context of use, referring to the application of oped scales are patient-reported scales which mea-
use (i.e., discriminative, evaluative, or diagnostic appli- sure aspects of quality of life.
cation) and to the setting (e.g., hospital or at home), 55 (Content) Validity, reliability, and responsiveness
should also be taken into account. Furthermore, the are important measurement properties which must
instrument must be practical and user-friendly in order be evaluated prior to using a scale for scar assess-
to be easily applicable in clinical practice: an aspect ments.
which is defined as feasibility [18]. It is crucial to con-
sider the measurement properties, the context of use,
and the feasibility when choosing a measurement instru-
ment. Measurements obtained by poor-quality or non- References
validated instruments are not trustworthy, and thus,
studies that utilize these instruments yield unreliable 1. Sullivan T, Smith J, Kermode J, McIver E, Courtemanche
results and invalid conclusions. DJ. Rating the burn scar. J Burn Care Rehabil. 1990;11(3):256–
60.
2. Baryza MJ, Baryza GA. The Vancouver Scar Scale: an adminis-
tration tool and its interrater reliability. J Burn Care Rehabil.
14.5 Conclusion 1995;16(5):535–8.
3. Nedelec B, Shankowsky HA, Tredget EE. Rating the resolving
hypertrophic scar: comparison of the Vancouver Scar Scale and
Scar assessment scales are useful tools to measure vari- scar volume. J Burn Care Rehabil. 2000;21(3):205–12.
ous domains of scars. This chapter provides an overview 4. Forbes-Duchart L, Marshall S, Strock A, Cooper JE.
of the most frequently used scar scales, including their Determination of inter-rater reliability in pediatric burn scar
132 M. E. Carrière et al.
assessment using a modified version of the Vancouver Scar 12. Durani P, McGrouther DA, Ferguson MW. The Patient Scar
Scale. J Burn Care Research. 2007;28(3):460–7. Assessment Questionnaire: a reliable and valid patient-reported
5. Yeong EK, Mann R, Engrav LH, Goldberg M, Cain V, Costa B, outcomes measure for linear scars. Plast Reconstr Surg.
et al. Improved burn scar assessment with use of a new 2009;123(5):1481–9.
scar-rating scale. J Burn Care Rehabil. 1997;18(4):353–5.. dis- 13. Brown BC, McKenna SP, Solomon M, Wilburn J, McGrouther
cussion 2 DA, Bayat A. The patient-reported impact of scars measure:
6. Crowe JM, Simpson K, Johnson W, Allen J. Reliability of photo- development and validation. Plast Reconstr Surg.
graphic analysis in determining change in scar appearance. J 2010;125(5):1439–49.
Burn Care Rehabil. 1998;19(2):183–6. 14. Klassen AF, Ziolkowski N, Mundy LR, Miller HC, McIlvride A,
7. Beausang E, Floyd H, Dunn KW, Orton CI, Ferguson MW. A DiLaura A, et al. Development of a new patient-reported out-
new quantitative scale for clinical scar assessment. Plast Reconstr come instrument to evaluate treatments for scars: the
Surg. 1998;102(6):1954–61. SCAR-Q. Plast Reconstr Surg Glob Open. 2018;6(4):e1672.
8. Draaijers LJ, Tempelman FR, Botman YA, Tuinebreijer WE, 15. Mokkink LB, Terwee CB, Patrick DL, Alonso J, Stratford PW,
Middelkoop E, Kreis RW, et al. The patient and observer scar Knol DL, et al. The COSMIN study reached international con-
assessment scale: a reliable and feasible tool for scar evaluation. sensus on taxonomy, terminology, and definitions of measure-
Plast Reconstr Surg. 2004;113(7):1960–5; discussion 6–7. ment properties for health-related patient-reported outcomes. J
9. Bock O, Schmid-Ott G, Malewski P, Mrowietz U. Quality of life Clin Epidemiol. 2010;63(7):737–45.
of patients with keloid and hypertrophic scarring. Arch Dermatol 16. Terwee CB, Prinsen CAC, Chiarotto A, Westerman MJ, Patrick
Res. 2006; 97:433–38. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00403-006-0651-7. DL, Alonso J, et al. COSMIN methodology for evaluating the
10. Singer AJ, Arora B, Dagum A, Valentine S, Hollander content validity of patient-reported outcome measures: a Delphi
JE. Development and validation of a novel scar evaluation scale. study. Qual Life Res. 2018;27(5):1159–70.
Plast Reconstr Surg. 2007;120(7):1892–7. 17. de Vet HC, Terwee CB, Knol DL, Bouter LM. When to use
11. Tyack Z, Ziviani J, Kimble R, Plaza A, Jones A, Cuttle L, et al. agreement versus reliability measures. J Clin Epidemiol.
Measuring the impact of burn scarring on health-related quality 2006;59(10):1033–9.
of life: development and preliminary content validation of the 18. De Vet HCW, Terwee CB, Mokkink LB, Knol DL. Measurement
Brisbane Burn Scar Impact Profile (BBSIP) for children and in medicine. 1st ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press;
adults. Burns. 2015;41(7):1405–19. 2011.
14
133 15
Japan Scar Workshop (JSW)

Scar Scale (JSS) for Assessing
Keloids and Hypertrophic Scars
Rei Ogawa
Contents
15.2 JSW Scar Scale (JSS) 2015 – 134

15.3 Classification Table – 134
15.4 Evaluation Table – 134
15.5 Clinical Suitability and Usefulness of the JSS – 136
References – 140

134 R. Ogawa
15.1 Background (>20 cm2, <20 cm2), (8) whether there is vertical growth
(Clearly exists, Does not clearly exist), (9) whether
The Vancouver scar scale [1], the Manchester scar scale there is horizontal growth (Clearly exists, Does not
[2], and the Patient and Observer Scar Assessment Scale clearly exist), (10) the shape of the scar (Characteristic
(POSAS) [3] are all very well-known scar evaluation shape, Others), (11) whether there is erythema around
methods. These tools are based on a number of scar the scar (Clearly exists, Does not clearly exist), and (12)
variables, including color, height, and pliability. whether there are subjective symptoms (Always exist,
However, since all were mainly developed to evaluate Intermittent, None). Thus, the classification table con-
burn scars, they are difficult to use in clinical practice for sists of 12 items in total. The categories in each item are
keloids and hypertrophic scars. This is because these weighted: for example, in Human race, African,
pathological scars require both differential diagnosis Caucasian, and Other races are weighted 2, 0, and 1
and a way to evaluate their response to therapy. Since points, respectively. The minimum and maximum num-
the Japan Scar Workshop (JSW) was established in ber of points in the classification table are 0 and 25,
2006, it has sought to develop a scar assessment scale respectively. If the classification score is 0–5, the scar is
that meets these clinical needs. The first version of this deemed to have mature scar characteristics. If the score
scar assessment tool was named the JSW scar scale is 6–15 or 16–25, the scar is deemed to be a hypertro-
(JSS), and it was reported in 2011 [4]. In 2015, the revised phic scar and a keloid, respectively.
second version was reported (. Table 15.1 and This grading system is thus used to differentially
. Figs. 15.1, 15.2, 15.3, 15.4, 15.5, 15.6, and 15.7) [5]. diagnose keloid and hypertrophic scars. It is necessary
This chapter introduces the JSS and discusses its clinical to have this system because there are many cases in
importance and usefulness in scar research. which the scar bears the growth and histological features
of both hypertrophic scars and keloids; as a result, it can
be difficult to differentially diagnose these scars in real
15.2 JSW Scar Scale (JSS) 2015 clinical practice. This reality is not mirrored by the cur-
rent dogma about pathological scars. Thus, many classi-
The JSS consists of two tables. One is a scar classifica- cal textbooks consider keloids and hypertrophic scars to
tion table that is used to determine whether the scar is a be completely different types of scar. Clinicians define
normal mature scar, a hypertrophic scar, or a keloid. hypertrophic scars as scars that do not grow beyond the
This grading system helps the user to select the most boundaries of the original wound, whereas keloids are
appropriate treatment method for the scar. The other defined as scars that spread into the surrounding normal
table in the JSS is an evaluation table that is used to skin. Pathologists have their own definitions; they make
judge the response to treatment and for follow-up. Both a histological distinction between keloids and hypertro-
tables contain sample images of each subjective keloid/ phic scars on the basis of thick eosinophilic (hyalinizing)
hypertrophic scar item that allow the user to evaluate collagen bundles called “keloidal collagen”: these are
15 each item without hesitation (. Figs. 15.1, 15.2, 15.3, present in the former scar type but rarer in the latter.
15.4, 15.5, 15.6, and 15.7). Japanese guidelines for the However, we have observed many cases that do not fit
prevention and treatment of keloids and hypertrophic these dichotomic definitions. For example, scars with
scars [6] include JSS 2015. hypertrophic growth characteristics can bear consider-
able keloidal collagen. Indeed, it is possible that hyper-
trophic scars and keloids are manifestations of the same
15.3 Classification Table fibroproliferative skin disorder and just differ in the
intensity and duration of inflammation. These inflam-
The classification table consists of two parts: risk fac- matory features may be shaped by genetic, systemic, and
tors and the present symptoms. The risk factors con- local risk factors [7].
sists of six items, each of which has 2–3 categories: (1)
human race (African, Other, Caucasian), (2) whether
there is a familial tendency (Clearly exists, Does not 15.4 Evaluation Table
clearly exist), (3) the number of scars (Multiple,
Solitary), (4) the body region the scar is on (Anterior The evaluation table consists of six items: (1) Induration,
chest/scapular-shoulder/suprapubic, Other), (5) the age (2) Elevation, (3) Redness of the scar, (4) Erythema
at onset (0–30, 31–60, ≥60 years), and (6) the cause(s) around the scar, (5) Spontaneous and pressing pain, and
(Unknown/minute, Specific type of wounding such as (6) Itch. Each item has four intensity categories, namely,
surgery). The present symptoms also consist of six None, Weak, Mild, and Strong. These categories are
items, each of which has 2–3 categories: (7) scar size weighted 0, 1, 2, and 3, respectively. There are sample
Japan Scar Workshop (JSW) Scar Scale (JSS) for Assessing Keloids and Hypertrophic Scars
135 15
.. Table 15.1 JSW Scar Scale (JSS) 2015 (Classification and Evaluation of Keloids and Hypertrophic Scars)
Classification (for grading and selection of appropriate treatment Evaluation (for judging treatment results and for
methods) following-up)
Risk factors 1. Induration
1. Human race Africans 2 0: None 1: Weak 2: Mild 3: Strong
Others 1
Caucasians 0 2. Elevation (. Fig. 15.5)
2. Familial tendency Clearly exists 1 0: None 1: Weak 2: Mild 3: Strong
Not clearly 0
3. Number Multiple 2 3. Redness of scars (. Fig. 15.6)
Solitary 0 0: None 1: Weak 2: Mild 3: Strong
4. Region Anterior chest, scapular-shoulder, 2
suprapubic
Others 0 4. Erythema around scars (. Fig. 15.7)
5. Age at onset 0–30 y/o 2 0: None 1: Weak 2: Mild 3: Strong
31–60 y/o 1
60 y/o 0 5. Spontaneous and pressing pain
6. Causes Unknown or minute 3 0: None 1: Weak 2: Mild 3: Strong
Specific wound type such as surgery 0
Present symptoms 6. Itch
7. Size (cm2) Over 20 cm2 1 0: None 1: Weak 2: Mild 3: Strong
Under 20 cm2 0
8. Vertical growth Clearly exists 2 Total 0–18
(elevation) (. Fig. 15.1)
Not clearly 0 Remarks
9. Horizontal growth Clearly exists 3 Weak: symptoms exist in less than 1/3 of the area, or are
(. Fig. 15.2) intermittently
Not clearly 0 Strong: symptoms exist in the entire region, or are
continuous
10. Shape (. Fig. 15.3) Characteristic shape 3 Mild: between weak and strong
Others 0
11. Erythema around Clearly present 2
scars (. Fig. 15.4)
Not present 0
12. Subjective Always exist 2
symptoms
Intermittent 1
None 0
Total 0–25
Remarks
0–5 Character like matured scars (intractability,
low risk)
6–1 Character like hypertrophic scars
(intractability, middle risk)
16–25 Character like keloids (intractability, high risk)
136 R. Ogawa
Clearly exists
Not clear
.. Fig. 15.1 Vertical growth (elevation)
images of each category in each item that helps the user also used in a study in Taiwan [9]. However, in our expe-
judge the items. The minimum and maximum total rience, different regions of the world vary in terms of the
points in the evaluation table are thus 0 and 18, respec- severity of keloids and hypertrophic scars: in particular,
tively. When the symptoms improve, the total score keloids appear to be singularly severe in Africa and
decreases. East-South Asia, while being rare in western countries.
15 Therefore, in the future, the JSS2015 should be modified
to cover other regions of the world.
15.5 linical Suitability and Usefulness
C
of the JSS 15.6 Conclusion
We evaluated the clinical suitability of the classification The Japan Scar Workshop (JSW) developed the JSW scar
table of JSS2015 with 50 consecutive scar patients in our scale (JSS) to evaluate keloids and hypertrophic scars.
clinic. The scores of the patients were evenly distributed The JSS consists of two tables; one is a scar classification
between 0 and 25 points (. Fig. 15.8). This distribution table that is used to determine whether the scar is a nor-
closely reflects our subjective experiences in our scar mal mature scar, a hypertrophic scar, or a keloid, and the
clinic and those of other Japanese plastic surgeons. As a other table is an evaluation table that is used to judge the
result, the JSS became a standard classification and response to treatment and for follow-up. The JSS became
evaluation tool for keloid and hypertrophic scars in a standard classification and evaluation tool for keloid
Japan. The JSS has since been used to evaluate scar and hypertrophic scars in Japan. In the future, the JSS5
severity in several clinical research projects [8–10]. It was should be modified to cover other regions of the world.
137 15
Clearly exists Not clear
.. Fig. 15.2 Horizontal growth
Characteristic shape Others
.. Fig. 15.3 Shape

138 R. Ogawa
.. Fig. 15.4 Erythema around

scars
Clearly present Not present
15
Strong Weak
Mild None
.. Fig. 15.5 Elevation

139 15
Strong Mild Weak None
.. Fig. 15.6 Redness of scars
Strong Mild Weak None
.. Fig. 15.7 Erythema around scars

140 R. Ogawa
25 References
1. Baryza MJ, Baryza GA. The Vancouver Scar Scale: an adminis-
20
JSS points (evaluation table)
tration tool and its interrater reliability. J Burn Care Rehabil.

1995;16:535–8.
2. Beausang E, Floyd H, Dunn KW, Orton CI, Ferguson MW. A
15
new quantitative scale for clinical scar assessment. Plast Reconstr
Surg. 1998;102(6):1954–61.
3. van de Kar AL, Corion LU, Smeulders MJ, et al. Reliable and
10
feasible evaluation of linear scars by the Patient and Observer
Scar Assessment Scale. Plast Reconstr Surg. 2005;116:514–22.
4. Ogawa R, Akaishi S, Akita S, Tosa Y, Yamawaki S, Okabe K,
5
Nagao M, Yamamoto J. JSW Scar Scale Working Group. Japan
Scar Workshop (JSW) Scar Scale. Available online at: http://
www.scar-keloid.com/en/index.html.
0 5. Ogawa R, Akaishi S, Akita S, Okabe K, Shimizu T, Sunaga A,
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
No. of cases Tosa Y, Nagao M, Yamawaki S. JSW Scar Scale Working Group.
Japan Scar Workshop (JSW) Scar Scale 2015. Available online
.. Fig. 15.8 Clinical suitability of the classification table of at: http://www.scar-keloid.com/en/index.html.
JSS2015 in consecutive scar patients. We evaluated the clinical suit- 6. Ogawa R, Akita S, Akaishi S, et al. Diagnosis and Treatment of
ability of the classification table of JSS2015 by applying it to 50 con- Keloids and Hypertrophic Scars-Japan Scar Workshop
secutive scar patients in our clinic. The scores of the patients were Consensus Document 2018. Burns Trauma. 2019;7:39.
evenly distributed between 0 and 25 points. This reflects our general 7. Ogawa R, Akaishi S. Endothelial dysfunction may play a key
clinical experience role in keloid and hypertrophic scar pathogenesis – keloids and
hypertrophic scars may be vascular disorders. Med Hypotheses.
2016;96:51–60.
Take-Home Messages 8. Ogawa R, Watanabe A, Than Naing B, Sasaki M, Fujita A,
55 The Vancouver scar scale, the Manchester scar Akaishi S, Hyakusoku H, Shimada T. Associations between
scale, and the Patient and Observer Scar Assessment keloid severity and single-nucleotide polymorphisms: impor-
tance of rs8032158 as a biomarker of keloid severity. J Invest
Scale (POSAS) were mainly developed to evaluate
Dermatol. 2014;134(7):2041–3.
burn scars. 9. Koike S, Akaishi S, Nagashima Y, Dohi T, Hyakusoku H, Ogawa
55 The Japan Scar Workshop (JSW) developed the R. Nd:YAG laser treatment for keloids and hypertrophic scars:
JSW scar scale (JSS) to evaluate keloids and hyper- an analysis of 102 cases. Plast Reconstr Surg Glob Open.
trophic scars. 2015;2(12):e272.
10. Hsueh WT, Hung KS, Chen YC, Huang YT, Hsu CK, Ogawa R,
55 The JSS consists of two tables; one is a scar clas-
Hsueh YY. Adjuvant radiotherapy after keloid excision: prelimi-
sification table that is used to determine whether the nary experience in Taiwan. Ann Plast Surg. 2019;82(1S Suppl
scar is a normal mature scar, a hypertrophic scar, or 1):S39–44.
a keloid, and the other table is an evaluation table
15 that is used to judge the response to treatment and
for follow-up.
55 The JSS contains sample images of each subjective
keloid/hypertrophic scar item that allow the user to
evaluate each item without hesitation.
141 VII
Objective Assessment
Technologies
(Cutometer, Laser
Doppler, 3D Imaging,
Stereophotogrammetry)
Contents
Chapter 16 Objective Assessment Technologies: General Guidelines

for Scar Assessment – 143
Chapter 17 Objective Assessment Tools: Physical Parameters in Scar

Assessment – 149
Chapter 18 Objective Assessment Techniques:

PhysiologicalParameters in Scar Assessment – 159
Peter Moortgat, Mieke Anthonissen, Ulrike Van Daele,
Jill Meirte, Tine Vanhullebusch, and Koen Maertens
Chapter 19 Structural Assessment of Scars Using Optical

Techniques – 169
L. van Haasterecht, Paul P. M. van Zuijlen,
and M. L. Groot
Chapter 20 Ethical Considerations: Scar Management – 179

143 16
Technologies: General
Guidelines for Scar Assessment
Contents
16.2 Choosing the Right Tools for Each Scar – 144

16.3 Optimizing the Measurement Process – 144
16.3.1 reparing the Surroundings – 144
P
16.3.2 Configuring and Calibrating the Assessment Tools – 145
16.3.3 Preparing the Patient – 145
16.3.4 Performing the Measurements – 145
16.4 I nterpreting Therapeutic Success with Objective Scar

Assessment Technologies – 146
16.4.1 ata Assessment and Evaluation – 146
D
16.4.2 Clinically Important Difference – 146
References – 147

144 J. Poetschke and G. G. Gauglitz
16.1 Background the tools best suited for each specific undertaking. Since
scar documentation as well as the consecutive sort-
Comprehensive scar treatment is becoming more and ing, assessment, and evaluation of data is considerably
more readily available. Both the awareness of medical time-consuming, superfluous measurements should be
professionals regarding the impairments of severely avoided.
scarred patients and their knowledge of treatment The first step is identifying the scar parameters that
options for scars have increased significantly during require documentation and afterward choosing the
recent years. Those developments have been made pos- tools suitable to assess the development of the chosen
sible by extensive research of new treatment options and parameters. When trying to assess the influence of a cer-
continued reevaluation of long-established ones. tain treatment option on scars, parameters most likely
However, large numbers of studies continue to rely affected positively or negatively (e.g., side effects) should
predominantly on subjective evaluation methods like be selected.
scales and questionnaires to gauge the success of their When choosing the most suitable assessment technol-
treatment. Objective scar evaluation technology, too, ogy, a thorough literature research should be performed
has shown an immense development throughout recent to identify assessment options that have been well estab-
years, and researchers and clinicians alike can now lished and are used by other researchers as well to ensure
choose from a large arsenal of options to document both the suitability for the task and, later, comparability
treatment progress and failure [1]. of the results between different research groups.
But while this newfound selection of tools for objec- Ideally, comparability does not require different
tive scar analysis has helped to improve research, it has researchers to use identical hardware but rather that dif-
also introduced new problems. ferent hardware uses the same units of measurement.
With many different manufacturers offering many dif- While this is common in ultrasound technology where
ferent devices for analysis of a vast number of parameters, most, if not all, units are able to perform measurements
researchers are left with the dilemma to choose the right based on SI units, more specialized tools for profilom-
tools for their individual projects with little evidence-based etry or colorimetry specifically designed for application
recommendations available. Oftentimes, devices will not in aesthetic medicine often employ proprietary units of
be able to measure in standardized units but will provide measurement that are difficult to compare with other
measurement results in the manufacturer’s own propri- researches.
etary format that offers little comparability with results While this does not necessarily mean those options
from different research groups with different measurement are unsuited for research applications, it should be taken
tools. The process of measuring the desired parameters into consideration beforehand.
reliably in the oftentimes hectic environment of everyday
clinical routine can be daunting too and can lead to prob-
lems with recreating measurements and making sure that 16.3 Optimizing the Measurement Process
repeated measurements yield comprehensible results.
In this chapter, we want to focus on the basics of 16.3.1 Preparing the Surroundings
16 objective measurement technologies that allow research-
ers and clinicians to find the right tools for their desired The room where measurements are conducted should
analyses, to make comprehensive plans about how to be light, cool, and dry. Illumination through natural
document their patients’ scars in a way that can both light should be minimized so that it does not influence
easily and reliably be reproduced, and to understand the photographic and colorimetric testing where changing
value and impact of the results of their measurements. outside lighting could act as a disruptive factor. The
Obtaining and cultivating this knowledge can then ambient temperature should neither be too warm or
not only lead to improving the level of evidence in scar too cool since physiological reactions to extreme tem-
research but also help in everyday clinical treatment sce- perature (e.g., sweating, goose bumps) can influence
narios where in-depth scar analysis might provide physi- measurements, especially regarding physiological skin
cians with a sensitive gauge for the success or failure of parameters. Furthermore, extreme temperatures, just
their applied treatment. like humidity, could also influence the functionality
and longevity of the measurement instruments. Some
manufacturers even provide ambient condition sensors
16.2 Choosing the Right Tools for Each Scar to monitor parameters like temperature or humidity and
save the values together with the measured results. This
Before planning a research project or the documenta- can guarantee both superior awareness of the lab ambi-
tion of clinical results in scar therapy based on objective ence as well as improve comparability of the achieved
assessment technology, care must be taken to identify measurement results.
Objective Assessment Technologies: General Guidelines for Scar Assessment
145 16
16.3.2 Configuring and Calibrating 16.3.3 Preparing the Patient
the Assessment Tools
The areas to be measured should be clean and free of
Reliable measurements are paramount in every clinical makeup, skin-care products, or therapeutic agents (like
and/or research setting. This starts with making sure ointments, gels, silicon sheets).
that the assessment instruments are properly cared for Throughout the measurement process, patients
and calibrated. should remain in a neutral, predefined position so as
Most devices come with extensive instructions on not to alter certain measurement results due to their
how to calibrate them, and adhering to those recom- pose. Especially during measurements regarding skin
mendations is important since even small discrepan- texture and relief or elasticity, identical positioning for
cies in the measurement process can yield significantly subsequent measurements is crucial in ensuring com-
altered results, especially with modern, highly sensitive parability of the results. Scars that run close to or over
equipment. joints are greatly affected when those joints are moved,
Instruments that have direct contact with the skin, and elasticity results, for example, might reveal drasti-
for example, devices that measure skin elasticity, color, cally different results when said joints are fully flexed
or physiological properties, should be cleaned regularly or extended. It can therefore help when the positioning
as sebum, hairs, and makeup can accumulate on the of the patient is predefined (e.g., patient standing, arms
measuring probes and alter measurements as well as hanging loosely on his sides) and said positioning is kept
hinder successful calibration. throughout all measurements (. Fig. 16.1).
Photography-based systems require regular cleaning
too, so that there are no specks on the lens or projector
systems (e.g., PRIMOS system). 16.3.4 Performing the Measurements
Most devices allow for a variety of parameters to
be configured that can greatly influence how the mea- After all the preparations have been made, calibrations
surements are conducted and what the results are going have been performed, and configurations have been
to be. Those parameters need to be defined before- checked, the measurements are performed. Here, it is
hand and require standardization so that subsequent important to ensure subsequent measurements are per-
measurements can be compared. Photography-based formed similarly. Camera-based systems often provide
devices that use different exposure times or white bal- integrated overlay functions that allow the examiner to
ances during measurements will result in significantly achieve identical captures during successive assessments,
different looking images, skin elasticity values will dif- and some devices offer integrated software solutions to
fer greatly when on and off times of the suction probes stack subsequently taken images to only measure the
of the Cutometer are changed, and the same is true for common areas; however sometimes, such solutions are
many other devices, too. Especially when more than one not offered. It can therefore help to define anatomical
researcher is working with a certain device, care should landmarks for orientation and to fashion templates so
be taken to check all the relevant parameters before that positioning of the measuring probe or the camera
measurements are performed. system remains constant [2].
a b c
.. Fig. 16.1 Canfield Vectra X3 imaging before a, 3 months after maintain a standardized pose (standing upright, arms hanging
b, and 6 months after c one session of fractional ablative laser treat- loosely by his sides, facing forward) to ensure comparability between
ment of the upper right chest. The patient had been instructed to subsequent images
lute data for further analyses. Only including relative

changes makes it hard for outside observers to interpret
the importance of the findings when absolute baseline
values are not known. Furthermore, the level of mea-
surement that is required for certain statistical tests is
not sufficient when using relative data.
Then, tests can be performed to elucidate the statisti-
cal significance of the findings.
16.4.2 Clinically Important Difference

.. Fig. 16.2 Severe burn scars on the abdomen of a female patient.
Note the marked squares where one has been defined as the treat- After performing statistical testing, one must consider
ment and the other as the control area. By using a foil template whether the results of the measurements constitute a
and anatomical landmarks, those areas can be retraced for follow- clinically important difference. Currently, there are no
up measurements which are always conducted within the marked clear recommendations on what constitutes a clinically
squares to avoid confounding of the results. This course of action
important difference in objective scar assessment in the
ensures that surface profilometry and skin elasticity measurements
are always performed on the same area literature. However, ideally, every modern study on scar
treatment and its effects can include its own control to
Devices that measure skin elasticity or color often rely evaluate whether the results are clinically important.
on small probes with relatively small openings through After all, scar treatment should alleviate the patients’
which the individual parameters are measured. This often symptoms, improve functional impairments, and
proves challenging for the examiner since exact reposition- address aesthetic disfigurements. Therefore, patient-
ing for a subsequent measurement often is difficult if not derived questionnaires like the POSAS Patient Scale
impossible. Furthermore, especially in widespread scar- or the Dermatology Life Quality Index (DLQI) can be
ring, getting representative results from only one measure- included in the research as a control for patient satisfac-
ment is virtually impossible, especially if one cannot ensure tion [4]. Should those questionnaires show statistically
that measurements are always taken at the same spot. significant improvements, just like the objective assess-
These problems, unfortunately, cannot be addressed ment tools, then a clinically important difference has
satisfactorily with devices that are not able to measure been achieved. While the lack of statistically significant
the entire scarred surface, and therefore, a compromise results does not necessarily rule out a clinically impor-
that will allow for as great an approximation as possible tant difference, it is important to consider just how sen-
is necessary. Using an increased number of measuring sitive modern assessment tools have become. Surface
points in a randomized fashion is a method that has been profilometry can measure changes at the micrometer
used in current research, thus ensuring that extreme val- scale, and other technologies boast similar sensitivities.
ues do not dramatically alter the overall measurements But even if changes can be documented on such a fine
16 and including more parts of the oftentimes inhomoge- scale, statistical significance of such results does not
help the patients if they do not register improvements
neous scar surface into the measurement [3]. There is,
however, no consensus on how many measurements are regarding their impairments.
necessary to adequately represent the results of a larger Therefore, defining an absolute clinically impor-
area. In their research, the authors have commonly used tant difference for objective scar assessment is neither
three measurements for an area of 10 cm by 10 cm when possible nor sensible. The importance of documented
measuring skin elasticity or other parameters that rely improvements should always be compared to the
on assessment through small probes (. Fig. 16.2). patients’ assessment of the therapeutic results to gauge
the overall success.
16.4 Interpreting Therapeutic Success

16.5 Conclusion
with Objective Scar Assessment
Technologies Objective scar assessment has come a long way during the
recent years. Today, a multitude of options for the docu-
16.4.1 Data Assessment and Evaluation mentation of scar treatment is available. From this variety
of options, researchers and clinicians have to choose the
After the measurements, the resultant data needs to tools best suited for their individual analysis based on the
be sorted and analyzed. To present the most objective scar parameters that require documentation and the indi-
results possible, it is necessary to use the raw abso- vidual devices’ features. Care should be taken to choose
Objective Assessment Technologies: General Guidelines for Scar Assessment
147 16
assessment technology that does not rely on proprietary
assessment and evaluation formats but that is able to 55 Maintaining a standardized environment for the
export results in standardized units of measurement so measurements both regarding the instruments
that comparability with other research groups and studies (regular cleaning and calibration are required; the
is ensured. Measurements should be performed in a stan- proper configuration should be checked before
dardized environment with well-maintained and well-cal- measurements are performed) and the patients
ibrated tools, and conditions as well as patient positioning (standardized posture, identical location for the
should not differ between measurements. measurements) is crucial.
Objective scar assessment relies on using the most 55 Absolute values should be preferred to relative val-
accurate values to represent the results which is why ues to improve the informative value and the statis-
absolute values should always be preferred to relative tical significance of the findings.
values. Not only does this ensure comparability of the 55 The clinically important difference in objective scar
results, it allows for more complex statistical testing, assessment is rather a correlation between objec-
thus ensuring improved significance of the findings. tive findings and subjective patient satisfaction,
A clinically important difference, however, cannot be than a certain amount of improvement according
derived from statistically significant findings alone. Here, to technical measurements. Modern assessment
the patient’s perspective should be taken into consider- technology is oftentimes so sensitive that statisti-
ation. As modern technology is now able to document cal testing reveals significant improvements before
extremely subtle changes, clinically important differ- patients notice them.
ences, despite significant statistical changes, can only be
asserted if the patient considers them significant. This
further illustrates that neither subjective nor objective References
scar assessment means alone should be employed. Both
clinical and research protocols should include both to 1. Poetschke J, Schwaiger H, Gauglitz GG. Current and emerging
profit from additional information and to further char- options for documenting scars and evaluating therapeutic prog-
acterize their findings. ress. Dermatol Surg. 2017;43 Suppl 1:S25–s36.
2. Roques C, Teot L, Frasson N, Meaume S. PRIMOS: an optical
system that produces three-dimensional measurements of skin
Take-Home Messages surfaces. J Wound Care. 2003;12(9):362–4.
3. Poetschke J, Dornseifer U, Clementoni MT, Reinholz M,
55 Choosing the right objective scar assessment tools Schwaiger H, Steckmeier S, et al. Ultrapulsed fractional abla-
is paramount and should be based on the scar tive carbon dioxide laser treatment of hypertrophic burn scars:
parameters that are central to the research. evaluation of an in-patient controlled, standardized treatment
55 Devices that work with standardized units of mea- approach. Lasers Med Sci. 2017;32(5):1031–40.
4. Reinholz M, Poetschke J, Schwaiger H, Epple A, Ruzicka T,
surement should be preferred to those that work Gauglitz GG. The dermatology life quality index as a means
with proprietary units or formats. to assess life quality in patients with different scar types. J Eur
Acad Dermatol Venereol. 2015;29(11):2112–9.
149 17
Objective Assessment Tools:

Physical Parameters in Scar
Assessment
Contents
17.1 Clinimetrics – 150
17.2 Color – 151

17.2.1 E rythema and Pigmentation – 151
17.2.2 Reflectance Spectroscopy – 151
17.2.3 Spectrophotometric Analysis (SIA) – 152
17.3 Elasticity – 153

17.3.1 utometer – 153
C
17.3.2 DermaLab – 155
17.3.3 Tonometers – 155
17.4 Perfusion – 156

17.4.1 L aser Doppler Imaging – 156
17.4.2 Laser Speckle Imaging – 156
References – 157

150 M. E. H. Jaspers and P. Moortgat
Background Critical to the development of novel treatment modalities

Several types of problematic scars can be identified: are objective assessment tools that evaluate whether scar
hypertrophic scars, keloids, contractures, and adherent treatment is effective and successful. Secondly, assessment
scars (. Fig. 17.1). All these scars require specialized tools can be used to monitor the scar’s response to
treatment. However, the need for innovation and novel interventions. One important aspect to take into account
treatment is paramount to further reduce the burden of when using tools in clinical practice is to ascertain that the
these scars and to ultimately attain scarless healing. chosen tool is “clinimetrically approved.”
.. Fig. 17.1 Several types of pathological scars. a Hypertrophic with permission from ‘Beyond the skin, new insights in burn
scar on the right upper arm, b keloids on the right scapula and care’” by M. E. H. Jaspers, 2017. ISBN: 978-94-6233-852-4.
shoulder, c contracture of the right axilla, and d widespread © All rights reserved)
adherent scarring on a patient’s back and spine. (Reproduced
17.1 Clinimetrics The measurement error comprises both the systematic

and random error of a patient’s score that cannot be
The discipline of “clinimetrics” (i.e., measurement in attributed to true changes in the scar. So, parameters of
medicine) aims to improve the quality of measurements measurement error are relevant for the measurements of
by assessment of the properties of existing tools or by changes in scar status. Moreover, these parameters are
development of new tools. Before implementation of a of great value for clinicians as they are expressed in the
new measurement tool in either clinical practice or in units of measurement, which facilitates interpretation.
research can be considered, two essential properties Finally, to determine whether changes are clinically rel-
17 need to be evaluated: reliability and validity. All mea- evant, the minimally important change (MIC) can be
surement tools are required to produce reliable and valid calculated, which is defined as “the smallest change in
scores. score which patients, clinicians or relevant others per-
The general definition of reliability is “the degree to ceive as important” [2, 3]. To monitor the scar of an indi-
which the measurement is free from measurement error” vidual patient, it is of paramount importance that the
[1, 2]. In addition, there is an extended definition of reli- MIC is smaller than the measurement error of the tool.
ability: “the extent to which scores for patients who have Validity is defined as “the degree to which an instru-
not changed are the same for repeated measurements ment truly measures what it purports to measure” [1].
under several conditions,” which makes clear that Validity can be divided into three types: content validity,
repeated measurements are a key point. The variation construct validity, and criterion validity. Content valid-
that may arise between repeated measurements decreases ity focuses on the correspondence of the content of the
the reliability. This can be attributed either to the mea- measurement tool with the construct that is intended to
surement tool, the persons performing the measurement, measure. Content validity is assessed qualitatively
the patients undergoing the measurement, or the circum- during development by pretesting, expert opinion, and
stances under which the measurements are performed. literature review. Construct validity is applicable in situ-
Objective Assessment Tools: Physical Parameters in Scar Assessment
151 17
ations in which there is no gold standard, and therefore with subjectively assessed redness [5]. Furthermore, scar
this type of validity refers to whether the measurement color is also constituted by the amount of pigmentation,
tool provides the expected scores, based on knowledge expressed by the outcome measurement melanin.
about the construct. Criterion validity focuses on the
correspondence of the (new) measurement tool with the
gold standard (i.e., criterion). In theory, the gold stan- 17.2.2 Reflectance Spectroscopy
dard is a perfectly valid assessment, but this rarely exists
in practice. Also in scar care, it is challenging to identify Reflectance spectroscopy has been in use for over
a suitable criterion. In light of this chapter and of using 60 years to assess skin color. At present, many afford-
tools in the future, it is important to take this into able handheld devices are available that can easily be
account and to be aware of the reliability and validity of used in daily clinical settings. The most commonly used
the gold standard or comparator instrument itself. principles for measuring scar color are tristimulus reflec-
Over the years, the number of available tools has tance colorimetry and narrow-band reflectance spectro-
increased rapidly. However, it is important to realize that photometry. Both principles determine color by
not every scar parameter can be assessed and that the measuring the intensity of reflected light of specific
use of technologies and corresponding terminology is wavelengths. The main chromophores in human scar tis-
not standardized yet. Hereby, an overview is provided sue, hemoglobin and melanin, are primary determinants
for three important physical scar parameters that can be of the color. It has to be taken into account that these
assessed by (noninvasive) objective tools: color, elastic- chromophores can be measured separately, but may
ity, and perfusion. influence each other. It is suggested that a scar with high
hemoglobin values can mask the amount of melanin
and vice versa.
17.2 Color
17.2.2.1 Tristimulus Colorimetry
17.2.1 Erythema and Pigmentation Tools based on the principle of tristimulus reflectance
colorimetry are the Chroma Meter CR-400 (Konica
When looking at hypertrophic scars, one could ask the Minolta Sensing Inc., Osaka, Japan) and the Skin-
question: Which feature makes these scars so obvious Colorimeter CL 400 (Courage and Khazaka electronic
and therefore problematic? Besides increased thickness GmbH, Köln, Germany). This principle was developed
or an irregular surface, the amount of erythema and to objectively represent color in a manner analogous to
pigmentation appear to have a major impact on the how color is perceived by the human eye. As well as with
judgment of scar quality by both clinicians and patients. narrow-band spectrophotometry, white light is sent to
Moreover, the assessment of erythema could be impera- the skin by LEDs in a probe. Light is scattered in all
tive to predict the end of the remodeling phase [4]. directions whereas the light reflected from the skin or
Therefore, color measurements are an essential part of scar is measured through three particular wavelength fil-
scar evaluation, and the associated measurement out- ters and expressed accordingly. This technique expresses
comes are common parameters in scar research. XYZ-values, which can be calculated into RGB (red/
It is beyond the scope of this chapter to state the green/blue) values or the related three L∗a∗b compo-
underlying causes of the formation of erythema and nents: L∗ (brightness), a∗ (amount of red-green), and
pigmentation. However, it is important to realize how b∗ (amount of yellow-blue) [6, 7]. These components
these aberrant scar features are constituted, to conse- are based on the color system of the Commission
quentially assess them in the right way. Moreover, it is International d’Eclairage (CIE) Lab system.
underlined that the terminology regarding color mea- Concerning the clinimetric properties, the parameter
surements is not standardized yet. In clinical practice LAB2 by the Colorimeter shows and ICC of 0.95 for the
and in research, the measurement outcomes blood flow, interrater reliability [6]. The Chroma Meter was first
scar color, erythema, and redness are used interchange- investigated on healthy skin, showing ICC values >0.92
ably or often replaced by the umbrella term “vascular- for all parameters (L∗, a∗, and b∗) during measurements
ization,” which is not appropriate [5]. by two observers, thereby reporting the interrater reli-
For the purpose of clarity, it is beneficial to provide a ability [8]. The latter study also reports standard error of
detailed description of every feature when assessed by a measurement (SEM) values, which are between 0.38 and
certain tool. Erythema is a complex characteristic that 0.59 and thereby low. In addition, a preceding type of
may be defined as the level of oxygenated hemoglobin the Chroma Meter (CR-221) was evaluated on scar tis-
measured at 660 nm, which shows to have a correlation sue and shows ICC values >0.73 for a single measure-
ment by one observer (test–retest) and ICC values >0.91 12]. Overall, the correlation between erythema assessed
when the measurements of four observers are averaged by a tool and redness assessed by a scar assessment scale
[9]. In this study, SEM values are between 1.26 and 4.33, is between 0.4 and 0.7 [5, 11, 12].
which is rather high. Ultimately, the DermaLab Combo (Cortex
Technology, Hadsund, Denmark) will be mentioned
17.2.2.2 Narrow-Band Spectrophotometry here. This device offers a combination of measurement
Narrow-band tools are based on the fact that hemoglo- possibilities. The color probe uses the principle of reflec-
bin and melanin show different spectral curves for the tance spectrometry to measure scar color and all above-
absorption of light. The tools offer read-out of ery- mentioned parameters can be reproduced: erythema,
thema and melanin values as well as CIE L∗a∗b values. melanin, L∗, a∗, and b∗. As previously stated, the param-
The erythema and melanin index values are based on the eters erythema and a∗ can be used to indicate scar ery-
differences in light absorption of red and green by thema. A weak to moderate correlation is found between
hemoglobin and melanocytes, respectively. The ery- erythema values and redness scored by a subjective tool
thema index is defined as: E = 100 × log (intensity of and in terms of reliability, the ICC varies between 0.66
reflected red light/intensity of reflected green light) and and 0.84 for measurements by two observers, whereas the
the melanin index can be defined as: M = 100 × log (1/ test–retest reliability is even lower: 0.29–0.42 [13, 14].
intensity of reflected red light). It has to be taken into Several studies show that erythema index scores
account that the index values can be measured sepa- decline over time [15, 16] and all clinical studies report
rately, but may influence each other. that distinction between scar tissue and healthy skin can
In the DSM III ColorMeter (Cortex Technology, be made with color-measuring tools. Therefore, it is
Hadsund, Denmark) this is achieved by two light- stated that objective color measurements appear reliable
emitting diodes (LEDs) (green 568 nm and red 655 nm) to determine change over time in a (heterogeneous)
that illuminate a surface and record the intensity of study population, which merits their scientific use.
reflected light using a photodetector. The Mexameter However, for the clinical follow up of an individual
MX 18 (Courage and Khazaka electronic GmbH, Köln, patient, SEM values need to be very low. Moreover, con-
Germany) uses 16 light-emitting diodes that emit light at cerning the validity, it is challenging to define the exact
three wavelengths (green: 568 nm; red 660 nm; infrared measured construct, which is becoming even more com-
880 nm), where after the reflected light is measured by a plex given that the tools can reflect various parameters.
receiver unit. Erythema is measured by the green and This has to be taken into account when a color-measur-
red wavelengths, whereas melanin is determined by the ing tool is selected to monitor the scar’s response to
red and infrared wavelengths. Readings are expressed interventions.
between 0 and 1000, corresponding to white and black From a practical point of view, it is important to
respectively. notice that pressure on the scars will change the color
Both tools are examined in several clinical studies toward the white spectrum. Therefore, users are required
and provide reliable data on scars [10]. The most com- to lightly put a color-measuring tool on the scar to
mon reliability parameter examined is the intraclass cor- reduce the influence of pressure. Another limitation,
relation coefficient (ICC) for ratings performed by which also accounts for elasticity-measuring tools, is the
several observers (i.e., interrater reliability). Erythema small size of the probe’s measurement area. To compre-
measured by the Mexameter shows an ICC between 0.82 hensively present the color or elasticity of a scar as a
17 and 0.97 and for the DSM II ColorMeter an ICC of whole, the proposed solution is to work with a pre-
0.84 is reported [6, 11]. In addition, the DSM II defined algorithm, covering several measurement areas
ColorMeter also offers read-out of CIE L∗a∗b values, within the borders of one scar. For example, by drawing
which will be described in the next paragraph. an imaginary line through the horizontal and vertical
Investigation of the parameter a∗ by the DSM II axis of the scar, resulting in five measurement points:
ColorMeter shows an ICC of 0.94 [6]. Unfortunately, one on the intersection of both lines and four halfway
information on parameters concerning the measure- the intersection and the border of the scar. In this way,
ment error of these color tools is lacking. Furthermore, also selection bias by the observer is avoided.
attempts are made to assort the most valid parameter of
each tool [6]. However, as previously mentioned, it is
often difficult to appoint an adequate comparator 17.2.3 Spectrophotometric Analysis (SIA)
instrument that exactly measures the same feature (i.e.,
construct) of a scar as the tool under study. This is To provide information on color outside the visible spec-
underscored by the poor correlations reported between trum, relating to deeper structures of the scar, infrared
color-measuring tools and scar assessment scales [10, light can be used. Spectrophotometric intracutaneous
153 17
analysis (SIA) can be performed via a clinical device, the skin. The resistance of the skin to the negative pressure
SIAscope, which utilizes a probe that exerts radiation (rigidity) and its ability to return to its original position
ranging from 400 to 1000 nm and produces 8 narrow- (elasticity) are displayed as curves (penetration depth in
band spectrally filtered images of the skin. These images mm/time) in real time during the measurement. This
are processed by software algorithms and allow subse- measurement principle allows data collection on the
quently visualization and quantification of blood, col- elastic and mechanical properties of skin or scar surface
lagen, and melanin. It already has been used to monitor and enables objective quantification.
changes in scar tissue in response to treatment [17]. The Cutometer is a feasible device containing a
probe, which is available in several aperture sizes (2, 4,
6 and 8 mm Ø) to fit different skin sites and different
17.3 Elasticity study requirements (. Fig. 17.2). The smaller aper-
tures mainly measure the elastic properties of the epi-
The second physical parameter that causes poor func- dermis. With a larger aperture (6 and 8 mm), the
tional scar quality is a loss of elasticity, which is due to measurement also comprises the dermal component,
increased collagen synthesis and lack of elastin in the which is designated for scar assessment. As with the
dermal layer. However, as will be emphasized in this color-measuring tools, it is important to ensure light
paragraph, certain tools quantify the opposite of elas- contact is made between the scar and the probe to
ticity, which is tissue hardness. avoid alterations in outcome measure. Measurements
can be monitored as live curves on the screen of a con-
nected laptop. The software of the Cutometer MPA
17.3.1 Cutometer 580 allows calculation of many parameters of interest
from the different portions of the measurement curve.
The Cutometer MPA-580 is designed to measure elastic- The two most relevant parameters are labelled as R
ity (i.e., elevation) of the upper skin or scar layer using a and U (. Figs. 17.3 and 17.4).
predefined negative pressure setting, which mechani- R-Parameters:
cally deforms the skin. Negative pressure (i.e., vacuum) 55 R0: Behavior of the skin/scar to force (rigidity),
is instantly created in the device where after the skin is maximum amplitude of the curve in mm
drawn into the aperture of the probe (. Fig. 17.2). 55 R1/R4: Ability of the skin/scar to return to its
Subsequently, after a defined time, the skin is released. original state, minimum amplitude after relaxation
Inside the probe, the vertical deformation of the skin is 55 R2: Viscoelasticity: Resistance to mechanical force
determined by a noncontact optical measuring system. versus ability of returning in %
This optical measuring system consists of a light source 55 R3/R9: Tiring effect (fatigue) visible with repeated
and a light receptor and two prisms facing each other suction/relaxation
that project the light from transmitter to receptor. The 55 R5: Net elasticity: Elastic portion of the suction part
light intensity varies due to the penetration depth of the versus the elastic portion of the relaxation part in %
light source negative air-pressure
epidermis
corium
subcutis
.. Fig. 17.2 Left: measuring principle of the Cutometer. Right: different aperture sizes of the probes. Reused with permission from Courage
+ Khazaka electronic GmbH. © All rights reserved
.. Fig. 17.3 The R-parameters 0.75

of the Cutometer. Reused with
permission from Courage +
0.7
Khazaka electronic GmbH. 0.65
A F0 = surface A
© All rights reserved
0.6 F1 = surface B
Ur
0.55 R0 = Uf R8 = Ua
0.5 R1 = Uf - Ua
R2 = Ua/Uf
0.45 R3 = last max. amplitude
Uv
0.4 R4 = last min. amplitude
E/mm
R5 = Ur/Ue
0.35
R6 = Uv/Ue B
0.3 R7 = Ur/Uf
0.25 R8 = Ua
Ue
R9 = R3 - R0
0.2
Uf = R0 R1 = Uf - Ua
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0 1 2 3
.. Fig. 17.4 The U-parameters

of the Cutometer
Skin Lift (mm)
Ur Retraction
Uv Visco-elasticity
Ua Pliability
Ue Elasticity
Uf Max skin Extension
Time
17
55 R6: Portion of the viscoelasticity of the curve in % 55 Ur (retraction): Relaxation of the skin within the
55 R7: Portion of the elasticity compared to the com- first 0.1 s after the ending of the vacuum, that is, the
plete curve in % ability of the skin to return to its initial position after
55 R8: Complete relaxation after the pressure is deformation and is related to the function of elastic
removed in mm fibers
55 Uv (viscoelasticity): Difference between the defor-
U-Parameters:
mation after the 0.1 s and the maximal deforma-
55 Uf (maximal skin extension): Deformation at the
tion
end of the vacuum period
55 Ue (elasticity): Extent of skin stretching within the The different parameters and their terms (i.e., elasticity,
first 0.1 s of the vacuum period skin extension, pliability, retraction, and viscoelasticity)
55 Ua (pliability): Difference between the maximum suggest that each parameter measures a different aspect
deformation and the deformation after 1 s of normal of skin or scar deformation. However, the parameters
pressure are highly correlated when tested on scars, hence, a sin-
155 17
gle parameter is sufficient to use in the evaluation of ability on scars (0.76–0.91); however, on healthy skin the
scar elasticity (see below) [18]. ICC is much lower (ICC 0.45) [14].
Both the DermaLab and the Cutometer show
17.3.1.1 Clinimetric Properties advances of being a “hub,” to which other measurement
The reliability of a single measurement performed by a probes can be attached. The DermaLab Combo, for
single observer is good for extensibility (Uf) and elasticity example, provides several probes, considering nine skin
(Ue) and ranges r = 0.74–0.76. For viscoelasticity, pliabil- parameters (e.g., elasticity, color, transepidermal water
ity, and retraction the reliability is low to m oderate: loss, temperature), including ultrasound measurement
r = 0.35–0.69. The Coefficient of Variation (CV = S.E.meas/ of dermal scar thickness.
mean × 100) for measurements on scars, based on the
measurements of four observers, shows the lowest varia-
tion for extensibility (22.5%), whereas the highest varia- 17.3.3 Tonometers
tion is calculated for viscoelasticity measurements (36.0%)
[18]. The concurrent validity was estimated by calculating Tonometry works by exerting pressure on the skin and
the correlation between subjective evaluation of pliability therefore quantifies predominantly firmness or hardness
and each of the Cutometer parameters. The correlations of tissue. Two types of tonometers can be distinguished:
were moderate (r > 0.46) and statistically significant for one type is based on air that flows through the system,
each parameter except for viscoelasticity for which the which is blocked at a certain pressure (e.g., the Tissue
correlation was low. Tonometer), and the second type provides an indenta-
In general, it is stated that the reliability of the 2 mm tion load in the vertical direction (e.g., the Durometer).
probe is worse than the reliability of larger probes, The Tissue Tonometer (Flinders Biomedical Engineering,
because the small probe only reflects low values (small Adelaide, Australia) is a weight-loaded device that exerts
skin deformation). This is easily explained by the fact pressure directly on the area to be measured. The weight
that the ICC or correlation is highly influenced by a drives a blunt probe into the tissue with a tissue defor-
wide range in measured values and by a heterogeneous mation as a result. This tissue deformation can be mea-
population. So, when higher values or a range of values sured in millimeters, with a sensitivity of 0.01 mm. The
within a population are measured, this positively affects readings are directly proportional to the firmness of the
reliability as expressed by relative parameters. Of all tissue being measured.
parameters, either maximal skin extension (R0/Uf) or The Tissue Tonometer shows good intra-observer
elasticity (Ue) appears to be influenced the least by vari- reliability, but a moderate correlation (r = 0.44–0.46)
ations in force applied to the probe and therefore it is the with the pliability score of a subjective scoring system
most reliable parameter to detect change in scar elastic- (the VSS scale) is found. Additionally, the measurement
ity over time or after treatment. requires a contralateral reference point, making it a rela-
tive measure [Lye 2006]. Another study, using a modi-
fied Tissue Tonometer, shows excellent interobserver
17.3.2 DermaLab reliability (ICC = 0.95) for healthy skin, accompanied
by a low SEM of 0.025 mm [19]. A significant difference
The DermaLab elasticity probe (Cortex Technology, between scars and normal tissue was also demonstrated
Hadsund, Denmark), which is the successor of the in the latter study. The Durometer (Rex Gauge Company,
Dermaflex, consists of a light plastic probe that is much Inc., Glenview, Ill.) also shows good ICCs for the
smaller than that of the Cutometer. This probe is interobserver reliability (0.82–0.91) in one study, how-
attached to the skin using double-sided adhesive rings to ever, this is on sclerodermal skin [20].
form a closed chamber. Within this chamber, two nar- Important to mention is that tonometers are influ-
row beams of light run at different heights parallel to the enced by the hardness of underlying tissue, which may
skin surface and serve as elevation detectors. A con- limit the compression of the skin. This has to be taken
trolled vacuum is created in the closed chamber in over into account when measuring locations where bone
30–60 s. In contrast to the Cutometer, the DermaLab structures are situated directly under the area of inter-
probe measures the amount of suction required (in est. Possibly, measurements in these areas are not reflect-
megapascal, MPa) to achieve an elevation of the skin of ing the condition of the skin/scar but instead of the
1.5 mm. In pronounced adherent scars, this may cause a underlying structure. Another shortcoming of tonome-
problem, as the scar is sometimes too stiff to be elevated ters include the need to place the device accurately,
sufficiently to reach the level of the detectors. The which must be within 5° of upright position to measure
DermaLab shows an excellent ICC for test–retest reli- correctly.
17.4 Perfusion ColorMeter. The results indicate that blood flow and
erythema values are not correlated. During measure-
Hypertrophic scars result from a wide array of derailed ments of 32 hypertrophic scars, a widespread in ery-
wound healing processes. It is suggested that new blood thema values is observed, whereas the accompanying
vessel formation, mainly apparent as angiogenic sprout- blood flow values are mostly beneath 300 PU and
ing of preexisting blood vessels, is an essential process in thereby low. These data are in agreement with a previous
the development of hypertrophic scars. Therefore, study, presenting that erythema (measured using the
several treatment regimens (e.g., laser, pressure gar-
skin-colorimeter expressing L∗a∗b index values) is asso-
ments, and cryotherapy) work by destructing the micro- ciated with blood flow, but this correlation is not consis-
vasculature and/or reducing the blood flow. This may tent at different test moments [4]. As a result, it is
result in hypoxia that would lead to fibroblast degenera- concluded that LDI and colorimetry are non-inter-
tion and collagen degradation, both enhancing shrink- changeable measurement tools.
age of the hypertrophic scar tissue. As a result, it is of LDI can be a valuable adjunct in the research setting,
interest to measure scar blood flow (i.e., perfusion). where it might be useful to monitor scar development
and/or response to treatment that is directed at lowering
blood flow. However, although new laser Doppler
17.4.1 Laser Doppler Imaging instruments became available over the last years, it is
important to keep in mind that the tool has some limita-
Laser Doppler imaging, a noninvasive flow measure- tions in terms of feasibility (e.g., high cost, long assess-
ment technique, can be used to quantify and visualize ment time, and moderate ease of use). Therefore, LDI
blood flow in scars [15, 21]. Laser Doppler imaging seems less suitable for the follow-up of scars in daily
can be divided in the older technique, laser Doppler practice.
flowmetry (LDF), in which the fiber optic probe is in
contact with the tissue, and the newer laser Doppler
imaging (LDI) devices. The working mechanism is 17.4.2 Laser Speckle Imaging
based on the Doppler principle. In LDF, a single-point
measure of the cutaneous blood flow in a scar is Laser speckle imaging (LSI) or laser speckle perfusion
obtained. LDF systems are therefore more limited imaging (LSPI) are alternative perfusion monitoring
compared to the other systems and unsuitable to use techniques that generate high-resolution images of tis-
in larger heterogeneous scars. However, there are cur- sue in a shorter assessment time than LDI. In addition,
rently modern and high performance LDF systems these devices provide the possibility to zoom in with
such as the moorVMS-LDF (Moor Instruments Ltd., increased resolution of a smaller area of interest. The
Axminster, United Kingdom) or the PeriFlux 5000 moorFLPI-2 blood flow imager (Moor Instruments
(Perimed AB, Järfälla, Sweden) that are ideal for labo- Ltd., Axminster, United Kingdom) and the PeriCam
ratory or scientific use. In LDI, laser light directed at PSI (Perimed AB, Järfälla, Sweden) both use the laser
moving erythrocytes in sampled tissue exhibits a fre- speckle contrast technique to deliver real-time high-
quency change, which is photo detected and processed resolution blood flow images. The latter system contains
to generate a line-by-line color-coded map that is pro- an invisible near infrared laser (785 nm), spreading the
portional to the amount of perfusion in the tissue. beam over the area of interest by a diffuser, creating a
17 After completion of a LDI measurement, data can be speckle pattern. Subsequently, blood perfusion is calcu-
analyzed offline using software to calculate the blood lated by analyzing the variations (i.e., interference) in
flow automatically, where after it is expressed in perfu- the speckle pattern. High values reflect high blood flow
sion units (PU). and should thereby indicate immature or hypertrophic
To assess blood flow in a scar, the moorLDI Imaging scars.
System (Moor Instruments Ltd., Axminster, United A clinical study comparing the ability of LSPI with
Kingdom) can be used. Previous studies show that LDI in determining and monitoring hypertrophic scar
hypertrophic scars sustain an elevated blood flow com- perfusion shows a positive correlation (r2 = 0.86) [23].
pared to normal skin [15, 22]. Another clinical study Moreover, in terms of feasibility, the LSPI device dem-
also presents a statistically significant increase in blood onstrates a faster scan time and higher resolution, which
flow values of scars compared to healthy skin [5]. In may be an advantage for usage in clinical practice. Also,
more detail, the latter study shows increased LDI blood reactions to mechanical or pharmacological interven-
flow values in 29/32 included patients. Interestingly, this tions can be studied nearly real time, allowing a dynamic
study also compares the association between the out- way of studying scars. Perfusion rates within keloids are
comes of LDI and colorimetry using the DSM II also assessed by LSI, showing significantly higher perfu-
157 17
sion in keloids and adjacent skin compared with nonad- Take-Home Messages
jacent healthy skin [24]. However, a thorough clinimetric 55 A range of handheld tools is available to objec-
evaluation of LSI in scars is currently not available. tively assess physical scar parameters.
55 When using a tool in clinical practice or for sci-
entific use, take the clinimetric properties into
17.5 Conclusion account.
55 To monitor scars in an individual patient, it is of
Color, elasticity, and perfusion are scar characteristics paramount importance that the minimally impor-
with a high clinical relevance. Two features, erythema tant change (MIC) is smaller than the measure-
and pigmentation, determine the color of the scar. ment error of the tool.
Erythema is a complex characteristic that may be defined 55 It is showed that erythema and blood flow are not
as the level of oxygenated hemoglobin measured at directly related to each other and therefore seem
660 nm. Pigmentation is often referred to as the level of two different scar parameters (i.e., constructs).
melanin, which can be excessively present (hyperpig- 55 It is essential to provide a precise description of
mentation) or underrepresented (hypopigmentation). which scar parameter is aimed to assess.
Reflectance spectroscopy is the most widely used mea- 55 To assess scar color, the most widely used tool is
surement technique to assess scar color. Perfusion of the DSM III ColorMeter, offering read-out of
vascularization and scar color are often bracketed erythema and melanin index values as well as CIE
together but both represent totally different features. L∗a∗b values.
The mixture of terms can also be found in literature 55 Elasticity can be best measured using the Cutom-
where vascularization is described as scar color, blood eter, reflecting absolute and relative parameters of
flow, the presence of microvessels, as well as the amount which Uf and Ue are recommended.
of redness [9, 12, 15, 25]. Conform definitions in several 55 To assess scar perfusion, laser Doppler imaging
dictionaries and physiology textbooks, we would like to and laser Speckle imaging are available.
propose that vascularization is defined as the formation
of blood vessels and capillaries in living tissue, which
reflects a process. The presence of microvessels is a phys- References
ical result of this process, and blood flow fulfils the func-
tional role of perfusion. Scar redness is likely to be a 1. Mokkink LB, Terwee CB, Patrick DL, Alonso J, Stratford PW,
derivative of all features that is assessed subjectively. For Knol DL, et al. The COSMIN study reached international con-
the purpose of clarity, it would be beneficial to provide a sensus on taxonomy, terminology, and definitions of measure-
ment properties for health-related patient-reported outcomes. J
detailed description of every feature when assessed in Clin Epidemiol. 2010;63(7):737–45.
research as well as in clinical practice, as we feel that the 2. De Vet HCW, Terwee CB, Mokkink LB, Knol DL. Measurement
various scar features cannot be generalized into the in medicine. A practical guide. 1st ed. Cambridge: Cambridge
umbrella term “vascularization.” The term elasticity is Univ Press; 2011.
most probably related to the lack of elastin in the der- 3. Crosby RD, Kolotkin RL, Williams GR. Defining clinically
meaningful change in health-related quality of life. J Clin
mal layer of scar tissue, but can also be considered as an Epidemiol. 2003;56(5):395–407.
umbrella term including extensibility, pliability, or sup- 4. Mermans JF, Peeters WJ, Dikmans R, Serroyen J, van der Hulst
pleness of the scar. The most reliable assessment tech- RR, Van den Kerckhove E. A comparative study of colour and
nique here measures vertical elasticity or extensibility by perfusion between two different post surgical scars. Do the laser
means of suction. Doppler imager and the colorimeter measure the same features
of a scar? Skin Res Technol. 2013;19(2):107–14.
All tools are able to differentiate between scar tissue 5. Jaspers MEH, Stekelenburg CM, Simons JM, Brouwer KM,
and healthy skin; however, this can also easily be deter- Vlig M, van den Kerckhove E, et al. Assessing blood flow, micro-
mined by subjective evaluation. Objective tools should vasculature, erythema and redness in hypertrophic scars: a cross
be able to monitor an individual patient in clinical prac- sectional study showing different features that require p recise
tice, thereby distinguishing small scar changes. Thus, the definitions. Burns. 2017;43(5):1044–50.
6. van der Wal M, Bloemen M, Verhaegen P, Tuinebreijer W, de Vet
measurement error of the tool must be smaller than the H, van Zuijlen P, et al. Objective color measurements: clinimetric
desired scar change to be measured. Taking into account performance of three devices on normal skin and scar tissue. J
reliability, patient friendliness, and feasibility in terms of Burn Care Res. 2013;34(3):e187–94.
cost and portability, a recommended panel of devices 7. Chardon A, Cretois I, Hourseau C. Skin colour typology and
for the assessment of color, elasticity, and perfusion of suntanning pathways. Int J Cosmet Sci. 1991;13(4):191–208.
8. Van den Kerckhove E, Staes F, Flour M, Stappaerts K, Boeckx
scars consists of the DSM III ColorMeter for scar color, W. Reproducibility of repeated measurements on healthy
the Cutometer for scar elasticity and laser speckle imag- skin with Minolta Chromameter CR-300. Skin Res Technol.
ing to assess scar perfusion. 2001;7(1):56–9.
9. Draaijers LJ, Tempelman FR, Botman YA, Kreis RW, 18. Draaijers LJ, Botman YA, Tempelman FR, Kreis RW, Middelkoop
Middelkoop E, van Zuijlen PP. Colour evaluation in scars: tri- E, van Zuijlen PP. Skin elasticity meter or subjective evaluation in
stimulus colorimeter, narrow-band simple reflectance meter or scars: a reliability assessment. Burns. 2004;30(2):109–14.
subjective evaluation? Burns. 2004;30(2):103–7. 19. Corica GF, Wigger NC, Edgar DW, Wood FM, Carroll S. Objective
10. Deng H, Li-Tsang CWP. Measurement of vascularity in the scar: measurement of scarring by multiple assessors: is the tissue tonom-
a systematic review. Burns. 2018;45(6):1253–65. eter a reliable option? J Burn Care Res. 2006;27(4):520–3.
11. Nedelec B, Correa JA, Rachelska G, Armour A, LaSalle 20. Merkel PA, Silliman NP, Denton CP, Furst DE, Khanna D,
L. Quantitative measurement of hypertrophic scar: interrater reli- Emery P, et al. Validity, reliability, and feasibility of durometer
ability and concurrent validity. J Burn Care Res. 2008;29(3):501–11. measurements of scleroderma skin disease in a multicenter treat-
12. Verhaegen PD, van der Wal MB, Middelkoop E, van Zuijlen ment trial. Arthritis Rheum. 2008;59(5):699–705.
PP. Objective scar assessment tools: a clinimetric appraisal. Plast 21. Bray R, Forrester K, Leonard C, McArthur R, Tulip J, Lindsay
Reconstr Surg. 2011;127(4):1561–70. R. Laser Doppler imaging of burn scars: a comparison of wave-
13. Gankande TU, Duke JM, Wood FM, Wallace HJ. Interpretation length and scanning methods. Burns. 2003;29(3):199–206.
of the DermaLab Combo(R) pigmentation and vascularity mea- 22. Ehrlich HP, Kelley SF. Hypertrophic scar: an interruption in the
surements in burn scar assessment: an exploratory analysis. remodeling of repair--a laser Doppler blood flow study. Plast
Burns. 2015;41(6):1176–85. Reconstr Surg. 1992;90(6):993–8.
14. Gankande TU, Duke JM, Danielsen PL, DeJong HM, Wood 23. Stewart CJ, Frank R, Forrester KR, Tulip J, Lindsay R, Bray
FM, Wallace HJ. Reliability of scar assessments performed with RC. A comparison of two laser-based methods for determina-
an integrated skin testing device – the DermaLab Combo((R)). tion of burn scar perfusion: laser Doppler versus laser speckle
Burns. 2014;40(8):1521–9. imaging. Burns. 2005;31(6):744–52.
15. Oliveira GV, Chinkes D, Mitchell C, Oliveras G, Hawkins HK, 24. Liu Q, Wang X, Jia Y, Long X, Yu N, Wang Y, et al. Increased
Herndon DN. Objective assessment of burn scar vascularity, blood flow in keloids and adjacent skin revealed by laser speckle
erythema, pliability, thickness, and planimetry. Dermatol Surg. contrast imaging. Lasers Surg Med. 2016;48(4):360–4.
2005;31(1):48–58. 25. Brusselaers N, Pirayesh A, Hoeksema H, Verbelen J, Blot S,
16. van der Wal MB, Vloemans JF, Tuinebreijer WE, van de Ven P, Monstrey S. Burn scar assessment: a systematic review of objec-
van Unen E, van Zuijlen PP, et al. Outcome after burns: an tive scar assessment tools. Burns. 2010;36(8):1157–64.
observational study on burn scar maturation and predictors for
severe scarring. Wound Repair Regen. 2012;20(5):676–87. Further Reading
17. Moncrieff M, Cotton S, Claridge E, Hall P. Spectrophotometric De Vet HCW, Terwee CB, Mokkink LB, Knol DL. Measurement in
intracutaneous analysis: a new technique for imaging pigmented medicine. A practical guide. 1st ed. Cambridge: Cambridge Univ
skin lesions. Br J Dermatol. 2002;146(3):448–57. Press; 2011.
17
159 18
Techniques: Physiological
Parameters in Scar Assessment
Contents
18.2 Skin Hydration – 160

18.2.1 S kin Hydration in the Epidermis – 160
18.2.2 Dermal Water Content – 161
18.2.3 How to Measure Skin Hydration? – 161
18.2.4 Dermal Water Content Measurement – 164
18.3 Transcutaneous Oxygen Tension – 165
18.4 Tactile Sensitivity – 165
Bibliography – 166

160 P. Moortgat et al.
18.1 Background presence of natural hygroscopic agents within the cor-

neocytes and the SC intercellular lipids orderly arranged
With advances in medicine, we are able to modulate to form a barrier to trans-epidermal water loss [1]. The
wound healing and scarring. In order to assess new and corneocytes are often compared to bricks and the inter-
often costly treatments, the need for objective scar mea- cellular lipids to mortar, an appropriate metaphor for a
surement tools has become increasingly important. A layer of skin that serves as a barrier. The corneocytes are
combination of subjective and objective measures dead cells without nuclei. They contain various sub-
should be the aim of every researcher. In daily practice, stances that hold water. For our skin to feel smooth and
time is a limiting factor, and the choice for objective supple, the SC has to be at least 10% water; ideally, it is
measurements should always incorporate feasibility and 20–30%. The SC can absorb as much as five to six times
cost. Objective assessments provide a quantitative mea- its own weight and increase its volume threefold when
surement of the scar. Quantitative assessment of scars soaked in water. But it is not simply the water content
requires devices to measure their physical and physio- that matters. Water has an effect on the enzymes that
logical properties. These properties include, but are not control orderly shedding of corneocytes, a process der-
limited to, the following: matologists call desquamation. Without water, the cor-
Physical parameters: neocytes accumulate, so the skin becomes flaky instead
55 Color of peeling off nicely, and the SC gets disorganized and
55 Thickness full of cracks instead of being tightly packed.
55 Elasticity or pliability The glycosaminoglycan (GAG) polymer hyaluronan
55 Texture (HA, hyaluronic acid) forms a scaffold on which
55 Surface proteoglycans and matrix proteins are organized. These
55 Tissue anisotropy supramolecular structures are able to entrap water and
ions to provide the skin with hydration. HA occurs in
Physiological parameters: both the dermis and epidermis, with the dermis contain-
55 Skin hydration ing the greater proportion. HA present in the epidermis
55 Transcutaneous oxygen level may play a role in a epidermal barrier function and SC
55 Tactile sensitivity hydration [1]. The lack of interaction between water and
surrounding molecules contributes to dry appearance of
In this chapter, an overview of the assessment tools to the skin. Water content can vary depending on varying
evaluate physiological scar parameters will be given. factors as skin site, skin depth, body mass index, age,
Physiological scar parameters are scar characteristics sex, diurnal hour, seasons, and climates.
relevant to pathological scarring which cannot be seen
with the bare eye. This also means that they can only be
assessed with objective assessment tools. This overview 18.2.1 Skin Hydration in the Epidermis
lacks skin characteristics which are measured with digi-
tal imaging systems. These assessment tools will be dis- The epidermal thickness is variable. It had been reported
cussed in a separate chapter. to be between 40 and 240 μm thick, depending on the
measuring area and method used. Water originates in
the deeper epidermal layers and moves upward to
18.2 Skin Hydration hydrate cells in the outermost skin layer, the stratum
corneum (SC). Aquaporins (AQPs), cell membrane-
18 Skin hydration is defined as the water content of the epi- bound water channels present in the epidermis, are
dermis and the dermis. Approximately 20% of water essential hydration-regulating elements controlling cel-
present in our body is accumulated in the skin. Of this lular water and glycerol transport. Glycerol, thus pres-
amount, 60–70% is located in the dermis, and 15–30% is ent in the outer epidermal layers, binds and holds water,
retained in the stratum corneum (SC). Functionally, the important for maintaining optimal skin hydration. The
amount of water in the skin can be divided into free and epidermis contains two different levels of water, sepa-
bound water. In healthy skin, most of the water are rated by the interface between the stratum granulosum
bound to macromolecules. The ability of the skin to (SG) and the SC. The largest gradient of water in the
retain water is primarily related to the SC, which plays epidermis occurs in the underlying layers of the SG (via-
the role of the outer skin barrier, protecting the skin ble epidermis), while the SC water content is 4–5 times
from water loss. The SC consists of cells called corneo- lower [2]. This gradient isolates the SC from the body,
cytes and various lipids (fats) between them. The reten- helping to conserve important solutes and water within
tion of water in the SC is dependent mainly on the the viable epidermis. The presence of a water gradient at
Objective Assessment Techniques: Physiological Parameters in Scar Assessment
161 18
the deeper part of the SC triggers important keratino- related with the moisture content of the skin and can be
cyte functions such as the production of natural mois- measured with open- or closed-chamber systems [6].
turizing factors (NMF). Dehydration of the upper skin The open chambers are the oldest but still most widely
layers increases when the SC water is lost more quickly used.
than that which is received from the lower layers of the
skin (viable epidermis and dermis), thus affecting the 18.2.3.1 Trans-Epidermal Water Loss:
natural flow of water. Water originates in the deeper epi- Measuring Principle
dermal layers and moves upward to hydrate cells in the Trans-epidermal water loss represents the outward per-
SC, eventually being lost to evaporation. Then, an evap- meation of condensed water through the stratum cor-
oration barrier is needed to maintain body water homeo- neum by means of diffusion [7]. TEWL can be measured
stasis. The SC functions as the main evaporation barrier by using an open-chamber method or closed-chamber
[2, 3]. method. Open chambers are open to the surrounding
atmosphere and are therefore easily influenced by exter-
nal air convection and turbulence. Closed-chamber
18.2.2 Dermal Water Content methods have been designed more recently, the measur-
ing chamber is enclosed from the surrounding atmo-
The dermis is between 1 and 4 mm thick, and it consists sphere, and measurements are therefore not influenced
mainly of connective tissue. Dermis thickens as it binds by external air convection and turbulence.
more water. In the dermis, the collagen fibers, the inter- TEWL can be calculated by measuring the water
stitial space GAGs, and the proteoglycans can absorb vapor pressure (VP) gradient at the skin surface. In the
large quantities of water, which leads to youthful skin. open-chamber method, the VP gradient is calculated by
With skin fibrosis, the collagen fiber network is stretched measuring the difference in VP between two distinct
by external mechanical forces, reduces its absorption points aligned perpendicularly to the skin surface (see
capacity and water retention, and can lead to prolonged . Fig. 18.1). VP is calculated as the product of relative
inflammation. Dermal hydration is highly related to the humidity (RH) and saturated VP; this is dependent on
content and distribution of GAGs. The GAGs most temperature. RH is measured using capacitive sensors;
often present in the human skin are hyaluronic acid (not temperature is measured with fast thermistors located in
attached to a protein core) and the proteoglycan family the cylindrical measuring chamber with open ends [7–11].
of chondroitin sulfates (GAGs attached to a protein
core). GAGs bind up to 1000 times their volume in water
[4]. GAGs in photodamaged or scarred skin are abnor-
mally deposited in the papillary dermis, rather than dif-
fusely scattered as in young skin. This aberrant
localization interferes with normal water binding by
GAGs, despite their increased quantity [4].
18.2.3 How to Measure Skin Hydration?
Many approaches exist to measure skin water content.

One single method is often not enough to capture all the
relevant information. Trans-epidermal water loss, stra-
tum corneum water content, and dermal water content
are equally important and related to each other.
The skin acts as a barrier against the water evapora-
tion from the internal tissue. The water content in the
skin preserves the softness and the smoothness of the
skin surface. Diffusion of condensed water through the
stratum corneum (SC) occurs and is highly elevated in
pathological situations such as scaring; this can be mea-
sured by trans-epidermal water loss (TEWL). The
results of these measurements are a good indicator of
the recovery of the skin barrier and are a useful indica- .. Fig. 18.1 TEWL measured by using an open-chamber method.
tor of the scar maturation process [5]. TEWL is strongly Reused with permission from Courage + Khazaka electronic GmbH.
© All rights reserved
18.2.3.2 Open-Chamber Method this instrument. This grid is open and allows evapora-
To date, the open-chamber method is still considered the tion of water out of the probe chamber and at the same
most reliable method to measure water evaporation in time protects the sensors in the probe against ambient
scarred skin. Open-chamber systems measure water
evaporation rate based on diffusion principles [9, 11].
The vapor density gradient is measured indirectly by
two pairs of sensors (temperature and relative humidity)
inside a hollow cylinder [7, 11]. The resulting data are
analyzed by a microprocessor. Measurement values are
given in g/m2/h. The physiological water vapor mantle
surrounding the human skin is a gradient of water with
a thickness of about 10 mm. The two sensors of the
evaporimeter probe are typically placed 3 and 6 mm
above the skin surface. Open-chamber evaporimeters
have limitations in practical use and should ideally be
used in a climatized room with control of convection,
temperature, and humidity [9, 10]. Used outside a clima-
tized room, special attention should be given to air con-
vection, room temperature, and ambient humidity [9].
The most widely used systems are the Tewameter®
TM300 (Courage+Khazaka, Cologne, Germany) and
the DermaLab® (Cortex, Hadsund, Denmark). Both
are available as stand-alone devices or as a probe
attached to a Multi Probe Adapter System like the
Scarbase Duo™ (Courage+Khazaka, Cologne,
Germany) and the DermaLab Combo® (Cortex,
Hadsund, Denmark).
Both the Tewameter® (. Fig. 18.2) and the
DermaLab USB® TEWL (. Fig. 18.3) showed good to
excellent reliability and validity with rather high mini-
mal clinically important difference (MCID) [12, 13]. The
MCID is the smallest change in an outcome that a .. Fig. 18.2 The probe of the Tewameter® TM300. Reused with
patient or a clinician would identify as important. An permission from Oscare. © All rights reserved
overview of the results is set out in . Table 18.1.
18.2.3.3 Semi-Open-Chamber Method

Recordings with open-chamber evaporimeters are not
intrusive to the 10 mm physiological water vapor mantle
over the skin and due to its specificity sensitive to ambi-
ent airflow. Open-chamber instruments perform best
under standardized ambient conditions with an air pro-
18 tection shield or box controlling the ambient air condi-
tions, as described in standards [9, 10]. Closed-chamber
methods are insensitive to ambient air but, unfortu-
nately, directly intrusive to the water vapor mantle.
Accumulation of water vapor in the chamber during the
measurement instantly and directly influences the diffu-
sion of water out of the skin. Thus, closed chambers
interfere with the physiological skin barrier and thus
cannot record physiological TEWL directly. For the
same reason, measurements may only be made as an ini-
tial estimate and not continuously. In the DermaLab
system (Cortex Technology, Hadsund, Denmark), a spe-
cial grid serving as a semi-open windshield has been
incorporated directly in the top of the open probe of
.. Fig. 18.3 DermaLab® USB TEWL-probe. Reused with permis-
sion from Oscare. © All rights reserved
163 18
.. Table 18.1 Comparison of reliability, validity, and MCID for trans-epidermal water loss assessment on scars
Device Intrarater reliability Interrater Validity MCID

(ICC) reliability (ICC)
Tewameter® [13] 0.95 0.96 Good correlation with DermaLab® TEWL 12%
(r = 0.93)b
DermaLab® 0.86–0.88 0.78–0.93 DermaLab® TEWL is able to distinguish normal 17%
TEWL [12] skin from spontaneously healed scars (p = 0.036)
air convections. The system can be considered respectful

to the water vapor mantle.
18.2.3.4 Closed-Chamber Method

Two types of closed-chamber methods are available – a
condenser chamber method and an unventilated-closed-
chamber method. With the unventilated-chamber
method, the measuring cylinder is closed off at the top.
When placed on the skin, water vapor from the skin col-
lects in the chamber, and with time, the humidity in the
chamber increases slowly at first, and thereafter linearly.
Flux density (amount of water diffusing through the SC
per unit distance and time) is calculated from the change
in RH and temperature over time. Due to the accumula-
tion of water vapor and humidity in the chamber, these
instruments cannot be used for continuous measure-
ments. Overall, the measurement time of unventilated-
closed-chamber instruments is very short (<10 seconds). .. Fig. 18.4 The measurement principle of the Corneometer®
Various skin barrier impairment studies revealed that CM825 is based on the capacitance method. Reused with permission
the open-chamber devices are more sensitive or discrim- from Courage + Khazaka electronic GmbH. © All rights reserved
inative and are able to detect significantly smaller differ-
ences than the closed-chamber devices [14]. The gests that a sufficient amount of water in the stratum
VapoMeter (Delfin Technologies Ltd., Kuopio, Finland) corneum (SC) keeps the skin soft and flexible and
is an example of a unventilated-closed-chamber system ensures that the skin appears smooth and healthy. The
[15]. The VapoMeter is simple in principle; a humidity water holding capacity of the SC also influences its bar-
sensor in the closed chamber measures the gradual rier function and mechanical properties [16].
buildup of humidity. On its commercialization, it was Measurements of hydration are often influenced by
postulated that TEWL measurements were not affected environmental factors [7].
by ambient or body-induced airflows. The Corneometer CM 825® (Courage+Khazaka,
Cologne, Germany) is based on the capacitance method.
18.2.3.5 tratum Corneum Hydration Level:
S It is a well-known and efficient instrument in measuring
Measuring Principle hydration of the SC. In the past, the measuring probe of
Hydration of the skin surface is a good indicator of epi- the Corneometer used an analog signal, but now, digital
dermal function. Hydration is directly proportional to technology is used, resulting in higher stability and less
retention of electrical charge and is therefore often mea- interferences [17].
sured by dielectric capacitance or the conductance of The Skicon instruments (I.B.S. Co., Hamama-T),
the superficial skin layers [11]. Technical aspects such as based on the conductance method, are also widely used.
type of probe surface, degree of direct galvanic contact A modern version of the Skicon (Skicon-200EX®) has
with the skin, distance between the electrodes, and depth been developed with a new concentric interdigital probe.
of measurement all vary when comparing the different
technologies. Due to the higher TEWL, scar sites are 18.2.3.6 Corneometer CM825®
dryer than control sites and seem to become dryer as The measuring principle is based on the capacitance
they mature. Water content is very important in the eval- method (see . Fig. 18.4). Technical description of this
uation of biophysical properties of scars. Evidence sug- type of instrument and its use has been published by
value (ICCday-by-day = 0.849) and higher WSCV

(WSCVday-by-day = 20.5%).
18.2.3.7 Skicon-200EX
The Skicon instruments manufactured by I.B.S. Co. are
based on the conductance principle. These instruments
measure the conductance (μS) of a single high-frequency
current at 3.5 MHz. The measuring probe consists of
75 μm large concentric interdigital electrodes with a gap
of 200 μm between the electrodes. The total probe sur-
face is 0.8 cm2. The probe makes use of a spring system
ensuring a constant pressure force of 0.78 N when
applied to the skin. The electrode makes direct galvanic
contact with the skin surface. The device is calibrated
in vitro using various external calibration standards in
the range of 2–2000 μS conductance [19].
18.2.3.8 eneral Recommendations for Skin

G
Hydration Measurements
The applied probe pressure has a large influence on
.. Fig. 18.5 Probe of the Corneometer® CM825 device. (©Oscare)
hydration measurements. Despite the existence of a
spring to ensure constant probe pressure, Clarys et al.
have demonstrated that the measured hydration levels
many authors. Both probes (analog and digital) contain increase with higher probe pressures. This phenomenon
an interdigital grid of gold electrodes, covered by a low is exacerbated on dryer skin (e.g., scar tissue). It is there-
dielectric vitrified material (see . Fig. 18.5). A resonat- fore advisable to use complete compression of the spring
ing system in the instrument detects the frequency shift of when applying the probe on the skin surface. Use a pre-
the oscillating system related to the capacitance (and cision balance to practice obtaining more or less identi-
hence hydration) of the biomaterial in contact with the cal values. Finally, try to transpose this to the in vivo
probe. Unlike the Skicon instruments, there is no direct application of the probe on the skin surface [20].
galvanic contact between the electrodes of the Digital capacitance probes are very sensitive for eval-
Corneometer and the skin surface. To enable a constant uating dry/very dry skin conditions (e.g., scars), while
pressure of the probe on the skin surface, a spring system digital conductance probes are more suited for evaluat-
is incorporated. According to the manufacturer, the pres- ing very high levels of hydration [17].
sure of the old analog probe is in the range of 1.1–1.8 N; Skin hydration has a positive correlation with ambi-
the new digital probe operates at a lower pressure (about ent temperature and humidity; it is strongly affected by
1 N or less). The Corneometer is factory calibrated using these two environmental parameters [7].
an in vitro method. Corneometer® results obtained with Results of TEWL or skin hydration measurements
different instruments in different laboratories can be should be reported as differences or percent change
pooled if a pretest validation demonstrates concordance rather than absolute values. This approach partially
between instrument. eliminates influencing factors.
18 Anthonissen et al. investigated the reliability of the In order to obtain reliable results for skin hydration,
Corneometer and concluded that the instrument can be it is advisable to minimize, as far as possible, the influ-
used in clinical trials but only under very strict condi- ences of endogenous, exogenous, environmental, and
tions with standardized test protocol, preferably in com- instrument or measurement-related factors [7].
bination with the evaluation of other physiological For the Corneometer®, the MCID is 7% on healthy
parameters [18]. The results revealed excellent ICC val- skin and 4% on scars [18].
ues (ICCintra = 0.985; ICCinter = 0.984) with relatively
low within-subject coefficient of variation (WSCV)
(WSCVintra = 6.3%; WSCVinter = 10.6%) for, respec- 18.2.4 Dermal Water Content Measurement
tively, intra- and inter-observer reliability. However, the
Bland–Altman plot showed that more than 5% of differ- 18.2.4.1 Confocal Raman Spectroscopy
ences were expected to exceed 4 a.u., the limit of what Raman spectroscopy is a spectroscopic technique used
has been defined as a clinically acceptable difference. to observe vibrational, rotational, and other low-
Results for day-by-day variability showed good ICC frequency modes in a system. Raman spectroscopy is
165 18
commonly used in chemistry to provide a structural fin- 18.3 Transcutaneous Oxygen Tension
gerprint by which molecules can be identified. Confocal
Raman spectroscopy can directly measure the water con- Scar maturation has been related to transcutaneous oxy-
tent from the skin surface down to the upper epidermis gen tension that can be measured with electrodes on the
with high depth resolution (5 μm) [21]. Moreover, it pro- skin. Heat is induced to the electrode and causes oxygen
duces a more absolute measurement value than other and CO2 to diffuse through the skin. In hypertrophic
methods. Using confocal Raman spectroscopy, the water scar, PO2 is lower than in healthy skin. An increase over
content is calculated from the ratio of integrated Raman time was correlated with clinical improvement.
signals for water and protein. The proportionality con- Upregulated levels of transcutaneous oxygen tension in
stant is estimated from the Raman spectra of various treated scars correlated well with a downregulation of
solutions of proteins in the water. Nakagawa et al. con- scar thickness assessed both clinically and by ultra-
cluded that in vivo measurement of the dermal water sound. It is hypothesized that low levels of transcutane-
content with confocal Raman spectroscopy was highly ous oxygen pressure (tcpO2) in evolving scars result
reliable [22]. The benefit of using confocal Raman spec- from low oxygen diffusibility through scar tissue rather
troscopy is that the depth increment between measure- than from rapid metabolic consumption of oxygen by
ment points can be freely adjusted. The most widely used scar tissue [25].
depth resolution of the confocal Raman spectroscopy is
5 μm. With confocal Raman spectroscopy, the smaller
the region of interest, the higher the depth resolution. 18.4 Tactile Sensitivity
18.2.4.2 Near-Infrared Spectroscopy Tactile sensitivity of the skin can be divided in two
Near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) is a spectroscopic parts. Discriminative touch is a sensory modality that
method that uses the near-infrared region of the electro- allows a subject to sense and localize touch. Non-
magnetic spectrum (from 780 nm to 2500 nm). NIRS is discriminative touch is a sensory modality that allows
based on molecular overtone and combination vibra- the subject to sense that something has touched them,
tions. One advantage is that NIRS can typically pene- without being able to localize where they were touched.
trate much further into a sample than mid-infrared Scars are frequently accompanied with sensory deficits
radiation. NIRS is not a particularly sensitive technique, often remaining present months or even years after
but it can be very useful in probing bulk material with injury.
little or no sample preparation [23]. Tactile sensitivity of the skin can be measured by
The molecular overtone and combination bands seen esthesiometers. There are different types of esthesiom-
in the near-IR are typically very broad, leading to com- eters depending on their particular function. The sim-
plex spectra; it can be difficult to assign specific features plest is a manual tool with adjustable points similar to
to specific chemical components. Multivariate calibra- a caliper. It can determine how short a distance
tion techniques (e.g., principal components analysis, par- between two impressions on the skin can be distin-
tial least squares, or artificial neural networks) are often guished.
employed to extract the desired chemical information. Another type of manual esthesiometer is used to test
Careful development of a set of calibration samples and lower thresholds of touch or pain. The tool uses nylon
application of multivariate calibration techniques is monofilaments with varying calibrated diameters (see
essential for near-infrared analytical methods. NIRS can . Fig. 18.6). The force needed to cause the monofila-
measure overall skin water content as well as of the vari- ment to “buckle” determines the tactile reading (see
ous components constituting the skin, i.e., the stratum . Fig. 18.7). The filaments are calibrated by force
corneum, epidermis, and dermis. This technique has the applied, rather than by gram/mm2 pressure ratings
ability to directly determine the changes in the various because sensation follows force (when the stimulated
types of water (free, bulk, and protein-bound water), area is small).
which are present in the various skin layers. The most commonly used is the Semmes-Weinstein
Another interesting advantage is that this technique Aesthesiometer and its variant the Weinstein Enhanced
does not require direct contact with the skin and can Sensory Test (WEST) that determines the touch percep-
easily be integrated in smartphones. This technique tion threshold (TPT). Meirte et al. concluded that the
also allows to determine the thickness of separate skin Semmes-Weinstein monofilament test is a feasible and
layers [24]. However, its lack of sensitivity and frequent reliable outcome measure to evaluate TPT in burn scars,
integration of algorithms raises doubts about its reli- showing excellent intrarater and interrater reliability
ability, which still needs to be investigated in scar tissue. (ICC >0.90) [26].
55 The open-chamber method is the most widely used

to measure TEWL.
55 The dielectric capacitance method is the most reli-
able method to measure SC hydration level in scars.
55 Confocal Raman spectroscopy is a reliable tech-
nique to measure dermal water content.
55 The Semmes-Weinstein Aesthesiometer is a reli-
able tool to assess tactile sensitivity in scars.
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169 19
Structural Assessment of Scars

Using Optical Techniques
L. van Haasterecht, Paul P. M. van Zuijlen, and ML. Groot
Contents

19.1.1 olumetric Analyses – 170
V
19.1.2 Surface Topology – 170
19.1.3 Thickness – 171
19.2 Experimental Techniques – 171

19.2.1 ptical Coherence Tomography – 172
O
19.2.2 Confocal Microscopy – 172
19.2.3 Nonlinear Optical Microscopy – 173
19.3 Future Perspectives – 175
References – 176

170 L. van Haasterecht et al.
19.1 Introduction cuss them separately as the reliability (the consistency of

the measurements) and validity (whether the device
The skin, the largest organ of the body, consists of an measures what it intends to measure) of individual
epidermal layer and a dermal layer underneath. The thin aspects of a device aren’t necessarily similar.
epidermal layer functions as a barrier to the outer world. Volumetric assessment has gone from manual paper
The dermis is much thicker, and its structural organiza- tracing to high-tech 3D cameras.
tion is responsible for the functional qualities of the Although manual tracing of scar surface area is reli-
human skin. It consists for almost 80% of collagen, elas- able in the case of linear postoperative scars [5], for scars
tin, and different types of cells, which render the skin with irregular boundaries, the reliability decreases with
strong and at the same time remarkably pliable. In scar scar size [6]. The LifeViz 3D camera (Quantificare SA,
tissue, visual aspects (discoloration and texture [1]), Valbonne, France) has been extensively tested in both
functional aspects (stiffness [1] and moisture retention the surface area and volumetric analysis mode by
[2]), and sensory functions [3] of the skin differ signifi- Stekelenburg et al., who reported it to be a reliable and
cantly from those of healthy skin. valid tool [7, 8]. The LifeViz 3D works by comparing
In clinical practice, objective assessment of cutane- two photos from different angles, from a predefined dis-
ous scars remains a challenging task. The use of scar tance. The Vectra 3D is a speckle pattern-based system
assessment tools has increased significantly in the last that utilizes six cameras to construct a 3D image. Its
decade. The clinical follow-up of scar treatment neces- interrater reliability was found to be excellent in a trial
sitates precise measurement of thickness, surface area, on raised scars [9]. A device with a similar working
and relief. Further, a better visualization of the precise mechanism, MAVIS III (Photometrix, Pontypridd,
3D microstructural organization is crucial in under- United Kingdom), was assessed in a study on burn scars.
standing the etiology of pathological scarring. As most The authors note that poorly delineated scars on curved
aspects of clinical scar assessment scales are based on surfaces pose a challenge in the boundary selection and
the visual appearance, the potential for optical tech- subsequent analysis [10].
niques as an objective assessment tool is high. With a Rashaan et al. tested another stereophotogrammetry
so-called optical biopsy, it is possible to assess the micro- device, the Artec MHT (Artec 3D, San Diego, CA,
structure below the surface of the skin with optical USA), and found it to be highly reliable and valid in
methods, negating invasive physical biopsies. burn scars [11].
Furthermore, a range of extensions for these techniques Other strategies that include laser scanning cameras
allow simultaneous structural, mechanical, and even and structured light scanners need additional clinical
chemical characterization. evaluation.
This chapter aims to describe current progress in
objective imaging techniques used in the clinical follow-
up of scar progression on the one hand and some of the 19.1.2 Surface Topology
most powerful techniques for basic structural research
of scar microstructures on the other hand. For the sake Roughness, or surface irregularity, has a significant
of brevity, we limit our discussion to techniques and impact on a patient’s perception of scars [12].
devices that have been shown to be valid and reliable. Furthermore, the predictive validity of long-term scar
For a complete overview of available devices, we refer quality was found to be significantly influenced by the
the reader to an extensive review by Lee et al. [4]. “relief ” item on the POSAS observer scale [13] (see
7 Chap. 16 for more on scar assessment scales). Most
scar assessment scales include such a texture item, and
19.1.1 Volumetric Analyses even though subjective analysis isn’t necessarily inferior
to objective analysis, quantification of these aspect
19 The number of devices that measure scar volume has remains challenging.
seen a rapid growth in the last decade, partly advanced Early attempts at quantitative evaluation of rough-
by increased attention to wound and burn research. ness entailed the casting of a positive or negative mold
Volumetric aspects of scars discussed here are sur- of the scar surface and its subsequent optical or mechan-
face area, thickness, and surface topology. Although ical analysis [14]. This process, although accurate, is
there exists significant overlap between these aspects overly cumbersome and time-consuming. Current con-
and some devices measure multiple aspects (surface tactless techniques use a combination of illumination
roughness can be considered as fluctuations in scar and analysis of disturbance patterns. The most fre-
height/thickness; newer analysis methods of surface quently used device, the Phaseshift Rapid In Vivo
area are often intrinsically three dimensional and there- Measurement of the Skin (PRIMOS, Canfield Scienitifc,
fore include information on surface topology), we dis- Inc., Parsippany, USA), has been shown to reliably mea-
Structural Assessment of Scars Using Optical Techniques
171 19
sure scar topology [15, 16]. PRIMOS projects patterns limit our discussion to systems that have been applied to
of light onto the skin surface. Fluctuations in the sur- scars. The frequency used by these systems ranges from
face profile cause disruptions in these patterns that are 5 to 50 MHz and forms the most important limitation in
subsequently analyzed. scars, as this limits the penetration depth. For example,
Antera 3D (Miravex, Dublin, Ireland) is based on the most frequently described device, the Dermascan C
photometric stereo, in which light from different angles (Cortex Technology ApS), utilizes a frequency of
produces shade based on surface topology. The reflected 20 MHz which has a penetration depth described as
light is analyzed to form a surface reconstruction. inadequate in up to a third of burn scars in a study by
Similarly, LifeViz Micro (Quantificare SA, Valbonne, Gankande et al. [20] (using the DermaLab Combo).
France) is one of the devices in the LifeViz series men- Reliability of these instruments has been tested in
tioned earlier. Although they have been described in the several studies and shows excellent inter-observer [20–
context of clinical scar assessment [17, 18], their clini- 23] and intra-observer reliability [20, 21, 23–25].
metric properties have not been analyzed for the surface From a validity standpoint, it is of interest to note
roughness aspect. that a golden standard does not currently exist.
The Visioscan VC 98 uses software analysis of gray- Comparison with scar assessment scales has yielded
scale values in UVA-illuminated photographs (Visioscan inconsistent results, possibly due to heterogeneity in scar
VC 98). Reliability in healthy skin relies heavily on the scales and ultrasound frequency [23, 26]. Histology has
chosen outcome measure of the “surface evaluation of several drawbacks that include deformation during the
living skin” method [16]. biopsy process dependent on resting skin tension,
The analysis of relief can be considered a structural manipulation during fixation, and slicing [27]. Agabalyan
analysis of scar volume. Indeed, most devices offer some et al. found poor correlation between 20Mhz ultrasound
volumetric analysis. Furthermore, the Antera 3D offers analysis and histological analysis of skin graft scars in a
additional colorimetric analysis. The abovementioned small group of patients [26]. Andrew et al. found biop-
devices show great heterogeneity in measured parameters, sies to be significantly thicker after excision, advising the
resolution, and field of view, and thus, it is difficult to make use of pinning during formaldehyde fixation to mitigate
a qualitative comparison. In the future, further cross-polli- this effect [27]. Li et al. compared ultrasound measure-
nation between techniques can be expected. Askaruly et al. ments with the use of a micrometer [24], theoretically
showed the potential of optical coherence tomography bypassing the negative effects of sample preparation for
(OCT) to measure relief [19]. Although their study was not histology. Although they achieve a high correlation,
on scar tissue, the possibility of combining 3D surface sonographic analysis was performed on porcine excised
analysis with structural analysis looks promising. tissue in which it is conceivably easier to recognize the
skin’s boundaries.
Scar height can be measured using volumetric analy-
19.1.3 Thickness ses like the 3D camera LifeViz 3D (Quantificare SA,
Valbonne, France), although studies comparing this
Follow-up of scar thickness is especially important in device with ultrasound measurements have favored the
both hypertrophic and keloid scars, where the aberrant latter [23, 28]. It seems that the reliability is suboptimal
deposition of ECM proteins leads to significant expan- due to the device having difficulty scanning over curved
sion. Therapies are mostly focused on reducing the scar’s surfaces.
prominence over the surrounding tissue, and correctly
analyzing the thickness of cutaneous scar is paramount.
Although not an optical technique, we discuss high- 19.2 Experimental Techniques
frequency ultrasound here as it’s by far the most com-
monly used technique. Its inferior resolution compared Scarring involves the aberrant deposition of matrix mol-
to optical equivalents is mitigated by its superior pene- ecules. The collagen content of scars, especially, differs
tration depth allowing thickness analysis, even in severe from healthy skin in terms of amount, type, and, impor-
scar thickening. The working mechanism is based on tantly, organization. In the past decades, quantification
reflection of sound waves of structures with different of the extracellular matrix (ECM) organization was
acoustic impedances and the analysis of the reflection mostly limited to two-dimensional images from fixated
time to determine the depth of the structure. The pene- and stained tissue. Depending on the orientation of his-
tration depth ranges from the upper dermal layers to tological slices relative to the skin surface, analysis of
full-thickness skin and subcutaneous structures, depend- orientation will yield different results. For example,
ing on the employed frequency. Verhaegen et al. found significantly different supramo-
Numerous ultrasound systems exist that are mar- lecular organization depending on which cross section
keted for dermatological applications; we succinctly was imaged (e.g., perpendicular to the surface or in the
parallel plain) [29]. Gaining a better three-dimensional ablation [34], allowing the authors to distinguish mature
perspective of ECM organization is paramount in eluci- and immature scars [35]. Comparable strategies have
dating the etiology of pathological scars. been applied to lymph vessels [36]. Combined vascular-
As the goal is not only to assess scar tissue based on ity, lymph vessels, and birefringence analyses were used
texture, volume, and color but also to perform micro- by Park et al. to longitudinally follow wound healing in
structural analysis, more advanced microscopic tools a mouse model, showing angiogenetic changes and
are required. An ideal optical scar assessment technique realignment of birefringent signals [37].
would have a resolution with which microstructural Simultaneous mechanical testing allows the correla-
changes can be clearly identified, even in the deeper tion of local structural changes to variations in stiffness.
parts of the dermis. However, in optics, there exists a Es’haghian et al. showed that combining a handheld
common trade-off between spatial resolution and pene- OCT probe with a mechanical loading device permits
tration depth, and the marked thickening of hypertro- concurrent imaging of the in vivo scars and stiffness
phic and keloids scar complicates this trade-off. In this mapping [38, 39]. Vibrational perturbation of the skin
sense, a “perfect technique” does not exist. A technique’s and the analysis of resonance frequencies while imaging
suitability depends merely on whether the application the layers of the skin have also received some attention
matches its strength. In the following, we will discuss recently for bulk measurements of mechanical proper-
several microscopic techniques and their applications in ties [40, 41].
scar assessment and research. OCT has been described as a tool for measuring
thickness of individual skin layers. Because the limited
penetration depth makes full thickness imaging impos-
19.2.1 Optical Coherence Tomography sible, its application is limited to the epidermal thickness
[42, 43].
Colloquially known as “Ultrasound based on light,”
OCT is a promising technique based on low-coherence
interferometry. In short, light with a broad bandwidth is 19.2.2 Confocal Microscopy
split into a sample arm and a reference arm. The inter-
ference pattern that arises from the combination of the Higher-resolution images to assess structures with submi-
reference arm and the sample arm, containing reflected cron resolution in 3D can be obtained using various
light from different depth layers of the sample, creates a microscopic techniques. In confocal fluorescence micros-
depth profile of the sample. Combining a lateral series copy, the addition of a set of pinholes to a traditional fluo-
of these profiles creates a cross-sectional image (B scan) rescence microscope allows for the selection and detection
or a three-dimensional reconstruction when a stack of B of a small focal volume. Selective labeling with a fluoro-
scans is combined. Scanning approaches with full-field phore allows for the imaging of a particular substance of
illumination allow the acquisition of stacks of “en face” interest by excitation of the fluorophore by a lamp or laser
scans. Typically, penetration depths of 1–2 mm can be and detection of the fluorescence emission signals. Images
reached, at a resolution of 4–10 μm [30]. are obtained by scanning the laser or the sample, yielding
The capability of OCT to create high-resolution images with a resolution of 0.4 λ/NA where λ is the wave-
tomography first piqued the interest of the ophthalmo- lenght of the emitted light and NA is the numerical aper-
logical community, where it is now a staple technique in ture of the objective, which is an improvement of ~30%
retinal assessment. Naturally, attributes like fast acquisi- compared to traditional fluorescence microscopy. Another
tion time, high-resolution images, noninvasiveness, and advantage over widefield microscopy is that the labeling
multifaceted structural assessment make OCT an inter- with fluorophores can be sparser, allowing for a fairer
esting technique for dermatology. Moreover, OCT comparison of relative quantities of structures.
devices are often manageable handheld scanners, Confocal microscopy has been used to determine the
19 increasing their usability in the clinic. ratios of collagen of different scar types [44], cell-
Polarization-sensitive OCT (PS-OCT) has been signaling molecules [45] or innervation [46] of different
described as a quantification tool for collagen density scar types and as an ex vivo tool in evaluation of micro-
and alignment by means of tissue birefringence [31]. needling penetration depth [47]. Furthermore, the supe-
Jaspers et al. compared burn scars and healthy skin rior resolution allows for quantitative collagen
using a volume-based birefringence method, which orientation analysis [29, 48]. Devices like the VivaScope
showed strong correlation to histologically determined (MAVIG, Munich, Germany) [49] are based on reflec-
collagen content [32]. By applying speckle decorrelation, tance confocal microscopy (RCM), in which backscat-
Liew et al. visualized the microvasculature of burn scars tered light from unlabeled structures is analyzed, based
in three dimensions [33]. A similar strategy was used in on changes in refractive index. The in vivo applications
the clinical follow-up of burn scars undergoing laser of RCM lie predominantly in the diagnosis of various
173 19
skin cancers [50], as its penetration depth is limited to 19.2.3.2 Two-Photon Excited
the epidermis and upper part of the dermis. However, Autofluorescence (2PEF)
attempts to analyze collagen production after micro- MEP involves two or three photons being absorbed by a
needling of acne scars have been described in vivo with fluorophore and the subsequent emission of a single
a combination of dermoscopy and RCM [51]. The lim- photon of a shorter wavelength. Two-photon excited
ited penetration depth seems a significant hurdle in scar autofluorescence (2PEF) has been described extensively
research; however, combining the device with an OCT in skin research.
arm allowed Iftimia et al. to analyze both structural and 2PEF is applicable to fluorophores used in single-
birefringence properties in burn scars [52]. photon fluorescence. As this is a fundamentally different
process, excitation wavelengths will not equate to exactly
double the wavelength of the single-photon excitation.
19.2.3 Nonlinear Optical Microscopy The emission spectrum however will be identical.
Fluorophores naturally present in biological tissue have
19.2.3.1 Introduction well-
described excitation and emission spectra, and
As discussed above, confocal microscopy allows for extrapolation to the two-photon excitation wavelength
three-dimensional imaging; however in this technique, is usually warranted. Although penetration depths more
samples require specific staining and sometimes also than one millimeter have been described in the context
fixation and slicing, which may affect ECM structure of brain tissue [54], the density of the skin and the rele-
and organization. Nonlinear optical (NLO) microscopy vant excitation wavelengths do not permit such deep
involves label-free imaging of unfixed tissue in three penetration. Imaging systems are conventionally limited
dimensions and has strong potential in the visualization to several hundred micrometers in depth.
of the scar microstructure. Here, we discuss several types Both collagen and elastin, the most important struc-
of NLO microscopy, namely, higher harmonic genera- tural proteins of the extracellular matrix (ECM), have
tion microscopy (HHG) and multiphoton excited auto- convenient 2PEF profiles [55]. On the cellular level, the
fluorescence (MEA), and explain their strengths in abundantly present cytoplasmic metabolites NADH
label-free imaging of scars. and FAD are prolific emitters in their reduced and oxi-
Nonlinear microscopy can be described as the con- dized states, respectively. An example of 2PEF imaging
version of multiple photons into a single photon, based of dermal fibroblasts can be seen in . Fig. 19.1.
on the specific nonlinear behavior of certain molecules
or structures. This process occurs only when the inten-
sity of the incident light is sufficiently high. To keep the
average laser power on the sample sufficiently low,
short-pulsed lasers are used (generally femtosecond
lasers) [53].
MEA involves the absorption of two or more pho-
tons by an intrinsic fluorophore and the recording of the
subsequent fluorescence emission, which is then at a
wavelength shorter than of the excitation light.
Alternatively, external fluorophores can be applied to
the sample to label specific structures. In contrast to
single-photon fluorescence, excitation wavelengths typi-
cally lie in the infrared region, allowing deeper tissue
penetration of up to 1.6 mm [54].
Comparably, in the HHG processes, two or three
photons are converted into a single photon. No energy
transfer takes place however, and the emitted photons
have exactly half (second harmonic generation, SHG)
or a third (third harmonic generation, THG) of the
wavelength of the incident photons and exactly double
or triple the energy, respectively. This allows the detec-
tion of the specific signal using narrow-banded filters, .. Fig. 19.1 Combined two-photon excited fluorescence image (2PEF,
green) and second harmonic generation image (SHG, red) of cultured
improving contrast between structures. Simultaneous
human dermal cells and their derived collagen matrix, respectively. Col-
registration of these signals using one system allows for lagen fibers induce a bright SHG signal, whereas intrinsic fluorophores
label-free visualization of the most important structural in the cytoplasm of the dermal cells outline the cells. In vitro images
proteins of the ECM. were acquired using a previously described setup [87]. Scale bar: 500 μm
Simultaneous recording allows a redox ratio to be calcu- the nonlinear susceptibility of collagen on the polariza-
lated. The feasibility of this strategy was shown in an tion of the incident light. Polarization-sensitive SHG
in vivo mouse model by Quinn et al. [56], visualizing (PS-SHG) probes the organization of collagen fibers by
metabolic changes during wound healing. Another sequentially rotating the polarization relative to the
in vivo study used the same concept to investigate the optical axis and probing the SHG response. By analyz-
depth-dependent metabolism of keratinocytes [57]. ing the SHG intensity at different angles of polarization,
Melanin content has been used as an in vivo marker for orientation vectors can be reconstructed [70, 71]. Note
several dermatological disorders [58]. that because of the strong dependence of SHG on polar-
ization, software-based analyses should be performed
19.2.3.3 econd Harmonic Generation (SHG)
S on images from circularly polarized light sources.
Microscopy Using unstained tissue allows simultaneous biome-
The introduction of SHG microscopy has sparked a chanical testing during imaging. For example, Rosin
slew of research in dermatology. Also known as fre- et al. assessed the scarring capacity of healing split-
quency doubling, it involves the interaction of two pho- thickness skin grafts by microstructural SHG imaging
tons of the same wavelength with a nonlinear material of collagen and biaxial stretch testing [72]. The authors
and the subsequent creation of a single photon with correlate the loss of waviness patterns to increased stiff-
double the frequency and energy. The ability of a mate- ness.
rial for second harmonic generation, described by the The reduced phototoxicity (as no external fluoro-
nonlinear susceptibility coefficient χ(2), depends on the phores are used) from these optical processes allows
non-centrosymmetric structure. Biologically significant in vitro and even in vivo imaging, for example, skin
harmonophores include collagen [59], myosin [60], and equivalents [73], lab-grown wound models [74], and
microtubules [61]. antifibrotic treatments [75].
In the case of fibrillar collagen, the repeating dipoles Several research groups have made attempts to
of peptide bonds and the structural alignment on all lev- include SHG in clinical decision-making. Predominately
els of the molecular and supramolecular structure (par- applied to neoplastic lesions, consecutive follow-up of
allel peptide bonds are assembled into parallel fibrils;
fibrils are aligned into fibers) result in coherent amplifi-
cation of the emitted second harmonic signal refs. This
also means that the structural alignment of collagen
fibers influences the SHG signal intensity [62]. As this is
not the case for non-fibrillar collagen types, SHG
microscopy is specific for type I and II collagens and
forms a highly specific tool for 3D imaging of unpro-
cessed skin samples as showed in . Fig. 19.2 Abnormal
ratios of collagen I:III have been described in multiple
fibrotic processes [63]. Although collagen type III, often
deposited alongside type I, is a fibrillar collagen, it pro-
duces only weak SHG signals [64]. As the SHG signal is
dependent on phase-matching conditions, most of the
signal forwardly propagated. The thin scattered fibers of
collagen type III and their associated reduction in phase
matching appear to be distinguishable from type I by
comparing forward- and backward-scattered SHG
19 images [65, 66]. The opacity of collagenous tissues how-
ever makes the detection of this signal impractical, ren-
dering this technique possible only in thin specimens.
Multiple strategies to distinguish scar types using
SHG images have been described. Most of these focus .. Fig. 19.2 Combined 2PEF (green) and SHG (red) image of elas-
tin and collagen fibers, respectively. Unprocessed ex vivo human
on software-based analysis of collagen fiber orientation
skin, specifically the reticular dermis, was imaged using the setup
and density [67–69]. Matrix organization and orienta- described in [87]. A stack of 35 images was acquired in the Z-axis.
tion have been described as abnormal in scars [29]. Non- Image processing in ImageJ resulted in the 3D projection seen here
software-based approaches rely on the dependence of [88]. Scale bar: 500 μm
175 19
scars and topical therapies has also been described. Although an analysis of scar tissue has not been
Commercial translation has already resulted in multiple described yet, THG has strong potential as a label-free
devices marketed for in vivo dermatological applications. imaging technique because of reduced phototoxicity.
The Dermaspect (JenLab GmbH, Berlin, Germany) Indeed, several articles describe the in vivo “optical
device entails a multimodal (2PEF, CARS, SHG) micro- biopsy” technique in the skin [78, 84].
scope with an adjustable scan head for in vivo skin imag-
ing [76]. Innovations in laser technology allow for 19.2.3.5 oherent Anti-Stokes Raman
C
increasingly smaller and cheaper devices [77, 78]. Spectroscopy (CARS)
The structural information provided by SHG and THG
19.2.3.4 hird Harmonic Generation (THG)
T can be supplemented by chemical information using
Microscopy another nonlinear process, Coherent anti-Stokes Raman
The propensity of a material for third harmonic gen- Spectroscopy (CARS). Here, two lasers with different
eration depends not only on its nonlinear susceptibility frequencies are focused on the sample, to probe the
coefficient χ(3) but also on whether partial phase vibrational fingerprint of the molecules in the focal
matching can be achieved by a small inhomogeneity at point. The CH2 content of lipids provides excellent con-
the focus, making THG an interface-sensitive tech- trast when imaging phospholipid-rich cell membranes
nique [79]. THG is less specific than SHG, increasing and adipocytes. The OH signal from water molecules
the number of possible applications. By setting the makes this technique especially applicable for research
focal volume of the incident laser beam to several times into transepidermal water loss [76, 85].
the size of a typical tissue structure, a geometry can be
created where the phase-matching conditions enable
efficient THG. As the THG contrast comes from inho- 19.3 Future Perspectives
mogeneities and tissue interfaces with a high χ(3), cell
membranes and cell nuclei are clearly displayed with The enormous increase in available devices for volumetric
THG microscopy, since they contain lipids which are analysis is indicative for the increased attention for quan-
known to have a high χ(3) [80]. Not surprisingly, the tification tools in scar research. Technological advances
multilayered structure of the epidermis provides excel- and the need for point of care solutions have already
lent contrast. . Figure 19.3 shows a THG cross sec- resulted in smaller and manageable devices suitable for
tion of the epidermis in a drug penetration experiment. bedside use. This trend can be expected to continue with
To illustrate the potential in dermatology, THG was smartphone-based solutions already being investigated in
shown to be a viable imaging technique for label-free wound evaluation [86]. Both researcher and clinicians
tracking of melanoma cells [81]. The THG contrast should however be mindful of the fact that most devices
from melanin and structural features allowed differen- are not adequately tested on their clinimetric properties.
tiation of skin cancers [82]. This trend is also applicable to experimental tech-
In the context of scar tissue, the surface of elastin niques. As image acquisition times decrease and devices
fibers is an adequate THG emitter [83]; thus, combining get smaller, we can expect integration of different imag-
SHG and THG potentially allows for three-dimensional ing techniques, each bringing their own strengths in elu-
imaging of unstained, unfixed, and unsliced tissue. cidating the multifaceted issue of pathological scarring.
.. Fig. 19.3 Nonlinear microscopy image of a cross section of nal in red. In this experiment, fluorescently labeled (magenta)
ex vivo skin. The THG signal (green) depicts the layers of the epider- hyaluronic acid (250 kDa) was applied to the skin’s surface to quan-
mis; collagen fibers in the papillary dermis give rise to the SHG sig- tify epidermal skin penetration. Scale bar: 500 μm
Take Home Messages 13. Goei H, Van Der Vlies CH, Tuinebreijer WE, Van Zuijlen P,
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19
179 20
Ethical Considerations: Scar

Management
Contents
20.1 I s there Truly a Need to Invoke Ethics When the Clinician Is

Faced with Managing a Patient’s Scar? – 180
20.2 hat Are the Dilemmas that a Clinician Will Confront in Their
W
Daily Practice When Managing a Patient’s Scar? – 180
References – 181

180 C. Ganier and S. Gaucher
The purpose of this chapter is to provide an overview the scar is well beyond a simple previous threat to the
and potential answers to the ethical considerations of integrity of the body envelope. Rather, the scar becomes
the clinical management of patient scars. We will focus a permanent remembrance a traumatic event. The
on two main aspects of this subject: scar may represent and even support the revival of the
1. Is there truly a need to invoke ethics when the clini- patient’s spirit after a painful traumatic episode. The
cian is faced with managing a patient’s scar? possibility of recognizing an aesthetic prejudice, which
2. What are the dilemmas that a clinician will confront could be temporary and/or permanent, in the context of
in their daily practice when managing a patient’s a judicial expertise, testifies to this aspect.
scar? On the other hand, for patients whom are strictly
compliant to societal standards and societal points of
view of beauty, a scar in a visible location on the patient’s
20.1 I s there Truly a Need to Invoke Ethics body may cause loss of self-esteem and self-confidence,
regardless of its origin.
When the Clinician Is Faced Another potential context of scar management
with Managing a Patient’s Scar? would be a patient who generates and accumulates
self-inflicted scars and psychologically believes that the
The motivation for the clinical management of a patient’s healed scars form sort of protective bandage.
scar from both the patient’s perspective and the clinician’s Therefore, there is no single approach to the manage-
perspective is clear: first, to improve the appearance of ment of these various complex situations, except for the
the scar and, second, if needed, to improve any functional underlying understanding that patients who are scarred
impairment that the scar may have caused. If successful, require attention, and a physician who listens to them
these goals will enhance the beauty and function of the assesses the proper context of the scar and considers
patient’s skin and improve the patient’s quality of life. carefully what the patient desires.
Therefore, like all therapies or procedures in medicine,
the ethical considerations of scar management are based
upon balancing the risks and benefits of any treatment.
20.2 hat Are the Dilemmas that
W
There are multiple causes of scars – scars generated by
unintended accidents, iatrogenic scars from surgical pro- a Clinician Will Confront in Their Daily
cedures, and even self-inflected voluntary scars created by Practice When Managing a Patient’s
the patient. The constant among these, regardless of the Scar?
reason(s) of the scar, is that the skin has been injured and
has undergone the known phases of wound healing – clot- At the same time, the surgeon may be pleased to observe
ting with platelet aggregation and activation, inflamma- a minimal scar as the result from his/her surgical pro-
tion, reepithelialization, fibroplasia, neovascularization, cedure and may be faced with the disappointed patient
granulation tissue formation, and then a long period of who wants the scar to disappear completely.
tissue remodeling with fibrosis and scarring. The scar is In many cases – and especially after surgery – scars
actually a witness to these events of “reparative” wound can make the physician feels uncomfortable, because
healing, rather than “regenerative” non-scarring wound the scar is an obvious evidence of the physician’s work
healing that is seen in newts and lower animals. and reminds the physician of his or her limitations and
Each cultural group has its own concept of beauty shortcomings. Totally scarless surgery is not possible.
and of what it considers to be normal or aberrant. Beyond the disease that the patient would like to forget
Moreover, the judgment of what is normal or not may and beyond the pain and suffering that the patient went
be interpreted differently, not only by the society but through, the physician needs to understand the disap-
also by the individuals. That is why when a patient bears pointment and distress of the patient when he/she learns
a scar, it may take on different meanings, depending that the scar is permanent and cannot be erased.
upon the societal and individual context of the scar. Experience has taught us that objective criteria (sur-
20 Sometimes, a skin scar can carry a highly positive face area, surface texture, color, thickness, degree of
message. For example, the scar could be proudly exhib- fibrosis etc.) are not always sufficient to assess adequately
ited as a testimony of some glorious actions such as the a scar and its functional and psychological repercussions.
mark of a successful warrior exploit or survival from a A too fast clinical examination and judgment may lead
savage assault. A voluntarily induced scar could also to the conclusion that the patient’s request for scar revi-
represent a ritualistic marking that symbolizes both sion is superfluous, unnecessary, or even unreasonable.
social allegiance and beauty. Examples include scarifica- To avoid misunderstanding of the patient’s feeling and
tions and tattoos. desire for scar revision, the physician must look beyond
Conversely, a skin scar could represent an echo of the simple appearance of the scar and has to harken back
an emotional scar. In these situations, the meaning of to the patient’s own history including his or her trauma
Ethical Considerations: Scar Management
181 20
and the context of the scar. A large discrepancy between consent, the proper use of healthcare resources, and
the perspective of the patient and the perspective of the conflicts of interest – especially in the case of developing
physician might be an early indication of psychological new devices by an industry-physician partnership. None
difficulties and a call for further clinical attention [1]. of these challenges are specific to surgery field, nor to
When the patient adamantly demands scar revision scars, but there are features about surgery and scars that
by surgical intervention, it often comes from the patient’s complicates the identification and resolution of these
point of view (and/or experience) that less invasive solu- issues [11, 12]. Therefore, it is important, from an ethi-
tions (topical steroids, silicone membranes, laser treat- cal point of view, to consider that innovation is not only
ment, etc.) are not satisfactory. the key to progress but also the greatest challenge to our
The origin of surgical ethics is uncertain [2, 3]. professionalism [13].
Reviews and studies on skin scar ethics are scarce [4].
Most of the articles involve issues related to the ethics
of burn scars [5], the ethics in plastic surgery [6], or the Take Home Message
ethics in major surgery [7]. Nevertheless, some reviews Given that scar treatment needs to balance risks and
highlight the current problems associated with emerging benefits for the patient, it’s impossible to define a skin
approaches for scar management such as the use of fetal scar by its physical appearance only.
cells in skin regeneration [8].
According to Miles Little publications [9, 10], surgi-
cal ethics have generally been framed as general medical
ethics applied to surgical situations. There are five cat- References
egories of experience and relationship, which are espe-
cially important in surgery field. These include (i) rescue, 1. Hoogewerf CJ, Van Baar ME, Middelkoop E, Van Loey
NE. Patient reported facial scar assessment: directions for the
(ii) proximity, (iii) ordeal, (iv) aftermath, and (v) pres- professional. Burns. 2014;40(2):347–53.
ence. The sense of rescue and of relational proximity, 2. Namm JP, Siegler M, Brander C, Kim TY, Lowe C, Angelos
the ordeal, and aftermath of surgery are things that the P. History and evolution of surgical ethics: John Gregory to the
patient experiences. Understanding these feelings allow twenty-first century. World J Surg. 2014;38(7):1568–73.
surgeons to know what may be asked of them in an ethi- 3. Pellegrini CA, Ferreres A. Surgical ethics symposium “ethical
dilemmas in surgical practice”. World J Surg. 2014;38(7):1565–6.
cal point of view. Recognition of the reality and valid- 4. Ferreres A, Angelos P. Surgical ethics symposium: ethical dilem-
ity of each category in the surgical process highlights mas in surgical practice. World J Surg. 2014;38(7):1567.
the importance of presence that is the acts by which the 5. Teven CM, Gottlieb LJ. The four-quadrant approach to ethical
surgeon demonstrates that he is present to the patient issues in burn care. AMA J Ethics. 2018;20(6):595–601.
throughout the surgical process and its consequences. 6. Sterodimas A, Radwanski HN, Pitanguy I. Ethical issues
in plastic and reconstructive surgery. Aesthet Plast Surg.
While communication skill trainings may never com- 2011;35(2):262–7.
pletely compensate for insensitivity, the ideal of pres- 7. Wall AE. Ethics in global surgery. World J Surg. 2014;38(7):
ence as a virtue and as a duty can be taught by precept 1574–80.
and by mentors. 8. Li Q, Zhang C, Fu X. Will stem cells bring hope to pathological
As Albert Einstein said “If you always do what you skin scar treatment? Cytotherapy. 2016;18(8):943–56.
9. Little M. The fivefold root of an ethics of surgery. Bioethics.
always did, you will always get what you always got.” 2002;16(3):183–201.
Because each scar, each patient, and each context are 10. Little M. Invited commentary: is there a distinctively surgical
unique, the search for an adequate and appropri- ethics? Surgery. 2001;129(6):668–71.
ate surgical solution constantly forces us to innovate. 11. Johnson J, Rogers W. Innovative surgery: the ethical challenges.
Innovation in surgery has contributed to progress in J Med Ethics. 2012;38(1):9–12.
12. Miller ME, Siegler M, Angelos P. Ethical issues in surgical inno-
medicine and has enhanced the overall patient’s quality vation. World J Surg. 2014;38(7):1638–43.
of life. Nevertheless, surgical innovation itself also raises 13. Angelos P. Ethics and surgical innovation: challenges to the pro-
numerous ethical issues, such as patient safety, informed fessionalism of surgeons. Int J Surg. 2013;11(S1):S2–5.
183 VIII
Treatment of Immature
Scars: Evidence-Based
Considerations
Contents
Chapter 21 Ideal Wound Closure Methods for Minimizing Scarring

After Surgery – 185
Rei Ogawa
Chapter 22 Treatment of Immature Scars: Evidence-Based

Techniques and Treatments – 193
Chapter 23 Silicone Gel for Scar Prevention – 203

Thomas A. Mustoe
Chapter 24 Onion Extract – 209

Chapter 25 Treatment of Immature Scars: Manual Massages – 215

Docteur N. Frasson
Chapter 26 Treatment of Immature Scars

with Botulinum Toxin – 219
Alexandra Chambers
Chapter 27 Compression Therapy and Conservative Strategies in

Scar Management After Burn Injury – 227
185 21
Ideal Wound Closure Methods

for Minimizing Scarring
After Surgery
Rei Ogawa
Contents
21.2 Cutaneous Wound Healing and Mechanobiology – 186

21.3 Surgical Techniques that Can Minimize Dermal Tension – 186
21.4 Z-Plasty – 187
References – 191

186 R. Ogawa
21.1 Background cyclical tension on the wound. This tension provokes

chronic inflammation of the dermis, namely, the
The healing of open cutaneous wounds involves the gen- unceasing influx and activation of inflammatory cells,
eration of vascularized granulation tissue that closes the the persistent generation of blood vessels and nerve
gap in the skin. Thereafter, an effective epidermal bar- fibers, and the constant production of collagen by the
rier is created over the granulation tissue. Wounds in activated fibroblasts. This chronic inflammation
which sutures have approximated the edges also undergo blocks the conversion of the granulation tissue into
granulation, albeit less than in open wounds that must dermis-like tissue by the remodeling process and
heal by secondary intention. In both cases, the adher- results in an immature hypertrophic scar that is red,
ence of the wound edges becomes stronger over time: in elevated, hard, and painful.
general, wounded skin acquires 80% of the dermal These observations suggest that, to prevent patho-
strength of the surrounding normal skin by 3 months logical scarring after surgery, it is necessary to ensure
post-wounding [1]. that the sutures cause the wound edges to adhere to each
other without any tension, even when strong extrinsic
forces are placed on the wound. This will allow the gran-
21.2 Cutaneous Wound Healing ulation tissue to convert smoothly into dermis-like tis-
and Mechanobiology sue, thereby yielding minimal scarring.
These wound-healing phenomena are the result of a

cascade of complex biochemical events that can be 21.3 urgical Techniques that Can Minimize
S
categorized into four general overlapping phases: Dermal Tension
coagulation, inflammation, proliferation, and remod-
eling. Significantly, all four phases of wound healing The risk of pathological scarring can be greatly reduced
are influenced by both intrinsic and extrinsic mechani- by using subcutaneous/fascial tensile reduction sutures
cal forces. For example, the formation of granulation [4]. This is because dermal sutures do not effectively
tissue in the proliferating phase is driven by intrinsic reduce tension on the dermis: rather, to achieve this, we
and extrinsic mechanical stimulation of the fibro- must access much deeper structures, namely, the superfi-
blasts, myofibroblasts, endothelial cells, and epithelial cial and deep fascia, and suture them. This type of
cells that are in and near the wound. Similarly, myofi- suturing will elevate the wound edges smoothly while
broblasts contract the wound in the proliferative phase placing minimal tension on the dermis. In other words,
by mechanical forces that are themselves shaped by it will cause the wound edges to attach naturally to each.
many extrinsic forces, including the natural tension in Only then should dermal and superficial sutures be used.
the skin. The remodeling phase can also be influenced It is very important to realize that dermal sutures on
by extrinsic mechanical forces [2]. During this phase, their own cannot reduce the tension on the dermis: this
fibroblasts secrete collagen and fibronectin, which are concept is the key to preventing the formation of patho-
key components of the extracellular matrix (ECM). logical scars after surgery.
These cells then regulate the volume of the ECM by Thus, in the case of benign tumor excision or scar
secreting collagenase. This repeated synthesis and revision surgery in high-tension areas such as the chest
enzymatic breakdown of ECM proteins remodels the wall, the cutaneous mass should be completely excised
three-dimensional structure of the ECM. For proper along with a minimum of normal skin margin and all
remodeling, the synthesis and degradation processes fatty tissues under the mass. Hence, all tissues above the
must be carefully balanced: if there is too much ECM deep fascia of the muscle are removed. The wound edges
synthesis, scars can become hypertrophic. Conversely, are then undermined under the deep fascia, and the deep
if there is excessive ECM degradation, the scar can fascia is sutured with 0 polydioxanone sutures such as
become atrophic. Multiple lines of evidence show that PDS®II (Ethicon, Inc., Somerville, New Jersey).
this ECM remodeling process can become deranged Thereafter, the fibrous membrane in the fatty tissues,
by extrinsic forces on the ECM [3]. For example, namely, the superficial fascia, is sutured using 2–0 and
wounds on the major joints tend to develop hypertro- 3–0 PDS®II. This approach causes the wound edges to
21 phic scars because the joint movements place strong adhere naturally to each other. Our previous study
Ideal Wound Closure Methods for Minimizing Scarring After Surgery
187 21
b c
.. Fig. 21.1 The ideal closure method for minimizing the tension on the on the dermis. The red lines in a indicate where the tissue is incised and
dermis. a The fatty tissues are removed along with the scar or tumor. b undermined. Dermal sutures themselves do not effectively reduce ten-
Undermining between the deep fascia and the muscle is performed. c sion on the dermis. To achieve this, we must access much deeper struc-
The deep and superficial fasciae are then sutured to release the tension tures, namely, the superficial and deep fasciae, and suture them
showed that deep fascia suturing reduced about 90% of is an effective approach for releasing linear scar contrac-
the tension on the wound edge, while superficial fascia tures. Another major benefit of Z-plasties is that seg-
suturing reduced the remaining 10% [5]. After fascial mented scars mature faster than long linear scars. Thus,
suturing, dermal sutures using 4–0 PDS®II are started. if a scar or wound crosses a joint, zigzag incision and
This is followed by superficial sutures with 6–0 polypro- suturing will significantly reduce the risk of pathological
pylene or nylon sutures such as Proline® or Ethilon® scar recurrence or development (. Fig. 21.4).
(Ethicon, Inc., Somerville, New Jersey) (. Figs. 21.1, In terms of Z-plasty design, the sides of each trian-
21.2, and 21.3). gular flap should be 7–10 mm long and the pitch between
each z-plasty should be 2–4 cm, depending on the total
length of the wound [5]. In our experience, this pitch
21.4 Z-Plasty yields the most satisfactory results (personal observa-
tions). Dermal sutures can be started after confirming
Another way to prevent pathological scar formation in that the triangular flaps are fully elevated and can be
high-tension areas is to use zigzag suturing techniques transposed with each other.
such as the Z-plasty [5]. This is particularly suitable for It should be noted that, because keloids have much
joint or limb surgery because the fatty tissue layers in stronger inflammation than hypertrophic scars, it is
these areas are thin: this means that it is difficult to find best to use both tension reduction sutures and
the superficial fascia and apply the subcutaneous/fascial Z-plasties during keloid revision surgery [5]. This sig-
tensile reduction sutures. Zigzag suturing is also good nificantly reduces the risk of recurrence (. Fig. 21.5).
for long suture wounds because it effectively disrupts the This risk is also strongly ameliorated by postoperative
tension on the resulting scar. As a result, zigzag suturing radiotherapy.
188 R. Ogawa
a b c d
.. Fig. 21.2 Chest wall scar revision. a Preoperative appearance of superficial sutures were placed. e View 2 years after surgery. The
the scar. b View after the scar and fatty tissues were removed. c View wound edges were undermined under the deep fascia, after which the
after the deep and superficial fasciae of the pectoralis major muscle deep fascia was strongly sutured. These deep sutures absorb 90% of
were sutured. d View immediately after the dermal sutures and the tension on the wound
21
189 21
a b c
d e f
.. Fig. 21.3 Abdominal wall scar revision. a Preoperative appear- fixation that was used to stabilize the wound and protect it from
ance of the scar and the design of the incisions. b View after the scar extrinsic mechanical forces. f View 2 years after surgery. The anterior
and fatty tissues were removed. c View after the deep and superficial sheath of the rectus abdominis muscle was strongly sutured. The
fasciae were sutured. d View immediately after dermal sutures and wound edges were smoothly elevated so that they attached naturally
superficial sutures were placed. e View of the postoperative taping to each other. Dermal sutures could then be placed
a b c d e
.. Fig. 21.4 Knee joint scar revision. a Preoperative appearance of necessary to dissipate the tension on the wound by using zigzag line
the scar and the design of the incisions and Z-plasties. b View imme- suturing methods such as the Z-plasty: this approach segments the
diately after the operation. c View 3 months after surgery. d View scar and thereby releases its tension. This in turn causes the chronic
6 months after surgery. e View 1 year after surgery. In the case of tension-induced inflammation that is driving pathological scar
limb surgery, it is difficult to place deep tissue sutures. Therefore, it is growth to wane over time
190 R. Ogawa
a b c
d e
.. Fig. 21.5 Anterior chest keloid treatment using tension reduc- sutures and superficial sutures were placed. e View 2 years after sur-
tion sutures, Z-plasties, and postoperative radiotherapy. a Preopera- gery. In cases of keloid revision surgery, great care is needed to
tive appearance of the keloid and the design of the incisions. b View decrease the powerful chronic inflammation that is driving the
after the scar and fatty tissues were removed. c View immediately growth of the scar. A combination of tension reduction sutures,
after the deep and superficial fascial sutures were placed and the Z-plasty, and postoperative radiotherapy can effectively prevent
Z-plasties were designed. d View immediately after the dermal keloid recurrence after revision surgery
21.5 Conclusion Take-Home Messages

55 The risk of pathological scarring can be greatly
All four phases of wound healing are influenced by reduced by using subcutaneous/fascial tensile
mechanical forces. These mechanical forces provoke reduction sutures.
chronic inflammation of the dermis and cause patho- 55 Dermal sutures do not effectively reduce tension
logical scars. Dermal sutures do not effectively reduce on the dermis: rather, to achieve this, we must
tension on the dermis: rather, to achieve this, we must access much deeper structures, namely, the superfi-
access much deeper structures, namely, the superficial cial and deep fascia, and suture them.
and deep fascia, and suture them. Another way to pre- 55 A study showed that deep fascia suturing reduced
vent pathological scar formation in high-tension areas about 90% of the tension on the wound edge,
is to use zigzag suturing techniques such as the while superficial fascia suturing reduced the
Z-plasty. remaining 10%.
55 Z-plasty is particularly suitable for joint or limb
surgery because the fatty tissues layers in these
areas are thin: this means that it is difficult to find
the superficial fascia and apply the subcutaneous/
fascial tensile reduction sutures.
21
191 21
References 4. Ogawa R, Akaishi S, Huang C, Dohi T, Aoki M, Omori Y, Koike
S, Kobe K, Akimoto M, Hyakusoku H. Clinical applications of
basic research that shows reducing skin tension could prevent and
1. Levenson SM, Geever EF, Crowley LV, Oates JF III, Berard
treat abnormal scarring: the importance of fascial/subcutaneous
CW, Rosen H. The healing of rat skin wounds. Ann Surg.
tensile reduction sutures and flap surgery for keloid and hypertro-
1965;161:293–308.
phic scar reconstruction. J Nippon Med Sch. 2011;78(2):68–76.
2. Ogawa R. Mechanobiology of scarring. Wound Repair Regen.
5. Arima J, Dohi T, Kuribayashi S, Akaishi S, Ogawa R. Z-plasty
2011;19(Suppl 1):s2–9.
and postoperative radiation therapy for anterior chest wall
3. Harn HI, Ogawa R, Hsu CK, Hughes MW, Tang MJ, Chuong
keloids: an analysis of 141 patients. Plast Reconstr Surg Glob
CM. The tension biology of wound healing. Exp Dermatol.
Open. IN PRESS 2019.
2017.
193 22
Treatment of Immature Scars:

Evidence-Based Techniques
and Treatments
Contents
22.1 Techniques for the Treatment of Immature Scars – 195

22.1.1 ressure Therapy – 195
P
22.1.2 Silicone-Based Products – 197
22.1.3 Onion Extract – 197
22.1.4 Pulsed Dye Laser (PDL) – 198
22.1.5 Fractional Ablative Carbon Dioxide (CO2) Laser – 198
22.1.6 Nonablative Erbium Glass (Er:Glass) Laser – 199
References – 201

Background ring disorders. Flavonoids, too, have proven a promising

Effective scar treatment has come a long way in recent option for the prevention of excessive scarring in recent
years. Classifications allow us to differentiate between years.
individual types of scars and allow us to propose Through the advent of newer techniques for the treat-
scientifically proven therapeutic regimes to improve even ment of hypertrophic scars and keloids and fresh insights
severe pathological scarring. This has helped not only in into the pathophysiology of excessive scarring, new
improving functional and aesthetic results in the affected methods for scar prevention are currently making their
patients but also to ameliorate their oftentimes severely way into routine practice.
impaired quality of life. Since fractional photothermolysis has shown its
However, efforts have long been underway to prevent potential in mitigating proliferative scarring and aiding
pathological scarring altogether. Hopes are that through scar remodeling in mature scars, more and more research-
early intervention in fresh scars, excessive scarring can be ers are attempting to alter these ongoing processes in
limited or prevented altogether. fresh scars to prevent excessive scarring.
The use of compression garments or silicone gel This chapter explores the different modalities for scar
sheeting has long been established to steer the scar matu- prevention (see . Table 22.1), their mode of action, and
ration process away from excessive and proliferative scar- the evidence supporting their use.
.. Table 22.1 Treatment modalities for immature scars, their indications, and recommendations for treatment
Treatment Indication Treatment paradigm

modality
Pressure Gold standard for burn injuries after skin grafting Begin treatment as soon as the skin grafts are stable
therapy or after deeper second-degree burns that have enough or after reepithelialization in wounds that have
healed without surgery healed without surgery
Garments should be worn for as close to 24 hours per
day as possible for 6 to 12 months, depending on the
level of scar activity
Garments should be replaced regularly, at least every 3
months so as to ensure sufficiency
As an adjunct after earlobe keloid excision Pressure earrings should be worn for as close to 24
hours per day as possible after surgery to minimize the
risk of keloid resurgence, starting on the day of suture
removal
Children with linear hypertrophic scarring or Same treatment paradigm as in burn scarring.
keloids, where intralesional treatment is not an Especially in younger children, sudden growth can
option require frequent garment replacement
Silicone- First-line therapy for linear and widespread Sheets or patches should be applied to the desired area
based hypertrophic scarring as well as minor keloids and for 12 to 24 hours per day. Treatment times can vary
products first option for the prevention of hypertrophic depending on scar activity, but 3 to 6 months of
scarring treatment should be performed
Gels should be applied to the scarred area two to three
times per day. They are better suited for mobile areas
close to joints
Onion Can be considered for the treatment of Treatment recommendations vary depending on the
extract hypertrophic scarring or scar prevention manufacturer
Patches are commonly applied for 6 to 12 hours
overnight for 3 to 6 months
Pulsed dye Can be considered for the treatment of No clear recommendations or fixed treatment
22 laser (PDL) erythematous and pruritic postsurgical scars paradigms exist; however, studies indicate that up to
three treatment sessions are required for favorable
results
Treatment of Immature Scars: Evidence-Based Techniques and Treatments
195 22
.. Table 22.1 (Continued)
Treatment Indication Treatment paradigm

modality
In most studies, treatment is begun at the date of

suture removal or shortly thereafter
Fractional Should be considered in patients where excessive Expert committees recommend starting treatment one
ablative scarring is expected (after severe burns/trauma) to three months after the original injury to modulate
CO2 laser the scarring process
Again, no carefully researched treatment paradigms
exist; however, based on the data available,
low-density, high-energy treatment of the deep dermis
in combination with careful superficial smoothening
seems favorable
Experimentally, the laser has been used To aid with the wound healing, this laser has been
intraoperatively for scar improvement used to treat the wound margins intraoperatively
before placing the sutures. One to two passes of
low-density, high-energy laser treatment were
performed on the wound margins
Thus far, this research was mostly empiric and
uncontrolled; thus, no recommendations regarding its
use can be made, and caution should be used when
considering it
Fractional Indications for this laser are similar to those of Treatment with the Er:Glass laser has less side effects
nonablative the CO2 laser than with the CO2 laser; however, its treatment effects
Er:Glass are reduced as well, thus requiring more sessions for
laser similar results
As with the CO2 laser, little research on the potential
for immature scar treatment has been performed, so no
clear recommendations can be made
22.1 Techniques for the Treatment lagen. A recent preclinical study by DeBruler et al.
of Immature Scars investigated the effects of early pressure garment appli-
cation after skin grafting in burned Duroc pigs and
22.1.1 Pressure Therapy found an increased level of matrix metalloprotease-1
(MMP1) in pigs that received pressure garment treat-
Upon the discovery of the clinical effects of pressure ment within 1 week of grafting [1]. While further
garments on hypertrophic burn scarring by Silverstein research on the matter is required and influences on the
and Larson in the late 1960s, the results of further levels of collagen I and III or transforming growth fac-
research on the topic performed at Shriners Burns tor 1 could not be proven, increased levels of MMP1
Institute in Galveston, Texas, were published in the which is a known contributor in scar remodeling might
early 1970s. This led to the onset of pressure garment help to explain the effects of pressure garment therapy.
therapy use to prevent hypertrophic scar formation in Pressure garments come in the form of stockings,
burn patients. Ever since, this method has become the pants, sleeves, suits, bandages, girdles, and clip-on ear-
gold standard for scar prevention in burn patients in rings, and for locations that are hard to reach through
many countries around the world. While the exact mode circularly applied pressure, special pelottes can routinely
of action has not been fully understood, pressure gar- be fitted to allow for effective treatment of nearly every
ment therapy supposedly decreases capillary perfusion anatomic location. Garments should be worn for as
in the affected tissue, thus leading to localized tissue close to 24 hours per day as possible and are usually rec-
hypoxia which in turn increases the rate of fibroblast ommended for at least 6–12 months. In patients showing
apoptosis, thus leading to a reduced production of col- scar activity after 12 months, treatment is often pro-
longed for up to 18 months. Being worn for such long ness when treating patients with garments with at least
times takes a significant toll on the garments which 15 mmHg of pressure, and Engrav et al. demonstrated
loosen drastically over time, thus requiring regular that scars under compression were noticeably softer and
replacement to ensure sufficient pressure. In our experi- thinner in their clinical study in 2010 aided by objective
ence, garment replacement is necessary at least every measuring devices. However, a large meta-analysis by
3 months. To allow patients to wash their compression Anzarut et al. in 2009 was unable to discern differences
garments regularly, at least two complete sets should be in scars treated with pressure garments and untreated
available at any given time. In patients with physically scars [2]. In 2013, Atiyeh et al. came to a similar conclu-
demanding jobs, wear times might be reduced even fur- sion and questioned the widespread use and recommen-
ther, and more pairs for regular changing might be dation, especially in the light of the often poor patient
required. compliance and the resultant cost-effectiveness of this
Pressure garment therapy is very taxing on the course of treatment. Especially in burn patients, this
patient and compliance is often lacking. Especially dur- course of treatment, however, has become the accepted
ing the summer, patients experience sweating and skin standard. This makes randomized controlled trials with
maceration, as well as strong odor. In countries without an untreated patient population nearly impossible on
comprehensive health insurance, treatment cost is ethical grounds, thus limiting the designs of further
another important factor. Even in patients where only studies investigating this treatment method.
small areas of the body are affected, treatment over the Thus far, based upon many different studies indicat-
course of a year will easily cost between one and two ing the clinical efficacy of pressure garment therapy,
thousand euros for a small pressure garment like a glove current guidelines for the treatment and prevention of
(. Fig. 22.1) or a sleeve alone, whereas larger pieces or pathological scarring recommend its use while noting
even suits for the whole body will cost low to medium the less than robust level of evidence.
five-figure sums, especially when combined with other Furthermore, pressure garment therapy can be con-
treatment modalities. sidered in children with linear hypertrophic scarring or
The current consensus on the pressure applied through keloids, where intralesional treatment is abandoned
garments recommends between 20 and 25 mmHg, as because of side effects or the associated risk of the treat-
studies have shown a higher efficacy when compared to ment and pressure garment therapy has empirically
lower-pressure garments (10–15 mmHg). shown greater efficacy than in adults.
Even though pressure garment therapy has now been In patients that received surgical treatment for ear-
in clinical use for over 40 years, hard clinical data on its lobe keloids, pressure earrings have been shown to
efficacy is largely missing, and the existing literature is greatly reduce the risk of keloid recurrence and are thus
quite heterogenous. regularly recommended as an adjunct. Pressure earrings
Early adopters of the technique like Larson, Kischer, are readily available from specialized orthopedic techni-
and Tolhurst reported favorable results on the reduction cians, and if keloids are excised elsewhere on the ear, like
of hypertrophic scar formation. More recently, Van den on the helix, tragus, or other parts of the ear, special
Kerckhove et al. reported positive effects on scar thick- splints can be custom-made.
22
.. Fig. 22.1 Patient with severe burn scarring of the left hand wearing a compression glove. The glove allows full function (full finger flexion
and extension) while providing full coverage
197 22
22.1.2 Silicone-Based Products In 2001, Gold et al. showed that patients suffering
from abnormal scarring showed significantly less hyper-
Silicone-based products come in a variety of forms. trophic scarring when treated with silicone gel sheeting
They are available as creams, oils, gels, or, most com- after skin surgery compared to an untreated group of
monly, patches or sheets that can be applied to the patients.
affected areas. Their mode of action regarding the treat- However, a variety of studies have failed to docu-
ment and prevention of excessive scarring has not yet ment significant effects regarding scar prevention of
been fully understood, but it is stipulated that the occlu- treatment through silicone-based products. In 1998,
sive effect of the silicone inhibits the transepidermal loss Niessen et al. failed to show positive effects regarding
of water (TEWL), thus ensuring sufficient hydration of scar prevention through silicone gel sheeting and even
the skin. Thus far, no properties of silicone, which reported a higher rate of hypertrophic scar development
directly influence the process of scarring, have been dis- than in their control group treated with nonocclusive
covered. micropore in their breast reduction scar model.
Treatment with silicone-based products can be Cochrane Reviews in 2006 and 2013 noted the gener-
started after complete reepithelialization of the wounds. ally poor quality of prevention and treatment studies
Sheets or patches should be applied for 12–24 hours per analyzing the effects of silicone regarding pathological
day throughout 3–6 months. Gel- or cream-based sili- scarring [3]. While seemingly reducing the risk of abnor-
cone products are better suited for areas that are subject mal scarring in high-risk patients and improving scar
to constant motion (i.e., large joints) where wound parameters such as color and softness in existing scars,
dressings might prove unsuitable. To achieve the desired significant bias was a main critique point in most studies.
effect, applying the gel two to three times daily is recom- Nevertheless, silicone gel sheeting is recommended
mended. as a first-line therapy for linear and widespread hyper-
Patches and sheets come in many different forms and trophic scarring, as well as minor keloids in national and
thicknesses. Commonly, thicker sheets last longer than international guidelines on the management of patho-
thinner ones. Larger sheets can be cut into the desired logical scarring, and has furthermore been noted as an
size. They should be cleaned with water and special important option for the prevention of excessive
cleaning solutions that come with the product regularly scarring.
and can be put back on their carrier foil for storing in
between applications. Reusing a single sheet is usually
possible for 6–8 weeks, before the silicone disintegrates 22.1.3 Onion Extract
and becomes gelatinous in its structure, whereupon a
fresh sheet should be used. Products that contain onion extract have seen increas-
Side effects or allergies to silicone-based products are ing popularity for the treatment of immature scars in
rarely observed. Skin maceration through the occlusive recent years. They are available as creams or patches
effect is possible, whereupon patients can reduce the and commonly include adjuncts such as allantoin or
application time of the silicone. heparin. Onion extract contains quercetin, a flavonoid
Silicone has been used in the treatment of immature that has anti-oxidative and anti-inflammatory proper-
scars since the early 1980s, where it was first used in the ties. Experimental research has suggested that quercetin
Adelaide Children’s Hospital for the treatment of burn influences transforming growth factor beta 1 and 2 and
scars. Ever since, it has become one of the pillars for SMAD signaling pathways, thus inhibiting fibroblast
early scar intervention. Different prevention and treat- proliferation and collagen synthesis. In cell cultures, it
ment studies have reported outcomes documenting the has also been shown to induce matrix metalloprotein-
efficacy of silicone for preventing scar hypertrophy. ase-1 expression, thus influencing extracellular matrix
Cruz-Korchin compared patients after bilateral mam- remodeling.
moplasty, after which the scars on one breast were Scar treatment is begun after complete reepithelial-
dressed with silicone sheets for 12 hours a day for 2 ization of the wound is complete. Onion extract patches
months while the other remained without preventative are commonly used overnight, where they are applied
treatment. Results demonstrated scar hypertrophy in for 6–12 hours over the course of 12–24 weeks, though
60% of the untreated breasts after 2 months, whereas no clear recommendations regarding the length of
only 25% of the scars in the treatment group showed treatment exist to date. Gels are often applied multiple
hypertrophy. Ahn et al., in 1991, could demonstrate that times throughout the day for weeks or months, accord-
surgical incisions treated with silicone gel bandages ing to manufacturer recommendations, though there is
showed less proclivity for hypertrophy than an untreated a variance between different formulations and manu-
control. facturers.
Regarding the efficacy of onion-extract-based prod- laser potential for the treatment of erythematous and
ucts, different studies documented significant potential pruritic scars, for which it is routinely considered.
regarding the prevention of pathological scarring. Recently, however, more and more authors have started
Draelos et al. reported a significantly improved appear- treating fresh postsurgical scars with the PDL to eluci-
ance of fresh surgical scars treated with onion extract gel date whether this can favorably alter the process of scar
when compared with a control group in two different maturation. McGraw et al. were the first to publish a
studies in 2008 and 2012. Parameters positively influ- study on the prevention of hypertrophic scarring with
enced through the treatment included scar softness, red- the PDL in 1999. They found that early treatment within
ness, texture, and global appearance. In 2006, Ho et al. the first few weeks after trauma or surgery resulted in a
evaluated the effects of onion extract gel on scarring after faster resolution of scar stiffness and erythema, as well
Q-switched Nd:YAG laser tattoo removal in a Chinese as a decreased frequency of hypertrophic scarring.
patient population and reported significantly less scarring Furthermore, they noted an improved scar quality due
in the treatment group than in the control group. to the good color match with the healthy skin. In 2003,
In 2018, a randomized controlled study by Prager Nouri et al. published similar findings. In their study,
et al. on 125 subjects with fresh postsurgical scars that they included 11 patients with 12 postoperative linear
were treated with an overnight patch containing onion scars that were divided into a treated and an untreated
extract, allantoin, and heparin demonstrated signifi- half. Overall, three sessions of 585 nm PDL treatment at
cantly better rated scars by both patients and investiga- monthly intervals were performed, whereupon the cos-
tors after 12 and 24 weeks of treatment when compared metic appearance of the treated scars was reportedly sig-
to the control group [4]. Overall treatment comfort was nificantly better, when analyzed by a blinded examiner
good, and no safety concerns were identified. using the Vancouver Scar Scale. In 2006, however, Alam
Some studies have, however, come up with less posi- et al. found no significant difference in their randomized
tive conclusions. Chung et al. investigated the effects of controlled trial, where fresh postsurgical scars were
an onion extract gel when compared with a petrolatum treated with one pass of PDL treatment upon suture
emollient on fresh surgical scars and found no difference removal. They noted that 6 weeks after treatment, both
between the treatments. Ocampo-Candini et al. pub- groups had improved while the result of neither group
lished a randomized controlled trial documenting the was superior. In 2011, Kim et al. examined the effect of
development of Pfannenstiel scars after cesarean section three sessions of PDL treatment followed by three ses-
under treatment with onion extract gel and found no sions of fractional ablative erbium:YAG laser treatment
significant improvement over their untreated control on fresh thyroidectomy scars and noticed favorable
group when comparing POSAS scores. effects after PDL treatment with 83% of patients express-
Overall, this relatively new treatment option requires ing satisfaction with the result. Er:YAG treatment fur-
further intense scientific evaluation to improve the level ther improved the observed results [5].
of evidence regarding its efficacy. Due to the promising To date, further studies on the potential of the PDL
data that has been collected thus far, current guidelines as an option in the treatment of fresh postsurgical scars
support the consideration of onion-extract-based for- to quicken scar maturation and to prevent scar hyper-
mulations for the treatment of hypertrophic scarring as trophy exist. However, most studies lack a long-term
well as the prevention of excessive scarring after surgery. follow-up that encompasses the entirety of the natural
length of scar maturation (12–18 months), thus inhibit-
ing judgment about whether the final results are supe-
22.1.4 Pulsed Dye Laser (PDL) rior to an untreated control or simply accelerate the
process. Therefore, so far, no clear recommendations on
The pulsed dye laser is a nonablative laser with a wave- the use of the PDL for scar prevention can be made,
length of 585 or 595 nm. Its target chromophore is oxy- while the current literature indicates that positive results
genized hemoglobin, and application of the laser will at the cost of low rates of side effects can be achieved.
therefore lead to coagulation of capillaries, thus induc-
ing tissue hypoxemia. In scar tissue, this effect will
induce a reduction of profibrotic processes and stimu- 22.1.5 ractional Ablative Carbon Dioxide
F
late scar remodeling. (CO2) Laser
Alster et al. reported significant therapeutic benefits
22 of the PDL for the treatment of keloids in 1995; however,
other research groups failed to replicate their findings
While the 10,800 nm carbon dioxide (CO2) laser has
been around for decades, the recent development of
with some even showing high numbers of recurrence. fractional lasers has led to a significant expansion of its
Further clinical research, however, has established the therapeutic range.
199 22
In fractional units, the laser beam is divided into an et al. performed a split-scar study on 15 three-week-old
array of smaller columns, leaving untreated skin islets in scars. Two laser passes were delivered at 80 mJ with a
between. The divided laser columns ablate tissue and density of 100 microbeams/cm2 achieving a total cover-
can reach depths of up to 4 mm newer models, with age of 15.6%. During the final observation, 3 months
maybe their most important effects taking place in the after treatment, a significant improvement of Vancouver
dermis. Through the heating of the surrounding tissue, Scar Scale values superior to those made in the control
fractional CO2 laser treatment activates heat-shock pro- group was found. Especially, scar pliability and thick-
teins which in turn stimulate antifibrotic factors such as ness improvements were larger than those in the control
transforming growth factor beta 3 (TGF-β3) and matrix group, while vascularity and pigmentation did not differ
metalloproteinases, thus stimulating scar remodeling. considerably.
Additionally, through classic tissue ablation, scar sur- Overall, more research on the fractional CO2 laser’s
face irregularities can effectively be smoothened through abilities regarding scar prevention is required. While ini-
use of the CO2 laser. tial research shows promising results and the molecular
After the discovery of these effects through experi- defects thus far discovered suggest that early interven-
mental research, different clinical studies have since used tion could lead to a normalization of the dermal archi-
the fractional CO2 laser to treat mature burn scars. tecture in scar tissue, many issues remain to be elucidated.
Recent studies found that a single treatment can improve To exclude natural scar regression, which is an impor-
scar softness and surface irregularities by up to 30% all tant factor in hypertrophic scarring, as a factor, long-
the while positively influencing patient quality of life. term follow-up of over 12–18 months is required, as well
While further research is warranted, current guidelines as including a control group.
for the treatment of excessive scarring are recommend- Nevertheless, expert committees suggest that early
ing the CO2 laser for treatment in severe widespread treatment, 1–3 months after the original injury, should
hypertrophic scarring. be considered, especially when excessive scarring is
Side effects of the treatment commonly include expected. Thus far, no study researching early laser
swelling and oozing of the wounds throughout the first intervention found evidence of increased scarring or
days after treatment, as well as erythema, which com- other severe side effects, thus supporting the safety the
monly recede within 1–2 weeks after treatment. In the laser is known for in mature scar treatment.
author’s experience, when treating severe scarring with
higher fluences, posttreatment hyperpigmentation often
occurs but tapers off after 4–6 months after treatment. 22.1.6 onablative Erbium Glass (Er:Glass)
N
Since the fractional CO2 laser has seen great success Laser
in the treatment of mature widespread scarring and
experimental studies suggest that this laser is able to The 1550 nm erbium glass (Er:Glass) laser is a nonabla-
normalize the oftentimes greatly disturbed architecture tive fractional laser. It does not remove tissue but merely
of the dermal matrix, research is under way to establish applies heat in a controlled way and leaves the epidermis
the CO2 laser’s abilities regarding excessive scar preven- intact. Through the application of heat in the dermis, its
tion through the treatment of immature scars. effect there is similar to those of the carbon dioxide laser,
In 2011, Ozog et al. examined the intraoperative use albeit at a reduced rate of side effects. Since treatment
of the fractional CO2 laser. Before wound closure, one- with the Er:Glass laser does not leave wounds, downtime
half of the wound margins were treated with one to two is greatly reduced. Patients commonly experience light
passes of Active FX (Lumenis Ultrapulse, Santa Clara, swelling and posttreatment erythema for a few days.
California, USA), before the wound was closed. Upon Regarding its efficacy for early scar intervention,
the final evaluation of the scars after 2–3 months post thus far, few studies exist. Tierney et al. compared PDL
surgery, both patients and examiners rated the laser- and Er:Glass laser treatment in 2-month-old scars after
treated scar halves superior to the untreated halves [6]. Mohs surgery in 2009. The study was performed in a
Jung et al., also in 2011, treated immature thyroidec- split-scar fashion, and patients were blinded as to what
tomy scars 2–3 weeks after surgery with a fractional CO2 side was being treated with which laser. Every scar
laser. Patients were treated with two passes, 50 mJ of received four treatment sessions at four-week intervals,
energy and 100 microbeams/cm2 with a coverage of and follow-up was performed 1 month after the last
12.7%. Analysis of the treatment effect after 3 months treatment session. Overall, patients preferred the results
revealed significantly improved Vancouver Scar Scale of the Er:Glass-laser-treated scars (83% of patients).
scores, as well as significantly improved values measured Regarding the scar parameters, pigmentation, scar
with a skin durometer [7]. However, no comparison with thickness, and overall aesthetic outcome were all supe-
an untreated control group was performed. In 2013, Lee rior in the Er:Glass group [8].
In 2014, Ha et al. compared the effects of PDL treat- they show promise in alleviating scar redness and firm-
ment to Er:Glass laser treatment in a split-scar study on ness as well as improving further scar parameters. While
2–3-week-old thyroidectomy scars. Overall, both groups additional research will determine the future role of this
saw significantly improved scar ratings 6 months after treatment modality, the low side-effect profile and the
treatment. Patients reported that they found the PDL appearance of natural ingredients appeal to many
treated scars less apparent; however, pliability appeared patients. In the treatment of mature scars, and increas-
superior in the Er:Glass-laser-treated scars [9]. In their ingly so in the treatment of fresh scars, lasers cannot be
2014 study, Shin et al. performed another split-scar study, ignored. While PDL treatment has been around for years
this time comparing ablative fractional CO2 laser treat- and its use in immature scars to alleviate pruritus and
ment to Er:Glass laser treatment. After three treatment erythema has been well researched and documented,
sessions in 2-month intervals, follow-up examinations 3 researchers are more and more focusing on fractional
months after the last laser session revealed significant lasers. Their effects on dermal matrix remodeling through
improvement of the scarring in both groups without sta- the stimulation of heat-shock proteins and the resultant
tistically significant differences between the groups over- effects on transforming growth factor beta isotypes and
all. However, the CO2 laser group showed greater the concentration of matrix metalloproteases have
improvement of scar hardness, while the Er:Glass-laser- resulted in researchers trying to employ these effects to
treated scars proved superior regarding their color [10]. modulate the active scar process in favor of remodeling
Overall, current research has shown promise regard- rather than excessive fibrosis. While initial research, both
ing the Er:Glass laser’s efficacy for early scar interven- for the ablative CO2 laser and for the nonablative Er:Glass
tion. However, thus far, few clinical studies are available, laser, has shown promising results, most recent studies
thus requiring further research on the matter. As with lack sufficient follow-up observation time. To assess
other laser modalities for the treatment of immature whether clinically measured effects are caused through
scars, further studies should focus on longer follow-up treatment and not through natural scar regression over
times as well as larger group samples to further improve time, scar maturation must be waited for to make a final
the level of evidence. conclusion. To date, this presents the largest problems
with most research on immature scars. Overall, however,
patients today can rely on a variety of promising options
22.2 Conclusion for the prevention of excessive scarring. While not every
patient requires a robust prevention regimen after surgi-
Efforts to prevent pathological scarring have been under- cal intervention, care should be taken to identify patients
way for many decades. One of the most established meth- at risk for excessive scarring and to tailor a treatment
ods is pressure garment therapy, which has been used in algorithm according to their needs. After all, preventing
the prevention of widespread hypertrophic burn scarring a hypertrophic scar or keloid from forming saves patients
since the early 1970s. Years of use have seen this modality from months or years of strenuous symptoms and treat-
become the gold standard, and thus, pressure garments ment. Furthermore, today, most algorithms for the pre-
are routinely prescribed for most burn patients in the vention of excessive scarring are well tolerated and go
developed world. However, upon further inspection of along with minimal treatment discomfort and side effects.
the evidence, hard clinical data on the efficacy of pressure
garment therapy is only scarcely available. Furthermore,
patient discomfort is often high, leading to infrequent Take-Home Messages
treatment compliance. Other options for the treatment of 55 Pressure garment therapy is the gold standard
immature scarring are tolerated better. Silicone gel sheet- for the prevention of widespread scarring, e.g.,
ing is often applied throughout the night, and its contin- after burns. Even though it has been in use since
ued use has been shown to improve scar pliability and the early 1970s, evidence for its efficacy is largely
height in connection with little to no side effects. Clinical empiric. Additionally, side effects of pressure gar-
evidence, however, is not as explicit as frequent mentions ment therapy often lead to low compliance which
in national and international guidelines for the treatment affects the treatment efficacy.
and prevention of pathological scarring might infer. 55 Silicone gel sheeting has proven effective in soften-
Similar in their application to silicone-based products, ing scars, and its use shows little to no side effects.
onion- extract-
based gels, creams, and patches have Its mode of action, however, remains largely
appeared on the market in recent years. Often combined unknown, and recent meta-analyses question its
22 with further active ingredients like allantoin and heparin, efficacy.
they are specifically marketed for use in fresh scars, where
201 22
References
55 Onion-extract-based products are available as
creams and patches. Early research has shown 1. DeBruler DM, Baumann ME, Blackstone BN, Zbinden JC,
promise regarding the prevention of pathological McFarland KL, Bailey JK, et al. Role of early application of
scarring, but further research is needed to further pressure garments following burn injury and autografting. Plas
Reconstr Surg. 2019;143(2):310e–21e.
elucidate its role in the treatment of immature 2. Anzarut A, Olson J, Singh P, Rowe BH, Tredget EE. The effec-
scars. tiveness of pressure garment therapy for the prevention of
55 PDL treatment has been found to improve pruri- abnormal scarring after burn injury: a meta-analysis. J Plast
tus, erythema, and stiffness in fresh postsurgical Reconstr Aesthet Surg. 2009;62(1):77–84.
scars; however, the overall level of evidence for 3. O’Brien L, Jones DJ. Silicone gel sheeting for preventing and
treating hypertrophic and keloid scars. Cochrane Database Syst
immature scar treatment is low. Rev. 2013(9):Cd003826.
55 Fractional CO2 laser treatment has been shown to 4. Prager W, Gauglitz GG. Effectiveness and safety of an overnight
affect dermal matrix remodeling and is therefore patch containing Allium cepa extract and Allantoin for post-der-
increasingly used to modulate immature scars. matologic surgery scars. Aesthet Plast Surg. 2018;42(4):1144–50.
While initial studies show promise and scar pliabil- 5. Kim HS, Kim BJ, Lee JY, Kim HO, Park YM. Effect of the
595-nm pulsed dye laser and ablative 2940-nm Er:YAG frac-
ity and height seem to improve through treatment, tional laser on fresh surgical scars: an uncontrolled pilot study. J
long-term follow-up is crucial in future studies to Cosmet Laser Ther. 2011;13(4):176–9.
further strengthen the clinical evidence for this 6. Ozog DM, Moy RL. A randomized split-scar study of intraop-
therapeutic option. erative treatment of surgical wound edges to minimize scarring.
55 Fractional nonablative Er:Glass laser treatment Arch Dermatol. 2011;147(9):1108–10.
7. Jung JY, Jeong JJ, Roh HJ, Cho SH, Chung KY, Lee WJ, et al.
employs a similar mode of action, much like the Early postoperative treatment of thyroidectomy scars using a frac-
CO2 laser, but does not ablate tissue. Thus, down- tional carbon dioxide laser. Dermatol Surg. 2011;37(2):217–23.
time and side effects are greatly reduced. 8. Tierney E, Mahmoud BH, Srivastava D, Ozog D, Kouba
55 Scar prevention is imperative in patients with a DJ. Treatment of surgical scars with nonablative fractional laser
history of pathological scarring to avoid severe versus pulsed dye laser: a randomized controlled trial. Dermatol
Surg. 2009;35(8):1172–80.
functional, aesthetic, and psychosocial impair- 9. Ha JM, Kim HS, Cho EB, Park GH, Park EJ, Kim KH, et al.
ments. Comparison of the effectiveness of nonablative fractional laser
55 Most modern methods for scar prevention have a versus pulsed-dye laser in thyroidectomy scar prevention. Ann
minimal likelihood of severe side effects, and treat- Dermatol. 2014;26(5):615–20.
ment discomfort is commonly very low. 10. Shin JU, Gantsetseg D, Jung JY, Jung I, Shin S, Lee JH. Comparison
of non-ablative and ablative fractional laser treatments in a post-
operative scar study. Lasers Surg Med. 2014;46(10):741–9.
203 23
Silicone Gel for Scar Prevention

Thomas A. Mustoe
Contents
23.1 History – 204
23.2 The Role of the Epithelium in Scar Formation – 204

23.2.1 elay in Epithelization – 204
D
23.2.2 Clinical Studies – 206
23.2.3 Sheets Versus Creams – 207

204 T. A. Mustoe
23.1 History 23.2.1 Delay in Epithelization
Silicone gel was first discovered to be useful in the When barrier function is disrupted by tissue injury, res-
treatment of scars by Perkins in Australia and New toration of the stratum corneum lags behind epitheliza-
Zealand when observations were made empirically tion which is initially only one cell layer thick as
that scars improved when silicone was used as part of epithelium rapidly migrates over an open wound, fol-
a dressing. The observations although anecdotal were lowed by stratification, followed eventually by a multi-
impressive enough that use spread to the UK, and at layered stratum corneum. However, there is evidence
the University of Strathclyde in Glasgow, Scotland, a that the immature stratum corneum does not become
biomedical engineering student, Karen Quinn, under- fully functional as a water barrier for weeks to months.
took a series of studies for her PhD thesis to determine During that time, there is a stimulus to restore homeo-
the mechanism of action and published a paper in static barrier function by increased epithelial prolifera-
burns [1]. She determined that neither heat nor pres- tion, as manifested by increases in thickness, alterations
sure nor silicone absorption or chemical effects were in differentiation markers in the immature differentiat-
responsible for its effects in studies done together with ing epithelium, and increased inflammatory mediator
surgeon from the Plastic Surgery Unit at Canniesburn synthesis [2].
(Professor Reid). By chance, I was visiting the In cell culture, prevention of water loss by a liquid or
Canniesburn Hospital for 2 weeks and had the oppor- high-humidity environment results in a reduction in sol-
tunity to observe the use of silicone gel, which was uble inflammatory mediators and consequently a reduc-
made by Dow Corning. They were already sponsoring tion in collagen synthesis in a coculture setup with
some of my studies at Washington University School fibroblasts [3, 4]. In vivo, in models in rabbits, rats, and
of Medicine, and I suggested a controlled clinical study mice, prevention of water loss from an epithelium with
which had not yet been done. The effects on immature an immature, deficient stratum corneum results in
hypertrophic scars were in some cases dramatic with increase in inflammatory mediators similar to those uti-
each patient serving as their own control. We subse- lizing human cells in an in vitro system [5]. There are
quently did a follow-up study on using silicone on very multiple highly upregulated factors including IL-1, IL-8,
early scars to prevent hypertrophy with equally encour- and Cox-2. In total, over 1000 genes are either upregu-
aging results. Although there was some skepticism, in lated or downregulated in an environment where tran-
part due to a lack of a clear mechanism of action, sub- sepidermal water loss (TEWL) is limited by a
sequent studies by several other investigators con- semiocclusive dressing versus no covering [6].
firmed the efficacy. I will detail some of these studies Humans are almost unique in their tendency to heal
later in this chapter. with excessive or hypertrophic scarring. In part this is
due to the “tight-skinned” characteristic of the human
skin which is tightly adherent to the underlying muscle
23.2 he Role of the Epithelium in Scar
T layer due to the lack of a panniculus carnosus. Thus,
Formation human wounds heal only part by wound contracture,
with both a delay in epithelization and also tension forces
Hypertrophic scars are due to an excess of collagen due to the constraints on skin contraction by adherence
deposition which is almost entirely from fibroblasts. to the underlying deeper tissues. The rabbit ear [7] mim-
The role of excess inflammation, myofibroblasts, and ics human skin in being firmly adherent to the underly-
other fibroblasts phenotypically that produce excess ing cartilage which splints the wound and minimizes
collagen, tension, and genetic factors all play a role in contracture. Healing is almost entirely due to epitheliza-
hypertrophic scar formation. Given that silicone is not tion, and with wounds larger than 6 mm in diameter,
absorbed into the skin and covers intact epithelium, the healing is delayed beyond 2 weeks which in humans is the
beneficial effects must be indirect through effects on the critical delay in healing sufficient to increase the risk of
epithelium. hypertrophic scars. In addition, during the healing pro-
The epithelium serves an important barrier function. cess, the fibroblasts in the granulation tissue are under
Water loss through the epithelium is limited by a func- tension because the contractile forces generated by the
tional stratum corneum, and disturbances in barrier myofibroblasts are counteracted by the resistance to con-
function are associated in many dermatologic condi- traction by the stiff underlying cartilage. Wounds on the
tions with increased inflammation instigated by inflam- rabbit ear heal with scar elevation (. Fig. 23.1) which
matory growth factors and other inflammatory both from gross visual appearance, and also histologi-
mediators produced by epidermal cells. Epithelial mes- cally closely mimic human hypertrophic scars. Larger
23 enchymal cell cross talk is well known. wounds with epithelization delayed beyond 2 weeks have
205 23
a b
.. Fig. 23.1 a A large scar in the rabbit ear created by full-thickness punch, healing is complete in about 2 weeks and the scar is elevated
removal of the skin followed by healing without dressings. b By cre- allowing quantification. This rabbit ear model has been used for all
ating small 6–8 mm in diameter full-thickness wounds with a circular of our experimental studies
greater scar elevation, and like humans, older rabbits member of the voltage-gated Na channels but lacks the
heal with flatter scars. The scars respond to interventions extracellular domain responsive for voltage gating. It’s
like local steroid and injections and blockers of fibrosis function previously has been unclear. NaX has been
including TGFB antibodies and antisense to CTGF, in found to be Na concentration sensor in the central ner-
which both growth factors induce collagen synthesis and vous system, but its function and presence in other
are upregulated in fibrotic processes. Silicone gel sheets organs and cell types had not been extensively studied.
and silicone cream both reduce scarring, and other semi- With a series of knockdown experiments in vitro, we
occlusive agents such as paper tape, polyurethane films, established that NaX controls the entire signal transduc-
cyanoacrylates, or stoma adhesive are also effective tion signaling seen with changes in Na concentration
which implicates occlusion as the working mechanism of and hydration in vitro in epithelial cells and also skin
silicone gel, when combined with negative data ruling explants. Utilizing our model of hypertrophic scarring
out absorption (chemical process) or heat or pressure. in the rabbit ear, we found treatment with antisense to
We have used this model to investigate the working NaX results in a very significant reduction in scarring,
mechanism of silicone gel or other occlusive dressings in a similar or greater to the effects of silicone gel.
series of experiments. In our model, silicone gel resulted in Furthermore blocking downstream signals including
decreased inflammatory cytokines including IL-1, TNF, Cox-2, IL-B, and the S-100 proteins also reduced scar-
IL-8, and Cox-2 among others. The net effect of increased ring. Blocking ENaC with a clinically used pharmaco-
hydration is a decrease in osmolarity and several extracel- logic agent, amiloride, also resulted in decreased
lular fluid ions including calcium, sodium, and chloride. scarring. Experiments to elucidate the signal transduc-
By controlling otherwise for potential ions and osmolarity, tion pathways further have established that NaX
we found that Na concentration was the critical factor responds or senses high salt with activation of a serine
controlling signaling for the inflammatory cytokines protease, prostasin, which activates ENaC. The impor-
affected by hydration. We also found that changes in extra- tance of NaX in controlling changes in the epithelium
cellular Na concentration resulted in changes in trans- includes profound changes in epithelial differentiation,
membrane Na flux which is mediated chiefly by the Na cell migration, and cell proliferation in knockdown
channel ENaC. Briefly, an increase in Na concentration experiments in vitro [4].
due to increased TEWL caused by a deficient epithelial In summary the application of silicone gel to an
barrier results in activation of ENaC which controls levels acute scar with a deficient epithelial water barrier due to
of COX-2 resulting in increased prostaglandins [3]. an immature stratum corneum results in decreased water
The question remained of how increases in Na con- loss (TEWL). This prevents the increase in Na concen-
centration are sensed resulting in activation of tration which otherwise results in an NaX-mediated
ENaC. We looked for changes in all of the candidate Na complex signal transduction pathway which includes
channels in epitheilia cells that could conceivably downstream activation of ENaC as well as hundreds of
respond to changes in Na concentration and found only other genes, mirroring the kind of broad changes in
one channel, Nax, had a significant response. Nax is a gene expression found to be controlled by many cyto-
206 T. A. Mustoe
kines such as TGFB. Other occlusive treatments are also ment was sustained after treatment was terminated. At
effective, but the degree of occlusion is important (com- the same time, there were a substantial reduction in scar
plete occlusion results in excessive hydration with erythema and flattening of the scar clinically which was
impacts on surface bacterial levels as well as undesirable obvious on photographs. We saw no response in a keloid
physical changes in the epithelium). and much more impressive results in immature scars,
with minor effects or no effect on mature scars (scars
older than 1 year without erythema).
23.2.2 Clinical Studies In a follow-up study (. Fig. 23.3), we wanted to see
if we could prevent the development of hypertrophic
The first controlled clinical study to demonstrate effi- scars by beginning treatment early on surgical incisional
cacy of silicone gel utilized silicone gel sheets applied to scars. Again, a portion of the incision was treated with
portions of immature hypertrophic scars due to burns, an adjacent area untreated [10]. We again utilized pho-
trauma, or surgery, in an effort to treat immature hyper- tography but wanted to quantify the scar volumes for an
trophic scars (. Fig. 23.2). Treatment went on for objective quantitative measure. Dental alginate was used
3 months with application of the gel for 12 hours. We to make a negative impression which was then converted
found that 24-hour treatment led to maceration and was to a positive impression using dental plaster in similar
poorly tolerated. One of the challenges was to quantify fashion to the way dentists take dental impressions for
the improvement in scarring. Although photographic models used in a variety of dental and oral surgical pro-
evidence is essential, rating scar severity remains chal- cedures. The positive molds there then burred down to a
lenging and is ultimately nonquantitative. In an effort to totally flat surface and volumes calculated by measuring
have a completely objective and quantitative method of the difference in weights. Treated areas of the scars were
measuring scar severity, we turned to measuring the scar found to have significantly less volumes as long as the
stiffness. Scars are stiffer (less elastic) than normal skin, untreated scar developed some hypertrophy. Not sur-
and as scars improve they become more pliable or more prisingly, in scars that healed favorably, minimal or no
elastic. Utilizing an extensometer which measures the differences were seen.
amount of stretch when the skin is subjected to a given Initially, although these studies received considerable
force, we were able to calculate Young’s modulus and get attention, even in the popular press, there was some
an objective measure of scar stiffness. We first used an skepticism by many clinicians, due in part to the lack of
extensometer to measure the stiffness of burn scars and mechanism. Over the subsequent years, many studies
found that older scars were more elastic and there was a have confirmed the observations we made relying on
very good correlation with age of burn scar to stiffness subjective evaluation of scar severity using a variety of
of the scar over several years [8]. In our scar study, we scar severity scales such as the Vancouver Scar Scale and
found a highly statistically significant reduction in stiff- Patient and Observer Scar Assessment Scale (POSAS).
ness that reached closed to its maximum after 2 months In 2002, an international group developed an evidence-
of treatment, with only minor changes by extending based analysis to develop guidelines for treatment [11]
treatment for 3 months [9]. Furthermore, the improve- and found that there was strong evidence for the use of
a b
23 .. Fig. 23.2 a Partial-thickness immature hypertrophic burn scar. The square marks the planned treatment area with silicone gel. b After 2
months of treatment, the treated area is flatter, more pliable, and less pink
207 23
a b
.. Fig. 23.3 a A fresh surgical incision prior to treatment. One untreated scar is slightly elevated and pink in color. The area of the
area of the scar is going to be treated preventively with the other scar treated with silicone gel sheeting is flatter and less pink in
portion of the scar serving as comparison. b After 2 months, the color
silicone gel both for the treatment and prevention of cream will be rubbed off. Some silicone creams dry in
hypertrophic scars. place and are less likely to rub off.
Since 2002, many more studies have been published We have addressed the question of efficacy of sili-
on silicone gel with supportive data. Most of these stud- cone gel creams in our rabbit ear animal model of hyper-
ies were not prospective randomized trials and by the trophic scarring and have found the cream to be as
nature of the treatment virtually impossible to blind. effective as sheeting in multiple studies. All of our stud-
The Cochrane group did an analysis and noted the defi- ies investigating the mechanism of silicone gel that we
ciencies of the studies and made the conclusion that referred to earlier utilized silicone gel cream because of
solid evidence for silicone gel was lacking but failed to its ease of use.
recognize the strengths of our early studies in which the Multiple well-done clinical studies have been done
patients served as their own control and quantitative over the last 15 years that have confirmed efficacy of sili-
objective data was collected. cone gel. In Asian patients who are particularly high risk
for hypertrophic scars, Chan [12] performed a random-
ized, double-blind controlled study in 50 Asian patients
23.2.3 Sheets Versus Creams with a sternotomy wound following coronary bypass sur-
gery or cardiac valvular surgery. They found that silicone
There are some limitations to silicone gel sheets. They gel significantly reduced multiple scar attributes includ-
are not completely self-adhering with some attachment ing visual parameter pigmentation, vascularity, pliability,
method such as a covering bandage, although clothing height, as well as symptoms of pain and itchiness com-
can be used in some situations (such as a bra) to aid in pared with control wounds (p ≤ 0.02 for all). No treat-
fixation. In tropical climates with high humidity, the ment-related adverse effects were reported. To date, no
scar can develop a “heat” rash due to excessive moisture comparison studies have directly compared the efficacy
underneath the gel. The gel sheeting can pick up dirt and of sheeting to silicone gel cream. Due to the very thin film
perspiration which makes cleaning or using new sheets formed by silicone gel cream and the uncertainty of how
essential. As a practical matter, patients have difficulty effectively it remains in place when subjected to rubbing
wearing the sheets 24 hours/day. Our original studies by clothing or movement, it is quite possible or even likely
suggested that using the sheets to cover the scars needed that sheeting might be more effective, but in practice this
to be utilized at least 12 hours/day to be effective. may be offset by the ease in 24 hours/day use.
Silicone gel creams have been alternative products Recently a meta-analysis of all prospective random-
that address many of the limitations of silicone gel ized controlled trials as well as additional controlled
sheeting. They can be used in tropical climates more eas- studies between 1990 and 2014 found a total of 11 stud-
ily, do not require any additional adherence methodol- ies that qualified involving 864 patient scars in which the
ogy, and are easier to apply 24 hours/day with twice-daily silicone gel was used to prevent scars. They found a
applications. The question arises whether they are as highly positive result from silicone gel or silicone gel
effective. One potential limitation is the chance that the sheeting particularly in patients at high risk, but even
208 T. A. Mustoe
when all patient were included, the results were statisti- 5. Gallant-Behm CL, Du P, Lin S, Marucha PT, DiPietro LA,
cally significant (p < 0.02) [13]. Mustoe TA. Epithelial regulation of mesenchymal tissue behav-
ior. J Investigative Dermatology. 2011;131:892–9. Pubmed ID
In summary, silicone gel sheeting has an almost 21228814.
40-year history, with widespread clinical use for 20 years. 6. Xu W, Jia S, Xie P, Zhong A, Galiano RD, Mustoe TA, Hong
Our laboratory and others have found a compelling SJ. The expression of Proinflammatory genes in epidermal kera-
mechanism based on the semiocclusive properties of tinocytes is regulated by hydration status. J Invest Dermatol.
silicone gel, which normalize transepidermal water loss 2013;134:1044–55.
7. Morris DD, Zhao LL, Bolton L, Roth SI, Ladin DA, Mustoe
in scars with a deficient stratum corneum barrier func- TA. Acute and chronic models for excessive dermal scarring:
tion, and via the Na channels ENaC and Nax regulated. quantitative studies. Plast Reconstr Surg. 1997;100:674–81.
8. Bartell TH, Monafo WW, Mustoe TA. Noninvasive in vivo
quantification of elastic properties of hypertrophic scar: hand
Bibliography held elastometry. J Burn Care Rehabil. 1988;9:657–60.
9. Ahn ST, Monafo W, Mustoe TA. Topical silicone gel: a new
treatment for hypertrophic scars. Surgery. 1989;106:781–7.
1. Quinn KJ, Evans JH, Courtney JM, Gaylor JD, Reid WH. Non- 10. Ahn ST, Monafo WW, Mustoe TA. Topical silicone gel for the
pressure treatment of hypertrophic scars. Burns Incl Therm Inj. prevention and treatment of hypertrophic scar. Arch Surg.
1985;12:102–8. 1991;126:499–504.
2. O’ Shaughnessey K, Roy N, Mustoe TA. Homeostasis of the epi- 11. Mustoe TA, Cooter R, Gold M, Hobbs R, Ramelet AA,
dermal barrier layer: a theory of how occlusion decreases hyper- Shakespeare P, Stella M, Teot L, Wood F, Ziegler U. International
trophic scarring. Wound Repair Regen. 2009;17:700–8. clinical guidelines for scar management. Plastic and Reconstr
3. Xu W, Hong SJ, Zeitchek M, Cooper G, Jia S, Ping X, Quresh Surg. 2002;110:560–72.
HA, Zhong A, Porterfield MD, Galiano RD, Surmeier DJ, 12. Chan KY, Lau CL, Adeeb SM, Somasundaram S, Nasir-Zahari
Mustoe TA. Hydration status regulates sodium flux and inflam- M. A randomized, placebo-controlled, double-blind, prospec-
matory pathways through epithelial sodium channel (ENaC) in tive clinical trial of silicone gel in prevention of hypertrophic
skin. J Invest Dermatol. 2015;135(3):796–806. scar development in median sternotomy wound. Plast Reconstr
4. Xu W, Hong SJ, Zhong A, Xie P, Jia S, Xie Z, Zeitchek M, Surg. 2005;116(4):1013–20.
Niknam-Bienia S, Zhao J, Porterfield DM, Surmeier DJ, Leung 13. Hsu K-C, Luan C-W, Tsai Y-W. Review of silicone gel sheeting
KP, Galiano RD, Mustoe TA. Sodium channel Nax is a regulator and silicone gel for the prevention of hypertrophic scars and
in epithelial sodium homeostasis. Sci Transl Med. 2015;7 keloids wounds. 2017;29:154–8.
(312):312ra177.
23
209 24
Onion Extract
Contents
24.1 Onion Extract – 210
References – 213

24.1 Onion Extract

24 Background
Multiple studies on hypertrophic scar and keloid Extractum cepae acts in an anti-inflammatory manner
formation have led to a multitude of therapeutic and is bactericidal. It is currently believed that the fla-
strategies in order to prevent or attenuate keloid and vonoids (quercetin and kaempferol) in onion extract
hypertrophic scar formation. Until today preventing play the main role in reducing scar formation through
pathologic scarring remains undoubtedly more effective inhibition of fibroblast proliferation and collagen pro-
than treating it later on. Thus, avoiding all unnecessary duction. A study by Phan and others suggested that
wounds in any patient, whether keloid/hypertrophic these inhibitory effects may be mediated through inhi-
scar-prone or not, remains an obvious but imperfect bition of transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β1, −2)
solution. Since delayed epithelialization beyond 10 to and SMAD proteins by quercetin [5, 6]. Specifically,
14 days increases the incidence of hypertrophic scarring the authors demonstrated that basal expression and
dramatically [1], achieving rapid epithelialization is activation of several key proteins in the IGF (insulin-
mandatory for avoiding excessive scar formation. like growth factor)-1 signal pathways were significantly
Particularly, wounds subjected to tension due to motion, reduced when keloid fibroblast cells were exposed to
body location, or loss of tissue are at increased risk of quercetin. The authors also analyzed keloid fibroblast
scar hypertrophy and spreading [2]. Thus, in case of any cells treated with quercetin by means of immunoblot-
cutaneous injury, the goal for rapid primary closure of ting and electron microscopic approaches. Fibronectin
wounds under little to no tension cannot be overstated. expression was suppressed by quercetin suggesting a
In addition to gentle surgical techniques and suitable strong inhibitory effect of this compound on produc-
suture material, careful hemostasis, and intraoperative tion of fibronectin. Transmission electron microscopy
tissue treatment, the prevention of wound infections was performed on keloid fibroblasts with and without
and delayed wound healing are extremely important for quercetin. Keloid fibroblasts without quercetin showed
good scar healing. The incision should be made along markedly higher density of ECM fibers in a homoge-
the “Langer” lines of the skin and take esthetic subunits nous ECM, but no ECM deposition was seen in the
(especially in the face) into account. The patient himself fibroblasts treated with quercetin, indicating a strong
or herself should expose fresh scars to little traction, effect of quercetin in the suppression of ECM produc-
pressure, and stretching, consistently protect them from tion and deposition by keloid fibroblasts. In a follow-
the sun, and return early to the treating physician as up study, Phan et al. treated keloid fibroblast cells with
growth increases. If there is a known tendency to quercetin at different concentrations, and cells were
formation of keloids and hypertrophic scars, early then harvested and subjected to immunoblotting anal-
intralesional injection of triamcinolone acetonide into ysis. In the pathogenesis of keloids, both IGF-1 and
the fresh surgical wound after surgery may be considered. transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β) signaling sys-
According to various studies, next to pressure garments, tems are usually overactive, stimulating fibroblast over-
early and regular application of silicone-based products proliferation and production of collagen and
seems to lead to an improvement in scar quality and an ECM. The data of Phan and colleagues suggested that
accelerated reduction in redness. Current guidelines quercetin could potentially have an anti-scarring effect
emphasize the importance of silicone gels and patches by inhibiting the signaling pathway of IGF-1 and
for preventive treatment (at the earliest from the 14th TGF-β systems.
postoperative day for at least 2 months) to avoid It has been further demonstrated that several flavo-
excessive scars in high-risk patients. noids inhibit the antigen-induced histamine release from
Topical gels containing onion (Extractum cepae) human basophils, which may be of certain importance
extract have been available for more than 60 years treat- since there is evidence to the effect that histamine may
ing, preventing, and reducing dermatologic scars and accelerate collagen formation.
keloids [3]. Extractum cepae is reported to have anti- Today, an increasing body of literature and clinical
inflammatory, antimicrobial, antiproliferative, and experience are available testing the ultimate clinical
regenerative activities [4]. Several clinical trials have indi- benefit of onion extract-containing scar creams as
cated that Extractum cepae may prevent pathologic scar- monotherapy (. Fig. 24.1) or in combination with
ring and improves preexisting scars. It has been other measures (. Fig. 24.2). Study data on the effi-
introduced as a preventional approach for unpleasant cacy of Extractum cepae for prevention and treatment
hypertrophic scars in current German scar guidelines in of hypertrophic scars or keloids, however, remains
2012 and in current international scar guidelines in 2014. inconsistent, and the quality of the studies is relatively
poor.
Onion Extract
211 24
Currently several onion extract-containing scar gel
preparations do exists that are mainly based on combi-
nations with either allantoin alone or allantoin and hep-
arin.
Willital et al. evaluated the efficacy of Extractum
cepae in combination with allantoin and heparin on
early scars in an uncontrolled, multicenter, prospective
observational study in 1268 subjects. In this study, the
scar gel was used at least twice daily. The observational
period was 4 to 5 months [7]. Data was recorded at
start of treatment, after 2–3 months, and after
4–5 months. Even though the authors were able to
show some benefit of regular application of an onion
extract-containing gel and a considerably high patient
satisfaction, the study was completely uncontrolled;
did not use any consistent, recognized scar scale; and
was thus highly susceptible to bias. For prevention of
hypertrophic scars and keloids, a prospective, random-
ized, controlled non-blinded study on children with
surgery on the thorax after 6-month use of a scar gel
containing onion extract, allantoin, and heparin
observed a less frequent development of excessive scars
than in the untreated comparison group [8]. The ther-
apy in the comparative group, however, remained
largely unclear with the statement “normal wound
therapy.” This is of particular significance, as in a fur-
ther comparative study on improving scar quality (ery-
thema, pruritus, burning, pain, hypertrophy) between
scar gels containing onion extract and a topical agent
based on petrolatum, a specific effect of the ingredients
could not be proven [9]. It must be considered, how-
ever, that the patient number in this study was low, the
operations were not performed on specific predilection
sites such as the thorax, and thus statistically signifi-
.. Fig. 24.1 Upper half of the scar has been treated twice daily for cant results could have been expected only with very
3 months with onion extract gel high patient numbers. For treatment of hypertrophic
a b
.. Fig. 24.2 Before (a) and after (b) three sessions of fractional CO2 every 4 weeks, in between onion extract-containing scar gel twice daily
scars and keloids, the benefit of a combination of The so-called overnight intensive patch may be cut to
24 intralesional triamcinolone and an onion extract com- size for small scars or placed side-by-side for larger
binational gel was reported as positive, with both scars. Its efficacy has been elucidated in an intraindi-
monotherapy with triamcinolone alone and the combi- vidual randomized, observer-blind, controlled study in
nation with an additional topical agent containing adults with post-dermatologic surgery scars [12]. Two
onion skin extract resulting in statistically significant scars per subject were randomized to no treatment or
improvement. A calculation of statistical significance overnight treatment with the OIP for 12 to 24 weeks.
with respect to the differences of the therapy concepts Scar quality was assessed in a total of 125 subjects
was, nonetheless, not performed in the study [10]. using the Patient and Observer Scar Assessment Scale
In a prospective randomized controlled trial con- (POSAS) and Global Aesthetic Improvement Scale.
ducted in China, the use of onion extract was investi- The authors found a decrease in observer-assessed
gated in the prevention of scarring after laser removal POSAS from baseline, which was significantly greater
of tattoos [11]. Local experience according to the for treated than untreated scars at week 6 and 24. The
authors found that nearly 25% of Chinese subjects with decrease in patient-assessed POSAS was further sig-
dark skin (Fitzpatrick types III–IV) developed scarring nificantly greater for the treated scar than the untreated
after laser removal of tattoos. A total of 120 subjects scar at week 12 and 24. Subject- and investigator-eval-
with 144 professional blue-black tattoos were random- uated Global Aesthetic Improvement Scale scores were
ized into the onion extract group or the control group. higher for the treated than the untreated scar at all vis-
Subjects in the onion extract group applied onion its. According to the manuscript, all subjects consid-
extract to the treatment areas after reepithelialization ered the global comfort of the OIP to be good or very
twice daily in between laser treatment sessions, and good, and no safety concerns were identified. Also, no
subjects in the control group did not apply anything. A further studies have been published, testing this rather
total of 52 subjects with 61 tattoos completed the study novel product, and current communications do con-
in the onion extract group. Seven tattoos (11.5%) in firm a high patient satisfaction due to the patient orien-
seven subjects developed scarring, four subjects (7.7%) tation application and a certain benefit for early
had permanent hypopigmentation, and three (5.8%) scarring.
had permanent hyperpigmentation. The control group
comprised 55 subjects with 68 tattoos. Sixteen tattoos
(23.5%) in 14 subjects developed scarring, 4 subjects 24.2 Conclusion
(7.2%) had permanent hypopigmentation, and 5 (9%)
had transient hyperpigmentation. According to this Scarring following surgery or trauma is difficult to pre-
publication, the rate of scarring was statistically sig- dict, and both physicians and their patients are highly
nificantly lower in the onion extract group than in the concerned with minimizing scar appearance and value
control group. even small improvements in scarring as clinically mean-
It is currently recommended to apply the gel several ingful. Till to date, preventing pathologic scarring
times daily (usually two to three times a day) with mild remains undoubtedly more effective than treating it.
massage of the scar tissue. In firm, mature scars use Next to specific surgical techniques and appropriate gen-
under occlusion or in combination with ultrasound may eral aftercare of fresh wounds, a multitude of scar gels,
also be considered. In prophylactic postoperative use, creams, patches, and ointments are available and are
treatment may be started shortly after removal of being promoted for scarless wound healing. Next to sili-
sutures. In the treatment of open wounds, scar prophy- cone-based products, onion extract or cepalin has been
laxis using an onion extract gel should be delayed until highlighted as one potential anti-scarring agent over
complete epithelialization of the wound. Treatment usu- recent years. Although its underlying study data remains
ally continues over several weeks to months. While side in part contradicting regarding its efficacy, onion extract-
effects are generally very low, treatment containing containing scar creams appear to positively influence
onion extract might be slightly irritating in facial areas, scar texture, height, and associated symptoms compared
particularly in younger children. to placebo or untreated control. Based on the recently
Recently, an onion extract- and allantoin-contain- published German guidelines on scarring, onion extract-
ing patch has been introduced to the market. This containing scar creams may be considered as additional
product features an occlusive active release liner with therapy for active hypertrophic scars and for postsurgical
an adhesive layer separated by a micro-air cushion seal. prophylaxis of excessive scarring.
Onion Extract
213 24
Take-Home Messages 4. Sidgwick GP, McGeorge D, Bayat A. A comprehensive evidence-
based review on the role of topicals and dressings in the manage-
55 Preventing pathologic scarring remains undoubt-
ment of skin scarring. Arch Dermatol Res. 2015;307(6):461–77.
edly more effective than treating it. 5. Phan TT, Lim IJ, Chan SY, Tan EK, Lee ST, Longaker
55 Next to silicone-based products, onion extract- MT. Suppression of transforming growth factor beta/smad sig-
containing creams have been shown to positively naling in keloid-derived fibroblasts by quercetin: implications
influence scar maturation if used shortly after for the treatment of excessive scars. J Trauma. 2004;57(5):
1032–7.
wound healing.
6. Phan TT, Lim IJ, Sun L, Chan SY, Bay BH, Tan EK, et al.
55 Data remains contradicting, but guidelines have Quercetin inhibits fibronectin production by keloid-derived
incorporated onion extract in their recommenda- fibroblasts. Implication for the treatment of excessive scars. J
tions on preventing unpleasant scarring. Dermatol Sci. 2003;33(3):192–4.
55 Onion extract-containing products are available as 7. Willital GH, Simon J. Efficacy of early initiation of a gel con-
taining extractum cepae, heparin, and allantoin for scar treat-
creams, ointments, gels, or patches.
ment: an observational, noninterventional study of daily
55 Therapy can be started after complete epitheliali- practice. J Drugs Dermatol. 2013;12(1):38–42.
zation of the wound and should continue for 12 to 8. Maragakis M, Willital GH, Michel G, Gortelmeyer
24 weeks. R. Possibilities of scar treatment after thoracic surgery. Drugs
55 Onion extract-containing products are safe, and Exp Clin Res. 1995;21(5):199–206.
9. Chung VQ, Kelley L, Marra D, Jiang SB. Onion extract gel ver-
side effects beyond irritation of the treated skin
sus petrolatum emollient on new surgical scars: prospective dou-
are extremely rare. ble-blinded study. Dermatol Surg. 2006;32(2):193–7.
10. Koc E, Arca E, Surucu B, Kurumlu Z. An open, randomized,
controlled, comparative study of the combined effect of intrale-
sional triamcinolone acetonide and onion extract gel and intral-
esional triamcinolone acetonide alone in the treatment of
References hypertrophic scars and keloids. Dermatol Surg. 2008;34(11):
1507–14.
1. Mustoe TA, Cooter RD, Gold MH, Hobbs FD, Ramelet AA, 11. Ho WS, Ying SY, Chan PC, Chan HH. Use of onion extract,
Shakespeare PG, et al. International clinical recommendations heparin, allantoin gel in prevention of scarring in chinese
on scar management. Plast Reconstr Surg. 2002;110(2):560–71. patients having laser removal of tattoos: a prospective random-
2. Mutalik S. Treatment of keloids and hypertrophic scars. Indian ized controlled trial. Dermatol Surg. 2006;32(7):891–6.
J Dermatol Venereol Leprol. 2005;71(1):3–8. 12. Prager W, Gauglitz GG. Effectiveness and safety of an overnight
3. Willital GH, Heine H. Efficacy of Contractubex gel in the treat- patch containing Allium cepa extract and Allantoin for post-
ment of fresh scars after thoracic surgery in children and adoles- dermatologic surgery scars. Aesthet Plast Surg. 2018;42(4):
cents. Int J Clin Pharmacol Res. 1994;14(5–6):193–202. 1144–50.
The images or other third party material in this chapter are included in the chapter’s Creative Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in a credit
line to the material. If material is not included in the chapter’s Creative Commons license and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation
or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder.
215 25
Treatment of Immature Scars:

Manual Massages
Docteur N. Frasson
Contents
25.3 Indications of Manual Massages – 216
25.4 Description of the Techniques – 216

25.4.1 orice Orthodermic Stretching – 216
M
25.4.2 Punctual Crushing – 216
25.4.3 Static Fold – 216
25.4.4 Palpate-Rolling – 217
25.4.5 Efficacy – 217

216 D. N. Frasson
25.1 Background
Scar massages are used to improve skin qualities in

25 terms of flexibility, adhesions, pruritus, and pain. The
specific techniques are not always mastered by all the
therapists. Indeed pathological scars can appear follow-
ing strong massage movements or too long sessions dur-
ing the inflammation stage. The techniques must be
controlled and take into account the inflammation, the
appearance, and the localization of the scar.
25.2 Introduction
Care of the burn skin and scars requires specific treat-

ments to reduce and control the inflammation stage and 25.4.2 Punctual Crushing
its consequences [1, 2]. Adapted rehabilitation technique
restores flexibility and limits esthetic and functional The punctual crushing is also used during the inflamma-
sequelae. The treatment will progress and be adapted tory stage and allows to crush the edges of grafts or
throughout the scar maturation process. Several specific hypertrophic scars. The pressure is moderated, vertical,
manual massages are part of the treatment but have to and realized with the pulp of one or several fingers. The
be applied respecting the inflammation, the fragility, and pressure can be circular but without practicing however
the localization of the scar [3, 4, 5]. of friction or lifting fingers.
25.3 Indications of Manual Massages
Manual massages allow to improve cutaneous mobility

compared with the deep plan and its elasticity. They are
indicated on burn scars but also in case of traumatic or
surgical scars [6].
They can be started as soon as the scar tissue is epider-
mized and solid and allows to support specific manual
techniques. The massages are contraindicated when the tis-
sue is thin and hyper-inflammatory. When the skin is frag-
ile and presents a vitropression test less than 1.2 seconds,
the massages will be realized at first around the scar [7, 8].
25.4 Description of the Techniques
25.4.1 Morice Orthodermic Stretching
Orthodermic stretchings such as they were described by

René Morice are compatible with an inflammatory skin. 25.4.3 Static Fold
Indeed the technique can be summarized by a fixed
pulpaire pressure associated with a moderated stretch- Statics folds are realized during the inflammation stage
ing supported in the inverse direction of the retraction. on a solid epidermis and when the vitropression test is
This kind of massages is frequently used on the face and close to 2 seconds. They improve various plans if sliding
dorsal side of the hand. and have an action on the suppleness of the skin.
Treatment of Immature Scars: Manual Massages
217 25
According to the surface or area to be treated, they are 25.4.5 Efficacy
realized between two fingers or more globally between
two hands. There are no movements of friction during The massages are widely used within the care and reha-
this care. bilitation of burns and scars.
The techniques have a role in the improvement of the
characteristics and evolution of the scar.
25.5 Conclusion
Treatment of skin and scar following burn injuries must

be performed with caution and requires the input of the
whole multidisciplinary team. It is necessary to align the
treatment according to the stage of scar maturation.
The inflammation of the scar is the main factor to con-
sider to guide the therapist’s treatment [9].
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218 D. N. Frasson
25 in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the chapter’s Creative Commons license and your intended use is not permitted by
219 26
Treatment of Immature Scars

with Botulinum Toxin
Alexandra Chambers
Contents
26.2 Chapter Introduction – 220
26.3 otulinum Exotoxin, Structure, and Mechanism

B
of Action – 220
26.3.1 S tructure of BoNTA – 220
26.3.2 Neuronal Mechanism of Action of BoNTA and Effects on Immature
Scars – 220
26.3.3 Nonneuronal Mechanisms of Action of BoNTA and Effects
on Immature Scars – 221
26.4 Clinical Application of BoNTA for Treatment of Scars – 223

26.4.1 T iming of BoNTA Injections – 223
26.4.2 Choosing BoNTA Preparation – 223
26.4.3 Reconstituting BoNTA – 223
26.4.4 Dose of BoNTA for Scar Treatment – 224
26.4.5 BoNTA for Treatment of Keloid and Hypertrophic Scars – 224
26.4.6 Summary of Practical Guidelines for the Application of BoNTA
in the Treatment of Scars – 224

References – 226

220 A. Chambers
26.1 Background Each BoNTA product has a Botulinum toxin com-

bined with a variety of other complex proteins, and each
Botulinum toxin type A (BoNTA) and occasionally of manufacturer uses a different assay to determine the
serotype B has been used for treatment of conditions potency of their batches. These differences make it dif-
associated with muscle spasm, hyperhidrosis and ficult to compare clinical responses across products.
improving appearance of static rhytides. Recent studies have shown that BoNTA improves the
26 The same neuronal effects and a muscle tension appearance of established scars and can also positively
reduction at the site of injury were initially attributed to affect the early stages of tissue healing for a more favor-
the benefits of BoNTA in a scar formation. However, a able mature scar. This chapter examines evidence of the
more detailed research into effects of BoNTA on wound BoNTA effects on early stages of scar formation and
healing suggested a variety of biologic effects of the describes how this can be employed for controlling scar
toxin. New possibilities emerged for using BoNTA to development as it occurs. Practical guidance on optimal
modify early tissue repair mechanisms to promote more doses of injections and on treatment protocols is described
favourable outcomes and less noticeable scars. and evaluated. Choices of the BoNTA preparations used
for immature scar treatment are also discussed.
26.2 Chapter Introduction

26.3 otulinum Exotoxin, Structure,
B
The Botulinum toxin A (BoNTA), and to a lesser degree
and Mechanism of Action
type B (BoNTB), is used in clinical practice for the treat-
ment of conditions associated with muscle spasms. The
Botulinum neurotoxin (BoNT) is an exotoxin of
therapeutic indications include cervical dystonia, bleph-
Clostridium Botulinum bacteria, which has several sero-
arospasm, strabismus, chronic migraine, and severe axil-
types. In clinical practice, the serotypes A (BoNTA) and
lary hyperhidrosis. BoNTA is also approved for esthetic
B (BoNTB) are most used for therapeutic, experimental,
use in the treatment of facial wrinkles such as “crow’s
and esthetic purposes; however, due to their superior
feet” and frown lines. In addition, there are many unli-
longevity of action, preparations of BoNTA have
censed off-label uses of BoNTA for the treatment of
become the most popular.
various other conditions.
The demand for BoNTA products is rapidly expand-
ing due to ever-increasing esthetic applications, and
26.3.1 Structure of BoNTA
there is a plethora of BoNTA formulations available
across global markets. This can make it difficult to iden-
The BoNTA molecule is made of a heavy (100 kDa) and
tify an adequate product for any specific application.
a light (50kDA) polypeptide chain, linked together by a
The most popular and well-tested products are
disulfide bond. The neurotoxin complex also includes
Botox (onabotulinumtoxinA) and Vistabel (specifically
associated nontoxic proteins: three hemagglutinin (HA)
for esthetic applications) that are manufactured by
proteins and one non-HA protein. These play a role in
Allergan (USA). Dysport (abobotulinumtoxinA), mar-
transporting and protecting the toxin core.
keted as Azzalure for cosmetic applications, is made by
Ipsen Ltd. (UK) and Galderma Laboratories (USA).
Xeomin (incobotulinumtoxinA) and its esthetic brand,
Bocouture, are made by Merz Pharmaceutical 26.3.2 euronal Mechanism of Action
N
(Germany). of BoNTA and Effects on
Less known preparations include Evosyal made by Immature Scars
Puretox (USA) and Linurase made by Phiderma
(Canada). BoNTB preparations such as Myobloc BoNTA impairs release of acetylcholine by disabling a
(rimabotulinumtoxinB) are marketed by Solstice soluble N-ethylmaleimide-sensitive factor attachment
Neurosciences (USA). Other BoNTA products are avail- receptor (SNARE) protein. The latter facilitates acetyl-
able in Asian and Russian markets. choline release by mediating docking and fusion of syn-
Although normally injected into the skin layer, sev- aptic vesicles with the inner surface of the axonal
eral products for the topical delivery of BoNTA have membrane at the sites of release.
become available recently. Examples include ANT-1207 BoNTA adheres by its heavy chain to cholinergic
(Anterios/Allergan), CosmeTox (USA), and RT001 cell membrane surface structures such as ganglioside
(Revance, USA). moieties, a vesicular protein (SV2) and synaptotag-
Treatment of Immature Scars with Botulinum Toxin
221 26
min. Its light chain enters the neuronal terminal and Nevertheless, the effects of BoNTA on tissues are more
reaches the cytosol (vesicles). It cleaves SNARE pro- complex than just reducing tension and decreasing
teins: synaptosomal- associated protein (SNAP)-25, TGF-β1.
syntaxin, and vesicle-associated membrane protein
(VAMP) also known as synaptobrevin II. The acetyl-
choline release into the synaptic cleft is impaired and 26.3.3 onneuronal Mechanisms of Action
N
the cholinergic mediation of neurons is blocked. of BoNTA and Effects on Immature
Furthermore, BoNTA has also been shown to impair Scars
release of other neurotransmitters, such as glutamate,
substance P (SP), and calcitonin gene-related peptide More research into Botulinum toxin demonstrates that
(CGRP). its biological effects on various cells and tissues are
The absence of the necessary mediator leads to a much more complex than previously understood [3].
“chemical denervation” and temporary atrophy of the The BoNT receptors and intracellular targets are not
neuromuscular junction with a subsequent block of unique for neurotransmission, as several of these recep-
muscle contraction or reduction of exocrine glandular tors and targets have been found in neuronal and non-
secretion. neuronal cells.
Several studies involving animal and human subjects BoNTA, for example, can attach to some other cell-
have tried to determine how reducing muscle contractil- surface proteins and, through them, modulate the func-
ity in the immediate vicinity to a fresh wound improves tion of a variety of human cell types [3]. These proteins
the esthetic result in scars. To date, findings have been include E-cadherin, fibroblast growth factor receptor 3
inconclusive. (FGFR3), and vanilloid receptors. Indeed, epidermal
Immobilization of underlying musculature, reducing keratinocytes, dermal fibroblasts, sebocytes and vascu-
tension of the wound and skin (similar to the use of a lar endothelial cells, adipocyte-derived mesenchymal
surgical Z-plasty), has resulted in more favorable scar- stem cells, and many other cells including macrophages
ring according to Ziade M et al. (2013). Patients in this and neutrophils have receptors capable of binding and
research were injected within 3 days following facial sur- cleaving the BoNTA molecule. Therefore, the effects of
gery, and results were assessed using a visual analogue BoNTA at the nonneuronal level have an impact on
scale. However, no statistically significant differences inflammatory and immunological cascades, neurosen-
were found between the two groups in this study when sory signaling, cellular inhibition and proliferation, vas-
using other assessment methods [1]. cular and tissue differentiation, and growth (or atrophy).
In another example of effects of BoNTA on the early Familiarity with these effects is useful in understanding
stages of wound healing, researchers Lee B-J et al. how BoNTA is helpful for tissue healing and scar devel-
(2009) [2] used a rat wound model. In this study, each of opment.
15 animals was its own control. The results showed sig-
nificant differences in wound size between BoNT-treated 26.3.3.1 Effects of BoNTA
and untreated control wounds. Also observed were less on the Inflammatory Cascade
infiltration of inflammatory cells, fewer fibroblasts, and Both pro- and anti-inflammatory effects by BoNTA
a lower expression of transforming growth factor have been demonstrated in animal models and cell cul-
(TGF)-β1 (as compared to the control wounds). tures. Those effects are expressed on additional binding
TGF-β1 is a cytokine that has multiple mediatory sites for BoNTA and its carrier proteins. These have
actions in tissue healing, and it is involved in the forma- been identified at the RMS 13 receptor sites of skeletal
tion of fibrotic tissue and hypertrophic scars. The find- muscle cells, TIB-152 of lymphoblasts, Detroit 551 of
ing that BoNT-treated wounds show a lower amount of fibroblasts, and SH-SY5Y of neuronal cells. BoNTA
TGF-β1 may be the result of the chemoimmobilization alone does not induce inflammatory responses; it only
of the muscle as well as of a direct effect of BoNTA on does so in a complex with the Neurotoxin Associated
the expression of TGF-β1 in fibroblasts and fibroblast Protein (NAP). The latter is responsible for the release
proliferation. of pro-inflammatory cytokines such as IL-6, IL-8,
It is known that a muscle paralysis due to the inhi- MCP-1, and TNF- α at these sites [4]. This last reference
bition of acetylcholine exocytosis is reversible by natu- suggests that it is NAP that determines the pro-
ral SNARE protein recovery. After application of inflammatory effects of BoNTA at the time of the toxin
BoNTA, it takes 2 weeks to 4 months for neurotrans- application.
mission to recover. Therefore, its period of action is The inflammatory phase of a wound healing lasts
definitely within the timeframe of early scar formation. approximately 2–4 days. It is marked by an abundant
222 A. Chambers
release of cytokines, growth factors (such as platelet- It is believed that the ability of BoNTA to moderate
derived growth factor (PDGF)), interleukin-1 and inter- a florid inflammatory response and control itch and
leukin-8 (IL-1 and IL-8), chemokines, and hormones. pain may explain its off-label use in treating scar hyper-
These all work to sustain activation of the target cells trophy and keloid formation. A recent double-blind ran-
and promote migration of the inflammatory cells. domized study concluded that BoNTA was as effective
PDGF and transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β) as steroids when injected into keloid scars, but patients
26 released by Alpha granules of platelets attract neutro- additionally reported the alleviation of pain and itching
phils and macrophages. The latter scavenges the wound after use of the former [9].
site, and the former produces transforming growth fac- In experiments, BoNTA has demonstrated proper-
tor (TGF), tissue growth factor-α (TGF-α), and epider- ties inhibiting the overgrowth of a variety of cells,
mal growth factor (EGF). These give rise to fibroblast including malignant proliferation in breast, prostate,
and keratinocyte migration, signaling the start of the and colon cancers. It has been theorized that this is the
proliferative phase of healing. same mechanism as the one that provides its inhibitory
Once the heavy and light chains of BoNTA have effects on fibroblast proliferation. This has motivated
reached their targets, inflammation starts downscaling. the use of BoNTA on the unchecked growth of the cells
They reduce lymphocyte proliferation and migration leading to keloid deposition.
and decrease cytokine expression. This is seen a few days
after wounds have been treated with BoNTA [2, 3]. 26.3.3.2 ffects of BoNTA on Fibroblasts
E
BoNTA has also demonstrated the ability to decrease and Keratinocytes
inflammatory enzyme cyclooxigenase-2 (COX-2) and BoNTA has a direct effect on dermal cells such as fibro-
prostaglandin E2 receptors [5] in animal models and cell blasts and keratinocytes and through them can positively
cultures. It also decreases the infiltration of monocytes mediate dermal tissue remodeling. This is an important
and macrophages while blocking expression of interleu- characteristic for reversing the effects of skin aging, assist-
kins-1B (IL-1β). Moreover, it is able to suppress nitric ing in wound epithelization, and reducing scar formations.
oxide and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) via inhibi- Fibroblasts and their differentiated subset, myofibro-
tion of specialist receptors on macrophages [6]. blasts, are the main components of the proliferation
Inflammation in tissues is often associated with pain phase in wound healing. The transforming growth
and itching. BoNTA reduces pain by local muscle spasm factor-beta 1(TGF-β1) prompts some of the fibroblasts
relief and by blocking cholinergic and other neuropep- to differentiate into myofibroblasts, possessing a retrac-
tide sensory transmission. However, it is now known that tile protein alpha-SM (α-SM), similar to those in smooth
BoNTA has effects at sites distant to the injection loca- muscle cells. Myofibroblasts create bridging connections
tion, as well as at a central level. In addition to the local and promote the approximation and retraction of
uptake of BoNTA in the synaptic terminal, a distinct ret- wounds. They do this by creating a matrix that further
rograde transport pathway results in accumulation of promotes the migration of additional fibroblasts and
BoNT toward the neuronal soma. This retrograde chan- keratinocytes [10]. BoNTA seems to interrupt the dif-
neling facilitates remote action of BoNTA at the dorsal ferentiation of fibroblasts to myofibroblasts by blocking
root ganglion and the spinal cord, and it is believed to TGF-β1 signaling and in so doing reduces excessive
explain the efficacy of BoNTA used for the control of wound retraction and scar thickening [11].
pain [7]. In addition to neurons, the glial cells such as Fibroblasts are also responsible for angiogenesis in a
Swann’s and astrocytes are also receptive to BoNTA, healing wound. This is mediated by fibroblast growth
which suggests yet another pain modulation mechanism. factor (FGF) and vascular endothelial growth factor
BoNTA also has been shown to reduce infiltration (VEGF), both of which also promote epithelization and
by cutaneous lymphocytes and decrease acanthosis, procollagen synthesis. Epithelial growth will happen either
cesses associated with intense itching (most commonly from the basement membrane or from the edges of the
mediated by histamine). BoNTA affects chemotaxis of wound by migrating keratinocytes. BoNTA acts to
mast cells, affecting their migration and histamine increase migration, proliferation, and differentiation of
release and IL-4 expression. The histamine acts as the keratinocytes and the expression of epidermal growth
main mediator of H1-H4 receptors, responsible for acti- factor (EGF). Collagen type III is mainly produced in
vation of the target molecules within the sensory neu- this stage, actively promoted by IL4 mediators.
rons that code pruritic signals. BoNTA also Subsequently collagen type III degrades, and it is
downregulates transient receptor potential channel type replaced by collagen type I with reorganized orientation
V1 (TRPV1) and type A (TRPA1), responsible for of the fibers. This adds strength to the resulting scar.
histamine-mediated and non-histamine-dependent itch, BoNTA influences the ratio of collagen I to collagen
respectively [8]. III by increasing or inhibiting its degradation by matrix
223 26
metalloproteinases (MMPs) [12]. Excess of collagen 26.4.1 Timing of BoNTA Injections
synthesis by fibroblasts can determine scar hypertrophy
and keloid formation, whereas lack of collagen matrix The most efficacious timing of BoNTA application
can predispose to a weak scar with atrophy [13]. remains to be determined. For example, some research-
ers advocate injecting the toxin before surgery [15, 16]
26.3.3.3 ffects of BoNTA on Vascular
E for better titration of BoNTA dose and improving local
Endothelium circulation via inhibition of norepinephrine. In other
BoNTA has been shown to have protective effects on studies, BoNTA have been applied intraoperatively [17]
dermal flap survival in animal models even with at the time of wound closure or within the first 24 hours
adverse conditions such as nicotine exposure, oxidative [2, 18–20]. Several clinicians have reported using the
stress, or preexisting diabetes. BoNTA reduced accu- toxin after 72 hours [1], while others injected BoNTA at
mulation of reactive oxygen species and prevented oxi- the time of suture removal (7 to10 days) [21]. In another
dative damage to endothelial cells. It increased the study, BoNTA was only used at the time of a scar revi-
blood flow in dermal vasculature by dilating lumen of sion [22].
the blood vessels. The model skin flaps also had As can be seen, there are a wide variety of protocols
increased production of vascular endothelial growth proposed in the literature for the timing of BoNTA
factor (VEG) and expression of platelet endothelial injections. That said, in the context of the discussion in
cell adhesion molecules 1, CD31 and CD34 lympho- Sect. 2, there are good reasons to prefer a single, early
cyte subsets, interleukin (IL)-1, and tumor necrosis application of BoNTA from the onset of an injury. This
factor (TNF) [14]. timing is the one that has the best potential of benefit-
ting from all the additional effects of BoNTA.
26.4 linical Application of BoNTA

C
for Treatment of Scars 26.4.2 Choosing BoNTA Preparation
The time frames of the various stages of wound healing The majority of published studies have used BoNTA
are not precise and can be overlapping. The vascular preparations, including ona-, abo-, and incobotulinum-
stage lasts for roughly 24 to 48 hours after trauma, and toxinA. However, BoNTB had been reported to also
the inflammatory phase runs 2 to 4 days. The prolifera- have beneficial results in wounds healing in a study
tive phase starts from roughly day 3, peaks around day involving facial reconstruction surgery [17]. Most other
7, and finishes after 2 to 4 weeks. Finally, scar matura- published studies use BoNTA, namely, the brand prepa-
tion (often referred to as remodeling) can take up to rations such as Botox, Dysport, and Xeomin.
12 months. Quantitative reporting on conversions of BoNTA unit
The usefulness of BoNTA in the management of rate and levels of toxin spreading is mainly based on
immature scars (by definition, less than a year old) can these three products. Given the availability of the data,
be summarized as follows: it would seem prudent to continue using the well-tested
55 Reduces local muscle contractility, allowing better products when planning a scar treatment.
approximation of the edges of healing wounds
55 Moderates the inflammatory response at the site of
the injury via suppression of inflammatory cytokines 26.4.3 Reconstituting BoNTA
and neuropeptides
55 Reduces pain and itching in healing wounds (these Currently BoNTA preparations are manufactured in
effects can be both peripheral at the site of the scar lyophilized powder form. There have been some attempts
and central through a retrograde uptake of the toxin) at creating liquid preparations; however, these are not
55 Inhibits excessive proliferation of fibroblasts and widely available.
their increased differentiation under TGF-β1 into Normal saline is most commonly used for the recon-
myofibroblasts and so downgrades the over- stitution of the toxin. Gassner et al. (2000) [18] have rec-
proliferative scarring and retraction of the wound ommended mixing BoNTA with lidocaine and
bed epinephrine, the former for immediate efferent block
55 Mediates MMP enzymatic activity in controlling and the latter for the reduction of toxin diffusion.
expression of collagen fibers, optimizing collagen I Preparing BoNTA with bacteriostatic normal saline
to III ratios, and preventing fibrosis and scar (BNS) reduces the discomfort of injections. Various
thickening dilution proportions have been tried, but the most com-
224 A. Chambers
mon volume of saline used per 100 U of BoNTA was 1.5

to 2.5 ml. For keloid and large surface scars, the volume
of BNS can be doubled.
26.4.4 Dose of BoNTA for Scar Treatment

26
A dose titration for a novel application of any medicine
is always a challenge, and the amount of BoNTA
required for the treatment of scars seems to be much
lower than traditional doses used for immobilizing mus-
cles and treating wrinkles. The most popular BoNTA
doses tried in various studies have been 5 U [21], 7 U [18,
19], and 10 U [2]. In the main, however, these studies do
not provide a rationale for their choices.
One reference, however, performs a preliminary sys- .. Fig. 26.1 A post-traumatic hypertrophic scar, restricting articu-
tematic study of BoNTA dosages to determine optimum lation of the patient
outcomes. Quantities of 5 U, 15 U, and 25 U of BoNTA
were used on the postoperative wounds of rhytidectomy
patients [20]. For the specific approach of this study, the
best results were obtained with the use of about 15 units
of BoNTA. That said results might vary significantly if
other parameters are adopted. Facets that could be
investigated going forward could include modifying the
injection protocol. For example, these results suggest
that increasing the number of injection points might
achieve a more uniform reduction in scar width.
This last study seems to correlate to in vitro experi-
ments demonstrating the dose dependencies of kerati-
nocytes and endothelial cell function when subjected to
the effects of BoNTA [25]. Doses lower than 20 units
were found to support proliferation of endothelial cells
but higher than 20 units impaired keratinocyte and
endothelial migration and growth, these being respon- .. Fig. 26.2 The scar is reduced in size and more pliable following a
sible for epithelization and angiogenesis, respectively. single session of BoNTA injections
26.4.6 ummary of Practical Guidelines

S
26.4.5 oNTA for Treatment of Keloid
B for the Application of BoNTA
and Hypertrophic Scars in the Treatment of Scars
The treatment of pathologically healed wounds such as In summary, a practical clinical approach for the treat-
keloid and hypertrophic scars is a difficult and often ment of scars is to administer BoNTA reconstituted in 1.5
fruitless task. BoNTA has demonstrated some promis- to 2.5 ml of bacteriostatic normal saline (BNS). Injections
ing results for reducing stiffness, hardness, and pain should be made using a superficial intradermal technique.
characteristic for these types of scars; see . Figs. 26.1 The expectation is that the toxin will travel in the vertical
and 26.2. and horizontal plane, reaching superficial muscles and
Studies based on repeated monthly application of even distant central locations by retrograde uptake.
BoNTA, involving multiple injections of the toxin cov- Leaving a 1 cm margin from the freshly sutured wound
ering the entire surface of a scar, have shown some effec- (see . Fig. 26.3) and 1 cm between injection points (see
tiveness [23, 24]. In these cases, the maximum . Fig. 26.4) would seem to be adequate based on reported
concentration of 35 U was diluted to enable full cover- BoNTA diffusion distances. The total dose of BoNTA
age of the scar area. The injection volume was reduced should remain below 20 U. A one-off treatment is likely
into a microdroplet to ensure distribution was mainly in sufficient to promote better healing of the wound and to
the skin and the superficial muscle layer [24]. achieve more favorable scarring.
225 26
.. Fig. 26.3 BoNTA is injected immediately after closure of the

.. Fig. 26.5 BoNTA injections should cover the entire surface of
facelift wound, about 1 cm anterior to the margin
the early keloid scar and the adjacent normal skin
not fully understood, and we continue to discover more

about its full range of biological effects and useful appli-
cations. This chapter concludes with a description of
practical approaches for the use of BoNTA in managing
scarring in a clinical environment.
Take Home Message

55 Effects of BoNTA on wound healing are multifac-
eted and not restricted just to the underlying mus-
cles relaxation and a wound tension reduction.
The toxin exerts influence on various cells and tis-
sues involved in tissue repair following an injury.
.. Fig. 26.4 BoNTA injections spaced evenly 1 cm apart after BoNTA can alter inflammatory reactions, cellular
upper blepharoplasty and eyebrow lift surgery proliferation, mediation and inhibition
55 Early application of BoNTA, within 24–72 hours of
initial injury seems to ensure a less conspicuous scar
For scars already displaying features of keloid or 55 All well known commercially available BoNTA
hypertrophic change, reconstituting 20 U of BoNTA in preparations seem to be effective for that purpose
3 to 5 ml of BNS is recommended. An example of this is 55 A dose of 15 -20 units of BoNTA demonstrated to
shown in . Fig. 26.5. Injections, delivered in microdro- be sufficient to benefit for a wound of a traditional
plets, should be applied to cover the whole surface of a rhytidectomy length (15–20 cm). The preparation
pathological scar (similar to a mesotherapy technique). injected in equal amounts of 1–5 U spaced evenly
Monthly repeated treatments, consisting of three to along the length of the wound 1cm from the bor-
eight sessions, are advised. der. Injection points can be spaced either along the
both sides of the wound or a just unilaterally.
55 Dilution of the BoNTA for wound treatment was
26.5 Conclusions 1.5 -2 ml of Bacteriostatic Normal Saline for 100 u
of the Botox (or equivalent in case of other prod-
The scope of using of Botulinum toxin for various con- ucts). For larger surface wounds BoNTA could be
ditions is ever expanding, and the benefits it provides for diluted in a double amount of saline to provide a
tissue healing and immature scar management are gain- sufficient volume for coverage, as the dose of up to
ing recognition and acceptance. Clearly, the complex 20 u is still applicable in these cases
effects of BoNTA on various cells and tissues are still
226 A. Chambers
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cone implants: the in vivo and in vitro study. Int Wound J.
2016;4(8).
2016;13(1):65–71.
227 27
Compression Therapy
and Conservative Strategies
in Scar Management After
Burn Injury
Contents

References – 231

228 E. Van den Kerckhove and M. Anthonissen
The aim of this chapter is to give an overview of the dif- tile properties, called the “myofibroblasts.” Generally, a
Background period of at least 6–18 months is required for matura-
Since a few decades, the focus of treatment of burn tion of burn scars at which time the redness (erythema)
patients has shifted from survival to optimizing the of the scar subsides, the scar no longer appears inflamed,
rehabilitation outcome of patients with severe scars. and the scar contraction diminishes.
This outcome can influence both physical as well as Many factors can influence the presence or severity
psychological well-being and quality of life of the of hypertrophic scarring after a burn injury. Genetic
patient. Therefore, the interest in the field of predisposition, race, anatomical location of the burn,
27 conservative scar management of these patients has age, and depth of the burn are some of the factors that
risen drastically. In this regard, the golden standard in are known as “uncontrollable or extrinsic factors,”
all medical or paramedical treatments is aiming for whereas infection, type of wound healing (surgical inter-
evidence-based interventions. Also in this rather new vention or not), and tension are factors that can be con-
domain of scar rehabilitation, caregivers strive to use sidered as “extrinsic or controllable” factors. The
the most efficient therapies. Unfortunately, for most of prevalence of hypertrophic scarring ranges from 32% to
the daily used interventions, the number of proper 72%. Female gender, young age, race or ethnicity, burn
scientific clinical trials is still limited and therefore the site (on face, neck, and upper limb), multiple surgical
evidence-based level of many of them is often low. As procedures, meshed skin grafts, time to heal longer than
a consequence, the recommended therapies are often 2–3 weeks, more than 20% total body surface area
based on recommendations or guidelines written by a (TBSA), and burn severity are some of the identified
group of specialists based on their expertise and risk factors.
available literature. This chapter focuses on the most The scar management treatments in patients with
relevant noninvasive strategies in the aftercare of burns have gained a lot of interest recently. This increase
patients with severe scarring after burn injury with in interest is entirely correct, as the quality of life of
special attention to compression therapy. these patients can be significantly influenced if one can
improve the clinical parameters of scars. Burn scar-
related symptoms show a proximal impact on health-
related quality of life. Therefore, the scar management
ferent conservative therapeutic strategies that are mostly interventions have high interest in the improvement of
used in the rehabilitation of patients with severe scars quality of life of burn patients, especially those with vis-
after burn injury. These strategies include pressure ther- ible scars and severe burns. Scar management in the
apy, the use of silicones as a contact medium, massage, treatment of burn patients includes a wide variety of
the use of moisturizers, splinting and positioning, exer- aftercare methods and physio- and occupational thera-
cise, and mobilizations. The relevance of the conserva- peutic techniques such as pressure therapy, silicone ther-
tive therapeutic strategies will be situated within the field apy, massage, moisturizers, splinting and positioning,
of the available scientific literature or guidelines. exercise, and mobilizations.
According to the World Health Organization Of all the noninvasive therapeutic treatments, pres-
(WHO), annually nearly 11 million people worldwide sure therapy is one of the most successful, widely used,
are burned severely enough to require medical attention. and evidence-based techniques in the prevention and
Aesthetic and functional outcomes have become increas- treatment of hypertrophic (burn-related) scars [1]. In the
ingly important, as overall mortality from burn injury late 1960s, Dr. Silverstein at Brooke Army Hospital in
has decreased. Hypertrophic scar formation is a com- San Antonio observed that in a patient with burns, vas-
mon and bothersome complication after a severe burn cular support garments for the treatment of a postphle-
injury or even after minor burns, due to its functional bitic syndrome decreased scarring after a burn injury
and aesthetic consequences. These scars, which usually and Larson noted the same effect with pressure-exerting
develop after 6–8 weeks of wound closure, are typified splints on scar tissue. The use of compression in the pre-
by the following characteristics. The red to deep purple vention of burn scar hypertrophy was then further pop-
color of the scar reflects an enhanced microcirculation. ularized at Shriners’ Burns Institute in Galveston at the
The hypertrophic scar becomes more elevated, firm, beginning of the 1970s.
warm to touch, hypersensitive, and itchy but the lesion Furthermore, silicone therapy is also a popular and
remains within the confines of the original scar. The evidence-supported conservative treatment to prevent
elevation, firmness, and retraction of the scar is proba- or treat hypertrophic scars [2]. The first silicone applica-
bly due to an overabundant collagen deposition as a cel- tions were individually made as a pressure device or pad
lular response of the fibroblast during the proliferation to solve concavity problems under pressure garments.
phase of wound healing. The contraction of the scar has The pressure pads are individually made using elasto-
been linked to the presence of fibroblasts with contrac- mer (medical grade with catalyst), putty, or foam, and
Compression Therapy and Conservative Strategies in Scar Management After Burn Injury
229 27
fitted directly on the patient. They are usually worn in assessment of the efficiency of pressure garment ther-
combination with classical pressure garments, masks, apy. The pressure of pressure garments needs to be
and splints. Silicone applications can also be applied checked every 2–3 months and, if necessary, they need
directly to the scar without any intention to augment or to be replaced or modified to achieve optimal results [1].
establish pressure on the scar. In the 1980s, silicone gel Frequent washing and proper hygiene with a minimal
sheets were effectively used for the first time in the treat- use of ointments, lotions, or moisturizers that contain
ment of burn-related scars, however without clear stan- unsaturated lipid acids can help in reducing the aging
dardized treatment protocols. Since the beginning of the and wearing of the garments.
1990s, publications and protocols about the use of sili- There are mainly two different types of pressure gar-
cone sheets and gels as contact media in the prevention ments that are used in the treatment and prevention of
of hypertrophic scarring and contractures started to hypertrophic burn scars: elastic tricot and powernet
appear. They remain very popular as a conservative structures. The first type of elastic tricot garments are
strategy ever since. mostly woven knit structures with a biaxial stretch and a
Concerning the other noninvasive treatment modali- multidimensional structure. These elastic tricot gar-
ties, such as massage, the use of moisturizers, position- ments usually tend to be delivered with less tension (or
ing and splinting, exercise, and mobilizations, the pressure values on the scar) but maintain the pressure
number of published controlled trials (randomized con- longer than powernet garments. The powernet structure
trolled trials [RCTs] of controlled clinical trial [CCTs]) garments have mostly one-axial stretch and a plenary
for each category is rather low and within each category, open structure. The second type, the powernet garments
different techniques or types of applications and prod- are a bit more comfortable pertaining to water vapor
ucts are used. In the field of rehabilitation, especially in permeability in summer or warm climates, but are more
burn rehabilitation, controlled randomized double- fragile due to their open structure. Also therefore elastic
blind trials are practically and ethically extremely diffi- tricot garments offer a far better protection against UV
cult to perform. Due to this shortcoming, except for the rays, a property that cannot be underestimated since
effect of pressure on the thickness of a scar, there is no pigment changes are one of the most important sequelae
real scientific consensus on the actual effect of the vari- after a severe burn injury with a higher risk for UV-
ous treatment modalities. Therefore, most recommenda- induced malignant changes as result. Although the exact
tions are mostly made based on guidelines and consensus value for this protecting factor of the garments (UPF) is
meetings of experts [3–8]. not defined, for textiles of common daily worn clothing
Pressure therapy is indicated to prevent and treat skin this factor is set on a value of 50.
grafts and wounds that take longer than 14–21 days to Pressure is strongly recommended to decrease scar
heal, because of the higher risk of hypertrophic scar for- height and scar erythema [1]. The working mechanism
mation. As soon as the healing skin tolerates compres- of pressure therapy is not completely understood. First,
sion and shear forces, pressure therapy is recommended pressure can control collagen synthesis [9]. The realign-
for 23 hours per day until scar maturation. Continuous ment of collagen fibers and the reduction of develop-
pressure on scars can be exerted by means of custom- ment of whorled-typed collagen nodules might induce
fitted pressure garments, orthoses or transparent face thinning of scars. Secondly, pressure might reduce the
masks, casts, or splints, measured by trained technicians vascular flow to scar tissue, which leads to a decrease of
or therapists. The optimal amount of pressure required nutrient and oxygen supply for cellular activities. It
remains controversial. Theoretically, pressures that might diminish fibrotic activity (TGF-β reduction),
exceed 24 mmHg pressure to overcome capillary pres- accelerate cell apoptosis of fibroblasts, and reduce scar
sure are required. However, good clinical results have redness [9]. In addition, application of pressure com-
been reported with levels as low as 5–15 mmHg pressure. monly reduces pain and itching and alleviates edema
Many authors however state or show that 15 mmHg or associated with active hypertrophic scars [4, 9]. Based on
even higher, 20 mmHg to 30 mmHg, is necessary to the evidence framework of Sharp et al., pressure therapy
accelerate the maturation process and that the effects of is strongly recommended and found to be evidence
pressures below 10 mmHg pressure are minimal [1, 9]. based to decrease scar height and recommended to
Higher pressure increases the effect, but can also induce diminish scar erythema [1].
complications such as paresthesia, blistering, abnormal Silicone gel sheets or gels are also used in the preven-
bone growth, limb necrosis, etc. The generated pressure tion of scars after wound healing of more than 21 days
plays a crucial role and needs to be monitored regularly and in the treatment of hypertrophic scars. Silicone gel
(e.g., by using a simple pneumatic pressure sensor, such sheets or gels can be used as soon as wounds are re-
as for instance the Kikuhime pressure sensor). The epithelialized and until complete maturation of scars
Kikuhime pressure sensor has been tested in clinical cir- [2]. The silicone gel sheets are typically worn 12–16 hours
cumstances and was found to be reliable and valid in the per day. The topical silicone gels are applied twice a day
230 E. Van den Kerckhove and M. Anthonissen
[2]. Skin reactions such as allergy, dermatitis, itch, or Moisturizers and lotions are used in the treatment of
skin breakdown may occur, but fewer when using sili- hypertrophic scars, which are typically dry skin and
cone gels compared to gel sheets. Progressive building- often itchy. Hypertrophic scars show increased transepi-
up of wearing the silicone and hygienic precautions of dermal water loss compared to healthy skin [12, 13].
both the product and the skin are important actions to Hydration can restore the skin barrier function. Little is
reduce the risks of adverse effects, especially in warm known about the ideal composition of moisturizers and
weather or climates. Besides there are no clear benefits frequency of application for burn scar treatment [13],
to using gels versus gel sheets or non-silicone versus sili- but we believe in an application of a water-based, neu-
27 cone products with respect to the treatment effect [2]; tral lotion or cream at least thrice a day.
the silicone-containing occlusive sheets have the most Positioning and splinting are indicated in each burn
substantial amount of publications and references [3]. rehabilitation phase. In the acute phase, positioning and
Silicones are recommended to improve scar erythema, splints aim to control edema and to bring pressure relief.
thickness, and pliability [2, 3]. The universally accepted In the intermediate phase, positioning and splinting are
mechanism of action of silicone is hydration and occlu- indicated for soft tissue or skin graft protection and tis-
sion of the stratum corneum [6, 10, 11]. Based on the sue elongation, whereof the last indication is also impor-
guidelines of Meaume et al., silicone is the current gold tant in the long-term phase. Positioning after a burn
standard and the first-line, noninvasive option for the injury corresponds with an anti-comfort position. There
prevention and treatment of hypertrophic scars [6]. is no universal position, but burn depth and location
In daily practice, silicone applications are worn in must be considered when determining optimal anti-
combination with pressure garments, masks, or splints contracture positioning. Positioning may be active,
to achieve the best outcomes. Silicone applications can which is ideal for cooperative patients, or passive, which
be prefabricated sheets or individually made by special- requires the use of splints. Three different types of
ized manufacturers as a pressure device or pad to solve splints are commonly used, a static, a static progressive,
concavity problems (chin, breast, clavicle, neck, and and a dynamic splint. Indication for one or the other
face) or in soft tissue parts of the face and neck. type can be to protect a skin graft after surgery, to pre-
Therapists routinely use massage in the treatment of vent or to treat contractures, or to improve joint mobil-
(hypertrophic) scars, which can be applied manually or ity. However there is no consensus on the ideal
with the use of a vacuum device. Different manual mas- splint-wearing schedule. The longer a splint is worn, the
sage techniques, such as the GAF techniques by Jaudoin greater the benefit for tissue lengthening. Some suggest
D. and the “massage dermo-épidermique” by Godeau a regime of 2-hours-on, 2-hours-off; others advocate
J., are described to limit fibrosis of scar tissue and to free active exercises during the day and splinting only at
adhesions. Depending on scar age and/or inflammatory night. Schedules should be established and adjusted
status of scar tissue, the applied technique can vary according to the changes in joint mobility and activity
between applying a mild pressure combined with a level of the patient [14].
“translation” of the epidermis and a moderate pressure Positioning and splinting protocols must be super-
to create a skinfold combined with small rotations in dif- vised regularly for effectiveness and require cooperation
ferent directions. Also a mechanical suction device can of both the patient and the burn team.
be used for mature scars. This therapy is called “vacuum Exercising and mobilizations are important compo-
therapy” or “depressomassage.” Using this mechanical nents of the daily treatment of patients after a burn
massage, a skinfold is created in a treatment head with injury. After a severe burn injury, patients have an
negative pressure after which the skinfold can be manip- increased catabolism that leads to loss of lean body
ulated. mass and causes muscle weakness and decreased func-
Massage therapy is used in the treatment of hypertro- tional capacity. The prolonged bed rest and the lack of
phic scars and skin grafts to improve pliability and to physical activity have an important impact on recovery
reduce pain and itching [3]. The mechanical disruption of after burn injuries in the rehabilitation process. Further,
fibrotic scar tissue explains the improvements in pliability. the hypertrophic scar formation leads to scar contrac-
The gate theory of Melzack and Wall support the reduc- tures and decreased range of motion. Therefore, the
tion of pain and pruritus. Following the literature, the rehabilitation program starts with passive and active
applied massage therapies differ in the type of manual movements, strength training of upper and/or lower
techniques and mechanical settings, with or without mois- limb and progressively includes more challenging exer-
turizer, duration, and frequency. However, to our knowl- cises such as bed cycling, sit-to-stand-transfers, and
edge, massage therapy is applied daily using progressive walking with or without assistance. Depending on the
techniques to obtain the best outcomes. The manual or patient’s cooperation, general condition, and cardiovas-
mechanical technique depends on the inflammation sta- cular and neurological status, mobilizations start already
tus of the scar (immature scar versus mature scar). after 24–48 hours after admission to the burn unit or
Compression Therapy and Conservative Strategies in Scar Management After Burn Injury
231 27
surgical procedure, but always in dialogue with the References
attending physician.
In the literature, little is known about the best reha- 1. Sharp PA, Pan B, Yakuboff KP, Rothchild D. Development of a
bilitation schemes to follow for adult burn patients. best evidence statement for the use of pressure therapy for man-
agement of hypertrophic scarring. J Burn Care Res.
However, the aim of exercising is to maintain and restore
2016;37(4):255–64.
the physical capacity, muscle strength, and autonomy of 2. Nedelec B, Carter A, Forbes L, Hsu SC, McMahon M, Parry I,
patients [15]. Mobilizations are required for realignment Ryan CM, Serghiou MA, Schneider JC, Sharp PA, de Oliveira
and lengthening of scar tissue, preventing joint and liga- A, Boruff J. Practice guidelines for the application of nonsili-
ment stiffening. cone or silicone gels and gel sheets after burn injury. J Burn Care
Res. 2015;36(3):345–74.
Among experts, compression therapy is considered a
3. Anthonissen M, Daly D, Janssens T, Van Den Kerckhove E. The
first-line intervention in the aftercare of patients with effects of conservative treatments on burn scars: a systematic
severe scars related to burn injury while the use of all the review. Burns. 2016;42:508–18.
other mentioned techniques are considered to be at least 4. Monstrey S, Middelkoop E, Vranckx JJ, Bassetto F, Ziegler UE,
“best practice.” Meaume S, Téot L. Updated scar management practical guide-
lines: non-invasive and invasive measures. J Plast Reconstr
Aesthet Surg. 2014;67(8):1017–25.
5. Del Toro D, Dedhia R, Tollefson TT. Advances in scar manage-
27.1 Conclusion ment. Curr Opin Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 2016;24(4):
322–9.
Although strong evidence is lacking for many of the dif- 6. Meaume S, Le Pillouer-Prost A, Richert B, Roseeuw D, Vadoud
J. Management of scars: updated practical guidelines and use of
ferent noninvasive therapeutic approaches that are used silicones. Eur J Dermatol. 2014;24(4):435–43.
in the rehabilitation of patients with severe scars, all the 7. Gold MH, Berman B, Clementoni MT, Gauglitz GG, Nahai F,
interventions discussed in this chapter, that is, pressure Murcia C. Updated international clinical recommendations on
and silicone therapy, massage, hydration, positioning scar management: part 1 - evaluating the evidence. Dermatol
and splinting, exercise, and mobilizations, are recom- Surg. 2014;40(8):817–24.
8. Gold MH, McGuire M, Mustoe TA, et al. Updated interna-
mended and considered useful by the authors in the tional clinical recommendations on scar management: part 2 –
aftercare of these patients. algorithms for scar prevention and treatment. Dermatol Surg.
2014;40(8):825–31.
9. Ai JW, Liu J, Pei SD, Liu Y, Li DS, Lin HM, Pei B. The effective-
Take-Home Messages ness of pressure therapy (15–25 mmHg) for hypertrophic burn
55 Pressure and silicone therapy have the best evi- scars: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Sci Rep. 2017;
dence in topical scar management. 7:40185.
10. Friedstat J, Hultman C. Hypertrophic burn scar management:
55 Massage is useful to treat pruritus and stiffness of
what does the evidence show? A systematic review of random-
scars. ized controlled trials. Ann Plast Surg. 2014;72:S198–201.
55 Combination strategies are mandatory and need 11. Li-Tsang CW, Lau JCM, Choi J, Chan CC, Jianan L. A prospec-
to be individualized to optimize results. tive randomized clinical trial to investigate the effect of silicone
55 Hydration of scars is useful, but cost-effectiveness gel sheeting (Cica-Care ) on post-traumatic hypertrophic scar
among the Chinese population. Burns. 2006;32:678–83.
of the product that is used is also important.
12. Suetake T, Sasai S, Zhen Y, Tagami H. Effects of silicone gel
55 Positioning and splinting protocols must be sheet on the stratum corneum hydration. Br J Plast Surg.
individualized and supervised regularly for 2000;53(6):503–7.
effectiveness. 13. Klotz T, Kurmis R, Munn Z, Heath K, Greenwood JE. The
55 Physical activity and exercise are crucial to effectiveness of moisturizers for the management of burn scars
following severe burn injury: a systematic review protocol. JBI
maintain and restore the physical capacity and
Database Syst Rev Implement Rep. 2014;12(11):212–20.
muscle strength of burn patients. 14. Dewey WS, Richard RL, Parry IS. Positioning, splinting, and
55 Mobilizations are required for realignment and contracture management. Phys Med Rehabil. 2011;22:229–47.
lengthening of scar tissue as well as preventing 15. Porter C, Hardee J, Herndon DN, Suman OE. The role of exer-
joint and ligament stiffening. cise in the rehabilitation of patients with severe burns. Exerc
Sport Sci Rev. 2015;43(1):34–40.
233 IX
Minimal-Invasive
Technologies for
Treatment of HTS and
Keloids
Contents
Chapter 28 Minimally Invasive Technologies for the

Treatment of Hypertrophic Scars and Keloids:
Intralesional Cryosurgery – 235
Chapter 29 Minimal-Invasive Technologies for Treatment

of HTS and Keloids: Corticosteroids – 243
Chapter 30 Minimally Invasive Technologies for Treatment

of HTS and Keloids: Low-Dose 5-Fluorouracil – 251

of HTS and Keloids: Pulsed-Dye Laser – 263
Sebastian P. Nischwitz, David B. Lumenta,
Stephan Spendel, and Lars-Peter Kamolz
Chapter 32 Long-Pulsed 1064 nm Nd:YAG Laser Treatment

for Keloids and Hypertrophic Scars – 271
Rei Ogawa

of HTS and Keloids: Fractional Laser – 279
Chapter 34 Minimal Invasive Technologies for Treatment

of HTS and Keloids: Medical Needling – 287
235 28
Minimally Invasive
Technologies for the Treatment
of Hypertrophic Scars
and Keloids: Intralesional
Cryosurgery
Contents
28.2 he Technology: Treatment

T
Technique – CryoShape [5, 10] – 236
28.3 When to Use Contact or Intralesional Cryosurgery? – 237
28.4 ow Many Cryosessions Are Needed for Contact or

H
Intralesional Cryosurgery? – 239
28.5 Combined Treatment – 239
References – 240

236 Y. Har-Shai and L. Har-Shai
28.1 Background keloids when compared with the contact method, due to
the enhanced freezing area of deeply located scar tissue.
A total of 100 million patients develop scars in the In addition, fewer cryosurgical sessions are required,
developed world alone each year as a result of 55 million and less hypopigmentation is evident following the
elective operations and 25 million operations after application of intralesional cryosurgery (. Fig. 28.1).
trauma. Excessive scars form as a result of aberrations
of physiologic wound healing and may develop follow-
ing any insult to the deep dermis, including burn injury, 28.2 he Technology: Treatment
T
lacerations, abrasions, surgery, piercings, and vaccina- Technique – CryoShape [5, 10]
tions. By causing pruritus, pain, and contractures, exces-
28 sive scarring can dramatically affect a patient’s quality With the patient lying at a supine position, the skin sur-
of life, both physically and psychologically. Spray or face of the scar is cleansed with disinfecting solution
contact cryosurgery is a nonsurgical therapy for the and draped. The area of penetration into the scar and
treatment of hypertrophic scars and keloids. the underlying subcutaneous tissue are anesthetized
Cryosurgery is an effective and safe therapeutic regi- locally, by a translesional approach, with Bupivacaine
men in the treatment of hypertrophic scars and keloids. hydrochloride 0.5% (marcaine) [7]. Thereafter, the ster-
Because of its major advantage of a low relapse rate, the ile cryoprobe (CryoShape, Life by Ice Ltd. Haifa, Israel)
technique, either as monotherapy or in combination, (. Fig. 28.2) is forced into the long axis, core, and mid-
has been established as the treatment of choice for height of the scar in a forward rotary movement, which
keloids and hypertrophic scars. is parallel to the skin surface. The scar itself is grasped
The cryosurgery freezing process includes four between the index and thumb of the other hand, until
phases, which are termed “Thermal history.” These the sharp tip of the needle penetrates the opposite distal
phases include cooling rate, end temperature, hold time, edge of the scar, thus maximizing the volume of scar tis-
and thawing rate. Each of these phases has an impact on sue to be frozen. Attention is taken to prevent any pen-
the mechanism of injury on the frozen tissue. The tissue etration of the cryoneedle into the healthy surrounding
injury is induced by two synergistic arms – direct physi- skin. Sterile gauzes are placed under the proximal and
cal effects of cells freezing (intracellular ice formation) distal exposed parts of the cryoprobe and care is taken
and by the vascular stasis that develops in the tissue to assure that the vent nostril is positioned away from
after thawing. It is postulated that another factor in the the patient to prevent accidental freezing of adjacent
effect on the tissue following cryosurgery is the immuno- skin or tissue (. Fig. 28.3).
logic response which is still under investigation. The proximal part of the probe is connected via an
Contact cryosurgery method uses metallic probes, elongation tube to the cryogun (CryoPro Maxi 500 cc,
which are circulated by a cryogen gas. This probe Cortex Technology, Hadsund, Denmark), which is filled
removes heat from the tissue and thus the tissue gradu- with liquid nitrogen to three-fourth of the cryogen vol-
ally cools. When the cryosurgical unit is activated and ume and about 15 minutes beforehand in order to allow
the probe is placed in firm contact with the tissue, an a sufficient pressure to build-up inside it (11 psi). A full
area of frozen tissue or ice ball appears, which extends pressurized cryogen can operate continuously for 1 hour,
radially from the cryoprobe. The lateral spread of freeze thus two to three medium-sized keloids can be treated
approximates the depth of freeze by a ratio of 1:1.3. successively without the need to refill.
Although the depth of freeze is time related, as the dura- The cryogun is grasped or placed on a steady surface,
tion of freeze extends toward 100 seconds the lethal zone which is located higher than the scar to facilitate the liq-
flats, that is, the deeper tissue is not affected. It has been uid nitrogen flow downward with no direct contact with
shown that repeated contact cryosurgical sessions can the patient body. By activating the cryogun trigger, the
exhibit a beneficial effect on keloids and hypertrophic pressure valve is opened and the cryogen enters the cryo-
scars and additionally prevent relapses. However, 1–20 needle, thereby freezing the scar. A forced steam of the
treatment sessions using the contact cryosurgery were liquid nitrogen gas flows out from the vent nostril dur-
required to flatten those scars. In addition this method ing the entire freezing process. The strength of the steam
caused a high incidence of hypopigmentation. Therefore, flow, which is observed by the naked eye during the
the need for new, more potent, and quickly effective entire freezing procedure, indicates an appropriate
cryosurgical methods and instrumentation are war- working pressure. Two ice balls appear shortly at the two
ranted. Har-Shai et al. have developed the intralesional cryoprobe penetration sites of the treated scar and with
cryoneedle [1–15]. This technique exhibits an increased time they gradually spread toward each other until a
efficacy in the treatment of hypertrophic scars and complete freezing of the scar is clinically evident. The
Minimally Invasive Technologies for the Treatment of Hypertrophic Scars and Keloids: Intralesional…
237 28
Skin surface
Lethal Zone
-22ºC isotherm Recovery Zone 0º isotherm 37º
Necrosis/Apoptosis 30º
0º
-12º
-25º
0º isotherm
Lethal Zone
-50º
Cryoneedle
-75º
Recovery Zone
-22ºC isotherm Necrosis/Apoptosis
.. Fig. 28.1 A comparison between the contact and intralesional zone. Bottom – Intralesional method: Ice ball induced by the intral-
cryosurgery methods. Upper – Contact method: Ice ball induced by esional cryoneedle. The interface between the ice ball and unfrozen
the contact cryoprobe. The interface between the ice ball and unfro- tissue represents 0 °C isotherm. The volume of tissue located
zen tissue represents 0 °C isotherm. The volume of tissue located between −22 °C isotherm and cryoneedle probe is the lethal zone in
between −22 °C isotherm and contact probe is the lethal zone in which cells undergo cryonecrosis. Cells situated in the warmer region
which cells undergo cryonecrosis. Cells situated in the warmer region between −22 °C isotherm and 0 °C isotherm (recovery zone) gener-
between −22 °C isotherm and 0 °C isotherm (recovery zone) generally survive the freeze. The melanocytes are located within the recov-
ally survive the freeze. The melanocytes are located within the lethal ery zone
the scar is clinically noticed, slight bleeding from the

penetration points of the needle requires the application
of a sterile dressing. If active bleeding is evident, gauzes
soaked with Tranexamic Acid will end the bleeding. The
patient is instructed to wash daily the treated scar and to
apply an antibiotic ointment until full healing is accom-
plished.
In cases where the scar is longer than the cryoneedle
length (10 cm) or very wide, two or three parallel needles
or successive insertions of the same needle are necessary
to freeze the entire keloid in one session.
.. Fig. 28.2 The intralesional cryosurgery system composed of the

CryoShape cryoprobe which is connected to the cryogen 28.3 hen to Use Contact or Intralesional
W
Cryosurgery?
length of the intralesional cryosurgery process depends
upon the scar volume and ranges between minutes to 3 Contact cryosurgery can be used on very small HSK
hours without the need of time taking. Following the with a reduced volume in which the cryoneedle cannot
complete freezing of the scar, the cryogun trigger is be inserted into. All other HSK can be treated by the
released to stop the freezing process and the cryoneedle intralesional cryosurgery method. In very large or giant
is left to thaw for 1–2 minutes and is withdrawn in a HSK, several cryoneedles can be inserted in parallel to
reverse rotary movement. After a complete thawing of facilitate the freezing process.
28
.. Fig. 28.3 Upper – Preoperative view of two large keloids on the session of intralesional cryosurgery demonstrating complete involu-
anterior and post aspects of the right and left lobules following tion of the scars with no distortion of the lobules and without
piercing. Lower – Postoperative view 6 years following a single cryo- hypopigmentation or recurrence
239 28
28.4 ow Many Cryosessions Are Needed
H 28.5 Combined Treatment
for Contact or Intralesional
Cryosurgery? Intralesional cryosurgery can be combined with intrale-
sional excision of the HSK [14], topical silicone gel
A total of 1–20 treatment sessions using the contact sheeting [8], intralesional injection of steroids, and pres-
cryosurgery are required to flatten HSK scars. The inter- sure garments. Following the flattening of the scars by
val between sessions is between 2 and 3 months. cryosurgery, fractional CO2 lasers can be applied to fur-
For the intralesional method, usually a single cryo- ther smoothen the skin surface if necessary [16].
session is needed to flatten the HSK. In few cases a sec-
ond cryo-treatment is needed. The interval between 28.6 Conclusion
sessions is 6 months.
This simple to operate technology can be applied as an
office procedure, is safe, cost-effective, and possesses a
short learning curve. This evidence-based novel intral-
esional cryosurgery method for the treatment of
hypertrophic scars and keloids was recently intro-
.. Fig. 28.4 Sequential steps of the intralesional cryosurgery proce- right – One week following the cryo-treatment a blister is evident; 3
dure and final result. Upper left – Preoperative view of a large keloid weeks following treatment scar necrosis is evident; 6 months follow-
of the left upper ear following piercing. Upper right – Following pen- ing the treatment the helical keloid has reduced significantly without
etration of the cryoneedle into the keloid, two ice balls are formed at distortion of the lobule and with almost no hypopigmentation; 4
the two penetration points of the scar. Warm gauzes are placed years following a single cryosession, the scar is flat with some extra
opposite to the treated scar (posterior aspect of the auricle) in order pliable skin above it which can be excised via an intralesional
to prevent cryoinjury to the auricular cartilage. Lower left to lower approach. No recurrence is evident
treatments and a long therapeutic period while the final

results are unpredictable.
In summary, the intralesional cryosurgery technique
might be added to the armamentarium of treatment
modalities to effectively treat keloid scars. This method
is easy to use, safe, can be applied on any size and shape
of scars, requires a short learning curve, consumes less
liquid nitrogen, and can be applied as an office proce-
dure.
28 Take-Home Message
Intralesional cryosurgery, which is an evidence-based
method, is probably the best treatment for a variety
of HSK (small, intermediate, large, and oversized)
that achieves remarkable clinical results in a high
proportion of patients with minimal hypopigmentation
and usually by a single cryo-treatment.
References
1. Har-Shai Y, Amar M, Sabo E. Intralesional cryotherapy for
.. Fig. 28.5 Upper – Preoperative view of a large keloid scar on the
enhancing the involution of hypertrophic scars and keloids. Plast
anterior chest following acne. Lower – Postoperative view demon-
Reconstr Surg. 2003;111:1841–52.
strating a complete flattening of the scar 10 years following a single
2. Har-Shai Y, Sabo E, Rohde E, Hyams M, Assaf C, Zouboulis
cryosession with no recurrence or hypopigmentation
CC. Intralesional cryosurgery enhances the involution of recalci-
trant auricular keloids: a new clinical approach supported by
experimental studies. Wound Repair Regen. 2006;14:18–27.
duced. This method was shown to be effective in the 3. Har-Shai Y, Dujovny E, Rohde E, Zouboulis CC. Effect of skin
treatment of hypertrophic scars and keloids, and has surface temperature on skin pigmentation during contact and
achieved significant superior clinical results when intralesional cryosurgery of keloids. J Eur Acad Dermatol
compared with the existing treatment modalities Venereol. 2007;21:191–8. Erratum in: J Eur Acad Dermatol
Venereol. 21:292, 2007.
(. Figs. 28.3, 28.4, and 28.5). In addition, it was dem- 4. Har-Shai Y, Brown W, Labbê D, Dompmartin A, Goldine I, Gil
onstrated [4, 10] that this method has significantly T, Mettanes I, Pallua N. Intralesional cryosurgery for the treat-
reduced the patient concern and deformity scores in a ment of hypertrophic scars and keloid following aesthetic sur-
scale from 1 (no concern and deformity) to 5 (severe gery: the results of a prospective observational study. Int J Low
concern and deformity) in 11 patients in whom keloids Extrem Wounds. 2008;7:169–75.
5. Har-Shai Y. Intralesional cryosurgery – a new and effective tech-
developed following aesthetic surgery. It was con- nology for the treatment of hypertrophic scars and keloids.
cluded that intralesional cryosurgery provides the Chapter II-10.1. In: Krupp S, Rennekampff H-O, Pallua N, edi-
plastic surgeon with an effective instrument to treat tors. Plastische Chirurgie, Klinik und Praxis. Landsberg:
such scars following aesthetic surgery, thus reducing Ecomed Medicin, Verlag Group; 2008. p. 1–7.
the dissatisfaction of patients. 6. Har-Shai Y, Mettanes I, Genin O, Spector I, Pines M. Keloid
histopathology after intralesional cryoneedle treatment. J Eur
The intralesional cryosurgery methods has two main Acad Dermatol Veanerol. 2011;25(9):1027–36.
advantages over the spray or contact cryosurgery tech- 7. Mirmovich O, Gil T, Lavi I, Goldine I, Mettanes I, Har-Shai
niques. Usually only a single cryosession in needed, and Y. Pain evaluation and control during and following the treat-
it exhibits significantly less hypopigmentation due to ment of hypertrophic scars and keloids employing contact and
better survival environment for the melanocytes, thus intralesional cryosurgery – a preliminary study. J Eur Acad
Dermatol Veanerol. 2012;26:440–7.
can be effectively applied on black/darker-colored skin 8. Stromps JP, Dunda S, Eppstein RJ, Babic D, Har-Shai Y, Pallua
[1–3]. These beneficial advantages have an important N. Intralesional cryosurgery combined with topical silicone gel
clinical application for the treatment of hypertrophic sheeting for the treatment of refractory keloids. Dermatol Surg.
scars and keloids especially on the face, which is the 2014;40:996–1003.
most crucial area of concern to the patient. Furthermore, 9. Chopinaud M, Pham A-D, Labbê D, Verneuil L, Gourio C,
Benateau H, Dompmartin A. Intralesional cryosurgery to treat
the common treatment modalities which were men- keloid scars: results from a retrospective study. Dermatology.
tioned to treat such a scar would necessitate several 2014;229:263–70.
241 28
10. Har-Shai Y, Har-Shai L. Intralesional cryosurgery for the treat- 14. Har-Shai L, Pallua N, Grasys I, Metanes I, Har-Shai
ment of upper lip keloid following deep chemical peeling. Eur J Y. Intralesional excision combined with intralesional cryosur-
Plast Surg. 2014;37:679–82. gery for the treatment of oversized and therapy-resistant keloids
11. Har-Shai Y, Zouboulis CC. Intralesional cryosurgery for the of the neck and ears. Eur J Plast Surg. 2018;41:233–8.
treatment of hypertrophic scars and keloids. Chapter 86. In: 15. Zouboulis CC, Har-Shai Y, Orfanos CE. Cryosurgical treat-
Abramovich W, Graham G, Har-Shai Y, Strumia R, editors. ment of keloids and hypertrophic scars. Chapter 85. In:
Dermatological cryosurgery and cryotherapy. London: Springer; Abramovich W, Graham G, Har-Shai Y, Strumia R, editors.
2016. p. 453–74. Dermatological cryosurgery and cryotherapy. London: Springer;
12. Roitman A, Luntz M, Har-Shai Y. Intralesional cryosurgery for 2016. p. 413–51.
the treatment of keloid scars following cochlear implant surgery 16. Har-Shai Y, Har-Shai L, Artzi O. Two-step treatment of bulky
and removal of cholesteatoma. Eur J Plast Surg. 2016;39:307–12. keloids on the cheeks after deep chemical peeling: intralesional
13. O’boyle CP, Shayan-Arani H, Hamada MW. Intralesional cryo- cryosurgery followed by pulsed dye and ablative fractional CO2
therapy for hypertrophic scars and keloids: a review. Scars Burn laser. Eur J Plast Surg., published online 20 March, 2020.
Heal. 2017;3:1–9. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00238-020-01651-x
243 29
Minimal-Invasive Technologies
for Treatment of HTS
and Keloids: Corticosteroids
Contents
29.2 The Corticosteroids – 246

29.3 Pharmacology and Mechanism of Action – 246
29.4 Corticosteroid in Scar Treatment – 247
29.5 Topical Steroids – 247
29.6 Intralesional Injection – 247

29.6.1 dministration – 247
A
29.6.2 Side Effects and Complications – 248
29.7 Further Applications – 249

29.7.1 Enhancing the Effect of Intralesional Corticosteroid – 249
References – 249

244 J. Lee and J. Kim
29.1 Background may resolve partially without treatment, although treat-

ment is required depending on patient desire for further
Hypertrophic scars and keloids represent the conse- improvement. The use of steroid for the treatment of
quences are the results of abnormal wound healing. excessive scarring was first proposed in the 1950s. The
Keloids are characterized by overproduction and depo- early case reports showed that corticosteroids admin-
sition of collagen and extracellular matrix (ECM). istered during wound healing halted the growth of
Keloids often manifest as growing and infiltrative lesions granulation tissue. In vitro fibroblasts subject to des-
toward the neighboring intact skin beyond the original oxycorticosterone failed to reach maturation, and there
boundaries. Abnormal fibroblast activity is a histopath- were notable morphologic changes [1]. In the follow-
ological hallmark for keloid pathogenesis leading to ing years, small numbers of patients with keloids were
prominent accumulation of dermal constituents. Due to treated with systemic intake and regional injection of
sustained proliferation without regression, the patients ACTH who showed inhibition of recurrence. In 1963,
often experience pruritus and pain which leads to func- triamcinolone was first used for intralesional injection
29 tional impairment affecting quality of life. Recent find- after surgical excision of keloids [1]. Since then, many
ings have identified that elevated levels of growth factor groups have reported the successful application of
and cytokines contribute to aberrant fibroblast activity. intralesionally injected triamcinolone in scar treatment
Among various singling molecules, transforming growth (. Figs. 29.1, 29.2, 29.3, and 29.4).
factor beta (TGF-β) family is a crucial mediator in scar In the past decades, intralesional injection has been
formation. proposed as a standard therapy for hypertrophic scars.
Management of hypertrophic scars and keloids are The international guidelines on management on keloid
yet ill categorized. Unlike keloids, hypertrophic scars scarring have recommended the use of corticosteroids as
a b
.. Fig. 29.1 a A 50-year-old man with keloid after total gastrectomy. b The patient underwent seven sessions of intralesional injection of
triamcinolone (10 mg/ml) in 4 weeks interval
Minimal-Invasive Technologies for Treatment of HTS and Keloids: Corticosteroids
245 29
.. Fig. 29.2 a A 22-year-old woman with keloid on the chest. b The patient underwent four sessions of fractional CO2 laser (eCO2 Lutronic,
Goyang, Korea. 60 mJ, 15% density) combined with intralesional injection of triamcinolone acetonide suspension of 10 mg/ml
a b
.. Fig. 29.3 a A 62-year-old women with keloid after knee replacement surgery. b The patient underwent seven sessions of combination
cryotherapy and intralesional injection of triamcinolone (10~20 mg/ml) in 4 weeks interval
a b
29
.. Fig. 29.4 a A 60-year-old woman visited 12 weeks after total thyroidectomy. b Postoperative lymphedema significantly resolved after
single session of intralesional injection of triamcinolone acetonide (10 mg/ml)
a mainstay treatment [2]. Most commonly used cortico- fluoridation of the hydrocortisone molecule at the 9th
steroids for scar treatments are medium- to long-acting position to enhance anti-inflammatory properties.
agents such as dexamethasone, methylprednisolone, and The free fraction of the corticosteroid enters the cell
triamcinolone acetonide. Overall, corticosteroids inhibit and exerts its effects by binding to a cytoplasmic gluco-
all aspects of scar development including inflammation, corticoid receptor. The glucocorticoid receptor is located
fibroblast activation, and extracellular matrix accumula- within the multi-protein complex consists of heat shock
tions. Thus, the use of corticosteroids efficiently reduces protein and immunophilins. Binding of corticosteroid
volume of scar tissue and relieves symptoms such as to its receptor leads to translocation into the nucleus
pain and pruritus. and release from the multiprotein complex. Within the
nucleus, the receptor forms a dimer and directly binds
to glucocorticoid response elements in the promoter
29.2 The Corticosteroids regions of the target genes. Eventually, the intranuclear
binding affects the rate of transcription which induces
Corticosteroids are the most commonly prescribed or represses specific target mRNA and protein synthe-
anti-inflammatory agent in the medical field. Specific sis. Corticosteroid receptor also interacts with other
and nonspecific effects of steroids include immunosup- crucial transcription factors regulating cell metabolism
pressive, antiproliferative, and vasoconstrictive effects. such as cAMP response element binding (CREB) pro-
Besides systemic administration, proper use of topi- tein. Cellular inflammatory response is modulated via
cal and intralesional injection requires awareness of its nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB). NF-κB is an important
potencies and various formulations. transcription factor that induces the expression of genes
regulating inflammatory mediators. Corticosteroids and
its receptor inhibit the activity of NF-κB causing reduc-
29.3 Pharmacology and Mechanism tion of inflammatory process in cell. Additionally, the
of Action glucocorticoid receptor has an inhibitory effect on acti-
vator protein 1 (AP-1), which controls the expression of
All corticosteroids have basic skeletal structure com- various growth factors and cytokine genes. Other key
prising carbon atoms with three hexane rings and one cytokines or proinflammatory molecule inhibited by
pentane ring. Modifications in the basic cortisol struc- glucocorticoids includes tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-
tures result in systemic agents with different potencies, α); granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor
duration of action, metabolism, and mineralocorticoid (GMCSF); interleukins (IL). IL-1, IL-2, IL-6, IL-8; leu-
effects. For example, triamcinolone was synthesized by kotrienes; and prostaglandins.
247 29
29.4 Corticosteroid in Scar Treatment of a topical agent should be considered. For hypertro-
phic scar or keloid treatment, topical corticosteroids
Unlike normal fibroblasts, keloid fibroblasts possess alone have failed to reduce pre-existing scar tissue or
tumor-like properties, showing excessive proliferation prevent scar development and not advocated as a pre-
and invasion of surrounding tissues. Enhanced migra- ferred modality.
tion and invasion of normal fibroblasts are critical fac-
tors for the development of keloids. TGF-β signaling
has long been considered a pivotal fibrogenic factor in 29.6 Intralesional Injection
abnormal wound healing. Subsequently, anti-fibrotic
strategies based on the blockade or elimination of Keloids and hypertrophic scars are often treated by
TGF-β signaling emerged as an important pharmacolog- intralesional injection of therapeutic drugs because the
ical target for treating keloids [3]. The clinical response pathogenic target is accumulated collagen and ECM
to corticosteroids in scar treatments is mainly achieved constituents within the dermis. Intralesional administra-
by reducing the prolonged inflammatory response dur- tion of corticosteroids allows bypassing the thick stra-
ing wound healing, inhibiting collagen and reducing tum corneum barrier and directly treating pathologic
excessive ECM synthesis by reducing fibroblast activity. dermal lesions with higher concentration of corticoste-
Additionally, intralesional injection of corticosteroids roids at the site. Triamcinolone acetonide and triamcino-
enhances fibroblast and collagen degeneration. lone diacetate are the most widely used corticosteroids
In lesions treated with corticosteroids, thick colla- for intralesional administration. After its administration,
gen bundles are dissociated and ECM constituents are micronized crystals of corticosteroids persist in the skin
markedly reduced. In vivo studies have shown that corti- and released over a period of weeks, thus being the most
costeroid, especially triamcinolone, can retard synthesis desirable delivery system for the treatment of chronic
of pro-collagen and TGF-β1 and TGF-β2 expression [4]. inflammatory skin diseases. Triamcinolone agents are
Administration of dexamethasone induced reduction in available as micronized suspensions of corticosteroid
vascular endothelial growth factor and angiogenesis in crystals, favored than dexamethasone or betamethasone.
keloid-derived fibroblasts [5]. Further study on the effect
of corticosteroids on keloid pathophysiology is required
in the aspect of modulation of chemotaxis immuno- 29.6.1 Administration
modulation controlling fibroblast activity and collagen
metabolism. Typically 27- or 30-gauge needles are the most preferred
because it causes less discomfort when penetrating the
skin and allow greater precision in injecting the desired
29.5 Topical Steroids quantity. Needles with thicker caliber can be applied for
the long-standing lesions with dense tissue. The com-
Topical steroids are the most frequently prescribed of all mon therapeutic dosage would be between 10 and 40 mg
dermatologic drugs, yet its usage has been limited in scar per mL. Available triamcinolone suspension should be
treatment. There are different formulations available diluted to achieve the final concentration just sufficient
in a wide range of potencies and a variety of vehicles. to treat the target lesion. Because the injections are
Topical corticosteroids are categorized into four major administered monthly, the authors favor lower dosage
potency groups and seven classes. The classes are devel- 10 or 20 mg to prevent undesirable effects.
oped based on vasoconstrictor assays and clinical stud- To reduce the discomfort on pain, 1% or 2% lido-
ies which range from class 1 ultra-high potency to class caine can be used to dilute triamcinolone in desired
7 very low potency. Certain formulation is more potent concentrations. Lidocaine alone may not induce reduc-
such as ointment formulation, which can enhance percu- tion in pain due to its acidity and sodium bicarbonate
taneous absorption through increased hydration of the can be added. Injection with lidocaine and bupivacaine
stratum corneum. In selecting a topical glucocorticoid mixture subcutaneously beneath and around the target
preparation for scar treatment, optimal potency should lesion few minutes prior to the treatment can be benefi-
be selected based on scar extent, location, and thickness. cial to minimize pain on administration and after the
Target site for topical steroids is the viable epidermis treatment. Other measures to reduce patient discomfort
or dermis, and the clinical response to a formulation is are to apply ice pack or spray cooling system prior to the
directly proportional to the concentration of the drug injection. Topical lidocaine available in tape or cream
achieved at the target site. When topical application is formulation can be of benefit.
considered, it is important to monitor potential adverse Before administration, it is important to gently shake
skin reaction due to continuous application. When skin to suspend the micronized suspensions evenly. Upon
atrophy or purpura is noted, temporary discontinuation injection, the needle should be introduced to target the
a b
29 .. Fig. 29.5
back
Localized side effect after corticosteroid intralesional injection. a Telangiectasia on the chest. b Permanent skin atrophy on the
dermis where the target tissue is deposited. Resistance is 29.6.2 Side Effects and Complications
felt when correctly injected to the dermis and when the
drug is administered in the upper dermis, slight blanch- Steroid-induced side effects include skin atrophy, telan-
ing can be noted. Direct injection to the subcutaneous giectasia, hypopigmentation, ulceration, and, rarely, sys-
tissue should be avoided which easily induces lipoatro- temic complications. Fortunately, the most commonly
phy. Long-standing keloid tissue with firm texture should encountered side effects of intralesional corticosteroid
be pretreated with liquid nitrogen to induce edema and injection are localized. The incidence of localized side
subsequent softening of the tissue. Alternatively, injec- effects is often reported in one-third of patients. Skin
tion can be performed to the periphery of the scar tissue atrophy usually occurs over several weeks to months
directing the needle toward the scar tissue. Most treatment after the injection and may resolve spontaneously
algorithms require multiple serial injections of intral- without treatment. However, atrophic lesion caused
esional steroid. In clinical practice, keloids are treated by by repeated injection with high dosage persists lon-
a monthly injection until the resolution of clinical symp- ger and may induce permanent change. Telangiectasia
toms. The clinical response may differ between hypertro- may occur frequently on the site of injection. In most
phic scars and keloids. While hypertrophic scars tend to cases, the lesions do not regress spontaneously and fur-
be more responsive than keloids and generally flatten with ther treatment is required. Laser or light devices such
time, keloids may require repeated interventions [6]. as pulsed dye laser or intensive pulsed light can be suc-
Currently, intralesional triamcinolone is the major cessfully applied for its treatment. Foreign body reac-
first-line therapy for treatment of both hypertrophic tion to intralesional triamcinolone is rare but reported.
scars and keloids. Its efficacy is well confirmed by numer- Granulomatous reactions result from the failure of
ous clinical trials and meta-analysis [7]. Intralesional injected crystalized corticosteroid particle to disperse
triamcinolone injection effectively induced marked or incomplete absorption. Clinically, prolonged absorp-
reduction in the size of the keloid. It was particularly tion of injected material presents as xanthoma-like
efficient when administered after surgical removal of lesions and resolves spontaneously over few months
keloid lesions. Intralesional triamcinolone immediately (. Fig. 29.5).
after wound closure and at early postoperative visits, Systemic complications are rare but occasionally
20 mg/ml and 10 mg/ml respectively, resulted in 76.5% observed. In children, cases of Cushing’s syndrome fol-
recurrence-free resolutions during a follow-up period lowing repeated injection of high dosage intralesional
of 18 months [8]. Combination treatment regimen steroid is reported. In adults, the evidence for sys-
with intralesional injection, 20~40 mg/ml, and potent temic complication is limited with few reported cases
topical steroid application yield favorable results with of Cushing’s syndrome when patients are subjected
85.7% recurrence-free on average of 32-month follow- to large doses due to extensive keloids. Monthly injec-
up period [9]. Given the results of the clinical studies tion of large dosage of corticosteroids is often brought
encompass different lesions occurring on different ana- to account to cause menstrual irregularities. Although
tomical locations and durations, further clinical trials there is insufficient clinical evidence, it is unlikely that
should be directed to overcome limitations of current intralesional corticosteroid alone can cause adrenal
repots including differences in timing of intervention, complications.
anatomical locations, inclusion and exclusion criteria, Complications related to intralesional injections can
and inconsistent outcome measures. be prevented by using the lowest concentration and the
249 29
smallest quantity of the drug needed. Increasing the con- 29.8 Conclusion
centration can be adjusted as needed after the repeated
course of treatments. For patients with multiple or large The management of keloids and hypertrophic scars
lesions, alternating the treatment site or dilution to lower continues to challenge clinicians, and there is no uni-
dosage is recommended. Additionally, scars across the versally accepted treatment algorithm. Although there
joint area and periorbital area can be more susceptible are myriad of treatment options, selection of treatment
to localized absorption of corticosteroids and higher modality largely depends on the patient desire. The use
concentration should be avoided. Although diabetes is of corticosteroids has remained mainstay of the treat-
not a contraindication to intralesional corticosteroid ment for more than half century. While potent topical
injection, patients should be approached with caution corticosteroids can be of limited use to address pruri-
and appropriate monitoring should be considered. tus, intralesional injection of triamcinolone is the
mainstay in treatment. Intralesional triamcinolone
injection is thought to reduce scar formation by sup-
29.7 Further Applications pressing inflammation, inhibiting fibroblast prolifera-
tion, and inducing collagen remodeling. Corticosteroid
29.7.1 nhancing the Effect of Intralesional
E is cost-effective because it does not require additional
Corticosteroid equipment, and thus readily applied in patients’ regular
clinical visits. Further studies are warranted to identify
For long-standing hypertrophic scar lesions or large the optimal combination with other modalities for scar
and firm keloids, the combination with cryotherapy treatment.
can be highly effective. Cryotherapy with liquid nitro-
gen induces dissociation of accumulated ECM tissue
along with possible vascular suppression and apop- Take-Home Messages
tosis of fibroblasts. Open spray technique is most 55 Intralesional injection of corticosteroid is effective
commonly used in combination with intralesional first-line treatment for the treatment for keloids
injections. When used in combination, injections and hypertrophic scars.
should be made after defrosting of the lesion. There 55 Corticosteroid inhibits fibroblast growth prolifera-
are several reports showing marked improvement of tion and collagen synthesis by effecting on TGF-β
hypertrophic scars and keloids after either superficial signaling and promoting collagen degeneration.
or intralesional cryotherapy. To prevent hypopigmen- 55 Intralesional injection of triamcinolone acetonide
tation from melanocyte destruction or other asso- (10–40 mg/ml) is desired and lower concentration
ciated side effects of cryotherapy, shorter exposure is more favorable for the initial treatments.
(10~30 seconds) is recommended with fewer (two to 55 The use of smaller gauge needle and syringe
three) freeze thaw cycles. allows better control of the injection and minimize
In addition to intralesional injection of triam- patient discomfort.
cinolone, localized injection of antimetabolite agents 55 For long-standing and firm scar lesions, combina-
are reported to be beneficial for scar treatments. tion with cryotherapy is required to achieve opti-
5-Fluorouracil (5-FU) is an antimetabolite inhibiting mal penetration.
DNA synthesis which increases fibroblast apoptosis
and inhibit proliferation. The use of combination tri-
amcinolone and 5-FU has been demonstrated to be as
efficacious as triamcinolone alone. Although there are References
possible side effects from 5-FU including injection site
irritation or delayed wound healing, it lacks atrophy 1. Ketchum LD, Smith J, Robinson DW, Masters FW. The treat-
or erythema associated with corticosteroid injections. ment of hypertrophic scar, keloid and scar contracture by triam-
cinolone acetonide. Plast Reconstr Surg. 1966;38(3):209–18.
The pain upon administration was a major drawback in
2. Gold MH, Berman B, Clementoni MT, Gauglitz GG, Nahai
5-FU treatment, while its combination with triamcino- F, Murcia C. Updated international clinical recommenda-
lone relieved excruciating pain. Combination of intrale- tions on scar management: part 1-evaluating the evidence.
sional 5-FU injection with topical corticosteroids yields Dermatol Surg. 2014;40(8):817–24. https://doi.org/10.1111/
successful result in scar treatment [3]. Given the require- dsu.0000000000000049.
3. Tziotzios C, Profyris C, Sterling J. Cutaneous scarring: patho-
ment for repeated treatment sessions and pain associ-
physiology, molecular mechanisms, and scar reduction therapeu-
ated with intralesional injection of corticosteroids, other tics Part II. Strategies to reduce scar formation after dermatologic
modalities such as lasers and efficient delivery systems procedures. J Am Acad Dermatol. 2012;66(1):13–24. https://doi.
are suggested. org/10.1016/j.jaad.2011.08.035.
4. Rutkowski D, Syed F, Matthews LC, Ray DW, McGrouther DA, 7. Wong TS, Li JZ, Chen S, Chan JY, Gao W. The efficacy of tri-
Watson REB, et al. An abnormality in glucocorticoid receptor amcinolone acetonide in keloid treatment: a systematic review
expression differentiates steroid responders from nonresponders and meta-analysis. Front Med (Lausanne). 2016;3:71. https://
in keloid disease. Br J Dermatol. 2015;173(3):690–700. https:// doi.org/10.3389/fmed.2016.00071.
doi.org/10.1111/bjd.13752. 8. Hayashi T, Furukawa H, Oyama A, Funayama E, Saito A,
5. Wu WS, Wang FS, Yang KD, Huang CC, Kuo YR. Dexametha- Murao N, et al. A new uniform protocol of combined cortico-
sone induction of keloid regression through effective suppres- steroid injections and ointment application reduces recurrence
sion of VEGF expression and keloid fibroblast proliferation. J rates after surgical keloid/hypertrophic scar excision. Der-
Invest Dermatol. 2006;126(6):1264–71. https://doi.org/10.1038/ matol Surg. 2012;38(6):893–7. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1524-
sj.jid.5700274. 4725.2012.02345.x.
6. Kim S, Choi TH, Liu W, Ogawa R, Suh JS, Mustoe TA. Update 9. Ledon JA, Savas J, Franca K, Chacon A, Nouri K. Intralesional
on scar management: guidelines for treating Asian patients. Plast treatment for keloids and hypertrophic scars: a review. Dermatol
Reconstr Surg. 2013;132(6):1580–9. https://doi.org/10.1097/ Surg. 2013;39(12):1745–57. https://doi.org/10.1111/dsu.12346.
PRS.0b013e3182a8070c.
29
251 30
Minimally Invasive
Technologies for Treatment
of HTS and Keloids: Low-Dose
5-Fluorouracil
Contents

30.1.1 ypertrophic Scar and Keloid Information – 253
H
30.1.2 Chemotherapy for Keloids and Hypertrophic Scar – 253
30.1.3 5-FU and Its Combined Use of Steroids – 253
30.2 he Rational of Using Low-Dose 5-FU Injection

T
for Keloid Treatment – 253
30.2.1 Background – 254
30.3 Clinical Protocol of Low-Dose 5-FU Injection Therapy – 254
30.4 L ow-Dose 5-FU-Based Injection Therapy for HTS

and Keloids – 255
30.4.1 I mportant Concepts of Keloid Curing and Relapse Rate for Low-Dose
5-FU-Based Therapy – 256
30.5 -FU-Based Injection Therapy for Recurrence Prevention

5
of Surgically Removed Keloids – 256
30.5.1 S urgical Procedure for Keloid Excision – 256
30.5.2 Postsurgical Monitoring and Preventive Injection of 5-FU – 257
30.6 nti-indications of Low-Dose 5-FU Injection Therapy

A
Combined with Steroids – 257
30.7 Representative Case Reports – 257

30.7.1 ase 1. Remodeling of Keloid into Normal-Looking Skin [7]
C
(. Fig. 30.2) – 257
30.7.2 Case 2. Intralesional Injection of Low-Dose 5-FU and Steroid
for a Large-Sized Keloid – 259

30.7.3 ase 3. Sufficient Therapy Is Essential for Curing Keloids – 259
C
30.7.4 Case 4. Low-Dose 5-FU for Preventing Keloid from Reoccurrence After
Surgical Excision – 260
30.7.5 Case 5. Low-Dose 5-FU for Combined Chemoradiotherapy to Prevent
Keloid from Postsurgical Reoccurrence – 261
References – 262
Minimally Invasive Technologies for Treatment of HTS and Keloids: Low-Dose 5-Fluorouracil
253 30
30.1 Introduction 30.1.3 -FU and Its Combined Use
5
of Steroids
30.1.1 ypertrophic Scar and Keloid
H
Information Among the various chemotherapy agents, 5-FU, a
pyrimidine analog with antimetabolite activity, might be
Keloid is the most difficult pathological scar to treat and the most commonly used drug for keloid chemotherapy.
cure and it is characterized with uncontrolled growth, Dr. Fitzpatrick R.E. started intralesional injection of
invasion into normal skin, and expansion beyond the 5-FU for both keloid and HTS since 1989 using the con-
original wound boundary with severe pain and itching centration of 50 mg/ml with positive results [1]. Later,
[1]. In addition, high recurrence rate after various thera- Gupta and Kalra [4] and Nanda and Reddy [5] also
pies is a common feature of keloids. These characters reported their 5-FU applications in keloid treatment
similar to those of tumors render keloids more like a with a dose of 50 mg/ml, and the intralesional injection
“benign skin tumor” rather than a fibrotic tissue per se. was administered weekly, lasting for 12–16 weeks with
Because of this, anticancer therapies such as chemo- positive results. With this dose, pain is the most com-
therapy and radiotherapy have been applied to keloid mon side effect and ulceration could occur as high as
treatment. 21.4% [5].
HTS is another type of pathological scar, character- 5-FU intralesional injection was listed as an emerg-
ized with the deposition of excessive amounts of col- ing therapy for keloid and HTS in “International clini-
lagen matrix along with significant angiogenic process, cal recommendation on scar management” [2], but was
which eventually leads to a raised and red scar with listed as a formal therapeutic option for HTS and keloid
severe tissue contracture and painful and itching symp- with monthly injection interval in “Updated interna-
toms. HTS eventually resolves by itself after tissue mat- tional clinical recommendations on scar management:
uration. Nevertheless, this process can take 1–2 years or Part 2 – algorithms for scar prevention and treatment”
even longer with disturbing symptoms and functional [3]. In addition, a combined use of 5-FU with steroids
disability, which needs to be intervened for improv- not only enhanced the therapeutic efficacy, but also
ing symptoms and preventing patients from disability. reduced pain suffering post-injection [1]. In the litera-
With this perspective, anticancer therapy approaches ture, high-dose (40–50 mg/ml) 5-FU injection is usually
such as chemotherapy and radiotherapy might be also combined with steroid at a volume ratio varying from
applied [2, 3]. 9:1 [1] to 7.5:2.5 [6].
According to published literatures [1–6], 5-FU is a
safe drug with no obvious side effect for the use in a rela-
30.1.2 Chemotherapy for Keloids tively short time period (such as 2–6 months). However,
and Hypertrophic Scar whether it can be safely used for a long term at the
reported dose (40–50 mg/ml) remains unclear because
Intralesional injection is a routine procedure for keloid the accumulated effect of chemotherapy agents would
treatment, and steroid injection alone could lead to be a concern if they are continuously used for a long
recurrence rate higher than 50% [2], indicating the time.
necessity of involving others drugs as a combined drug
treatment. Chemotherapy for keloid was tried as early
as 1989 [1]. The common drugs for keloid chemotherapy 30.2 he Rational of Using Low-Dose 5-FU
T
include 5-FU, Bleomycin, and Mitomycin C, etc. [2, 3]. Injection for Keloid Treatment
The usual delivery way is intralesional injection of che-
motherapy drug alone or combined injection of both To address the potential concern of 5-FU’s side effects,
chemo-agents and steroids. our group proposed the application of low dose 5-FU
In recent years, chemotherapy on HTS has been for keloid treatment because of the following reasons:
tried either as intralesional injection or combined with 1. Keloid necrosis caused by high dose 5-FU injection
post-laser therapy with positive results [3]. Because of should be avoided simply because any new wound will
its self-resolving nature, chemotherapy for HTS remains accelerate keloid development and worsen the clini-
an exploratory area for its balanced value between the cal situation. Inactivating keloid cells and remodel-
efficacy and the side effect. Therefore, most studies of ing keloid tissue rather than destroying keloid tissue
pathological scar chemotherapy focus on keloids and it are the correct strategy for keloid therapy with intra-
will be the focus of this chapter as well. lesional injection.
254 W. Liu et al.
2. A sustainable and long-term therapy (2–3 years) Meanwhile, reduced vascularity also allows the lon-
is usually required for keloid treatment in order to ger stay of the injected drug inside keloids due to the
completely cure keloids and prevent their recurrence. reduced drug absorption via tissue capillaries, and thus
To do so, a low dose of chemotherapy agent is neces- enhance the drug efficacy and reduce the side effects.
sary not only for safety concern, but also for proper The case 1 demonstrates how this strategy could be
working mechanism of tissue remodeling. applied to treat keloid tissue with intralesional injec-
3. Low-dose 5-FU will be sensitive enough for inducing tion of combined 5-FU and steroid at a low dose in
endothelial cell apoptosis/death and destroying neo- order to gradually remodel the keloid into normal-
vascular structure during keloid development, and looking skin [8].
will also be enough to inhibit fibroblast activities such
as proliferation, invasion, and matrix production.
4. This therapeutic model provides good basis for other 30.3 linical Protocol of Low-Dose 5-FU
C
conjunctive therapies including surgery, laser, and Injection Therapy
steroid injection to remove or to flatten keloid tissue
by partial keloid destruction or tissue remodeling. It The protocol for intralesional injection of low-dose
30 also avoids host production of risk factors that will drugs includes the injection of 5-FU alone or 5-FU com-
trigger keloid development and recurrence, in which bined with steroid. In general, the combined injection of
growth factors and neovascularization play signifi- 5-FU and triamcinolone acetonide will be a preferred
cant roles. method, unless the keloid scar is heavily vascularized,
which will need 5-FU injection first to demolish tissue
vascularity before steroid injection. The key points of
30.2.1 Background this protocol include the following:
1. Drug preparation: Triamcinolone acetonide should
After careful literature review and exploratory test- be mixed with 2% lidocaine, and then 5-FU stock
ing, concentrations ranging from 1.5 to 5 mg/ml were solution can be further mixed with them to maintain
decided as the low dose of 5-FU for clinical use with the concentrations of 5-FU between 1.5 and 5 mg/
at least monthly injection interval in order to avoid any ml and steroid between 3 and 9 mg/ml. Low concen-
significant systemic side effect and local side effect such trations of both drugs will enable better control of
as adverse effect on hemopoietic system and severe pain the side effects such as severe pain, tissue ulceration,
and tissue ulceration. According to our clinical experi- and atrophy as well as the drug-induced angiogen-
ence in treating more than 10,000 cases during the past esis. Also, the volume ratio between the drug and
18 years of clinical practice, this method has been proved lidocaine should be 3–5:1 in order to reduce the pain
safe for patients with a therapeutic time period ranging suffering during and after the drug injection. As a
from 2 to 5 years or even longer, and no severe side effect routine, the concentrations should always start from
has ever been observed thus far. In addition, this dose relatively high (5-FU: 3–4 mg/ml; triamcinolone ace-
also has the effective rate of more than 97.14% in term tonide at 8–9 mg/ml) and gradually reduced as below
of relieving pain and itching symptom, softening and described.
flattening keloid scar, and the recurrence rate is signifi- 2. Injection procedure: To avoid pain, 1 ml syringe
cantly decreased after long term therapy [7]. However, with 26–27G needles is generally recommended for
drug resistance to 5-FU was observed in some patients, the injection and multi-entrance manner should be
and for these patients a bit higher doses could also be applied. Briefly, each injection should deliver about
applied but were always limited to less than 9 mg/ml 0.2 ml volume and then change the injection sites to
concentration to avoid significant side effects. make sure for even distribution of the drugs. When
Importantly, low-dose 5-FU injection aims to disrupt performing, the keloid tissue should be held between
or destroy neovascularity of keloid tissue and inhibit two fingers with pressure in order to prevent drug
fibroblast proliferation, rather than to destroy keloid tis- from oozing into surrounding normal skin. In addi-
sue; thus low-dose 5-FU will not be able to majorly flatten tion, before injection, blood withdrawal should be
or soften keloid tissues, in which abundant collagen and tested to avoid direct drug injection into a blood
other matrices need to be degraded with steroid’s effect. vessel. When injecting, the drug should be pushed
Therefore, combined injection with steroid is needed in hard into the tissue in order to create a pressure in
order to flatten and soften keloid tissue. Nevertheless, the tissue between the fingers and whiten the injected
injected low-dose 5-FU is able to timely demolish neo- tissue, this manner will make sure that the injected
vascularity induced by steroid injection, and thus render drugs will deeply infiltrate inside the keloids, but not
treated keloids to become relatively malnourished post- to noninjected region, and thus to enhance the effi-
drug injection and thus less possible to reoccur. cacy and reduce the side effect.
255 30
3. Adjustment of drug concentrations and injectional to every 12 weeks with further reduced drug con-
interval: Here, an important concept is that this pro- centrations for several repeats. According to our
cedure does not try to destroy keloid, but rather to experiences, most keloid will be resolved eventu-
remodel the keloid tissue gradually via inactivat- ally without a high recurrence rate.
ing keloid fibroblast and degrading keloid matrices. D. Long-term therapy for localized nodule: As
Therefore, the drug concentration should be adjusted shown in case 1, localized nodule is often
according to the status of treated keloids. The fol- observed as the last part of noncured keloid or
lowings are the general principles: as the first sign of reoccurred keloid, which needs
A. Steroid concentration should be gradually to be continuously injected with an interval of
reduced when keloids become softened and flat- every 6 to 12 weeks until a final resolution (also
tened as overdoses of steroid will cause tissue see case 3).
atrophy. In addition, sudden withdraw of steroid
is well known for causing reoccurrence of other
steroid-treated diseases, such as autoimmune 30.4 ow-Dose 5-FU-Based Injection
L
disease, and thus the principle of gradual ste- Therapy for HTS and Keloids
roid withdrawal should also be applied to keloid
treatment. The best candidate for low dose 5-FU injection is the
B. 5-FU concentration should be reduced when tissue keloid type that usually exhibits relatively soft and flat-
angiogenesis is significantly inhibited or keloid is ten but red color with significant signs of inflammation
significantly inactivated with improved symptoms. such as severe pain, itching, erythema, and rapid inva-
Vice versa, a higher concentration of 5-FU should sion into normal skin (. Fig. 30.1a). Keloid types that
be used when significantly enhanced angiogenesis are more like tumors, such as cauliflower-shaped solid
is observed or keloid remains highly activated and tissue with relative dark color, fit better for surgical
less responsive to the drug treatment. therapy (. Fig. 30.1b), but 5-FU-based injection can be
C. Adjustment of drug injection interval: With the well employed as well for preventing keloid relapse after
progress of drug treatment, injection interval surgical removal.
should also be gradually prolonged as a way of In general, single or multiple keloids with small sizes
gradual withdrawal of steroid and 5-FU, and (diameter less than 2 cm) and located at various parts
thus to better prevent keloid recurrence. In gen- of the body are the best candidates for drug injection
eral, initial drug injection will be administered treatment.
every 4 weeks for a few months. Afterwards, the Large-sized keloids will not be ideal candidates for
injection can be adjusted for every 6 weeks to drug treatment by intralesional injection because of
10 weeks for several months, and finally adjusted potential side effects of both 5-FU and steroids.
a b
.. Fig. 30.1 Keloids are generally divided into two types: a inflammatory type; b tumor-like type
256 W. Liu et al.
30.4.1 I mportant Concepts of Keloid Curing 30.5 5-FU-Based Injection Therapy

and Relapse Rate for Low-Dose for Recurrence Prevention
5-FU-Based Therapy of Surgically Removed Keloids
Insufficient treatment might be the most important rea- Although low-dose 5-FU injection has been proven
son for not being able to cure a keloid and preventing its effective for primary keloid treatment and reoccurrence
reoccurrence control, the efficiency would be too low to be an ideal
A softened and flattened keloid along with disap- method. As described earlier, the conversion of a keloid
pearance of the symptom does not necessarily indicate tissue into a normal-like skin will be a long-term pro-
that a keloid is cured and the treatment is completed. cess. On the contrast, preventing the conversion of nor-
Rather, the keloid is in a temporary inactivated stage mal wound cells into keloid cells would be much easier,
under the drug pressure. Like cancer therapy, drug treat- in which 5-FU could play an important role.
ment can remove most of disease cells but there will Surgical excision has now become the first-line keloid
always be a portion of cells (residue cells) that survive treatment in our group because it is an efficient way of
after chemotherapy and become quiescent and drug keloid treatment. In particular, keloids with a size larger
30 resistant [9, 10]. Once the drug pressure is relieved, these than 2 cm in diameter and possible for primary closure
cells become reactivated and enter an active stage with after surgery are the best indication for surgical therapy.
rapid proliferation and production of matrices, growth Most importantly, the use of low-dose 5-FU injection
factors, and angiogenic factors, and eventually lead to a along with other procedures enables us to prevent the
reoccurred keloid. development of new keloids in a surgically created
To prevent this from happening, a continuous drug wound. Therefore, the “treatment model” of injection
pressure should be applied to any of these residue cells therapy will be shifted to the “prevention model” of
to inactivate or remove them once they become acti- surgical treatment, and 1-year time period will be usu-
vated. In the literature, most studies report the success- ally long enough to achieve satisfactory results in most
ful treatment of keloid with the criteria of flattening and keloid patients as shown in cases 4 and 5.
softening of the treated keloid along with disappeared There are three key issues that are essential for the
symptoms of pain, itching, and erythema as judged by success in this surgical procedure, including (1) anti-
Vancouver Score or Patient and Observer Scar Assess- tension procedures by proper multilayer suturing and
ment Scale (POSAS). But the cessation of drug injec- anti-tension device application; (2) wound irrigation
tion improperly will likely lead to keloid to reoccur with combined 5-FU and steroids during the surgical
simply because these treatments did not really remove procedure; (3) post-surgery radiotherapy and combined
or remodel the residual quiescent keloid cells into nor- 5-FU injection. The procedures are described in the fol-
mal skin cell phenotype. This might be the key reason lowing sections.
why high recurrence rate remains after keloid injection
therapy, to which less attention has been paid in the lit-
erature. 30.5.1 urgical Procedure for Keloid
S
In our group, it has been observed that 2–3 years are Excision
usually required for completely curing keloids by 5-FU
and steroid injection in most cases. More importantly, Briefly, after local anesthesia with 2% lidocaine injec-
preventive drug injection at a later stage aiming to pre- tion, the keloid will be surgically excised followed by
vent reoccurrence is essential and is performed by grad- multilayer suturing (including fascia and dermal and
ual drug withdrawal via reduced doses and prolonged epidermal layers). 5-FU wound irrigation was reported
injection intervals. As shown in case 3, there was a large- valuable for preventing keloid recurrence from surgical
sized keloid in a woman’s abdominal region, and a total procedure [11]. Thus, wound irrigation with combined
of 6.5 years were spent to completely cure the keloid 5-FU (about 3 mg/ml) and triamcinolone acetonide
via combined injection of both 5-FU and steroids at a (about 8 mg/ml) should be performed, and excessive
low concentration. During this process, the first 3 years drug liquid should be extruded out of the wound before
were spent on treatment of the keloid, whereas the last its closure. With the clinical experience over 3,000 cases,
3 years were spent on preventive therapy to timely treat no failure of wound healing has even been observed
the reoccurred keloid nodules. when a wound was irrigated at this dose.
257 30
After wound closure, tension-reduction device such 30.7 Representative Case Reports
as “zipline” should be applied immediately to guarantee
a tension-free zone in the wound area. Afterwards, the 30.7.1 ase 1. Remodeling of Keloid into
C
patients should receive irradiation on the wound within Normal-Looking Skin [7] (. Fig. 30.2)
24 hours post-surgery with a dose of 4–5 grays once a
day for a total of 4 days using electron beam as the irra-
A 53-year-old woman with 28 years of spontaneous
diation source.
formation and development of her chest keloid with
previous history of cryotherapy and steroid injec-
tion. The keloid grew rapidly in the last several years
30.5.2 Postsurgical Monitoring
with unbearable pain (++++)1 and itching (++++).
and Preventive Injection of 5-FU Physical examination revealed a big keloid in her
chest skin with dimensions 10 cm wide, 7 cm high, and
After the procedure, the patients are advised to visit the 0.3 cm thick along with severe erythema (++++), and
clinic monthly to closely monitor the status of surgical hard tissue texture (++) (. Fig. 30.2a). The patient
site and silicone gel is generally needed for application was first given nine intralesional injections of 5-FU
on the wound site. In most cases, the above procedure is (mostly 3.45 mg/ml) in 2% lidocaine every 2 weeks in
enough to keep the sutured wound quiescent and non- order to control growth and abolish vascularity. The
activated, and the wound tissue will maintain erythema- drug injections led to decreased erythema (+), thick-
free and symptom-free for pain and itching (see case 4). ness (0.15 cm), hardness (+), reduced itching (+), and
If this maintains with no further signs of recurrence, the also pain disappearance.
tension-reduction device can be removed after continu- Afterwards, the patient received three injections of
ous wearing for at least 6 months. triamcinolone acetonide in lidocaine (8.3 mg/ml) every
For high-risk patients, including those who have other week, resulting in flattened and softened scar with
previous history of postsurgical reoccurrence, mul- no pain and itching despite the fact that some minor
tiple keloids, or previous recurrence after surgery plus elevated scar areas remained (. Fig. 30.2b). Due to
radiotherapy, early injection of low-dose 5-FU into the re-increased erythema (++) caused by injected steroid,
wound subcutaneous tissue should be applied as early as the patient received four injections of a mixture of ste-
4 weeks post-surgery, which is maintained for another roid (7.58–7.35 mg/ml) and 5-FU (2.94–2.27 mg/ml) in
five injections every 4 weeks until the sixth month post- lidocaine to achieve both drug effects simultaneously,
surgery. Afterwards, 5-FU injection should be given and this further decreased erythema (+), while main-
whenever there is sign of pain, itching, and erythema taining flattened and softened scar without symptom
to make sure that early management of recurrence is (. Fig. 30.2c). Because of improved symptom and
applied (see case 5). physical sign, the patient was given a much lower dose
For non-risk patients, or patient without previous of combined drugs (steroid: from 2.83 to 2.40 mg/ml,
surgery, an indication for low-dose 5-FU injection will 5-FU from 2.27 to 1.42 to 0.96 mg/ml) for six times with
be the minor level of erythema and the feeling of pain 3–8-week intervals in order to prevent relapse and to
and itching. The injection should be given one more remodel the scar. During this time, relatively high dose
time after disappearance of these early signs. of drugs remained necessary in some small re-growing
areas. When followed up 4 months later, it was surprising
to find that some keloid areas became grossly invisible
30.6 Anti-indications of Low-Dose 5-FU and normal-looking skin had appeared (. Fig. 30.2d).
Injection Therapy Combined Encouraged by this result, another five injections of
with Steroids low-dose combined drugs (steroids: 3.77 mg/ml, 5-FU:
1.42 mg/ml) were administered only to the remain-
Children are generally not the candidates for 5-FU- ing elevated scar areas with an interval of 4–8 weeks.
based chemotherapy in both keloid and HTS. In addi- After another 9-month treatment, scar portion further
tion, female patients are recommended not to prepare decreased, and normal-looking skin further expanded
for pregnancy during the treatment time period until with skin color, surface, and texture close to those of
6 months after the cessation of the treatment. In addi- normal skin (. Fig. 30.2e). After 3 years of tissue
tion, a blood cell count test is recommended every remodeling therapy, the treatment was completed and
2 months to monitor potential adverse effects on hema-
topoietic system. Close monitoring of steroid side effects
is needed, and the cessation of the therapy is needed at
1 Represents the level of pain, itiching or thickness of the scar,
once in case any side effect is confirmed.
sort of semi-quantitative analysis.
258 W. Liu et al.
a d
b e
30
c f
g h
.. Fig. 30.2 Case 1: Remodeling of keloid into normal-looking skin at various stages. Black arrows indicate the areas that are under con-
tinued tissue remodeling. White arrow indicates reoccurred keloid nodule. (See details in the text)
no further relapse was observed at 14 months post-ther- with triamcinolone acetonide (about 9 mg/ml) were
apy (. Fig. 30.2f). Blood cell counts maintained nor- given at intervals of every 3–6 months for 2 more years
mal during and after therapy. and once a year for another 3 years. The complete cure
Two years after the cease of the treatment, a small of the scar was observed at 9 years after the initiation
nodule with redness and pain and itching recurred at of the treatment except for an even smaller active nod-
the left lower corner (. Fig. 30.2g, white arrowed), and ule (. Fig. 30.2h, white arrowed), which may deserve
further injections with 5-FU (about 3 mg/ml) mixed another therapy modality such as radiotherapy.
259 30
a b
.. Fig. 30.3 Case 2: Intralesional injection of low-dose 5-FU and steroids for the treatment of large-sized keloids before a and after b treat-
ment. (See details in the text)
30.7.2 ase 2. Intralesional Injection

C 5-FU (2.6 mg/ml) and triamcinolone acetonide (7.5 mg/
of Low-Dose 5-FU and Steroid ml) was used for intralesional injection every 4 weeks.
At the seventh-month posttreatment checkup, the top
for a Large-Sized Keloid
two-thirds of the keloid had already became softened
and flattened with the disappearance of pain and itch-
A 50-year-old female patient visited the clinic with a
ing and reduced erythema (. Fig. 30.4b). The patient
chest keloid spontaneously forming for 5 years, which
was further treated for the rest of the keloid in a similar
developed quickly along with the symptoms of pain and
way and the total keloid area became completely soft-
itching. The keloid revealed a size of 15 cm in width,
ened and flattened without symptoms and with further
12 cm in length, and 0.5–1 cm in thickness with server
reduced vascularity at the 24th-month posttreatment
erythema (. Fig. 30.3a). The patient was treated with
(. Fig. 30.4c). Then, reduced drug dose (2.6 mg/ml
intralesional injection of combined 5-FU and triamcin-
for 5-FU and 4.5 mg/ml for steroids) and prolonged
olone acetonide at low doses as described earlier. This
injection interval (6–8 weeks) were applied to focus on
big-sized keloid was divided into four regions, and the
remodeling keloid and improving tissue texture. At the
injectional therapy was given in a manner of region by
32th-month posttreatment, completely remolded keloid
region that lasted for 4 years and eventually resulted in
with tissue texture similar to normal skin and minimal
a completely remodeled scar that was flattened and soft-
level of redness was observed, except for a few isolated
ened without erythema and symptoms (. Fig. 30.3b).
active keloid nodules which remained over-vascular-
Afterwards, the keloid was generally stable and inactive
ized at the bottom region (. Fig. 30.4d). Afterwards,
except for some minor nodules that needed occasional
the treatment focused only on activated keloid nodules
injection.
with an injection every 6–8 weeks and whole keloid was
completely remodeled when observed at the 68th-month
posttreatment except for a few nodules located at the
30.7.3 ase 3. Sufficient Therapy Is Essential
C stich markers that remained activated at the 63th-month
for Curing Keloids posttreatment (. Fig. 30.4e). Following that time
point, the nodule treatment remained and most nodules
A 22-year-old female patient with a large-sized keloid were completely remodeled after another 15 months
(18 cm in length, 6 cm in width, and 0.5–1.5 cm in thick- of treatment with 3-month interval. The whole keloid
ness) in the abdominal area visited the clinic for her has been completely remodeled, which became stably
keloid treatment (. Fig. 30.4a). The total keloid was inactivated with whitened color and soften tissue tex-
roughly divided into three regions for one-by-one treat- ture when observed at the 78th-month posttreatment
ment. Due to high vascularity of the keloid, the patient (. Fig. 30.4f). Afterwards, the whole keloid never reoc-
was first given 5-FU injection alone at the dose about curred, and the treated nodules also completely inac-
3 mg/ml every 3–4 weeks for three times to reduce the tivated after several more injections. After more than
vascularity via inducing endothelial cell apoptosis. Once 6 years of treatment with low-dose 5-FU, the patient
the scar became darker with less erythema, combined delivered a completely healthy child at 2 years post-
260 W. Liu et al.
a b c
30
d e f
.. Fig. 30.4 Case 3: Sufficient therapy is essential for curing keloids with image presentation of an evolved keloid treated with low-dose
5-FU and steroid injection. (See details in the text)
cessation of the treatment. This exploratory treatment of her keloid, and then the wound was irrigated with
indicates the importance of sufficient treatment for pre- combined 5-FU (2.6 mg/ml) and triamcinolone ace-
venting keloid reoccurrence. tonide (7.5 mg/ml) followed by primary wound closure
with multiple tissue-layer suturing. A tension-reduction
device was immediately applied on the closed wound
30.7.4 ase 4. Low-Dose 5-FU for Preventing
C and the patient was asked to keep wearing the device for
Keloid from Reoccurrence After at least 6 months after the surgery. The patient received
Surgical Excision radiotherapy within 24 hours post-surgery with a dose
of 4 grays per time and per day for total 4 days. The
A female patient who had a chest keloid (3 cm in width, patient was followed up every 4 weeks post-surgery with
2 cm in height, and 0.5 cm in thickness) with severe pain no sign of reoccurrence, and a linear white scar was
and itching visited the clinic to request keloid treatment observed at 13 months post-surgery without any sign of
(. Fig. 30.5a). The patient received surgical excision reoccurrence (. Fig. 30.5b).
261 30
a b
.. Fig. 30.5 Case 4: Low-dose 5-FU for preventing keloid from reoccurrence after surgical excision. a Before the surgery; b 13 months post-
surgery. (See details in the text)
a b
.. Fig. 30.6 Case 5: Low-dose 5-FU for combined chemoradiotherapy to prevent keloid from postsurgical reoccurrence. a Before the sur-
gery; b 2 years post-surgery with multiple 5-FU injections. (See details in the text)
30.7.5 ase 5. Low-Dose 5-FU for Combined

C no further treatment after 19-month time point. At the
Chemoradiotherapy to Prevent 24th month post-surgery follow-up, a whitened linear
mature scar was observed at the operational site with no
Keloid from Postsurgical
sign of relapse (. Fig. 30.6b).
Reoccurrence
A female patient with multiple keloids on her neck, 30.8 Conclusion
chest (. Fig. 30.6a), and left arm visited the clinic and
requested keloid treatment. Her chest keloid (4 cm in Intralesional injection of low dose 5-FU combined with
width, 2 cm in height, and 1 cm in thickness) was heavily steroids for keloid and HTS treatment has been prac-
vascularized with severe pain, itching, and rapid growth ticed by the authors since 2002 with more than 10,000
(. Fig. 30.6a). The patient received surgical excision, cases and proven safe and effective. The use of low dose
wound irrigation, and closure and radiotherapy simi- drugs is to keep this procedure safe and sustainable for
larly as in case 4. However, relapse signs of itching and long term therapy that is essential for reducing the post-
pain occurred early at 1 month post-surgery. Thus, the therapy recurrence. Gradual adjustment of drug dose
patient was given injection of low-dose 5-FU alone and injection interval time and the management of reoc-
(about 3 mg/ml) at 1 month, 8 months, 10 months, curred keloids at the earliest possible time are the keys
13 months, 16 months, and 19 months post-surgery and for the success of this procedure.
262 W. Liu et al.
Take-Home Messages 3. Gold MH, McGuire M, Mustoe TA, Pusic A, Sachdev M,

55 Intralesional injection of low dose 5-FU (1.5–5 Waibel J, Murcia C, International Advisory Panel on Scar Man-
agement. Updated international clinical recommendations on
mg/ml) combined with steroids has been used for scar management: part 2--algorithms for scar prevention and
keloid treatment with proved safety and efficacy. treatment. Dermatol Surg. 2014;40(8):825–31.
55 The working mechanism is to inactivate keloid 4. Gupta S, Kalra A. Efficacy and safety of intralesional 5-fluo-
fibroblasts and to gradually remodel keloid tissue, rouracil in the treatment of keloids. Dermatology. 2002;204(2):
rather to cause keloid necrosis which is a trigger 130–2.
5. Nanda S, Reddy BS. Intralesional 5-fluorouracil as a treatment
for keloid recurrence. modality of keloids. Dermatol Surg. 2004;30(1):54–6; discussion
55 The procedure can be used for treating primary 56–7.
keloids or for preventing recurrence of surgically 6. Davison SP, Dayan JH, Clemens MW, Sonni S, Wang A, Crane
removed keloids. A. Efficacy of intralesional 5-fluorouracil and triamcinolone in
55 Sustainable long-term treatment with adjusted the treatment of keloids. Aesthet Surg J. 2009;29(1):40–6.
7. Wu XL, Liu W, Cao YL. Clinical study on keloid treatment
drug dose and injection interval and early manage- with intralesional injection of low concentration 5-fluorouracil.
ment of reoccurred lesions are the keys for keloid Zhonghua Zheng Xing Wai Ke Za Zhi. 2006;22(1):44–6.
successful treatment and recurrence prevention. 8. Liu W, Wu X, Gao Z, Song N. Remodelling of keloid tis-
30 sue into normal-looking skin. J Plast Reconstr Aesthet Surg.
2008;61(12):1553–4.
9. Song N, Wu X, Gao Z, Zhou G, Zhang WJ, Liu W. Enhanced
expression of membrane transporter and drug resistance in
References keloid fibroblasts. Hum Pathol. 2012;43(11):2024–32.
10. Zhang Q, Yamaza T, Kelly AP, Shi S, Wang S, Brown J, Wang
1. Fitzpatrick RE. Treatment of inflamed hypertrophic scars using L, French SW, Shi S, Le AD. Tumor-like stem cells derived from
intralesional 5-FU. Dermatol Surg. 1999;25(3):224–32. human keloid are governed by the inflammatory niche driven by
2. Mustoe TA, Cooter RD, Gold MH, Hobbs FD, Ramelet AA, IL-17/IL-6 axis. PLoS One. 2009;4(11):e7798.
Shakespeare PG, Stella M, Téot L, Wood FM, Ziegler UE, Inter- 11. Uppal RS, Khan U, Kakar S, Talas G, Chapman P, McGrouther
national Advisory Panel on Scar Management. International AD. The effects of a single dose of 5-fluorouracil on keloid scars:
clinical recommendations on scar management. Plast Reconstr a clinical trial of timed wound irrigation after extralesional exci-
Surg. 2002;110(2):560–71. sion. Plast Reconstr Surg. 2001;108(5):1218–24.
263 31
Minimally Invasive
of HTS and Keloids: Pulsed-Dye
Laser
Sebastian P. Nischwitz, David B. Lumenta, Stephan Spendel,
and Lars-Peter Kamolz
Contents
31.1 Historical Development – 264
31.2 Technique of a Laser – 265
31.3 Tissue Interaction of Laser – 265
31.4 Selective Photothermolysis – 266
31.5 he PDL and Its Application on Hypertrophic Scars

T
and Keloids – 266
31.6 Selected Studies and Evidence – 267
References – 268

264 S. P. Nischwitz et al.
of years BC. However, none other than Albert Einstein

Background first described the stimulated emission of radiation, the
Hypertrophic scars and keloids can be a major medical base of laser technology, in 1917 [1]. In 1955, 38 years
concern with varying impact. later, the manuscript of the first functioning precursor
Depending on the literature one chooses, preva- of a laser, the MASER was published by Gordon,
lence between 30% and 70% for postsurgical hyper- Zeiger, and Townes [2]. Schawlow and Townes, who
trophic scarring is reported; looking at burn injuries, filed the first US patent for a laser in 1960, altered the
the numbers even range from 60% to 90%. Keloids on Microwave Amplification by Stimulated Emission of
the other hand, show a prevalence of about 4–14% in Radiation-device (MASER) to visible Light wavelengths
Afro-Americans. Given the fact, that the number of (LASER).
people developing significant scars after surgery or In the same year, Maiman built the first functioning
trauma ranges in the lower hundred millions every laser, which used a synthetic pink ruby crystal as active
year, one can easily imagine, that scars can be more medium [3]. In the early 1960s, the laser was first used
than an unavoidable side effect after trauma and for medical purposes in humans [4], and Townes along
pathologic scars are not rare. with two others (Prokhorov and Basov) were awarded
Besides the cosmetic appearance and the psycho- the Nobel Prize in Physics for their work based on the
logical impact (especially after burns), those patho- MASER (1964). In 1981, Schawlow (along with
Bloembergen) shared this honor for his contribution in
31 logic scars tend to be responsible for physical and
functional impairing symptoms like pruritus, ery- the development of the laser spectroscopy.
thema, (neuropathic) pain, and in extreme cases even After the development of the first laser, different
restriction of movement. The therapy has a wide vari- kinds of light amplification devices have been developed
ety from topical applications to complete surgery – all using all kinds of active media.
being covered in this book. The first dye laser was introduced in 1966 by two
Since the management of cutaneous scars has and teams more or less simultaneously: the Americans
often still does rely on personal preference and experi- Sorokin and Lankard at the Thomas J. Watson
ence, rather than large-scale and high-quality studies, Research Center, as well as the German Schaefer at the
to date no standard-of-care for the optimal therapy University of Marburg developed the apparatus. While
could be established, at least not based on solid scien- Sorokin and Lankard published the invention [5],
tific evidence. Schaefer’s manuscript was rejected. After resubmis-
Many treatment modalities are accompanied by sion, the journal Applied Physics Letter asked Sorokin
high recurrence rates and with variable effect, which to review the manuscript, who finally made a publica-
emphasizes the value of and need for minimally inva- tion possible [6], and also acknowledged Schaefer as
sive technologies. This and the following chapters the first to describe the dye laser’s advantage of adjust-
introduce and focus on several laser technologies as able wavelengths.
minimally invasive technologies in the treatment of In 1983, Anderson and Parrish described the prin-
hypertrophic scars and keloids. ciple of selective photothermolysis, which enabled fur-
ther research to adapt and better understand the
medical possibilities of the laser and its tissue interac-
tions [7]. First results of the use of the pulsed-dye laser
On the following pages, the pulsed-dye laser (PDL) is (PDL) in Naevi flammei were published in the same
delineated and its significance in the treatment of hyper- year [8]. Also in that year, hypotheses for the applica-
trophic scars and keloids discussed. tion of lasers for the treatment of hypertrophic scars
were made public [9].
Alster and colleagues were the first to issue their pos-
31.1 Historical Development itive results in the treatment of hypertrophic scars
(n = 14; [10]) and keloidal post-sternotomy scars (n = 16;
Among the wide variety of available treatment options, [11]) with the 585 nm PDL.
laser applications are considered more recent technolo- Of note is that these positive results of the PD laser
gies. Medical use of the physical properties of light have so far failed to be reproduced in subsequent stud-
dates back to ancient times, when Egyptians, Greeks, ies, and only minimal improvements in scar texture have
and Romans used some form of heliotherapy thousands been reported.
Minimally Invasive Technologies for Treatment of HTS and Keloids: Pulsed-Dye Laser
265 31
31.2 Technique of a Laser emission of light. It can also be applied as continuous
wave or in short pulses of up to a femtosecond (one qua-
The following section outlines the principle of a laser drillionth of a second), which allows for a temporal
with a focus on the basics and the most relevant proper- selective application.
ties for a clinical understanding.
The mode of action of a laser is based on the emis-
sion of light by active medium molecules in an excited 31.3 Tissue Interaction of Laser
state, as described by Einstein [1]. This requires an
energy source that is able to excite these molecules. To The effect and clinical impact of a laser is determined by
enhance this effect of excitation and reach higher energy its interaction with the irradiated tissue. The interaction
levels, an additional resonator is used. These three com- can basically be distinguished in reflected, scattered, and
ponents are the key elements of a laser (. Fig. 31.1). absorbed photons. While reflective light is predomi-
Atoms in the active medium, which can be of solid nantly relevant for diagnostic use of lasers, scattering
(e.g., ruby crystal), liquid (dye), or gaseous (CO2) state, limits the depth of focusing of the laser beam by attenu-
are excited by supplying them with energy from the ation. The therapeutic effort is caused by the absorption
energy source. Depending on the used active medium, of light, which can be used for various therapeutic
the time of decay varies until the atoms return to their effects. Due to the relevance for the present topic, we
ground state. The longer the time of decay, the more only deal with the photothermal effect; other effects can
time remains for an incoming photon to interact with be comprehensively looked up in laser textbooks (see
the excited atom, which in turn makes it return to its Further Reading).
ground state and emits an additional photon of the Since every tissue component shows a different
same wavelength and frequency (. Fig. 31.1, Detail). absorption coefficient, which equals the reciprocal of
This doubling ignites a chain reaction leading to the the distance that a photon can travel in that component
required high intensity of a laser. The resonator, which until it is absorbed, therefore, every tissue component
can be embodied by (various numbers of) plane or reacts differently to a specific type of light. While, for
curved mirrors, in between the photons are reflected, example, bilirubin and melanin show good absorption
enhances this effect additionally. One of these mirrors of visible light, water (H2O), the main component of
is subtotal-reflective, creating an exit for a part of the human soft tissue, has its absorptive maximum in infra-
photons. In lasers that use dye as active medium, the red wavelengths (. Fig. 31.2).
resonator holds another function. Being equipped The penetration depth of a laser also depends on the
with a dispersive element (grid, filter, prism), the wave- wavelength; the higher the wavelength, the higher the
length of the emitted light becomes tunable, as penetration depth in the visible spectrum (blue to red).
described by Schaefer as adjustable wavelengths (see The photothermal effect describes the
7 Sect. 31.2). transformation of electromagnetic energy (light) to heat
The main difference between laser and regular light by absorption and thereby photoexcitation of matter.
lies in its coherence, which allows a monochromatic (just Photothermal therapy is the most common application
one specific wavelength), high energetic, low divergent of laser therapy.
.. Fig. 31.1 The working

principle of a laser is dis-
played (simplified). An energy
source causes excitation in
atoms of the active medium
that, amplified by the resona-
tor, leads to a chain reaction
with the photons ultimately
exiting through the subtotal-
reflective resonator. The
detailed view shows photons
interacting with excited elec-
trons of the active medium
and emission of additional
photons of the same energy
.. Fig. 31.2 The wave-

length-dependent absorption
coefficients of H2O, oxygen-
ated hemoglobin (HbO2) and
melanin are displayed; the
wavelengths of pulsed dye
(PDL), Nd:YAG, and CO2
laser are presented exemplary.
The wavelength of visible
light ranges from about 400
to 700 nm. (Design: Dr. med.
univ. Hanna Luze, Graz, Aus-
tria. © All rights reserved)
31
The absorptive properties of the irradiated tissue tive coefficient than the surrounding tissue, and directs
together with the properties of the used laser determine damaging temperatures only to the target pigment. Due
the exact location and effect of the irradiation. The to the pause in between the pulses, there is enough time
more energy the irradiated matter absorbs, the more for the target tissue to cool down by heat diffusion before
heat is produced, therefore explaining the correlation applying another pulse. On the one hand, depending on
between the absorption coefficient and the different the exposure time of the pulses, the amount of damage is
laser wavelengths. relatively well-adjustable to the target area. On the other
Depending on the temperature reached, edema and hand, the wavelength of the chosen and applied light
apoptosis induction (≥ 45 °C), coagulation, and dena- determines the target area. For instance, light of around
turation of proteins (≥ 60 °C), and even ablation and 580 nm (red light) is predominantly absorbed by hemo-
cutting by vaporization (≥ 100 °C) can be induced. globin, while water has its absorption maximum in the
Another important aspect determining the amount infrared wavelengths and melanin absorbs light through-
of damage is the fluence. It is given in J/cm2 and describes out the visible region of the electromagnetic spectrum
the energy deposited on a certain area over a certain with a decrease toward higher wavelengths. The selectiv-
amount of time. This makes it an excellent parameter ity of the physical properties allows for a certain approx-
suitable for description of a treatment protocol. imation of the beam to the target area including a
pulse-dependent diameter of several millimeters around
it. The downside of this specificity results in a relatively
31.4 Selective Photothermolysis narrow therapeutic spectrum for each type of laser. Due
to the monochromatic property of a given laser (emis-
Selective photothermolysis describes a principle that sion of light of just one wavelength) and from a technical
enables selective damage to wavelength-specific pig- point-of-view, this leads to different therapeutic targets
ments within the skin without harming the surrounding requiring individual lasers of a different spectrum. This
or above lying tissues. latter fact has made the PDL with its active medium dye
The photothermolysis-induced damage is not only and the tuneability (see 7 Sects. 31.2 and 31.3) predes-
transmitted by direct local interaction, but also by heat tined for exploiting this physical principle generating
diffusion additionally irradiating surrounding tissue lay- various targets with the same active medium.
ers; this principle is of particular importance for calcu-
lating selectivity and precise interaction of the laser with
adjacent tissue layers. 31.5 he PDL and Its Application
T
A basic condition for selective photothermolysis is for on Hypertrophic Scars and Keloids
the desired target to have a higher absorption coefficient
than the surrounding tissues. By pulse-wise-specific irra- The PDL is based on the principle of selective photo-
diation of the target tissue a higher thermal energy is thermolysis and was developed to damage and destroy
deposited in the target pigment with the higher absorp- small cutaneous vessels without harming epidermal
267 31
structures. Being initially developed with a wavelength 31.6 Selected Studies and Evidence
of 577 nm, the current models mostly work on a spec-
trum of 585 or 595 nm. Small cutaneous vessels absorb The first publications of hypertrophic scars treated with
energy at these specified wavelengths. Consequently, the the PDL date back to 1994. Alster presented 14 cases of
vessels are destroyed, ultimately leading to hypoxemia patients suffering from hypertrophic and/or erythema-
by diminution of the vascular supply. Then, by alleg- tous scars after trauma or surgery [10]. After treatment
edly reported secondary effects, disulfide bonds are dis- with one or two sessions of 585 nm PDL within a 6-week
sociated, collagen production is reduced, and expression interval, they showed an improvement in erythema and
of enzymes such as matrix metalloproteinases is induced scar flattening of 57–83% as evaluated by two different
[11, 12], leading to a loosening and restructuring of the and independent observers. The fluence used in this
fibrous structure in hypertrophic scars and keloids. study was 6.5–6.75 J/cm2.
However, there is no ultimate and scientifically proven One year later, in 1995, Alster and Williams described
consensus about the exact mechanisms promoted by another series of patients (n = 16) that had developed
PDL. keloidal or hypertrophic scars after a median sternot-
Hypertrophic scars and keloids often show signifi- omy [11]. Those patients had half of the scars treated
cant characteristics like erythema and pruritus, which with a similar protocol (mean fluence: 7.00 J/cm2, two
can be caused by hyperemia. Destruction of small cuta- sessions, 6–8 weeks apart) and afterwards evaluated by
neous vessels can therefore significantly reduce these two independent, blinded observers. Significant amelio-
symptoms. ration of pruritus, tenderness, burning, scar height, pli-
The mentioned restructuring procedures may be ability, and erythema was observed 6 months after laser
responsible for the observed improvement of pliability treatment, as compared to untreated scars.
and height [13]. Subsequently, no study was able to reproduce these
The properties of PDL and its modes of action also initially promising results. While several studies described
suggest the application in the prevention of hypertro- changes in scar erythema, pliability, height, and volume,
phic scars, since some authors suggest an early laser very few demonstrated a statistical significance (also due
application after surgery [14, 15]. to the low number of scars treated). Significant improve-
In support of this theoretical recommendation (early ment in Vancouver Scar Scale scores and pigmentation
use after surgery) is that the PDL proved to be less effec- could be shown by Bowes et al. [17] and Chan et al. [18]
tive in thicker scars (>1 cm) due to its restricted penetra- for patients treated with PDL compared to no treatment
tion depth. intra-individually, respectively. Alster further showed a
Side effects are relatively rare and include edema, significant reduction in pruritus by adding intralesional
scab formation, and pigmentary disorders (tempo- injection of triamcinolone [19] in contrast to Wittenberg
rary often, permanent rarely), but also range from et al. who could not observe a significant reduction of
hypotrophic to hypertrophic scarring [16], but may pruritus in hypertrophic scars treated with PDL over
be related to the therapeutic context of PDL applica- patients treated with silicone gel sheeting [20].
tion. Another study by Asilian et al. could reach a signifi-
While most PDL work with 585 nm, more recently cant participant-subjective, inter-individual overall
the 595 nm long-pulsed dye laser has been introduced. improvement from baseline and a reduction of erythema
Longer pulses have been promoted on the basis of a in patients treated with PDL, intralesional injection of
more effective destruction of larger vessels by higher triamcinolone, and 5-fluoruracil compared to the con-
deposition of energy, and less posttreatment hyperpig- trols treated with the intralesional injection alone [21].
mentation. In contrast to that, 585 nm lasers have Ouyang et al. (2018) reached significant improvement
reportedly ameliorated the scar texture; it remains to be in height, vascularity, pliability, and Vancouver Scar Scale
seen if this also applies to the next generation of 595 in 56 patients with fresh (immature), red hypertrophic
lasers. scars [22], suggesting an early application and possible
All in all, no scientifically solid high quality stud- prevention strategy in conjunction with a recommenda-
ies exist, and the above-mentioned studies do not sup- tion of an international panel of experts [23].
port the development of definite recommendations To summarize, data on PDL treatment in hypertro-
for a PDL protocol on hypertrophic scars or keloids. phic scars and keloids is scarce. Studies were conducted
The only common denominator seems to be the mini- with no or insufficient control groups, no standardized
mum requirement of greater than two PDL applica- treatment protocols, small numbers of participants, or
tions every 4–12 weeks across the scanned literature. lack of differentiation between the scar types treated.
The exact mechanisms of PDL application in hypertro- in the whole arsenal of treatment methods for patho-
phic scars or keloids remain elusive and precise recom- logic scars.
mendations cannot be made on the given evidence. Summarizing, we want to emphasize one more time
Nonetheless, PDL may serve as effective additional that laser technology itself is a rather new technology,
(second-line) therapeutic strategy given the relatively which certainly holds many advantages – not least its
low side-effect spectrum; application in fresh pathologic, minimal invasiveness and low side-effect profile. With
erythematous, itching scars and use for preventive strat- only few studies available, we refrain from giving abso-
egies can be considered. PDL use is limited by its low lute recommendations. We rather want to encourage the
penetration depth (thick scars) and higher amount of reader, if interested in this topic, to help creating more
melanin as concurrent absorber (darker skin types). evidence and perform further research on this specific
topic. PDL holds potential, that still is to be grasped
comprehensively.
31.7 Clinical Relevance
Since most of the published research demonstrated Take-Home Messages

inconclusive results of the use of PDL for hypertrophic 55 Pulsed-dye laser is based on a principle called
scars and keloids, no solid recommendation can be selective photothermolysis.
31 derived from the given literature. Hypertrophic scars
tend to involute over time, and without the evidence
55 Its wavelength ranges from 585 to 595 nm.
55 PDL’s main targets are cutaneous vessels that are
served by adequate control groups in published research, coagulated by the irradiation.
it remains difficult to support them. Since medical device 55 PDL should be applied a minimum of two times
regulations will require more published research in the every 4–12 weeks.
future (notably for device registration in the European 55 PDL application can reduce symptoms like
Union), future therapeutic registration or re-registration pruritus or erythema.
might add in encouraging industry to support more 55 PDL should NOT be used for thick scars (>1 cm)
science-driven studies. and/or in dark skin types.
Active hypertrophic scars as seen with the clinical 55 PDL should only be used in combination with
sign of erythema or symptom of pruritus can be treated other treatment modalities to achieve the most
by PDL with a low level of side effects but only if used effective treatment.
in conjunction with other more proven methods. 55 The low risk and side-effect profile makes the PDL
Limiting factors are thick scars (>1 cm) and dark a valuable alternative for the prevention of
skin types. As a result the PDL can play a role in the pathologic scars.
prevention of pathologic scars. Future studies should 55 Long-term outcome and high-quality intervention
aim toward more standardized research with an studies are necessary to provide proper evidence
adequate selection of control groups (e.g., intra-individ- for PDL application in hypertrophic scars and
ual comparison), and are still necessary to reach the keloids.
actual potential of the PDL.
31.8 Conclusion References

This chapter dealt with the minimally invasive treatment 1. Einstein A. Zur Quantentheorie der Strahlung. Phys Zeitschrift.
of hypertrophic scars and keloids with the pulsed-dye 1917;18:121–8.
laser. Being the first chapter about laser technology, an 2. Gordon JP, Zeiger HJ, Townes CH. The maser – new type of
microwave amplifier, frequency standard, and spectrometer.
introduction on lasers, their functioning, and an outline
Phys Rev. 1955;99(4):1264–74.
of the temporal development were given. We then 3. Maiman TH. Stimulated optical radiation in ruby. Nature.
explained the principle behind the PDL, called selective 1960;187:493–4.
photothermolysis, and clarified its relevance in the treat- 4. Goldman L, Igelman JM, Richfield DF. Impact of the LASER
ment of pathologic scars. Lastly, selected studies in terms on nevi and melanomas. Arch Dermatol. 1964;90:71–5.
5. Sorokin PP, Lankard JR. Stimulated emission observed from an
of clinically applied PDL were presented, the evidence
organic dye, chloro-aluminum phthalocyanine. IBM J Res Dev.
was analyzed, and the clinical relevance delineated. 1966;10:162–3.
The reader should now be able to sort the relevance 6. Schäfer FP, Schmidt W, Volze J. Organic dye solution laser. Appl
of PDL for treatment of hypertrophic scars and keloids Phys Lett. 1966;9:306–9.
269 31
7. Anderson R, Parrish J. Selective photothermolysis: precise 18. Chan HHL, Wong DSY, Ho WS, Lam LK, Wei W. The use of
microsurgery by selective absorption of pulsed radiation. pulsed dye laser for the prevention and treatment of hypertrophic
Science. 1983;220(4596):524–7. scars in Chinese persons. Dermatol Surg. 2004;30(7):987–94.
8. Strempel H, Klein G. New approach in the laser therapy of 19. Alster T. Laser scar revision: comparison study of 585-nm
nevus flammeus. Z Hautkr. 1983;58(13):967–74. pulsed dye laser with and without intralesional corticosteroids.
9. Castro DJ, Abergel RP, Meeker C, Dwyer RM, Lesavoy MA, Dermatol Surg. 2003;29(1):25–9.
Uitto J. Effects of the Nd:YAG laser on DNA synthesis and col- 20. Wittenberg GP, Fabian BG, Bogomilsky JL, Schultz LR, Rudner
lagen production in human skin fibroblast cultures. Ann Plast EJ, Chaffins ML, et al. Prospective, single-blind, randomized,
Surg. 1983;11(3):214–22. controlled study to assess the efficacy of the 585-nm flashlamp-
10. Alster TS. Improvement of erythematous and hypertrophic scars pumped pulsed-dye laser and silicone gel sheeting in hypertro-
by the 585-nm flashlamp-pumped pulsed dye laser. Ann Plast phic scar treatment. Arch Dermatol. 1999;135(9):1049–55.
Surg. 1994;32(2):186–90. 21. Asilian A, Darougheh A, Shariat F. New combination of triam-
11. Alster TS, Williams CM. Treatment of keloid sternotomy scars cinolone, 5-fluorouracil, and pulsed-dye laser for the treatment
with 585 nm flashlamp-pumped pulsed-dye laser. Lancet. of keloid and hypertrophic scars. J Isfahan Med Sch.
1995;345(8959):1198–200. 2012;32(7):907–15.
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Plast Reconstr Surg [Internet]. 1995;95(1):84–90; discussion 91–2. ultrapulse fractional CO2 laser in the treatment of immature red
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lasers. Hautarzt. 2018;69(1):17–26. Shakespeare PG, et al. International clinical recommendations
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U, Haedersdal M. Early laser intervention to reduce scar forma-
tion - a systematic review. J Eur Acad Dermatol Venereol. Further Reading
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Heidelberg: Springer; 2012.
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Raulin C, Greve B. Laser und IPL-Technologie in der Dermatologie
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271 32
Long-Pulsed 1064 nm Nd:YAG

Laser Treatment for Keloids
and Hypertrophic Scars
Rei Ogawa
Contents
32.2 Laser Therapies for Keloids and Hypertrophic Scars – 272

32.3 I ndications and Limitations of Long-Pulsed 1064 nm Nd:
YAG Laser for Keloids and Hypertrophic Scars – 272
32.4 reatment Settings of Long-Pulsed 1064 nm Nd:YAG Laser

T
32.5 Follow-Up of Keloids and Hypertrophic Scars – 274
References – 277

272 R. Ogawa
32.1 Background mis). Thus, PDL is not particularly effective for keloids
and hypertrophic scars. By contrast, 1064 nm Nd:YAG
Keloids and hypertrophic scars are fibroproliferative laser reaches more deeply than PDL. As a result, it is
disorders of the skin that are caused by abnormal heal- increasingly being used to treat keloids and hypertrophic
ing of injured or irritated skin [1]. Both disorders have scars [13, 18–21]. It has been suggested that it acts by
similar histological features: the epidermis and the pap- suppressing neovascularization and the dilatation of
illary layer of the dermis are almost normal apart from blood vessels.
slight inflammation, and the only abnormality is in the Long-pulsed (not Q-switched) 1064 nm Nd:YAG
reticular layer of the dermis [2]. While keloids typically laser plays an important role in our treatment algo-
exhibit marked hyalinized collagen deposition as a result rithms for keloids and hypertrophic scars. This laser
of prolonged and strong inflammation, this feature is was developed for the treatment of vascular diseases,
less pronounced in hypertrophic scars [3]. Thus, it is pos- including inflammatory scars that exhibit neovascular-
sible that hypertrophic scars and keloids are manifesta- ization. It is also used to remove hair and to rejuvenate
tions of the same fibroproliferative skin disorder and the skin [13]. The depth that is reached is determined
just differ in the intensity and duration of inflammation. by the spot size, the laser power, and the fluence: the
These features may in turn be influenced by genetic, sys- larger the spot size, power, or fluence, the deeper the
temic, and local risk factors. It is possible that keloids laser beam penetrates. Therefore, a large spot size and/
arise largely as a result of genetic and systemic factors or power are used for deep targets such as hair follicles
that promote massive and extended inflammation, while and the blood vessels in the reticular layer of the der-
hypertrophic scars are more likely to be due to local fac- mis. However, since larger power increases the risk of
32 tors. Genetic factors may include single nucleotide poly- cutaneous burn injury, the power should be determined
morphisms [4, 5], while systemic factors may include on a case-by-case basis.
hypertension [6, 7], pregnancy [8, 9], hormones, and
cytokines. The most important local factor is skin ten-
sion on the edges of the scar [10–12]. 32.3 Indications and Limitations
Our understanding of the pathogenesis of keloids
and hypertrophic scars has improved markedly in the
of Long-Pulsed 1064 nm Nd:YAG Laser
last 10 years, and these previously intractable scars are for Keloids and Hypertrophic Scars
now regarded as being treatable. This has dramatically
improved the quality of life of patients with these heavy Keloid and hypertrophic scar development is due to
scars [3]. There are many therapeutic options for keloids chronic inflammation of the dermis during the course of
and hypertrophic scars, including surgery, radiation, wound healing. This associates with prolonged angio-
corticosteroids, 5-fluorouracil, cryotherapy, laser ther- genesis and collagen production. As mentioned above,
apy, anti-allergy agents, anti-inflammatory agents, long-pulsed 1064 nm Nd:YAG laser treatment may
bleaching creams, and make-up therapies. In terms of effectively treat keloid and hypertrophic scars because it
laser therapy, we have used long-pulsed 1064 nm reduces their vascularity. This reduction in vascularity
Nd:YAG laser (Cutera Inc., Brisbane, CA) to treat may in turn decrease cytokine or growth factor levels in
keloids and hypertrophic scars and have reported its the tissue, which then promote collagen deposition. This
indications and limitations previously [13, 14]. notion is supported by the ability of several vascularity-
suppressing treatments to improve inflammation and
thereby ameliorate abnormal scars. One such treatment
may be compression therapy, which is widely used with
32.2 Laser Therapies for Keloids heavy scars, especially for hypertrophic scars that arise
and Hypertrophic Scars from burn wounds. This therapy may force the collapse
of blood vessels in the scar, thereby decreasing cytokine
Pulsed dye laser (PDL) has long been the therapy of or growth factor levels in the tissue. Moreover, it has
choice for cutaneous vascular diseases, including telan- been suggested that radiation therapy is effective for
giectasia, hemangioma, and vascular malformations keloids because it suppresses angiogenesis. However,
[15–17]. It has also been used to treat keloids and hyper- studies elucidating the mechanisms underlying long-
trophic scars because they have more blood vessels than pulsed 1064 nm Nd:YAG laser treatment efficacy in
normal skin. However, although PDL is effective for abnormal scars are warranted.
vascular diseases that affect the superficial skin layers Our previous study [13] suggests that repeated ten-
(i.e., the epidermis and the papillary layer of the der- sion on the edges of scars that is imposed by body move-
mis), it does not penetrate deep enough to reach the ments prolongs scar inflammation: we observed that the
deep dermal regions (i.e., the reticular layer of the der- patterns of mechanical force distribution around keloids
Long-Pulsed 1064 nm Nd:YAG Laser Treatment for Keloids and Hypertrophic Scars
273 32
.. Fig. 32.1 Upper lip hypertrophic scar. Left: before treatment. 65–70 J/cm2, 25 ms, and 2 Hz. After 1 year of this treatment, the scar
Right: 1 year after treatment. Two years before her referral to our continued to exhibit a textural difference, but its redness and eleva-
clinic, a 20-year-old female received an abrasion injury to her upper tion had improved. (This figure is cited from Ref. [13] with approval
lip that turned into a hypertrophic scar. Long-pulsed 1064 nm from the publisher. © All rights reserved)
Nd:YAG laser was used at the following settings: 5 mm spot diameter,
and hypertrophic scars are largely consistent with the

shape of the scar. In particular, our study suggests that 32.4 reatment Settings of Long-Pulsed
T
keloids grow into the direction of the dominant prevail- 1064 nm Nd:YAG Laser for Keloids
ing skin tension. This mechanism explains why keloids and Hypertrophic Scars
on different regions of the body adopt specific shapes,
such as the butterfly on the shoulder, the dumbbell on The laser should generally be applied to the skin sur-
the upper arm, and the crab’s claw on the anterior chest. face with the following standard treatment settings: a
These observations suggest that, if scars will continue to spot diameter of 5 mm, an energy density of 75 J/cm2,
be subjected to strong tension due to the daily move- an exposure time per pulse of 25 ms, and a repetition
ments of the body, long-pulsed 1064 nm Nd:YAG laser rate of 2 Hz. However, in the case of the face
will not be successful. Indeed, our experience suggests (. Figs. 32.1 and 32.2) or pediatric patients, the treat-
that scars on less stretched areas (i.e., the face and ante- ment should start with a lower energy density (60–70 J/
rior lower leg) respond better to this therapy than scars cm2) to reduce the possibility of a burn injury. The best
on highly stretched areas (i.e., the anterior chest wall way to prevent such burn injuries is to cool the tip or
and scapula). We also found that (1) less inflamed scars air-cool the targeted skin before and immediately after
(i.e., the typical hypertrophic scar) (. Figs. 32.1, 32.2, irradiation. Each session should consist of three passes
and 32.3) respond better than highly inflamed scars (i.e., unless the patient feels strong pain at the second pass;
the typical keloid) (. Figs. 32.4, 32.5, and 32.6); (2) in this case, the session should be stopped. Even if the
thinner scars respond better than thick scars; (3) small patient feels no pain after the third pass, the session
scars respond better than large scars; (4) single scars should be stopped. Local anesthesia is not necessary.
respond better than multiple scars (. Fig. 32.7); and (5) However, if the patient expresses concern, anesthesia
if even a little scar redness and induration remains after cream or tape can be used. The intervals between the
long-pulsed 1064 nm Nd:YAG laser treatment, these sessions should generally be 2–4 weeks depending on
scars are highly likely to recur. the patient’s schedule.
274 R. Ogawa
.. Fig. 32.2 Lower lip hypertrophic scar. Left: before treatment. ter, 60–70 J/cm2, 25 ms, and 2 Hz. After 1 year of treatment, the scars
Right: 1 year after treatment. One year before her referral to our continued to display textural differences and elevation, but there was
32 clinic, an 11-year-old female received an abrasion injury to her lower
lip that developed into hypertrophic scars. Long-pulsed 1064 nm
clear improvement in their redness. (This figure is cited from Ref. [13]
with approval from the publisher. © All rights reserved)
Nd:YAG laser was used at the following settings: 5 mm spot diame-
other countries [22]. We use fludroxycortide tape

(Drenison®, Dainippon Sumitomo Pharma Co., Ltd.,
Tokyo, Japan) with or without 1064-nm Nd:YAG
laser (Cutera Inc., Brisbane, CA, USA) to treat path-
ological scars, including keloids and hypertrophic
scars in recent years [23]. A retrospective cohort
study [23] was performed to determine whether add-
ing contact mode 1064-nm Nd:YAG laser therapy to
conservative therapy (steroid tape) reduces the treat-
ment time for hypertrophic Caesarean-section scars.
In the results, combination of Nd:YAG laser and ste-
roid tape treatment effectively decreased the total
treatment time of hypertrophic Caesarean- section
scars [23].
.. Fig. 32.3 Abdomen hypertrophic scar. Upper: before treatment.

Lower: 1 year after treatment. Four years before her referral to our 32.5 ollow-Up of Keloids and Hypertrophic
F
clinic, a 50-year-old female developed hypertrophic scars on her
abdomen after uterine myoma surgery. Long-pulsed 1064 nm Scars
Nd:YAG laser was used at the following settings: 5 mm spot diame-
ter, 75 J/cm2, 25 ms, and 2 Hz. After 1 year of treatment, the scar had It is important that patients with keloids and hypertro-
almost disappeared. (This figure is cited from Ref. [13] with approval phic scars who undergo sequential treatments are fol-
from the publisher. © All rights reserved)
lowed up over the long term and that they are
appropriately educated about scar management [3]. This
is true regardless of the treatment that is being used.
Steroid tape is often used to decrease the inflam- This is because, if patients develop pathological scars in
mation in keloids and hypertrophic scars; this prac- the first place, they may be particularly prone to recur-
tice is particularly common in Japan and several rence or the development of new pathological scars in
275 32
.. Fig. 32.4 Anterior chest wall keloid. Left: before treatment. used at the following settings: 5 mm spot diameter, 65–75 J/cm2,
Right: 1 year after treatment. Eleven years before her referral to our 25 ms, and 2 Hz. After 1 year of treatment, the textural differences
clinic, a 29-year-old female developed butterfly-shaped keloids on and elevation had improved but there was remaining redness on
her anterior chest. Treatment with steroid ointment and tape at other some parts. (This figure is cited from Ref. [13] with approval from the
clinics did not improve these scars. Long-pulsed Nd:YAG laser was publisher. © All rights reserved)
response to minor stimulation. Thus, these patients rate of 2 Hz. Moreover, it is important that patients
should be educated in the self-management of both their with keloids and hypertrophic scars who undergo
abnormal scars and new wounds. In particular, they sequential treatments are followed up over the long
should be encouraged to apply steroid tape/plasters dur- term and that they are appropriately educated about
ing the early stages of scar development. This will rap- scar management.
idly reduce the inflammation in the scar and improve its
appearance. Moreover, laser therapy, anti-allergy agents
(including tranilast), anti-inflammatory agents, bleach-
ing creams, and make-up therapies can be used on a Take-Home Messages
case-by-case basis [3].
55 It has been used long-pulsed 1064 nm Nd:YAG
laser to treat keloids and hypertrophic scars.
55 Long-pulsed 1064 nm Nd:YAG laser was
32.6 Conclusion developed for the treatment of vascular diseases,
including inflammatory scars that exhibit
Long-pulsed 1064 nm Nd:YAG laser has been used to neovascularization.
treat keloids and hypertrophic scars. This laser was 55 The depth that is reached is determined by the spot
developed for the treatment of vascular diseases, size, the laser power, and the fluence: the larger the
including inflammatory scars that exhibit neovascular- spot size, power, or fluence, the deeper the laser
ization. The depth that is reached is determined by the beam penetrates.
spot size, the laser power, and the fluence: the larger 55 The standard treatment setting is a spot diameter
the spot size, power, or fluence, the deeper the laser of 5 mm, an energy density of 75 J/cm2, an
beam penetrates. The standard treatment setting is a exposure time per pulse of 25 ms, and a repetition
spot diameter of 5 mm, an energy density of 75 J/cm2, rate of 2 Hz.
an exposure time per pulse of 25 ms, and a repetition
276 R. Ogawa
.. Fig. 32.5 Shoulder keloid.

Left: before treatment. Right:
30 months after treatment.
About 20 years before her
referral to our clinic, a
52-year-old female developed
butterfly-shaped keloids on
her upper arm and shoulder.
Long-pulsed 1064 nm
Nd:YAG laser was used at the
following settings: 5 mm spot
diameter, 70–75 J/cm2, 25 ms,
and 2 Hz. After 1 year of
treatment, there were clear
improvements in the textural
differences and elevation but
there was remaining redness
on some parts. There was also
some capillary dilation that
was the result of steroid injec-
tions in the past. (This figure
is cited from Ref. [13] with
approval from the publisher)
32
.. Fig. 32.6 Scapular keloid. Left: before treatment. Right: 3 years settings: 5 mm spot diameter, 70–75 J/cm2, 25 ms, and 2 Hz. After
after treatment. About 30 years before her referral to our clinic, a 2 years of treatment, the texture, redness, induration, and elevation
52-year-old female developed a butterfly-shaped keloid on her scap- of the scar had clearly improved. (This figure is cited from Ref. [13]
ula. Steroid injections and tape at other clinics yielded little improve- with approval from the publisher)
ment. Long-pulsed 1064 nm Nd:YAG laser was used at the following
277 32
.. Fig. 32.7 Scapular keloid. Left images: before treatment. Middle at other clinics yielded little improvement. Long-pulsed 1064 nm
images: after 1 year of treatment. Right images: after 4 years of Nd:YAG laser was used at the following settings: 5 mm spot diame-
treatment. About 30 years before her referral to our clinic, a ter, 75 J/cm2, 25 ms, and 2 Hz. Moreover, a Chinese herb (Saireito)
42-year-old female developed multiple keloids on both the left (top was administered every day. After 4 years of treatment, the texture,
images) and right (bottom images) scapular areas. The keloids had redness, induration, and elevation of the scars have improved. How-
been slowly increasing in size. Steroid injections and tape treatment ever, the scars are not yet completely cured
References 6. Arima J, Huang C, Rosner B, Akaishi S, Ogawa R. Hypertension:

a systemic key to understanding local keloid severity. Wound
Repair Regen. 2015;23(2):213–21.
1. Tredget EE, Nedelec B, Scott PG, Ghahary A. Hypertrophic
7. Huang C, Ogawa R. The link between hypertension and patho-
scars, keloids, and contractures. The cellular and molecular basis
logical scarring: does hypertension cause or promote keloid and
for therapy. Surg Clin North Am. 1997;77(3):701–30.
hypertrophic scar pathogenesis? Wound Repair Regen.
2. Huang C, Murphy GF, Akaishi S, Ogawa R. Keloids and hyper-
2014;22(4):462–6.
trophic scars: update and future directions. Plast Reconstr Surg
8. Moustafa MF, Abdel-Fattah MA, Abdel-Fattah DC. Presumptive
Glob Open. 2013;1(4):e25.
evidence of the effect of pregnancy estrogens on keloid growth.
3. Ogawa R, Akaishi S, Kuribayashi S, Miyashita T. Keloids and
Case report. Plast Reconstr Surg. 1975;56(4):450–3.
hypertrophic scars can now be cured completely: recent progress
9. Mendelsohn ME, Karas RH. Estrogen and the blood vessel wall.
in our understanding of the pathogenesis of keloids and hyper-
Curr Opin Cardiol. 1994;9(5):619–26.
trophic scars and the most promising current therapeutic strat-
10. Ogawa R, Okai K, Tokumura F, Mori K, Ohmori Y, Huang C,
egy. J Nippon Med Sch. 2016;83(2):46–53.
Hyakusoku H, Akaishi S. The relationship between skin stretch-
4. Nakashima M, Chung S, Takahashi A, Kamatani N, Kawaguchi
ing/contraction and pathologic scarring: the important role of
T, Tsunoda T, Hosono N, Kubo M, Nakamura Y, Zembutsu
mechanical forces in keloid generation. Wound Repair Regen.
H. A genome-wide association study identifies four susceptibility
2012;20(2):149–57.
loci for keloid in the Japanese population. Nat Genet.
11. Ogawa R, Akaishi S, Huang C, Dohi T, Aoki M, Omori Y, Koike
2010;42(9):768–71.
S, Kobe K, Akimoto M, Hyakusoku H. Clinical applications of
5. Ogawa R, Watanabe A, Than Naing B, Sasaki M, Fujita A,
basic research that shows reducing skin tension could prevent and
Akaishi S, Hyakusoku H, Shimada T. Associations between
treat abnormal scarring: the importance of fascial/subcutaneous
keloid severity and single-nucleotide polymorphisms: impor-
tensile reduction sutures and flap surgery for keloid and hypertro-
tance of rs8032158 as a biomarker of keloid severity. J Invest
phic scar reconstruction. J Nippon Med Sch. 2011;78(2):68–76.
Dermatol. 2014;134(7):2041–3.
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12. Akaishi S, Akimoto M, Ogawa R, Hyakusoku H. The relation- resistant to conventional therapy with 1064-nm ND:YAG laser.
ship between keloid growth pattern and stretching tension: G Ital Dermatol Venereol. 2013;148(2):231–2.
visual analysis using the finite element method. Ann Plast Surg. 19. Rossi A, Lu R, Frey MK, Kubota T, Smith LA, Perez M. The
2008;60(4):445–51. use of the 300 microsecond 1064 nm Nd:YAG laser in the treat-
13. Koike S, Akaishi S, Nagashima Y, Dohi T, Hyakusoku H, Ogawa ment of keloids. J Drugs Dermatol. 2013;12(11):1256–62.
R. Nd:YAG laser treatment for keloids and hypertrophic scars: 20. Al-Mohamady AE, Ibrahim SM, Muhammad MM. Pulsed dye
an analysis of 102 cases. Plast Reconstr Surg Glob Open. laser versus long-pulsed Nd:YAG laser in the treatment of
2015;2(12):e272. hypertrophic scars and keloid: a comparative randomized split-
14. Akaishi S, Koike S, Dohi T, Kobe K, Hyakusoku H, Ogawa scar trial. J Cosmet Laser Ther. 2016;8:1–5.
R. Nd:YAG laser treatment of keloids and hypertrophic scars. 21. Tian WC. Savior of post-blepharoepicanthoplasty scarring:
Eplasty. 2012;12:e1. novel use of a low-fluence 1064-nm Q-switched Nd:YAG laser. J
15. Dover JS, Arndt KA. New approaches to the treatment of vas- Cosmet Laser Ther. 2016;18(2):69–71.
cular lesions. Lasers Surg Med. 2000;26(2):158–63. 22. Goutos I, Ogawa R. Steroid tape: a promising adjunct to scar
16. Alster TS, Williams C. Treatment of keloid sternotomy scars management. Scars Burn Heal. 2017;3:2059513117690937.
with 585 nm flashlamp-pumped pulsed-dye laser. Lancet. 23. Tsai CH, Kao HK, Akaishi S, An-Jou Lin J, Ogawa R.
1995;345:1198–200. Combination of 1,064-nm Neodymium-doped Yttrium
17. Paquet P, Hermanns JF, Pierard GE. Effect of the 585nm flash- Aluminum Garnet Laser and Steroid Tape. Decreases the Total
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Campolmi P. Successful treatment of acne keloidalis nuchae
32
279 33
Minimally Invasive
of HTS and Keloids: Fractional
Laser
Contents

33.2 Method of Action – 280
33.3 Fractioned Laser Platforms – 280
33.4 Fractioned CO2 Laser – 280
33.5 Settings for Ablative Fractional CO2 Laser – 281
33.6 Fractioned Erbium:YAG – 281
33.7 Fractional Non-ablative Laser – 281
33.8 Picosecond, Fractioned, 1064 nm Nd:YAG – 281
33.9 Cautions and Contraindications – 281
33.10 Preoperative and Postoperative Regimes – 282
33.11 Expected Outcomes – 282

33.12 Potential Complications – 282
33.13 Fractioned CO2 Laser as a Method for Potentiating

Transdermal Laser-Assisted Drug Delivery (LADD) – 283
33.14 Consensus Practice – 283
References – 284

280 M. Tretti Clementoni and E. Azzopardi
33.1 Introduction Fractionated lasers with established effectiveness include

CO2 and Er YAG (nanosecond modality). More recently,
Hypertrophic fractional laser and keloid scars present a fractioned, picosecond Nd: YAG has emerged as a
spectrum of disorders that are difficult to treat. Multiple potent platform in this context.
treatments have been tried, to ameliorate the clinical
sequelae of scarring, such as erythema, pruritus, func-
tional limitation, reduced range of movement, dyschro- 33.3 Fractioned Laser Platforms
mias, hyper and/or hypopigmentation. Early international
clinical recommendations on scar management first rec- Fraction laser resurfacing creates microscopic columns
ognized the importance of laser therapy in this armamen- of ablation in epidermis and dermis, termed microscopic
tarium [1]. Within the years that followed, laser technology treatment zones. The relationship of these zones to
and the understanding of how it modulates the underly- intervening blocks of normal tissue permit rapid heat
ing processes that leads to hypertrophic and keloid scar- dissipation yet deliver enough energy to allow immedi-
ring have experienced a quantum leap [2] and are still ate changes in scar pliability, and instigate scar remodel-
evolving. Lasers also present a considerable financial ing and neocollagenesis. The use of non-fractioned
commitent, and it is possible, in the authors’ experience, platforms such as pulsed dye and KTP (532 nm) are well
that limited early results partially stemmed from limited documented and discussed elsewhere.
availability of multiple lasers with consequent attempts to Fractioned CO2 (10,600 nm) and Er:YAG (2940 nm)
overstretch the indications for what was available. are the two main ablative modalities in use, targeting
This chapter presents a state-of-the-art insight into water and collagen to produce mass transfer zones
the use of fractional laser for the management of this (MTZs) of defined diameter (70–100 μm) and depth, tis-
complex problem. In particular, we focus on the man- sue vaporization, and coagulation.
33 agement of complex scars such as those occurring post- At the molecular level, fractional ablative laser
burn injury and split-thickness skin grafting. treatment induces upregulation of heat shock protein,
upregulation of matrix metalloproteinase, fibroblast
apoptosis, downregulation of transforming growth
33.2 Method of Action factors and basic fibroblast growth factors, and modu-
lation of collagen-type ratios. These changes are evi-
Light energy can be used to modulate or ablate specific dent beyond the microscopic treatment zones, yet the
targets in the skin through selective absorption of energy spared tissues contribute to rapid, normalized wound
and specific heat energy dissipation properties [3]. The healing. A major difference however between CO2 and
theory of selective photothermolysis, first described in Er:YAG laser is the potential to achieve immediate
1983, laid the foundations for subsequent developments coagulation and hemostasis: CO2 laser is 10 times
and standard practices [3]. When used to induce a con- more effective in this regard. This is critically impor-
trolled thermal injury, lasers initiate information pro- tant when considering resurfacing of extensive areas
cesses to increase vascular permeability and modulate and when considering LADD, as in our experience,
matrix metalloproteinase production of collagen fiber bleeding results in plugging and reduced LADD effi-
deposition and tissue hypoxia caused by targeted vascu- cacy. Moreover, the waveform characteristics of a CO2
lar ablation [4]. Through these processes, wound healing laser have a significant bearing on the potential for
specifically in the remodeling phase may be manipulated, side effects.
resulting in scar maturation and obviation of symptoms
[5]. Different types of lasers are useful in targeting the
different components of this disease scar tissue and it is 33.4 Fractioned CO2 Laser
important that the laser practitioner has the essential
range of appropriately powered tools required to pro- Indications and timing: The latest version of consen-
duce an optimal effect. sus international guidelines for prevention and treat-
The choice of fractional laser in the management of ment of pathological scarring (2014) reserve the use of
a hypertrophic spectrum scar depends upon whether an fractional laser therapy for scars refractory to pulsed
ablative or non-ablative effect is desired, the target chro- dye laser; widespread hypertrophic burn scars that
mophore, the background skin type, the thickness of failed to improve with treatment with silicone gel or
scarring, requirement for laser-assisted drug delivery sheeting, pressure garments, and/or onion extract
(LADD), and the patient’s compliance with postopera- preparations for 8–12 weeks; minor keloids that failed
tive downtime and regimes. The Azzopardi classification to improve within 8–12 weeks with silicone gel sheet-
of chromophores also helps the practitioner rationalize ing and intralesional corticosteroids; and major
the likely target and downstream metabolic effects [6]. keloids resistant to improvement with intralesional
Minimally Invasive Technologies for Treatment of HTS and Keloids: Fractional Laser
281 33
corticosteroids and 5-FU may be treated with ablative 33.6 Fractioned Erbium:YAG
fractional laser or PDL therapy. This philosophy has
been challenged by recent literature. The clinical efficacy of Er:YAG in keloid scars is lim-
First, the use of fractioned CO2 has since been suc- ited. Cavale et al. combined Er:YAG with twice daily
cessfully used (to date, off-license) with extensive and topical betamethasone under occlusion until therapeu-
well-documented success, as an adjunct facilitating tic maximum was achieved, resulting in 50% improve-
transdermal delivery (see below) [7]. Pulsed dye is less ment (median, n = 70), but recurrences also occurred in
effective in scars more than 1.2 mm depth, and do not 22% of lesions [9]. One factor which may explain this
allow for effective scar pliability that may substantially disappointing result is the limited ability of current
facilitate post-procedure physical therapy. From a Er:YAG technology to penetrated deeply, and lower
basic sciences perspective, once it has been established hemostasis.
that fractioned ablative laser may re-instigate appro-
priate scar remodeling, it would be more useful to tar-
get the scar during the remodeling phase once 33.7 Fractional Non-ablative Laser
epidermal integrity is well established. Recent litera-
ture supports earlier intervention than the previous 6 Fractional 1550 nm Erbium-doped fiber laser reported
months to a year postinjury dogma, in concordance overall improvement in scar texture after four treat-
with our experience. In our experience, a treatment ments spaced 2 weeks apart, compared to the non-
interval of 4–6 weeks is acceptable. Further, given the treated part of this split-scar study [10]. Literature
tendency of corticosteroid to exacerbate telangiecta- reports that the response is mediated by heat shock pro-
sias, use of fractioned CO2 first (±LADD) followed by tein, fibroblast proliferation, and consequent neocolla-
vascular-type laser to correct any resulting telangiec- genesis [10].
tasia may also be an acceptable and more time-efficient A recent comparative RCT reports 1550 nm Er-
approach. doped fiber (70 mJ/23% coverage) to be superior to
pulsed dye laser (7.5 mJ/10 mm/0.45 ms), with a 75%
compared to 53% improvement reported [11, 12].
33.5 ettings for Ablative Fractional CO2
S
Laser 33.8 icosecond, Fractioned, 1064 nm
P
Utmost caution is advised when deciding clinical set-
Nd:YAG
tings as these will vary between platforms. Many super-
Management of hypertrophic and keloid scarring in
pulsed lasers can only produce a shark tooth–type
darker skin types is a formidable challenge. Longer wave-
waveform. This results in the need to impart substan-
lengths, cooling devices, and lower treatment fluences
tially more energy for the therapeutic threshold to be
have been shown to minimize complications [13, 14].
achieved. This additional energy may be responsible for
Recently, fractional picosecond 1064 lasers have reported
the increased risk of complications seen in the literature
good outcomes with very few side effects [15]. Compared
(both medical and legal) with these laser platforms. In
to the conventional nanosecond domain QS Nd:YAG
contrast, lasers imparting a “top hat pattern” waveform
laser, the ps-Nd:YAG can produce significantly higher
impart only enough energy for the therapeutic threshold
peak powers at the same energy level [16]. It is therefore
to be achieved. Further safety considerations include
expected that such technology works p rincipally through
maintaining an inverse ratio of power to density, and
photomechanical rather than photothermal effects [17].
ideally to avoid imparting a fluence that is above TRT,
The inhibitory effect of the 1064-nm Nd:YAG laser
density sets the number of MTZs per unit area, which
against dermal collagen formation is documented in the
should not be above 10%. Ideally, for purposes of safety,
literature [18–20]. More recently, the use of fractioned
pre- and post-cooling regime should also be considered.
755 nm picosecond laser has been reported to be effective
A cold-air blower provides excellent pre-and post-
and safe in patients with Fitzpatrick skin types 4–6 [20].
cooling as well as being an effective analgesic.
Further settings include the size, shape, pulse
stacking, and depth. Shape and size of the fractioned
beam can be changed according to prevailing need. 33.9 Cautions and Contraindications
Whether the beam should penetrate beyond the scar
thickness is still being investigated; however, injuries Caution is advised with any underlying process that
beyond the dermis may well lead to scarring and impedes wound healing. History of herpes simplex virus,
should be avoided [8]. especially if lasering is to be attempted in the peroral
area, should prompt prophylactic management. Oral 33.11 Expected Outcomes

antivirals or more recently bromelain should be consid-
ered [12, 21, 22]. Current depth of penetration for abla- Benefits associated with CO2 laser treatment include
tive fractional devices is approximately 4 mm, and increased scar pliability and reduced tightness, but it is
therefore management of deeper scars is less likely to be important to impress on the patient that laser treatment
as effective [22]. creates the potential for increased scar pliability which is
accomplished only by compliance with aggressive physi-
cal therapy postoperatively. Appropriate patient selec-
tion is therefore paramount, as is the availability of
33.10 Preoperative and Postoperative experienced and motivating physical therapists. Further
Regimes benefits include reduced scar height and thickness.
Pruritus has been observed to decrease in several studies
No consensus exists with regard to preoperative prepa- presumably because nerve endings are no longer encased
ration. Some prepare skin with chlorhexidine solution in tight scar tissues.
and moistening hair-bearing areas prior to treatment Similarly, fractioned CO2 laser may directly address
[23]. Others, including the authors, are content with the source of keloid formation, when this occurs in hair-
cleansed, dry skin [24]. It is important to note that what- bearing skin. Here, the hair follicle is encapsulated in the
ever preparation method is favored, that moist and scar, which subsequently inflames, infects, and results in
humid surfaces result in reduced ablation, and increased perpetuation of the insult-driving keloid growth. Scar
heat latency since the primary target, water, is now in remodeling results in amelioration of pliability, and in
increased abundance. the authors’ experience it is not uncommon to result in
Several factors influence the choice of anesthesia, resolution of the insult-driving keloidal growth as well
33 depending on the age of the patients, available equip-
ment, and extent of surface area treated. However,
as regrowth of hair in the site.
By inversely relating density to energy settings, it is
overarching principles governing the practice of both also possible to attenuate relative scar height, resulting
authors include the use of the safest, least-invasive in flattening.
modality first, pre-optimization, and dual effect of skin
cooling in increasing safety as well as providing an anal-
gesic effect. Within this context, pretreatment with top- 33.12 Potential Complications
ical anesthetics of increasing strength coupled with
cold-air blowers may provide the mainstay of analgesia The principal complications reported in the literature
requirements [25]. include burns, infection (viral, bacterial, mycotic)
Where general anesthesia is required, it is possible postoperative pain, and abnormal pigmentation:
to apply topical anesthesia immediately after fractioned Post-inflammatory hyperpigmentation as well as
CO2 lasering. However, the facilitation of transdermal hypopigmentation have been reported. In those being
delivery will facilitate increased absorption (see below), treated for burn injury memory flashbacks to the
and therefore it important to consider the maximum original incident have been reported in the literature,
safe dose to avoid anesthesia-related toxicity. Use of therefore it is essential that patients are forewarned.
ice-water packs immediately following treatment pro- It is of course important to discuss the potential of
vides additional modalities for heat dissipation and multiple treatments. A large prospective study per-
analgesia [26]. formed by Hultmann and colleagues puts the overall
Again, postoperative regimes vary widely, depending complication rate at 3.9% of all treatments: in
on resource, patient compliance, and experience. Use of decreasing order of incidence, hypopigmentation,
antiseptic moisturizers, followed by a regime of moistur- blistering, hyperpigmentation, infection, cellulitis of
ization is strongly advised, along with hydrocortisone the adjacent skin, superficial mycoses, and oral her-
for pruritus. Sun protection is mandatory. Patients may pes simplex [27].
resume normal activity almost immediately, including Practical recommendations for improving patient
physical or occupational therapy. Showering is permit- safety are judicious use of fluence (especially in darker
ted, with the exception of full immersion in standing skin types), use of pre- and post-cooling regimes, single
(bath) water where ablative laser has been used. Some pass, and avoiding stacking pulses, intentionally or oth-
degree of edema is expected. Depending on the patient’s erwise [8]. Multimodality treatment to one area within
tolerance, compressive garments may be worn immedi- the same sitting is indeed possible, given the mastery of
ately after, but they may cause shear of treated tissue, the underlying principles, correct understanding of the
and therefore it is sensible to recommend waiting for disease extent, the background skin type, and the
24–48 h before use. patient’s potential for healing. However, it significantly
283 33
increases the risk for adverse events and therefore best assess whether mild adverse events reported (including
avoided, except where mandated by individual risk–ben- residual pain, redness, or mild-moderate swelling) was
efit considerations and availability of experts with due to the needle or laser, as the effect was measured
appropriate experience. The use of test-patching and ini- only after the needle was inserted. Typical settings for
tiation of treatment in non-cosmetically conspicuous this indication are fluence of 250 mJ/pulse, a pulse width
areas are advocated. In addition, a readily available of 300 microseconds, and an estimated pore depth of
database of previous patient-specific settings allows set- less than 20 mm [30–32].
ting optimization to be delivered based on previous suc- More importantly, this data demonstrates that
cesses or complications. application of local anesthesia post-procedure is likely
to be more efficiently absorbed. While care needs to be
taken with maximum dose due to altered absorption,
33.13 Fractioned CO2 Laser as a Method post-procedure topical anesthesia may provide valu-
for Potentiating Transdermal able pain relief, and is the standard practice of one of
the authors (EA) when treating larger areas of sheet
Laser-Assisted Drug Delivery (LADD)
hypertrophic scarring post burns, with no side effects
noted to date.
Ablative fractional laser breaches epidermal integrity,
LADD has been used to potentiate transdermal
producing newly formed, uniform, and deep channels
into hard dermal scars. It is well established (but at time delivery of both corticosteroid [33–37] as well as
5-fluorouracil [38] as well as combination treatment
of publishing as yet off license) to harness this phenom-
[38]. More recent evidence suggests that both are
enon as an effective method for trans-dermal drug deliv-
equally effective, but 5-FU does not lead to dermal
ery (. Fig. 33.1). The two-fold advantages may be
atrophy or telangiectasia seen with corticosteroid
summarized as follows: less pain and more even distri-
delivery [39].
bution. First, traditional injection of volume into tight
dermal scarring produces uneven distribution, creating
blebs of volume while no treatment to adjacent areas.
Volume injection into a tight scar also increases pain 33.14 Consensus Practice
and discomfort [28]. Recent literature also points to var-
ious aspect of improvement this technique addresses, Established clinical consensus is that ablative lasers are
including pain tolerance, texture, dyschromia, and significantly more effective per treatment for scar
hypertrophy [26, 28, 29]. improvement than their non-ablative counterparts,
Pain relief: Intra-scar injection is often poorly toler- especially for keloid and hypertrophic contracted scars,
ated pain-wise, especially when larger surface areas are with significant gain in pruritus, pain, and physical
being considered. Several studies have established that mobility within days and up to 2 weeks posttreatment.
fractional Er:YAG pretreatment reduces up to twelve- Usually, rapid improvement in dyspigmentation is fol-
fold the time required for topical anesthesia to take lowed by slower improvement in texture and range of
effect. However, within these studies, it is impossible to movement [22].
.. Fig. 33.1 In Laser Assisted

Drug Delivery, is a recent
advancement where laser energy
a b
is used to enhance trans-dermal
drug delivery. For scarring a,
typically, a fractioned ablative
laser beam is used to create
channels within the scar b. This
is followed expeditiously with c
topical application c. The topical d
application is massaged in to the
lasered area to enhance
absorbtion d
Take-Home Messages 5. Laubach HJ, Tannous Z, Anderson RR, Manstein D. Skin

55 Hypertrophic and keloid scars present a spectrum responses to fractional photothermolysis. Lasers Surg Med.
2006;38:142–9.
of difficult to treat disorders, and different types of
6. Azzopardi EA, et al. Chromophores in operative surgery: cur-
lasers are useful in targeting the different rent practice and rationalized development. J Control Release.
components of this disease scar tissue. 2017;249:123–30.
55 The choice of fractional laser in the management of 7. Zaleski-Larsen LA, Fabi SG. Laser-assisted drug delivery.
a hypertrophic spectrum scar depends upon whether Dermatol Surg. 2016;42:919–31.
8. Tredget EE, Levi B, Donelan MB. Biology and principles of scar
an ablative or non-ablative effect is desired, the
management and burn reconstruction. Surg Clin. 2014;94:793–815.
target chromophore, the background skin type, the 9. Cavalié M, et al. Treatment of keloids with laser-assisted topical
thickness of scarring, requirement for laser-assisted steroid delivery: a retrospective study of 23 cases. Dermatol
drug delivery (LADD), and the patient’s compliance Ther. 2015;28:74–8.
with postoperative downtime and regimes. 10. Hantash BM, et al. In vivo histological evaluation of a novel
ablative fractional resurfacing device. Lasers Surg Med.
55 Fraction laser resurfacing creates microscopic
2007;39:96–107.
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termed microscopic treatment zones. DJ. Treatment of surgical scars with nonablative fractional laser
55 The relationship of these zones to intervening versus pulsed dye laser: a randomized controlled trial. Dermatol
blocks of normal tissue permit rapid heat dissipation Surg. 2009;35:1172–80.
12. Graber EM, Tanzi EL, Alster TS. Side effects and complications
yet deliver enough energy to allow immediate
of fractional laser photothermolysis: experience with 961 treat-
changes in scar pliability and instigate scar ments. Dermatol Surg. 2008;34:301–7.
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55 Fractional ablative laser treatment induces ment options and recommendations for Fitzpatrick skin types V
remodelling changes that are evident beyond the and VI. Br J Dermatol. 2013;169:91–7.
14. Ross EV, et al. Treatment of pseudofolliculitis barbae in skin
33 microscopic treatment zones, yet the spared tissues
types IV, V, and VI with a long-pulsed neodymium: yttrium alu-
contribute to rapid, normalized wound healing. minum garnet laser. J Am Acad Dermatol. 2002;47:263–70.
55 The main modalities in use are CO2 and Er:YAG 15. Cho S, et al. Efficacy and safety of 1064-nm Q-switched Nd:
laser. CO2 has the potential to achieve 10-fold more YAG laser with low fluence for keloids and hypertrophic scars. J
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16. Abergel RP, et al. Control of connective tissue metabolism by
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55 Picosecond systems act principally through 17. Koike S, et al. Nd: YAG laser treatment for keloids and hypertro-
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55 Ablative fractional laser breaches epidermal
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55 There is no universally accepted skin prep regime, 20. Haimovic A, Brauer JA, Bae Y-SC, Geronemus RG. Safety of a
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21. Hassouneh B, Newman JP. Lasers, fillers, and neurotoxins:
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287 34
Minimal Invasive Technologies

for Treatment of HTS
and Keloids: Medical Needling
Contents

34.3 Method – 289
34.4 Effects of Medical Needling – 290
34.5 Needling Techniques – 290
34.6 Postinterventional Treatment Measures – 291
34.7 Induction of the Post-Needling Wound-Healing Cascade – 292
34.8 ffects of Medical Needling Regarding Different

E
Parameters – 293
34.9 Dermal Remodeling – 294
34.10 Improved Perfusion – 294
34.11 Dermal Thickness and Erythema – 295

34.12 Richness of Moisture – 296
References – 297

288 A. Aliu and M. Aust
34.1 Background sure over the fibrotic tissue, which can cause itching.
Because of their typical larger size, they tend to rub on
HTS (hypertrophic scars) and keloids remain a serious clothing, causing unbearable irritation.
and challenging issue regarding medical and therapeutic Whereas the development of HTS is fairly man-
intervention. Clinical symptoms such as pain or pruri- ageable, keloids reveal specific features concerning the
tus are followed by psychological deficits of stigmati- parameters of size and growth. Keloid scars develop
zation or even discrimination for the affected people. uncontrolled or excessive fibrogenesis and are a tremen-
Considering the multifactorial pathogenesis of these dous source of collagen that still causes clinical problems
pathological scars, the injury to the skin reaches the until now. Thus, keloid is an active tissue that demon-
reticular dermis and causes subsequent aberrant wound strates signs of inflammation such as redness, itch, and
healing. A secondary intention of wound healing is char- mild pain. The permanent tendency to uncontrolled
acterized by inflammation by promoting various tissue growth exceeds the original wound area and reaches
and immune cells. Hence, the vulnerable skin layer of massive proportions due to uncontrolled fibrosis. The
HTS and keloids contains inflammatory cells, increased last-mentioned issue is associated with a dysregulation
numbers of fibroblasts producing collagen and endothe- of growth factors, which leads to an overproduction of
lial cells for a nutritive angiogenesis. This may promote scar tissue and an uncontrolled synthesis of the extracel-
chronic inflammation, which in turn may cause the inva- lular matrix. Hence, therapeutic treatment of keloids dif-
sive growth of keloids and explains clinical symptoms. fers from those of normal hypertrophic scars. Keloid is
The situation becomes even more complex with bacte- often recurrent, although it has been treated with either
rial superinfection or other inflammatory responses, as pharmacological agents or surgery. Dermatological
proinflammatory cells and cytokines are highly upregu- approaches of scar removal are not based on ablative
lated. Pathophysiological parameters create a complex treatment methods. They include compression therapy,
profile of HTS and keloids, which demand therapeutic intralesional corticosteroid injections, and excisions.
attention and medical intervention. When injected into the keloid, appropriate medication
helps shrink the scar for a short time. The patient is due
34 to receive a series of injections once every month, which
34.2 Introduction means a constant therapy in order to prevent renewed
scarring. Moreover, the use of radiation therapy instead
In this chapter, we are going to present medical needling of laser therapy is a common practice. However, this
as an ideal therapy for the treatment of hypertrophic method also means a radiation exposure, which is
scars and keloids. The past has shown difficulties in always a health hazard. Ionizing radiation should only
treating these types of scars that are characterized by be implemented when medical indication is given or
a complex anatomy and a progressive degradation of other alternatives are not reachable.
the scar texture. Serious challenges for various therapy With regard to HTS, ablative treatments such as sur-
approaches are a rapid and uncontrolled growth, a lack gical interventions show temporary success by reducing
of moisture and a rigid structure. Affected people are the scar tissue to the level of the surrounding skin. These
confronted with dysfunctional and aesthetic deficits circumstances support the risk of recurrence and a con-
in their daily life or suffer from further harm through tinuous degradation of scar texture and healthy skin.
stigmatization. For this indication, medical treatment is The majority of conventional treatments are based on
required that replaces surgical interventions and other ablative and radical principles that provoke short-term
ablative treatments. HTS and keloids are prominent scars responses and only suited for the removal of HTS. For
that frequently occur in combination with persistent this reason, conventional therapy approaches show little
erythema. Widespread and deep damage of the skin lay- success and permit poor access to an efficient treatment
ers is often followed by secondary wound healing, which of keloids or HTS.
enhances the formation of either HTS or keloids. Keloid Against this background, the demand for less inva-
scars occur when the skin overreacts to the injury, after sive and effective functional and aesthetic treatments
which they continue to grow and get dark in color. The is steadily growing and remains a permanent issue in
histopathology of keloid demonstrates an extensive tis- modern medicine. The focus is clearly defined by the
sue proliferation beyond the margin of primary wound. patient’s satisfaction with the aim of maximal outcome
Dark skin types are predisposed for the development of and minimal risk at the same time. Medical needling
keloids that appear when a forced wound closure pro- seems to be an ideal method for what is postulated in
ceeds under tension. That is why keloids can cause great many fields of modern medicine. PCI displays a simple
discomfort, tightness, or a limited range of mobility if regenerative technique that affects skin-related indica-
they develop near a joint such as the knee or ankle. An tions and in particular scars. Its success is manifested
excessive stretching of skin creates uncomfortable pres- in skin regeneration particularly for severe and wide-
Minimal Invasive Technologies for Treatment of HTS and Keloids: Medical Needling
289 34
spread scars with hypertrophic and keloid features. The the formation of physiological collagen instead of scar
method of PCI requires neither expensive apparatus nor collagen. For this reason, PCI overcomes shortcomings
the need of complex instruments and sets a new trend of other conventional methods that are available for
in plastic and aesthetic medicine. By stimulating com- treating problematic scars such as HTS or keloids. Study
plex signal transduction pathways in the postneedling outcome has already shown the positive effect of medi-
wound-healing cascade, the natural regeneration pro- cal needling on HTS in the past years and latest clinical
cess is modified and, hence, is more efficient. According data reveal similar results concerning keloids.
to that, medical needling improves the appearance and
quality of scars with comparatively low risk and stress
for the patient. The postneedling cascade induces gene 34.3 Method
expression and the proliferation of skin and stem cells
that are important for dermal remodeling. The expres- Medical needling is based on a simple idea of punctur-
sion of specific proteins and reorganization of the extra- ing the affected area repeatedly with a roller covered with
cellular matrix affect epidermal thickness and creates a needles of a specific length. Approximately 20 years ago,
stable and functioning skin barrier [1]. Furthermore, the Camirand and Doucet had the experience that treating
PCI-induced synthesis of collagen and release of endog- hypertrophic scars with a tattoo gun affects the scar tex-
enous growth factors allow an association with scarless ture and achieves significant improvements regarding
wound healing. Epidermal as well as dermal structures clinical parameters [3]. Based on these ideas, Fernandes
remain intact and histological findings show a complete developed the technique of percutaneous collagen
re-epithelialization of the epidermis after treatment. induction. In 1997, he realized this scientific discovery
Current medical standards offer a diversity of non- by establishing a roller equipped with needles in order to
invasive treatments (e.g., silicone patches) and minimal produce thousands of neighboring micro-wounds in the
invasive procedures (e.g., cortisone injections) or surgi- dermis, which cause intradermal bleeding. Thanks to
cal options such as scar excisions, tissue transfer, and targeted research within the last 15 years, scientific data
W- and Z-plasties. Keloids show a limited therapy spec- have been provided by Aust et al. at first, and underline
trum, which is mainly based on nonablative treatments the efficacy as well as safety of medical needling.
(radiation, injections). Ablative methods such as laser In Germany, medical needling is now a licensed
resurfacing, dermabrasion, and deep chemical peels therapy for the treatment of scars and other related
are all together defined by the same principle and find indications. The needling device is covered with needles
use in the treatment of HTS: they lighten the scar by of the desired length (0.5–3 mm) and needs to be rolled
destroying the skin structure and provoke an inflamma- over the scar in three directions under constant pressure:
tory response. As a result, the treated area is replaced vertically, horizontally, and diagonally. In the case of
by a thinner epidermis that shows flattened rete ridges hypertrophic scars and keloids, surgical needling with a
and parallelly orientated scar collagen that is typical for needle length of 3 mm is instructed in order to reach the
fibrosis [2]. Furthermore, the skin is more vulnerable for scar collagen as deeply as possible. A straight guidance
bacterial or viral infections and external stress. These of the device is necessary in order to prevent shear forces
complications make a successful treatment of hypertro- and deeper damage. Relative to the extent of the scar size,
phic and keloid scars almost impossible, as they already this procedure requires 30–60 minutes of mechanical
have dysfunctional qualities. Complex structural and exposure. The penetration of the papillary dermis leads
physical features of keloids have shown that common to thousands of micro-wounds and intradermal bleed-
methods display temporary solutions that conceal the ing through the parenchymal canals. Minimal lesions of
actual problem instead of improving the scar quality. the epidermis do not impair basal layers containing stem
In most instances, the scar quality of keloids or HTS cells with regenerative capacity. The increased expres-
would be much worse then. Compared to that, PCI sion of specific growth factors and release of structure
has been proved to be a relatively simple, fast, and con- proteins induce a modified wound-healing cascade with
trolled method, which can be safely repeated and used in a great regenerative potential. The scar is sufficiently
body regions where ablative or semi-ablative treatments needled when multiple and confluent ecchymosis as well
have limited usage. Current studies on medical needling as skin swelling are clearly indicated. After 24 hours, epi-
show a positive effect on hypertrophic scars regard- thelial cells close the channels and are reorganized into
ing the parameters elasticity, moisture, transepidermal a natural protection barrier, which reduces the risk of
water loss, and erythema. In terms of dermal reorga- potential postoperative complications such as infections.
nization, high levels of structural proteins – glycosami- Therapy benefits are optimized by the application of
noglycans and proteoglycans – as well as an increased nourishing products in first 24 hours. Swelling and local
presence of physiological collagen are measurable after redness or edema of the treated area disappears after
needling. PCI preserves dermal structures and promotes approximately 4–7 days. PCI is performed under general
and cellular processes induced by PCI affect neither the

amount of melanocytes nor the mechanisms of synthe-
sizing melanin. However, PCI specifically modifies the
expression levels of the melanocyte-stimulating hormone
(MSH) and Interleukin-10 (Il-10). MSH influences the
activity of melanocytes and is downregulated within the
postneedling cascade. On the other hand, high levels of
Il-10 are evident, which is an antiinflammatory cytokine,
and support immunological tolerance. As a targeted
therapy, PCI concentrates especially on those areas that
are aimed to be treated and also affects the surround-
ing healthy skin in a positive way. Due to the fact that
needling does not create an open wound surface, there is
a low risk for the development of viral or fungal infec-
.. Fig. 34.1 Roller device for medical needling tions, which could complicate a scar-free wound healing.
anesthesia in an operation theatre. When smaller areas

are treated, the performance can be done under local 34.5 Needling Techniques
anesthesia. Preoperative formalities include an informed
consent form signed by informed patients or parents of The needling treatment needs to be planned and pre-
patients younger than 18 years of age. Pre- and post- pared in advance. This includes the examination and
operative management is kept simple and includes the categorization of the scars according to specific fea-
application of Vitamins A, C, and E as antioxidants [4]. tures. The selection of the appropriate length of nee-
According to latest research, maximal therapeutic out- dles depends on the type of scar, pain management,
come regarding epidermal thickness and a better prog- and expectation from the patient’s side. From this per-
34 nosis for rapid healing can be expected. Postoperative spective, downtime repetition capacities and aesthetic
monitoring is not substantially necessary. However, after achievements are considered. Massive scars with intense
surgical needling, a short down time of a few days needs deficits would be HTS and keloids that are predomi-
to be considered, as the procedure requires general or nantly treated by surgical needling. This means a longer
local anesthesia. Therefore, a stay in hospital is only downtime but also maximum results. Considering input
recommended, not obligated. Nevertheless, patients are and outcome, maximizing the patient’s expected results
able to get back to their daily life after a short time of is aimed to achieve.
recovery (. Fig. 34.1). In principle, medical needling can be classified into
cosmetic, medical, and surgical needling. The differ-
ence depends on the length of the needles used and the
34.4 Effects of Medical Needling intensity of the physiological effects as well as the post-
operative regime they require. First mentioned types of
The intradermal bleeding caused by the mechanical needling play a minor role for the treatment of HTS or
procedure induces second-messenger substances of keloids, as the desired effects cannot be achieved.
significant signal transduction pathways, which lead Cosmetic needling is performed as a purely cos-
to a modified physiological regeneration of the skin. metic treatment with needles 0.1–0.5 mm in length for
Specific features of both skin layers are not only pre- structural and superficial skin modifications. The nee-
served in their functional structure but also promoted dling procedure does not cause any intradermal bleed-
in a positive qualitative way. Epidermis and dermis ing and hence any postinterventional reactions remain
remain functionally intact and protect subcutaneous unnoticed. Using the minimal length of needles does not
structures. Moreover, single layers of the epidermis require any anesthesia and allows repeating the treatment
become thicker, which guarantees great stability and a daily. The patient does not experience any downtime and
reduced vulnerability. Treated skin reacts less sensitively gets back to his daily routine without any complications.
to damaging physical factors such as UV radiation that All together, the cosmetic needling is used as a penetra-
is associated with postinflammatory hyperpigmentation tion enhancer for topical skin care products.
[5]. Furthermore, medical needling is also suited for all Medical needling can be defined as PCI when the nee-
skin types. Treating dark skin is not followed by any dles have a length between 1 and 2 mm. Needles of this
dyspigmentation or even hypopigmentation, although length reach just beyond the basal membrane and lead to
dark skin is indeed predisposed for color shifts due to minimal petechial hemorrhages in the papillary dermis,
the naturally increased amount of melanin. Molecular which activate the TGF-ß signal cascade and give a skin-
291 34
regenerating effect. The needle length is proportional
to the provoked bleeding, as it gets more intense when
longer needles are used. However, intradermal lesions
are so small that there is a minimal downtime without
obvious edemas or bruises. Moreover, effective topical
anesthetics can be used to make the process nearly pain-
less. Afterward, the treated area might be reddened and
needs a few days to recover and normalize.
From the perspective of clinical efficacy, surgical nee-
dling proves to be more intense and impressive when the
performance is done with a needle length of 3 mm. That is
why HTS and keloids are indications for surgical needling.
This procedure is carried out under general or local anes-
thesia and can also require a stay in hospital. The puncture
depth does not only affect the epidermis and dermis but .. Fig. 34.3 A heavier bleeding caused by the 3 mm needling
also the upper layers of the subcutis including the vascular method
system that is responsible for the desired and controlled
bleeding after needling. This mechanical prodecure affects shorter the needles, the more often treatments need to
the skin structure and function by provoking stress and be carried out in order to reach desired effects. Longer
regenerative resources at the same time which is aimed to needles are indicated when treating prominent kind of
improve the natural skin barrier with intact skin layers. scars such as HTS and keloids. Summing up, the com-
For this reason this step needs to be performed wisely and bination of the patient’s expectations and the desired
carefully observed. The relatively painful procedure under result decides the amount of therapies and the selection
local anesthesia provokes primary inflammatory wound- of the three possible needle lengths.
healing reactions with temporary erythema, swelling, and
bruising. The needling device needs to be rolled over the
affected area until these signs of sufficient needling are 34.6 Postinterventional Treatment
apparent. The potential for aesthetic correction and reduc- Measures
tion of the scar is on the highest level and provides maxi-
mal outcome. When selecting a needle length of 3 mm, Postoperative Wound Management – For optimizing and
the patient is expected to accept a protracted downtime maximizing therapy outcome, it is instructed to treat
in order to achieve maximal results in the phases of recov- the skin sufficiently and effectively under pre- and post-
ery. According to that, longer recovery periods of weeks operative circumstances. The application of vitamin A
should be taken into account (. Figs. 34.2 and 34.3). and antioxidants such as vitamin E and C is necessary
The selection of the needle length varies relative to achieve best results. A specific skincare that combines
to the indication and its intensity of cicatrization. the above-mentioned vitamins with a strongly recom-
Moreover, there are important differences notable: The mended gentle cleansing washing lotion containing tea
tree oil should be performed every 2 hours as long as the
needling canals are still open. While the skin remains
bruised and swollen, direct exposure to sunlight should
also be avoided. A moist wound-healing regime of
vitamin-based creams prevents crust formation after the
initial bleeding, which could eventually impair the final
results. The loss of serous fluid through the puncture
holes in the immediate postinterventional period can
lead to crusting, which needs to be carefully averted by
washing off any surface serum. In consequence, prevent-
ing crusting reduces the risk of bacterial superinfections.
Moreover, inflammation and secondary wound healing
associated with the development of HTS or keloids can
be avoided.
Managing Complications – As needling does not
.. Fig. 34.2 Technique of surgical needling performed with a
needle length of 3 mm. Desired bleeding and marked edema induce
produce open wounds, the postoperative complica-
therapeutically effective collagen production during the postneedling tion rate is very low and postinterventional monitor-
wound-healing cascade ing is not necessarily needed. However, local edema
can develop with longer needles, especially done on treated as well as the needle length that has been specifi-
large areas. It is recommended to keep the patient in cally selected. In consequence, facial skin regions show
the clinic for a few hours after treatment. It needs to be a higher bleeding capacity, as they tend to react more
considered that after extensive surgical needling under sensitively to mechanical stress. Further, these regions
general anesthesia, the patient may experience burning are more affected by swelling and bruising because skin
pain in the treated area. Therefore, pain should be man- seems to be thinner and therefore reacts more intensely
aged with effective drugs particularly in the first hours to operative interventions than the skin of other regions.
postoperatively. The use of nonsteroidal antiphlogistic Eventually, PCI-related results are achieved by replacing
medication should be avoided, as the primary inflam- scar typical collagen with normal collagen of healthy
matory response is desired. However, keloids and HTS skin [6].
require regular follow-up examinations in order observe
wound-healing processes and to ensure that renewed
scarring or proliferating tissue can be excluded. In the 34.7 Induction of the Post-Needling
case of keloids, a further extension of the scarring is Wound-Healing Cascade
not that rare after treatment. Clinical data also reveal
the formation of necrotic tissue when there is an inad- The intended trauma through the repetitive punctur-
equate blood supply. Special attention needs to be paid ing initiates a physiological wound-healing cascade.
to patients with diabetes that shows difficulties in wound Platelets and neutrophils secrete growth factors such as
healing anyway. the platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF), fibroblast
The intradermal bleeding caused by PCI is the essen- growth factor (FGF), vascular endothelial growth factor
tial driving force in medical needling. In this context, the (VEGF), tissue growth factor, and transforming growth
endogenous potential of natural wound healing induced factor-α and -ß (TGF-α, TGF-ß). The interactive coop-
by PCI differs from the conventional inflammatory eration of these factors provides blood coagulation, as
response to traumatic incidences starting minutes after well as the synthesis of dermal structures such as col-
injury. Therefore, the difference between the postnee- lagen, elastin, and fibronectin. Furthermore, the differ-
34 dling regenerative cascade and the conventional wound- entiation and migration of fibroblasts and keratinocytes
healing cascade becomes very clear. The PCI-induced contribute to regenerative processes. Fibroblasts have
regenerative process is based on completely different essential roles in synthesis of collagens I and III. Other
mechanisms that are associated with the desired bleed- cells that are represented in all tissues including the der-
ing, as plenty of blood vessels are pierced at the same mal layer are fibrocytes, dendrocytes, mast cells, and fur-
time. However, an open wound surface is not created ther immune cells secreting collagen I and collagen III
within this procedure that would need to be refilled by protein. Seen from a dermatological view, TGF-ß has
regenerative fibers in the course of conventional wound specific functions that have a key role in the postnee-
healing. Refilling can rapidly escalate into an overpro- dling wound-healing cascade. In general, wound heal-
duction of tissue fibers, which again supports the devel- ing can be divided into three phases interacting through
opment of HTS and keloids. The extent of the initial numerous growth factors and other essential elements,
bleeding and the excretion of serous fluids can appear into approximately month-long sequences: inflamma-
in different intensities and mainly depend on the area tion, proliferation, and regeneration (. Fig. 34.4).
.. Fig. 34.4 Wound-healing

course schematic representation
VE
RL
ET
ZU
NG
1 Tag 1 Woche 1 Monat 2 Monate post
Inflammatory phase Proliferation and Reparation and

(Exudation and Resorption) Epithelialisation Regeneration
293 34
Right after the injury, the natural and typical reac- 34.8 ffects of Medical Needling Regarding
E
tion of inflammation starts by activating immune cells, Different Parameters
blood coagulation, as well as vasoconstriction [7]. The
following stage of proliferation is marked by growth fac- Scarless Wound Healing – In order to avoid secondary
tors, especially focused on TGF-ß, which is important for wound healing, a controlled activity of growth factors is
the regulation of growth processes. Dysregulated signal necessary. The close relation between TGF and the for-
transduction pathways can lead to a malignant degen- mation of collagen type I fibers represents a key role in
eration of cells, which can result in the development of repair and regeneration mechanisms. In this context, it
cancer or malignant tumor in the worst case. Keloids needs to be considered that wounds healed by secondary
have indeed characteristics that are similar to tumor cells. intent tend toward an uncontrolled proliferation, which
The persistent presence of TGF-ß1 and-ß2, as well as the enhances the development of HTS or keloids. Type I
absence of TGF-ß3 in the conventional wound-healing collagen is the physiological desired collagen of lattice
process, indicates the formation of typical rigid scar tis- pattern structure in healthy and vital skin, whereas col-
sue. The activity of fibroblasts is necessary for the regen- lagens type III shows parallelly orientated fibers that is
eration of the extracellular matrix and the synthesis of typical for scars. TGF-ß1 and 2 are at their highest lev-
collagen. After the phase of regeneration, an intact skin els of activity when a dense collagen structure of type
barrier of renewed epithelial cells and a mechanically III in scars is built. Study results have proved that in
stable skin structure are evident. These are single steps keloids with excessive cell proliferation, the expression
described in a typical wound-healing procedure. On the of procollagen I and III -mRNA as well as -protein is
contrary, the PCI-induced wound-healing mechanism is increased. In excessive cell proliferation of keloid tissue,
based on a modified principle of what is already known there is a dominant presence of collagen III, although
and described regarding wound healing. Special focus is both collagen I and collagen III seem to be increased.
manifested in the modified TGF-ß signal transduction Significant differences to normal skin are manifested in
pathway. Whereas TGF-ß1 and 2 are significantly down- the shift of the collagen I and III ratio toward collagen
regulated in the postneedling cascade, TGF-ß3 shows a III. However, a significant downregulation of TGF-ß1
dominant activity 24 hours postinterventionally. Against and 2 is evident in scar-free, embryonal wound healing
this background, the traditional wound-healing para- determined by TGF-ß3. Second kind of wound heal-
digm is converted into a regenerative phase marked by the ing is still active in juvenile tissue to a lesser extent, but
synthesis of structural collagen of healthy and vital skin not present in adult tissue that is rather predisposed for
instead of scar tissue. This is why there is a low risk for the development of scars. High levels of TGF-ß3 in the
the development of hypertrophic or keloid scars where it postneedling cascade do not only induce the synthe-
usually comes to an uncontrolled hyperplasia of collagen sis of collagen type I, but also manage the conversion
fibers and an uncontrolled growth of the connective tissue. from collagen type III to the desired type I collagen
Very common consequences are rigid and difficult scars. (. Fig. 34.5).
.. Fig. 34.5 Regulation of

transforming and growth
Gen-Induktion
factor, TGF-ß3, and scarless TGF-ß3

healing. Microarray analy-
ses of TGF-ß1, -ß2, and -ß3
expression levels in treated
and untreated animals show
that the needling treatment
stimulates TGF-ß3 to a greater TGF-ß2
extent than TGF-ß1 or -ß2.
NE
Moreover, the induction of ED TGF-ß1
LIN
TGF-ß3 gene expression con- G
tinues even beyond the initial
wound-healing phase, whereas
the two other genes are down- 1 Tag 1 Woche 1 Monat 2 Monate post
regulated during the second
week postneedling
Entzūndungsphase Proliferation und Reparation und
(Exsudation und Resorption) Epithialisierung Regeneration
34.9 Dermal Remodeling
Furthermore, PCI modulates the expression of relevant

genes and molecules that are responsible for remodel-
ing the extracellular matrix. The skin appears thicker,
more vital, and rejuvenated. Therefore, PCI displays a
method that is focused on both quantitative and quali-
tative improvement of dermal function and appearance.
The release of structural proteins, including fibronectin
and glycosaminoglycan molecules, as well as the activity
of specific enzymes, achieves dermal remodeling. These
components of the postneedling cascade stimulate the
proliferation of keratinocytes and other skin cells in the
basal layer of the epidermis, which changes the physi-
cal and biological characteristics of skin. The entire
connective tissue framework seems to be thicker and
denser. Other endogenous factors contribute toward
improved skin elasticity in terms of dermal remodel-
ing, as the amount of elastin is significantly greater
after medical needling. A lack of elasticity is typical for
HTS and keloids and one reason for their rigid struc-
ture, which puts the scar as well as the surrounding
healthy skin under a great pressure. Hence, flexibility
and mobility of the affected area are compromised,
34 which might be a problem when regions close to joints
are affected. Not only for this reason, TGF-ß3 reaches
high levels of expression in the initial phases but shows
a declining trend in the following phases of prolifera- .. Figs. 34.6 and 34.7 Regenerative effects on the epidermis through
tion and regeneration. Based on Furguson’s work, the needling. One day after the treatment, Masson’s trichrome staining
initial dominant influence of TGF-ß3 is important for shows no injuries in either the epidermis or the dermis. Both skin
layers are functionally intact; there are no signs of ablation or cell
the PCI-related wound-healing mechanisms. However,
damage. . Figure 34.6 Untreated animal (control). . Figure 34.7
clinical expertise shows that giving TGF-ß3 additionally 24 hours postneedling
in phases of normally low levels can eventually impair
regenerative processes. In conclusion, the method of
medical needling influences the release and immediate healing processes. The method of PCI provides a con-
trolled and limited release of VEGF in order to prevent
effect of TGF, as well as the synthesis of collagen type I
interacting within the process of dermal reorganizationdysregulated activity, which can lead to degenerative
and remodeling. Once again, the signal transduction processes. High levels of VEGF are initially observed in
pathway of TGF seems to be one of the most important the postneedling cascade, which are again not kept con-
PCI-related factors. Therefore, the method of PCI has astantly high at all times. Hence, medical needling has a
regulatory function of promoting a controlled activity positive effect on subcutaneous structures conveyed by
VEGF as an important indicator for active angiogene-
of growth factors and other regenerative factors as well
as cytokines. With regard on HTS and keloids, the main sis. The expression of this growth factor induces the vas-
focus is on managing growth and hypertrophy by a con- cular system by supporting the proliferation and activity
of vascular endothelial cells [8]. This process happens
trolled activity of growth, epithelial and vascular factors
(. Figs. 34.6 and 34.7). after the initial inflammatory response of a vasocon-
striction with the primary intention of stopping the
bleeding as a typical reaction to an injury. The restricted
34.10 Improved Perfusion perfusion is then followed by a massive vasodilatation
in the wound-healing phase. The regulative effect on the
Another factor showing high concentration during the vascular system explains the intense bleeding after the
postneedling regenerative cascade is VEGF. In terms of needling procedure, which is in fact an enhancer of the
angiogenesis, its main function of creating new blood wound-healing progress. The better the blood perfusion
vessels and enhancing perfusion accelerates wound- of the skin tissue, the greater the bleeding after mechani-
295 34
cal stress induced by PCI, which accelerates healing from slightly reddened skin or persistent erythema to
processes. The limited activity of VEGF for a desired dyspigmentation or even hypopigmentation, which is
period of time (postinflammation) has the advantage of quite typical for HTS. Untreated hypertrophic scars
a rapid wound healing due to a better perfusion and a tend to a thin and vulnerable epidermis that is unstable
primary wound closure in a timely and effective way. For and more transparent for local perfusion. This might
this reason, the risk of secondary wound healing can be support the appearance of erythema through a thin
excluded, as delayed wound-healing processes are very skin texture with a long-term impact. After needling,
improbable and also not expected after needling. In this the intense blood circulation is less prominent and tem-
context, the development of HTS and keloids is once porarily limited through a thickened epidermis. The
again kept at minimal risk. entire tissue structure is more compact and makes the
great optical difference between scar and surrounding
skin less prominent. Either way, medical needling rep-
34.11 Dermal Thickness and Erythema resents a skin-normalizing therapy method and creates
a homogenous image of initially reddened scars toward
An effective wound-healing process implies active healthy skin. Based on outcomes of objective measure-
vascularization and causes a temporary reddening of ment methods with the Mexameter, medical needling
the skin, which is not associated with persistent ery- achieves a normalization of the skin color and an
thema. After needling, the affected area is swollen almost complete adjustment of the scar tissue toward
and reddened due to a better perfusion in the course healthy skin after repetitive treatments. As the method
of effective healing processes. However, the problem is based on percutaneous collagen induction, the syn-
of striking discolorations of especially hypertrophic thesis of collagen improves vital thickness, which is
and keloid scars remains a serious one for the affected directly associated with less transparency and a low
people, as the scar color differs extensively from the risk for the development of erythematous hypertrophic
surrounding healthy skin. Discolorations can reach scars (. Fig. 34.8).
.. Fig. 34.8 Patient 1, frontal shot, preoperatively (left) and one year postoperatively after needling (right). Areas treated include the entire
face. Reduced erythema and hypertrophy of the fibrosis
34.12 Richness of Moisture Measurements with the Corneometer and Tewameter

have shown that PCI improves the moisture content of
HTS and keloids are especially characterized by a lack the skin, which is closely related to the regulation of
moisture, which combines typical visible anomalies with TEWL. Various studies on the effect of medical needling
symptoms of pain and itching. The current difficulty of on moisture revealed remarkable improvements regard-
HTS resides in skin dryness and an insufficient water ing skin roughness and rigidity, which both depend on
content of the epidermis [9]. Dehydrated scar conditions the water content of the skin (. Fig. 34.9).
are the main cause of pruritus, which is not only consid- Conservative treatments for scars with deficits in
ered a sensation disorder but a relevant clinical param- moisture and TEWL include silicone patches or diverse
eter. In fact, itchy and dry scars are closely related to moisturizing creams that are established cosmetic ther-
structural deficits of the typical scar tissue. Fibrous tis- apy methods. Provided that they are used permanently
sue tends to have less skin appendages such as sebaceous and several times a day over a longer period of time,
and sweat glands and thus produces less moisturizing they can improve the scar condition to a temporary
secretions, which leads to skin dryness, less flexibility, extent. Concerning the water content of the skin, the
and a rigid scar texture. Moreover, a thin epidermis with fluid silicone gel preserves the moisture content, but
parallelly orientated collagen fibers can impair the epi- does not affect the skin’s own potential to produce suf-
dermal barrier function, which is marked by transepi- ficient moisture [10]. A permanent application of oily
dermal water loss (TEWL). Severe and widespread burn creams keeps the skin moist and smooth, but does not
scars, for example, hold the risk of an incomplete re- improve the scar in quality by itself. TEWL is least
epithelialization of the epidermis due to a lack of stem affected, as the epidermal barrier function is not influ-
cell reservoirs. It happens frequently that particularly enced by the silicone. Once again, short-term results are
those skin layers such as the basal layer of the epidermis frequent and considering TEWL, there are less satisfy-
are impaired by deeper and widespread damage of the ing results. These kinds of methods have a preventative
skin. However, these components of the skin are able character and are rather suited for short-term solutions.
to provide stem cells that differentiate into functional In the case of HTS or keloids nonablative, conventional
34 skin or epithelial cells. Thus, a less functional epider- treatments can be used in addition to needling or other
mis enhances transepidermal water loss and a reduction invasive therapy methods as complementary therapies.
of moisture. Therefore, patients suffer from dry, itchy, Ablative treatments achieve exactly the inverted effect
and painful scars followed by reddened and vulnerable in terms of destroying epidermal structures and holding
skin. When protective features of epidermal layers are the risk of degradation. On the contrary, the established
deficient, the skin reacts more sensitively to external method of medical needling preserves the epidermis and
factors and is more accessible for various pathogens, improves the epidermal barrier function. The signifi-
which can lead to progressive infections. In this context, cant impact on the skin’s water balance is manifested by
medical needling ensures epidermal integrity in terms of regulating moisturizing processes and the passive move-
regulating TEWL and reducing the risk of dehydration. ment of water (TEWL) through the epidermis.
.. Fig. 34.9 Patient 3, frontal shot, preoperatively (left) and one year postoperatively after needling (right). Areas treated include the face,
perilabial, chin, and neck. Reduced erythema and greatness of the scar. Less tension in the fibrotic area
297 34
34.13 Conclusion
55 The greater knowledge of pathomechanisms
Based on the diverse profile of medical needling regard- allows the establishment of targeted intervention.
ing different parameters of HTS and keloids, this ther- 55 Medical needling overcomes deficits of conven-
apy method is not only an innovative approach, but also tional treatment therapies combining minimal
rather an effective treatment method of problematic scars. invasivity and long-lasting effects at the same time.
The aim of improving the scar in quality and function 55 Important clinical endpoints (erythema, pruritus,
is realized by a modified wound-healing cascade, which pain, and moisture) and not only clinical param-
activates relevant signal transduction pathways for an eters are positively affected by PCI.
effective regeneration. After needling, dysfunctional scar 55 Dysfunctional scar tissue gains vital and healthy
tissue gains vital features of healthy skin and shows func- features after treatment with PCI.
tional progression months and years after needling. The 55 Outcomes are up-to-date and underlined by evi-
focus is clearly set on sustainability, which is the major dence-based clinical research.
challenge for an effective treatment of HTS and keloids.
As underlying causes for the development of these types
of scars are various and the clinical research potential
on HTS and keloids is still not yet exhausted, medical References
solutions are required from modern medicine. Common
1. Aust MC, Reimers K, Kaplan HM, et al. Percutaneous collagen
therapy approaches are characterized by different moder- induction-regeneration in place of cicatrisation? J Plast Recon-
ate success that does not provide long-lasting outcome. str Aesthet Surg. 2011;64:97–107. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
Improvements are temporarily restricted and rather accu- bjps.2010.03.038.
mulate in the beginning of the therapy. HTS and keloids 2. Aust MC, Fernandes D, Kolokythas P, Kaplan HM, Vogt
often tend to reach a nonresponder status in the course PM. Percutaneous collagen induction therapy: an alternative
treatment for scars, wrinkles and skin laxity. Plast Reconstr Surg.
of repetitive conventional treatments. Surgical interven- 2008;121(4):1421–9. https://doi.org/10.1097/01.prs.0000304612.
tions are less attractive for the affected people and are 72899.02.
often followed by a structural degradation up to uncon- 3. Aust MC, Reimers K, Repenning C, et al. Percutaneous collagen
trolled cell death. In terms of not confronting the patients induction: minimally invasive skin rejuvenation without risk
with serious consequences and other complications, med- of hyperpigmentation – fact or fiction? Plast Reconstr Surg.
2008;122:1553–63. https://doi.org/10.1097/PRS.0b013e318188
ical treatment should be scientifically defined as effective 245e.
and sustainable. PCI comes very close to what is expected 4. Aust MC, Bathe S, Fernandes D. Illustrated guide to percutane-
from a medical point of view not only for the supplier ous collagen induction. 1st ed. Berlin: KVM; 2013.
side but especially for the demand side. Innovative and 5. Aust MC, Knobloch K, Reimers K, Redeker J, Ipaktchi R,
patient-friendly therapy approaches aim to be more con- Altintas MA, Gohritz A, et al. Percutaneous collagen induc-
tion therapy: an alternative treatment for burn scars. Burns.
venient for patients relative to the required effort. In this 2010;36:836–43. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.burns.2009.11.014.
context, medical needling seems to be a very promising 6. Laws RA, Finley EM, McCollough ML, Grabski WJ. Alabaster
therapy method that guarantees persistent effect on HTS skin after carbon dioxide laser resurfacing with histologic cor-
and keloids. PCI displays a relatively simple and con- relation. Dermatol Surg. 1998;24:633–6. https://www.ncbi.nlm.
trolled treatment of difficult scars that opens new path- nih.gov/pubmed/9648570. Accessed Jun 1998.
7. Fernandes D. Percutaneous collagen induction: an alternative
ways for modern medicine. to laser resurfacing. Aesthetic Surg J. 2002;22:307–9. https://doi.
org/10.1067/maj.2002.126195.
8. Mustoe TA, Cooter RD, Gold MH, Hobbs FD, Ramelet AA,
Take-Home Messages Shakespeare PG, Stella M, et al. International clinical recommen-
dations on scar management. Plast Reconstr Surg. 2002;110:560–
55 HTS and keloids are pathological scars with a
71. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12142678. Accessed
characteristic histological and clinical profile. Aug 2002.
55 Persistent lesions to deeper skin layers promote the 9. Anthonissen M, Daly D, Peeters R, Van Brussel M, Fieuws S,
development of HTS and keloids followed by an Moortgat P, Flour M, et al. Reliability of repeated measure-
inflammatory response. ments on post-burn scars with corneometer CM 825((R)). Skin
Res Technol. 2015;21:302–12. https://doi.org/10.1111/srt.12193.
55 Medical approach and success have been quite
10. Bernstein LJ, Kauvar AN, Grossman MC, Geronemus RG. The
restricted to minimal outcomes and improvement short- and long-term side effects of carbon dioxide laser resur-
in the past. facing. Dermatol Surg. 1997;23:519–25. https://www.ncbi.nlm.
nih.gov/pubmed/9236869.Accessed Jul 1997.
34
299 X
Invasive Techniques in
Scar Management
Contents
Chapter 35 Usefulness of Local Flaps for Scar

Contracture Release – 301
Rei Ogawa
Chapter 36 Scar Resurfacing – 311

Fiona M. Wood
Chapter 37 Invasive Techniques in Scar Management:

Skin Substitutes – 317
Chapter 38 Facial Scars Reconstruction – 325

Luc Téot
Chapter 39 Invasive Techniques in Scar Management:

Fat Injections – 333
Chapter 40 Additional Invasive Techniques

in Scar Management – 343
E. de Bakker, M. C. E. van Leeuwen, O. W. M. Meijer,
and F. B. Niessen
301 35
Usefulness of Local Flaps

for Scar Contracture Release
Rei Ogawa
Contents
35.2 Selection of Local Flaps – 302
35.3 Transposition Flaps – 303
35.4 The Square Flap Method – 304

35.5 Propeller Flaps – 305
References – 308

302 R. Ogawa
35.1 Background 1.73 times the original length of the scar. W-plasty also
allows contracture release to some degree due to its so-
Local flaps are useful for reconstructing scar contrac- called accordion effect: this reflects the fact that zigzag-
tures on mobile areas such as the joints, the neck, the shaped scars elongate in an accordion-like fashion over
axilla, the digital web, and the mouth commissure. They time [2]. However, these methods are mainly used for
are superior to skin grafts because the latter can con- “linear” contractures. If the scar is wide, the scar cannot
tract, thereby leading to secondary contractures. be removed and then sutured primarily. In this case, the
Moreover, the color and texture match of local flaps is scar should be divided by a local flap to obtain contrac-
better than that of grafted skin. Consequently, local ture release.
flaps generally provide superior aesthetic outcomes. In terms of local flap selection, it is necessary to
Thus, if there is healthy skin adjacent to the scar con- choose between a skin-pedicled flap and an island flap.
tracture, local flaps should be the first choice. Based on We showed recently [3] that 6 months after surgery, skin-
the type of movement needed to place the flap, local pedicled flaps associate with greater scar extension rates
flaps can be classified as advancement flaps, rotation than island flaps (. Fig. 35.1). Notably, skin-pedicled
flaps, and transposition flaps. A more recent advance is and island flaps, respectively, extended the scar by 1.53-
to design these flaps as perforator flaps. The inclusion of and 1.28-fold 6 months after surgery. Thus, local flaps,
perforators in the flap provides great freedom in terms especially skin-pedicled flaps, elongate the scar as effec-
of flap shape and the movement and rotation arc of the tively as z-plasty. It should be noted that if the scar is
flap: the propeller flap method is a particularly good large, it is effective only by dividing the scar with the
example of such flaps. Moreover, flap combinations local flap. However, the flap size can be slightly smaller
such as the bilobed flap and the square flap method can than the deformity size (although how much smaller
expand the possibilities offered by local flaps. depends somewhat on how extensible the flap type is): it
is not necessary that the flap is as big as the open wound
after scar division or scar removal.
35.2 Selection of Local Flaps In the case of the local flap design, it can be affected
not only by the ease of the technique but also by the
Several approaches that elongate the scar and thereby geometry of the scar and open wound tissues. Thus,
35 release linear contractures have been reported. Z-plasty selecting between the skin-pedicled flap and the island
is one of the best-known options when it comes to flap should be performed on a case-by-case basis.
releasing linear contractures [1]. The theoretical final However, the greater extensibility of the skin-pedicled
scar length for the 60° angle z-plasty is approximately flap means that it should be the primary choice in the
.. Fig. 35.1 Comparison of

a
skin-pedicled and island flaps in
terms of extensibility. a
Skin-pedicled flap. b Island flap.
Skin-pedicled flaps have a greater
extension rate than island flaps
because they include healthy skin,
which can expand after surgery.
By contrast, the inelastic scar
tissue all around the island flap
limits its extensibility
b
Usefulness of Local Flaps for Scar Contracture Release
303 35
case of scar contracture release [3]. This greater exten- 35.3 Transposition Flaps
sibility is probably because the entire perimeter of the
island flap is surrounded by new scar, whereas the The transposition flap is one of the classical and most
skin-pedicled flap maintains a connection with nor- representative of the local flaps. Its contracture-
mal skin. Since normal skin is highly elastic (much releasing effect is very high because the flap has a skin
more elastic than scar tissue), it may promote the pedicle. The healthy skin of the flap expands over time
elongation and enlargement of the skin-pedicled flap. after surgery; as a result, the rectangular shape of the
Moreover, at a theoretical level, the circular shape of flap becomes triangular (. Figs. 35.2, 35.3, 35.4, and
the island flap also limits its extensibility. However, it 35.5). This effect reflects the release of tension via the
should be noted that island flaps have technical advan- skin pedicle.
tages over skin-pedicled flaps: they are relatively sim- If the flap has to be large, perforators can be attached,
ple to transfer to the recipient site, and they can and a supercharged transposition flap can be designed
employ the remaining healthy skin around the scars [4]. The perforator is then anastomosed to the recipient
without any waste. site. This perforator-supercharged transposition flap is
.. Fig. 35.2 Transposition flap.

Transposition flaps should be
designed parallel to the
contracture line. After surgery, the
skin pedicle can expand over time
a b c d e
.. Fig. 35.3 Reconstruction of a scar contracture on the cubital Ten months after the operation. Bilateral transposition flaps were
fossa. a Preoperative view. b View immediately after the operation. c harvested. No flap ischemia was observed. The contracture was
Two weeks after the operation. d Two months after the operation. e released by about 10 cm
304 R. Ogawa
a b c d e
.. Fig. 35.4 Reconstruction of a scar contracture behind the knee. operation. A transposition flap was designed next to the scar con-
a Preoperative view. b Intraoperative view. c View immediately after tracture behind the knee. The contracture was released completely
the operation. d One year after the operation. e Two years after the
a b c
35
.. Fig. 35.5 Reconstruction of a scar contracture on the abdomen. a Preoperative view. b View immediately after the operation. c One year
after the operation. A bilateral transposition flap was designed. The contracture sensation on the abdomen was relieved by the operation
especially useful for reconstructing anterior neck con- flaps in the square flap method should be wider: the
tractures (. Fig. 35.6). combination of a 45° triangular flap and a 90° triangu-
lar flap is ideal. One option is to design a four-flap
z-plasty and a five-flap z-plasty. However, it is safer to
35.4 The Square Flap Method include one square flap. Moreover, the biggest advan-
tage of the square flap method is that one of the flaps
The square flap method was reported previously by has a square shape. This square flap can advance down-
Hyakusoku et al. [5] and is an effective way of elongat- ward and can make a suitably large and pliable floor
ing the skin, especially for scar contracture release over the joints and web space. Thus, the method results
(. Fig. 35.7). This method consists of a combination of in three-dimensional reconstruction [7]. In addition, the
a square flap, one 45° triangular flap, and one 90° trian- skin pedicle of the square flap can effectively release ten-
gular flap. The angle of the triangular flaps of Limberg’s sion over time after the operation. This method is par-
original method is 30° [6]. However, in the case of scar ticularly indicated for scars on the joints, the neck, the
surgery, the 30° triangular flap can lead to blood flow axilla, the digital web, and the mouth commissure
failure because, in some cases, part of the scar must be (. Figs. 35.8, 35.9, and 35.10). Theoretically, this
included in the flap. Thus, the angles of the triangular method increases the original scar length by 2.8-fold [7].
305 35
a b c
.. Fig. 35.6 Reconstruction of a scar contracture on the anterior supercharged transposition flap. A perforator of the internal mam-
neck by using a supercharged transposition flap. a Preoperative view. mary artery in the first intercostal space was attached to the flap and
b Intraoperative view. c Two years after the operation. An anterior anastomosed with the facial artery and vein. The flap allowed full
neck contracture of a 71-year-old man was reconstructed with a extension of the neck
employs a skeletonized vascular pedicle that allows the

flap to be rotated by up to 180°. Moreover, if the perfora-
T
tor pedicle is located at the edge of the flap, the flap can
T
cover a defect that is a long distance away from the flap
S S donor site. Depending on the case, the flap can be rotated
U in a clockwise or counterclockwise direction.
The PPP flap is now considered by many plastic sur-
geons to be a highly viable and particularly sophisticated
U
perforator flap option. This largely reflects the fact that
the human body has over 400 perforators whose diame-
ters exceed 0.5 mm. Thus, at least 400 types of propeller
flaps can theoretically be harvested. This broad avail-
.. Fig. 35.7 The square flap method. Theoretically, the method
lengthens the original scar length by 2.8-fold ability means that custom-made PPP flaps can be used
to reconstruct defects on many parts of the body. Indeed,
PPP flaps are particularly suitable for scars on the trunk
35.5 Propeller Flaps and limbs. However, donor site limitations may reduce
the suitability of this method for reconstructing the
It has been reported that an island flap that can be rotated head and neck region.
90° like a propeller is suitable for the reconstruction of Since the course and territory of perforators differ
the axilla and cubitus [8] (. Fig. 35.11). That was the for each region, it is advisable to perform a careful pre-
first time this flap type was described. This original pro- operative assessment with Doppler ultrasound, color
peller flap was made by using the intact skin in a cubital Doppler ultrasonography, or multi-detector low com-
fossa as a subcutaneous-pedicled island flap to release puted tomography (MD-CT). This greatly facilitates the
post-burn linear scar contractures that adjoined the fossa. operation, thereby reducing the operative time [14].
The subcutaneous pedicle was located in the center of the It should be noted, however, that propeller flaps have
flap. In the 20 years following this seminal advance, pro- one significant disadvantage: they are always island
peller flaps have been refined and modified, and various flaps. Thus, their contracture-releasing effect is lower
types of propeller flaps have been reported [9–13]. The than that of skin-pedicled flaps. Consequently, propeller
most sophisticated of these is the perforator-
pedicled flaps are generally only chosen when the available
propeller (PPP) flap [9]. This type of flap can be harvested healthy skin adjacent to the defect is limited and a skin-
from any site on the body that bears a perforator. It pedicled flap is not possible (. Fig. 35.12).
306 R. Ogawa
a b c d
e f g
.. Fig. 35.8 Reconstruction of a scar contracture on the axilla. a square flap method was used to reconstruct an axillary scar contrac-
Preoperative view. b Design of the flap. c Intraoperative view. d View ture. The square flap gained a triangular shape one year after opera-
immediately after the operation. e Three months after the operation. tion. This indicates that the skin pedicle of the flap extended, thus
35 f Six months after the operation. g One year after the operation. The effectively releasing the tension
a b
.. Fig. 35.9 Reconstruction of a scar contracture on the digital reconstruct a digital web scar contracture. The skin pedicle of the
web. a Design of the flap. b View immediately after the operation. c flap extended, thereby effectively releasing the tension
Two years after the operation. The square flap method was used to
307 35
a b c d
.. Fig. 35.10 Reconstruction of a scar contracture on the cubital square flap method was used to reconstruct a cubital fossa scar con-
fossa. a Design of the flap. b Intraoperative view. c View immediately tracture. The skin pedicle of the flap extended, thereby effectively
after the operation. d Eighteen months after the operation. The releasing the tension
.. Fig. 35.11 Propeller flap. The most sophisticated of the propel- Thus, propeller flaps are most useful when the available healthy skin
ler flaps is the perforator-pedicled propeller (PPP) flap. However, its adjacent to the scar is limited and a skin-pedicled flap cannot be per-
contracture-releasing effect is lower than that of skin-pedicled flaps. formed
35.6 Conclusion island flap. It was suggeested that skin-pedicled flaps

associate with greater scar extension rates than island
Local flaps generally provide superior functional and flaps. Moreover, it should be noted that if the scar is
aesthetic outcomes. In terms of local flap selection, it is large, it is effective only by dividing the scar with the
necessary to choose between a skin-pedicled flap and an local flap.
308 R. Ogawa
a b e
c d
.. Fig. 35.12 Reconstruction of a scar contracture on the anterior tion. The propeller flap was designed on the limited space between a
chest wall. a Design of the flap. b, c Intraoperative view. d View scar contracture and an ulcer. Both open wounds were reconstructed
immediately after the operation. e Eighteen months after the opera- by using a 90° rotated propeller flap
Take Home Messages

35 5. Hyakusoku H, Fumiiri M. The square flap method. Br J Plast
Surg. 1987;40(1):40–6.
55 Local flaps are superior to skin grafts because the
6. Limberg AA, Wolfe SA. Planning of local plastic operations on
latter can contract, thereby leading to secondary the body surface: theory and practice. Lexington: Collamore
contractures. Press; 1984. p. 382.
55 The color and texture match of local flaps is better 7. Huang C, Ogawa R. Three-dimensional reconstruction of scar
than that of grafted skin. contracture-bearing axilla and digital webs using the square flap
method. Plast Reconstr Surg Glob Open. 2014;2(5):e149.
55 Local flaps, especially skin-pedicled flaps, elongate
8. Hyakusoku H, Yamamoto T, Fumiiri M. The propeller flap
the scar as effectively as z-plasty. method. Br J Plast Surg. 1991;44:53–4.
55 It should be noted that if the scar is large, it is 9. Hyakusoku H, Ogawa R, Oki K, Ishii N. The perforator pedi-
effective only by dividing the scar with the local cled propeller (PPP) flap method: a report of two cases. J Nippon
flap. Med Sch. 2007;74:367–71.
10. Jakubietz RG, Jakubietz MG, Gruenert JG, Kloss DF. The
180-degree perforator-based propeller flap for soft tissue cover-
age of the distal, lower extremity: a new method to achieve reli-
able coverage of the distal lower extremity with a local,
fasciocutaneous perforator flap. Ann Plast Surg. 2007
References Dec;59(6):667–71.
11. Wong CH, Cui F, Tan BK, Liu Z, Lee HP, Lu C, Foo CL, Song
1. Arima J, Dohi T, Kuribayashi S, Akaishi S, Ogawa R. Z-plasty C. Nonlinear finite element simulations to elucidate the determi-
and postoperative radiation therapy for anterior chest wall nants of perforator patency in propeller flaps. Ann Plast Surg.
keloids: an analysis of 141 patients. Plast Reconstr Surg Glob 2007;59(6):672–8.
Open. 2019;7(3):e2177. 12. Pignatti M, Pasqualini M, Governa M, Bruti M, Rigotti
2. Goutos I, Yousif A, Ogawa R. W plasty techniques in scar revi- G. Propeller flaps for leg reconstruction. J Plast Reconstr Aesthet
sion: geometrical considerations and site-specific technique Surg. 2008;61(7):777–83.
modifications. Plast Reconstr Surg Glob Open. 2019;7(4):e2179. 13. Mateev MA, Ogawa R, Trunov L, Moldobaeva N, Hyakusoku
3. Yoshino Y, Kubomura K, Ueda H, Tsuge T, Ogawa R. Extension H. Shape-modified radial artery perforator flap method: analysis
of flaps associated with burn scar reconstruction: a key difference of 112 cases. Plast Reconstr Surg. 2009;123:1533–43.
between island and skin-pedicled flaps. Burns. 2018;44(3):683–91. 14. Ono S, Ogawa R, Hayashi H, Takami Y, Kumita SI, Hyakusoku
4. Noda Y, Kuwahara H, Morimoto M, Ogawa R. Reconstruction H. Multidetector-row computed tomography (MDCT) analysis
of anterior neck scar contracture using a perforator-super- of the supra-fascial perforator directionality (SPD) of the occip-
charged transposition flap. Plast Reconstr Surg Glob Open. ital artery perforator (OAP). J Plast Reconstr Aesthet Surg.
2018;6(2):e1485. 2010;63(10):1602–7.
309 35
311 36
Scar Resurfacing
Fiona M. Wood
Contents
36.1 Overview – 312
36.2 he Mechanism of the Initial Skin Injury and Clinical

T
Pathway of Healing – 312
36.3 The Timing of the Intervention – 313
36.4 he Techniques for Preparing the Scar Wound Bed

T
for Resurfacing – 313
36.5 The Techniques of Wound Repair for Resurfacing – 314
36.6 Post-Intervention Scar Management – 315
References – 316

312 F. M. Wood
36.1 Overview For the scar resurfacing intervention to translate into

an improved scar outcome, it is important to under-
Established scarring can have an impact on the function stand the clinical opportunities which offer an
and aesthetics of the skin related to the volume of the improvement on the initial treatments which have
fibrous tissue, the vascularity of the area, the colour resulted in the unacceptable scar. For example, if the
mismatch with the adjacent normal skin and disruption plan is to repeat the same procedure, such as a surgical
of the skin adnexal structures. Resurfacing is a tech- shave and split-thickness skin graft, then there has to
nique which involves the disruption of the epidermal be a significant difference in the clinical situation to
surface of a scarred area with removal of a varying vol- advise that such a strategy offers the opportunity of
ume of the underlying scarred dermal element, followed scar reduction. This may be appropriate as in a mature
by a controlled repair of the surface. scar there is control over the timing of the intervention
The aim of resurfacing is to improve the character of such that it is not associated with the inflammation of
the scarred area with a resulting scar more closely the acute episode. Alternatively, there may be the use
matching the surrounding uninjured skin. This can be of a new method of scar reduction such as laser or a
focused on improving the texture of the surface, the pig- method to reduce the time to healing such as a cell-
ment match or reduction of the volume of scar. based therapies.
Resurfacing will not address scar contracture or the The chapter aims to outline strategies for scar
absence of skin adnexal structures, with the exception of improvement by disruption of the scar surface and con-
full-
thickness excision and reconstruction with full- trol of the secondary healing process. In the context of
thickness skin graft or flap repair. The character of the this discussion, it is essential to articulate clearly the
skin varies across body sites such that the specialist potential gains on a risk matrix that is realistic for the
nature of the skin site must be considered when plan- patient. The more severe a scar is, the greater the poten-
ning any intervention. A complex scar reconstruction tial for improvement, as compared to a good-quality
may be undertaken as a combined procedure with strat- scar when the risk of worsening the scar may sensibly
egies designed to address the range of issues including limit the interventions.
resurfacing.
The timing and technique of the procedure are
guided by the preceding clinical situation and specifi- 36.2 he Mechanism of the Initial Skin
T
cally by the understanding of the conditions at the time Injury and Clinical Pathway of Healing
36 of wound healing and subsequent scar development [1].
It is essential to understand that the opportunity to It is well known that scar outcome is related to the
improve the scar depends upon the opportunity to bet- mechanism of injury such that burn injury is frequently
ter control the wound healing at the time of the resur- associated with an aggressive scar outcome. The surface
facing intervention. area of the body involved in the injury is also a driver of
There are a number of considerations to be taken the outcome with the challenges in healing large surface
into account when planning the interventions to improve areas in a timely fashion. Further, the body site of the
the scar quality by control of the secondary wound heal- injury is also influential with areas such as the presternal
ing: and deltoid regions and areas of skin tension being
55 The mechanism of the initial skin injury and clinical associated with poor scar outcome.
pathway of healing, with specific reference to the ini- The time to healing is a key element in the scarring
tial techniques of wound repair, the time to healing process and can be affected by local and [1] systemic fac-
and the presence of infection and other comorbidi- tors, infection, necrotic tissue, haematoma and comor-
ties influencing wound healing bidities such as diabetes, nutritional deficiency, drugs
55 The time from the initial insult, considering if the such as steroids and retinoid in acne treatment. The
scar is fully mature or there are symptoms of the clinical history is key in understanding what can be opti-
scar, or epithelial stability compromise, such that mised to improve the quality of healing and what fac-
early intervention is being driven in an immature tors may have been influential in the scar quality.
active scar Resurfacing is an elective procedure, and therefore, the
55 The techniques available for the intervention in terms preoperative optimisation of the patient’s condition is
of the scar intervention and subsequent wound possible and needs attention. The history of infection is
repair and post-intervention scar management of importance in ensuring the intervention is covered by
55 Counselling that it is possible to improve the scar but the appropriate antibiotics or the risk of triggering sec-
not to eradicate the scar with the current stage of ondary problems such as herpes is considered with the
knowledge of wound healing appropriate prophylaxis.
Scar Resurfacing
313 36
The knowledge of the initial intervention will also vascular scar, more aggressive early intervention may add
assist in the understanding of how resurfacing can be to the overall scarring pruritus, whereas in a florid vascu-
used in the post-acute phase to rehabilitate the scarred lar scar, more aggressive early intervention may add to the
area [2]. Sharp dissection and haemostasis followed by overall scarring [3]. The discussion with the patient needs
careful approximation of the opposing surfaces with a to include the options such as time with the risks and ben-
suture designed to minimise inflammation are setting up efits. It is useful to have a scar assessment tool which
the healing for the best outcome possible. In a wound assists in understanding the character of a scar and facili-
such as a burn requiring cover of surface area, matching tates the discussion and clinical decision-making.
the repair to the defect in depth and body site with a The assessment of the scar can be done in a number
focus on time to healing will again set up the best possi- of ways, e.g. surface scanning focusing on specific
ble outcome. The concept of scar minimisation by aspects such as stiffness or colour [4], subjective stan-
meticulous attention to detail at the time of the initial dard assessment systems, validated questions [5] and
intervention is covered in detail in 7 Chap. 23. clinical photography. When embarking on scar revision,
Despite the best efforts, the post-intervention period the documentation of the scars is essential in tracking
has influence on the outcome with infection control and progress over time; the options are explored in detail in
techniques of wound support and post-healing scar section VII.
management having an ongoing role.
The knowledge of the clinical pathway, both initially
and the proposed interventions, is essential when con- 36.4 he Techniques for Preparing the Scar
T
sidering the following question: Wound Bed for Resurfacing
55 Is it possible to re-wound the scar and control the
healing in such a way as to significantly reduce the The prerequisite to prepare the scar for resurfacing is the
risk of scar recurrence? removal or disruption of the epithelial layer by tech-
niques including chemical, laser, dermabrasion and
sharp dissection [6].
36.3 The Timing of the Intervention Chemical peels have been widely used aiming to
remove the surface epithelium to a limited depth such
The natural history of scarring is such that in the major- that rapid healing by secondary intention is achieved
ity of cases, the scar severity will plateau between 6 and with limited improved scar outcome.
12 weeks with subsequent remodelling leading to a There has been an expansion of the laser techniques
mature scar construct by 52 weeks. However, the scar used to remove or to disrupt the epithelial surface as
will continue to improve over the subsequent years. In explored in the chapters in section IX. Again, laser in
order to have control over the extent of scar re-excision, isolation can be used with surface damage limited to a
it may be prudent to wait until the scar is mature prior superficial level such that the healing by secondary
to intervention. The scar may well improve over time to intention is rapidly achieved. The use of fractional laser
the point that it is acceptable. The progress towards mat- with discrete microthermal zones has been shown to ini-
uration can be influenced by a range of non-invasive tiate scar remodelling within the dermis. Further, the
strategies highlighted in the chapters in section ablative lasers can be a tool used to prepare the wound
VIII. When considering resurfacing interventions, it is bed for secondary interventions as described below.
important to consider what aspects of the scar are of Dermabrasion can be achieved with manually using
concern and how this could be influenced by time and abrasive sand papers, or mechanically with rotating
conservative strategies. brush or burr. The depth of tissue removal can be con-
However, there may be indications such as unstable trolled, and the contour can be guided using adjuncts
epithelial surface, unsightly mismatched skin surfaces, such as injection or surface coating with agents such as
or symptoms related to the scar such as itching which methylene blue. Surface irrigation is necessary to miti-
drives the decision for earlier intervention. gate against heat damage and to remove the debris from
On the other hand, concern that a scar may be too the surface.
old to consider treatment is unfounded, with improve- The sharp dissection tools range from freehand scal-
ment in the quality being achieved after many years. pels to mechanised guarded blades allowing serial shav-
Timing is an element in the risk matrix that needs to be ing of the scar surface. Again, the depth of the tissue
considered in the context of the patient’s symptoms and excision is dictated by the strategy of consequent wound
concerns. Early intervention may be explored related to healing [7]. In situations of superficial shave, the aim
specific techniques such as the re-suture a scar mismatch may be controlled healing by secondary intention.
in height or laser to reduce pruritus, whereas in a florid However, the use of sharp dissection lends itself to de-
314 F. M. Wood
bulking of the scar volume such that the wound bed donor site is most frequently limited by the surface area
does not retain the capacity to heal within a timeframe required. The donor site itself can be resurfaced such
that would limit the secondary scar risk [8]. that a thick split-thickness or full-thickness harvested
The extent of the excision of the fibrotic dermal layer area is secondarily covered by a thin split-thickness skin
can range from total scar excision to minimal removal graft aiming to reduce the overall donor site morbidity.
of the tissue. With the retention of the scarred bed, the The use of tissue expansion techniques may also be
overall scar result relies on the remodelling, driven by used to address the donor site limitation. The concept of
the interaction of the cells of the new epidermal layer tissue expansion can be extended beyond the full-
and those in the retained scar construct. thickness skin construct, to the cells essential for re-
epithelisation. The development of the processes of
cultured epithelial autograft was specifically to address
36.5 he Techniques of Wound Repair
T the need of large surface area skin cover in major burn
for Resurfacing injuries. The techniques of laboratory-based tissue
expansion can provide epithelial cells as sheets or sus-
In the situation of total scar excision, a full-thickness pension from a limited donor site which will retain the
skin replacement is the ideal reconstruction and is con- epithelial characteristics of the donor site. The draw-
sidered in 7 Chap. 37, using flap repair, and 7 Chap. 39 back of such cell-based therapies is the reliance on the
exploring the use of skin substitutes. laboratory environment and the time taken to achieve
In some instances, an appropriate donor site for a the expansion via the tissue culture process.
full-thickness skin graft may allow full-thickness recon- The first steps of the cell-based expansion process
struction, or the use of tissue expansion can facilitate have been incorporated into a medical device as a lab in
local flap repair with the most similar skin characteris- a box, ReCell™. The technique of harvesting at the
tics. In complex scar reconstruction, the functional point of care of the cells of the dermal-epidermal junc-
restriction may require the introduction of tissue from a tion, for delivery as a cellular suspension, provides a
remote uninjured body site using local or free tissue method with an expansion ratio of up to 1–80. The
transfer explored in 7 Chaps. 37 and 40. technique uses the wound bed as the tissue culture envi-
In a scar which has been prepared using limited ronment with the cellular suspension adhering to the
removal of the epidermal surface, healing by secondary prepared wound surface and the cells migrating and dif-
intention may be appropriate. In these cases, specific ferentiating into an intact epithelium. The use of the cell
36 attention to detail is required to protect the healing wound suspension from the dermal-epidermal junction allows
surface [9]. The key to limiting the risk of worsening the the transfer of keratinocytes, melanocytes and papillary
scar is the time to healing. There are many strategies dermal fibroblasts in their normal ratio [10]. The use of
employed to facilitate healing with advanced technology such a cellular suspension in resurfacing is particularly
dressing systems, both synthetic and biologically based. useful in treating hypopigmentation. The melanocytes
When the scar has been de-bulked, then secondary within the suspension will re-establish in the prepared
repair of the surface should be considered as prolonged wound, and re-pigmentation is seen over the subsequent
healing by secondary intention will be associated with 6–12 weeks. The introduction of the cell suspension
an increased scar risk. The use of thin split-thickness facilitates the epithelial repair reducing the time to heal-
skin graft can result in an improvement of the scar in ing and therefore the risk of secondary scarring.
terms of contour and colour. However, this can be There is also interesting basic science evidence that
unpredictable with some split-thickness skin grafts asso- the interaction between the keratinocytes and fibroblasts
ciated with abnormal pigmentation. There is also the has influence on the phenotype of the fibroblasts impact-
drawback of the donor site availability in terms of area ing on collagen deposition [11].
and site specificity. The use of cell-based therapies is an opportunity to
Matching the donor and recipient site is a key ele- expand the surface area of wound cover possible for a
ment in improving the potential outcome from scar given donor site with the appropriate cell phenotype.
resurfacing. For example, the use of full-thickness skin The seeding of the cells onto a de-bulked scarred wound
grafts to release scar contractures of the palm of the bed reduces the time to achieve an intact epithelial sur-
hand will frequently afford an excellent functional face with the potential to introduce melanocyte and
release but is associated with significant mismatch in keratinocyte characteristics to match the area. The
terms of the skin characteristics. The ability to match introduction of an uninjured cell phenotype has a theo-
Scar Resurfacing
315 36
retical impact on the scar remodelling as the scar along with the tool box of potential interventions
matures. (. Table 36.1).
Whatever method of scar resurfacing is used, the The choice of the specific resurfacing technique will
objective remains constant, to improve the area of scar then consider the triangle of care to specifically address
such that the scar blends better into the surrounding the patient’s needs in the context of the clinician’s knowl-
skin. edge and experience along with the technology environ-
ment available (. Fig. 36.1). The diagnosis of the scar
with the inclusion of an assessment tool will give clarity
36.6 Post-Intervention Scar Management to the clinical discussion with the focus on the aspects of
the scar causing the concern.
The wound healing is only the first phase in the process Understanding the natural history of the scarring
of scar remodelling post resurfacing, and attention to process will help in giving advice to the patient, explain-
detail at all stages is essential. The post-intervention ing the opportunities of conservative therapies and time
dressing systems may involve a range of products to improve the scar. Then, choosing the technique that
focused on providing an environment of healing with will give most benefit for least risk is the key to safely
infection control and protection of the fragile wound improving the scar. There are many ways of resurfacing,
surface. but understanding the need for bulk reduction, re-
Further, the protection of the healed epithelial sur- pigmentation or stabilising the epithelium of the scar
face and control of the environment are important as will drive the clinical decision.
the dressings are removed and the surface exposed. At In the clinical counselling, being realistic that the
this stage, it may be prudent to consider the non-invasive scar may be reduced and blended to the surrounding
conservative strategies for scar minimisation such as sili- skin rather than eradicated facilitates decision-making
cones and massage as explored in the chapters of section for the patient.
VIII. At all stages, hygiene is an essential element to pre-
vent secondary infection and breakdown whilst the cell
surface is fragile and immature. .. Table 36.1 Understanding the clinical details of the scar
For decades, pressure garments have been used in the and the impact of the symptoms on the patient to drive the
attempt to control scar progression particularly post most appropriate clinical intervention for the individual
burn injury. The mechanism of action is debated, but it a
remains a widespread practise. The fabrics used vary in
terms of the pressure delivery and the moisture wicking Scar Assessment to guide intervention
characteristics. A light pressure fabric can be used to
protect the area in the early stages post healing if well Clinical history Scar symptoms
designed to avoid trauma and sheering.
Sun protection is also important not only to prevent • Mechanism of original scar process • Itching
sunburn of course but also to avoid the overstimulation • Timeframe of scar development • Pain
of the melanocytes with the risk of hyperpigmentation • Time to healing • Stiffness
in the resurfaced area. Simple advice such as wearing a • Technique used to achieve healing • Dryness
hat and topical sunblock needs to be considered as part • Presence of infection • Epithelial instability
of the post-intervention information given to the • Systemic health and nutrition • Thickness
patient. The advice will need to be tailored to the patient
• Vascularity
in relation to their environment. b
• Colour
Scar Resurfacing
Techniques to prepare the Techniques to control
36.7 Conclusion scar for resurfacing secondary wound healing
• Sharp dissection • Cell based therapies
The clinical decision to undertake a scar resurfacing • Dermabrasion • Advanced dressing systems
procedure needs to bring together the needs of the • Laser techniques • Infection control
patient and the characteristics and history of the scar, • Chemical preparation • Systemic optimisation
316 F. M. Wood
.. Fig. 36.1 The triangle of care Scar Revision

bringing together essential con-
What the patient needs
siderations for clinical decision
Characteristics of the scar
making
Outcome
Resources and tool box of scar Carers’ skills education and
available to optimise revision training available at the
scar outcome specific time of care
Take-Home Messages 2. Hess C. Checklist for factors affecting wound healing. Adv Skin
55 Clinical history of the patient and the scar is piv- Wound Care. 2011;24(4):192.
3. Akaishi S, Ogawa R, Hyakusoku H. Keloid and hypertrophic
otal in the decision-making process.
scar: neurogenic inflammation hypotheses. Med Hypotheses.
55 Scar assessment is key in tracking the impact of 2008;71(1):32–8.
the scar intervention over time. 4. Gankande TU, Duke JM, Danielsen PL, HM DJ, Wood FM,
55 Be clear on what elements of the scar need to be Wallace HJ. Reliability of scar assessments performed with an
treated. integrated skin testing device – the DermaLab Combo®. Burns.
2014;40(8):1521–9.
55 Focus the intervention on the outcome required.
5. Simons M, Price N, Kimble R, Tyack Z. Patient experiences of
36 55 The time to healing is a key element driving scar burn scars in adults and children and development of a health-
outcome. related quality of life conceptual model: a qualitative study.
55 Meticulous attention to detail needs to be Burns. 2016;42(3):620–32.
continued to the time of scar maturity. 6. Pugliese E, Coentro JQ, Raghunath M, Zeugolis DI. Wound
healing and scar wars. Adv Drug Deliv Rev. 2018;129:1–3.
55 Education of the patient along the clinical journey
7. Onur Erol O, Atabay K. The treatment of burn scar hypopig-
is essential for a successful outcome. mentation and surface irregularity by dermabrasion and thin
skin grafting. Plast Reconstr Surg. 1990;85(5):754–8.
8. Bradley DT, Park SS. Scar revision via resurfacing. Facial Plast
Surg. 2001;17(04):253–62.
9. Tarijian A, Goldberg D. Fractional ablative laser skin resurfac-
ing: a review. J Cosmet Laser Ther. 2011;13(6):262–4.
References 10. Wood FM, Giles N, Stevenson A, Rea S, Fear M. Characterisation
of the cell suspension harvested from the dermal epidermal junc-
1. Finlay V, Burrows S, Burmaz M, Yawary H, Lee J, Edgar D, tion using a ReCell ® kit. Burns. 2011;38(1):44–51.
Wood F. Increased burn healing time is associated with higher 11. Ghaffari A, Kilani RT, Ghahary A. Keratinocyte-conditioned
Vancouver Scar Scale score. Scars Burns Heal. 2017;3: media regulate collagen expression in dermal fibroblasts. J
2059513117696324. Investig Dermatol. 2009;129(2):340–7.
317 37
Invasive Techniques in Scar

Management: Skin Substitutes
Contents
37.2 Permanent Wound Coverage – 318

37.2.1 E pidermal Cells/Cultured Epidermal Autografts CEA – 318
37.2.2 Dermal Substitutes – 320
37.2.3 Cellular Dermal Substitutes – 321
37.3 Full-Skin Substitutes – 321
37.4 Subcutaneous Fat – 321
37.5 Regulatory/Safety Issues – 322
References – 323

318 F. W. Timmermans and E. Middelkoop
37.1 Background of using cellular substitutes in the acute trauma setting.

Furthermore, the long-term regenerative capacity of
Modern wound care demands a high focus on quality of these cellular skin constructs still remains to be fully
healing. Skin substitutes can play an important role in established.
achieving the best possible outcome for each patient.
Although skin substitutes were primarily developed for
use in acute wound care, they have since then started to 37.2 Permanent Wound Coverage
play an important role in secondary scar revision sur-
gery. Initially, epidermal cell cultures were developed Wound closure normally proceeds by migrating epi-
with a focus on efficient wound closure of large wound dermal cells from both wound edges and skin append-
surfaces. Long-term results, however, indicated that sev- ages such as sebaceous glands and hair follicles. As
eral structures that played a role in stabilizing the con- wounds grow deeper and larger, the skin loses its abil-
nection between epidermis and dermis did not fully ity to provide enough epidermal cells to close the
regenerate [1]. Thus the role and importance of the der- wounds in a reasonable time frame. This time frame of
mal component of skin regeneration became more healing is considered to be adequate if the wound is
apparent. This eventually led to the development of der- closed within 3–4 weeks. Prolonged exposure to patho-
mal substitutes. Various biomaterials were tested for gens and fluid loss represent immediate dangers in
their capacity to stimulate dermal regeneration, with delayed healing and might potentially lead to bacterial
various degrees of success. Synthetic as well as biologi- contamination, sepsis, and death in the worst cases.
cal materials were extensively tested. Where synthetic Biological processes such as wound contraction are
materials demonstrated to actively stimulate wound initiated that aimed at speeding up wound closure.
healing in chronic circumstances such as diabetic This is paradoxically an undesired action in terms of
wounds, biological biomaterials proved to be more ben- the final quality of the wound-healing process.
eficial for treating acute wounds. These biological mate- Therefore, most large and deep wounds require surgi-
rials were mainly composed of purified extracellular cal assistance to promote timely wound healing and
skin matrix components such as collagen, elastin, and/ adequate wound closure. The main purpose of surgery
or proteoglycans. Long-term clinical results of several is to bring a new source of viable epidermal cells to the
of these materials have since then become available. wound in order to speed up the wound closure. Skin
Further development of the field resulted in the addition grafts are the most well-known and most used meth-
of cells to these synthetic and biomaterial constructs. ods for epidermal transfer and permanent wound
Various cell sources were investigated, with specific coverage.
attention to different sources of stem cells, as well as
37 allogeneic versus autologous cell sources [2–4].
Alongside the clinical studies, outcome analysis on dif- 37.2.1 pidermal Cells/Cultured Epidermal
E
ferent skin and scar parameters was further developed. Autografts CEA
This provided insight into the different skin characteris-
tics that were influenced by the use of skin substitutes. The keratinocytes in the epidermal layer of the skin form
Besides acute wound treatment, scar treatment using the first barrier of the skin. A standard technique for clo-
fat-derived mesenchymal stem cells is also subject of sure of large wounds is transplantation of skin using a
further research. Initial studies have demonstrated ben- split-thickness skin graft (STSG). The protective proper-
eficial effects on scar maturation after lipofilling. This ties of the epidermal layer are best conserved in the form
technique aims at regeneration of the subcutaneous fat of split-thickness skin grafts, which usually comprise the
layer underneath the dermal layer of the skin. Nowadays, whole of the epidermis and a very thin layer of dermis
all these developments allow us to use these different (approximately 0.1–0.2 mm). Coverage of larger wound
biomaterials as acellular dermal substitutes in state-of- areas is possible using meshed STSGs, where expansion
the-art reconstructive surgery and acute wound treat- rates up to 1:6 are possible (. Fig. 37.1). However, scar
ment. New advancements are found in the development formation in the mesh interstices is apparent, and there-
of full skin constructs, using autologous epidermal as fore larger expansions with fewer donor sites were needed.
well as dermal cell sources. At present, autologous (i.e., This pushed Rheinwald and Green, as early as 1975, into
from the patient) cells are still the mainstay in the suc- being the first to show that keratinocytes could be
cessful use of cellular substitutes. This is an advantage in extracted, in vitro cultured into sheets, and that they were
terms of the absence of potential immunological reac- suitable for grafting [5]. This can easily be considered the
tions, but at the same time, the long culture times needed first step in the tissue engineering of the skin. The usage
to prepare these constructs are definitely a disadvantage of cultured cells marked a leap forward in the treatment
Invasive Techniques in Scar Management: Skin Substitutes
319 37
a b
.. Fig. 37.1 a Microscopic image of hematoxylin eosin staining of human split skin. Note that only a very thin layer of dermis is present. b
Split-skin mesh graft with wide expansion to cover larger wound area. c Typical scar pattern showing mesh pattern of the graft in the scar
of burn patients as larger areas of wounds could be cov- mal–epidermal junction regeneration, and often having
ered with very small donor sites of healthy skin. to compete with readily available split-skin grafts have
The development of cell culture techniques opened limited most of the further development of CEAs [6].
up the possibility to maintain viable cells outside of the A more recent development in the application of epi-
human body. Initially, cultured keratinocyte layers (cul- dermal cells is in the form of in situ cell therapy, called
tured epithelial autografts or CEA) opened opportuni- the ReCell® system (Avita Medical, Cambridge, UK).
ties to cover large parts of the body without the necessity With only a small donor site of split skin (approximately
for substantial donor sites. This greatly improved the 1 cm2), this device allows the isolation of a single-cell
survival chances of severely burned patients. However, suspension that can be sprayed on a wound bed. The
early studies of CEAs on wound beds showed insuffi- cell suspension consists of approximately 65% keratino-
cient regeneration of dermal–epidermal junctions cytes, 30% fibroblasts, and 3–5% melanocytes. This sys-
between the epidermis and the underlying tissue, which tem avoids the time-consuming and costly cell culture
even after many years resulted in a vulnerable and weak step. The cells in the cell suspension can adhere to the
skin barrier [1]. Thus, it was discovered that substitution wound bed and promote tissue regeneration by both cell
of dermal tissue is also of great importance in creating proliferation and growth factor stimulation. This tech-
and maintaining a well-functioning new skin. These nique is sometimes used in combination with expanded
insights sparked the development of more complex skin meshed autografts to accelerate wound healing. The
substitutes. combination of these two treatment options has shown
Although CEAs have been used for over 40 years to improve cosmetic outcomes of scars and pigment
now, they did not provide the definitive solution for the abnormalities. In situ cell therapy can also be used as a
treatment of large wounds. Specific downsides such as means to promote repigmentation of depigmented skin
variable graft-take rates, high manufacturing costs, pro- in patients with vitiligo and congenital melanocytic
duction and transportation logistics, insufficient der- naevi [7]. Whether these effects are due to actual cell
survival and proliferation or to growth factor and cyto- position and its two-stage procedure. The deeper layer
kine secretion is presently still unclear. of Integra® is made out of a combination of bovine col-
lagen and glycosaminoglycan chondroitin-6-sulfate,
whereas the top is made with a 0.2-mm-thick polysilox-
37.2.2 Dermal Substitutes amine polymer membrane with vapor-transmitting
characteristics similar to normal epithelium. This mem-
Skin substitutes aiming at dermal regeneration are der- brane is intended to be placed on the full-thickness
mal constructs designed to either temporarily or perma- wound, and the outer silicone membrane will function
nently replace dermal defects. In all cases, the aim of as a temporary epidermal replacement and will need to
skin substitutes is to provide protection against microor- be replaced by a split-skin graft after 2–3 weeks of suf-
ganisms, reduce pain, promote wound healing, and ficient ingrowth of vasculature into the deeper dermal
assist in recreating the barrier function of the skin [8]. scaffold. Due to the combination with a silicone layer as
This method has become increasingly important for the temporary epidermal coverage, Integra® can immedi-
treatment of burns, open wounds, chronic wounds, and ately function as a barrier to limit fluid loss and protect
deep tissue donor sites, as it has been shown to improve from microbial contamination of the wound, while pro-
and accelerate skin regeneration, reduce scar contrac- viding the required extracellular scaffolding for cell
ture, and minimize donor site morbidity. All these differ- ingrowth and proliferation of fibroblasts and endothe-
ent treatment indications resulted in the development of lial cells. In the second stage, after vascular ingrowth,
a wide range of skin substitutes with different character- the silicone layer is replaced by a thin split-skin graft.
istics such as mono- or bilayered compositions, tempo- This product has gained widespread use in the clinical
rary or permanent fixture, and cellular or acellular skin treatment of deep partial-thickness and full-thickness
substitutes. burn wounds, full-thickness skin defects of other etiolo-
gies, chronic wounds, and soft tissue defects. The results
37.2.2.1 Tissues of Integra® within burn care have been generally favor-
A biological approach used in the design of permanent able and have shown improved quality of healing.
skin substitutes was to start with real human tissue. One However, the staged procedure leaves the wound open
of the early developed acellular allogeneic skin substi- for a prolonged period of time and thus bears a risk of
tutes is Alloderm®. Alloderm® is harvested from cadaver submembranous bacterial infections resulting in loss of
donors as skin grafts, which are then washed with hyper- the biomaterial. Other similar bilayered substitutes are
tonic saline to remove cell remnants. After removal of the Renoskin®, Pelnac™, and Hyalomatrix® [10].
epithelial layer, the remaining dermal layer is treated to Matriderm® is usually applied in a one-step proce-
inactivate viruses and then freeze-dried to be used on dure as this dermal scaffold allows immediate coverage
37 demand. This provides a nonantigenic dermal scaffold with a thin split-skin graft. It consists of an extracellular
with basement membrane proteins, which are known to matrix scaffold made out of purified, freeze-dried bovine
promote wound healing and angiogenesis. After rehydra- collagen mixed with 3% elastin hydrolysate. An autolo-
tion of the Alloderm®, coverage with an ultrathin split gous split-skin graft can be applied directly onto the
skin would suffice as a full coverage treatment option. Matriderm®. Clinical research showed a somewhat
Recently, Alloderm® has seen a rise in its use for breast slower take of the graft, which reflects the interposition-
reconstructive surgery, whereas the use of Alloderm® on ing of the unvascularized scaffold between the wound
wounds and burns remains limited. Glyaderm® is a simi- bed and the split-skin graft. Nevertheless, the outcome in
lar product based on allogeneic dermis preserved in glyc- terms of scar quality was shown to be superior over split-
erol instead of freeze-drying. Initial studies on burn skin graft treatment even after a 12-year follow-up [11].
patients have been performed with favorable results [9]. Both Matriderm® and Integra® have been used for
acute and reconstructive purposes and as a means to
37.2.2.2 Dermal Scaffolds improve scar quality. These dermal scaffolds initially lack
Some of the most well-known and most used dermal cellular compounds and do require the body to incorpo-
scaffolds are Integra® and Matriderm®. Although both rate the exogenous matrix into the wound environment
materials consist of bovine collagen combined with through cell migration and remodeling, which is mediated
extracellular matrix components, their mode of applica- by macrophages and fibroblasts. Fibroblasts, similar to
tion is generally different. Integra® was the first dermal keratinocytes, also secrete various cytokines and growth
substitute of its kind in the early 1980s and was created factors. But besides promoting cell proliferation, inducing
with the apparent goal of minimizing fluid loss and bac- angiogenesis, and modulating the inflammatory process,
terial contamination and promoting cell migration into they also produce a new extracellular matrix, which helps
the wound bed. It does so through its two-layered com- to reconstruct the three-dimensional dermal structure of
321 37
the skin. Other one-layered scaffolds are Novomaix® 37.3 Full-Skin Substitutes
(freeze-dried collagen with elastin fibers) and Permacol®
(a porcine collagen matrix which is now primarily used in Several research groups have developed full biological
hernia and abdominal wall surgery) [10]. skin substitutes comprising of both dermis and epider-
mis, while containing either allogeneic or autologous
fibroblasts and keratinocytes. Apligraf® was the first of
37.2.3 Cellular Dermal Substitutes this kind to become commercially available. Apligraf®
consists of cultured allogenic human foreskin-derived
Cellular dermal and composite skin substitutes are the neonatal fibroblasts in a bovine type I collagen matrix
most recent products of skin substitute research. Dermal over which allogenic human foreskin-derived neonatal
skin substitutes are primarily created to guide dermal epidermal keratinocytes are then cultured and allowed
regeneration and are used in combination with autolo- to stratify. The allogeneic character of this skin substi-
gous split-skin transplants. This treatment is aimed at tute ultimately results in the rejection of the keratino-
providing an underlying layer of dermal tissue where cytes, which eventually requires an autologous split-skin
normally fibrotic scar tissue would be formed. One of coverage for definite would closure. Therefore, Apligraf®
the disadvantages of an acellular dermal scaffold is the is less suitable for large acute wounds but has found its
relatively slow ingrowth of blood vessels and other cells main use in the treatment of chronic wounds. Orcel® is a
into the scaffold, which can hamper the take and even similar product with a similar composition. The allo-
minimize the survival of the covering split-skin auto- genic cells are considered to survive up to 2–3 weeks in
graft. The general understanding is that the inclusion of the wound bed, and the overall effectiveness of these
dermal cells in the scaffolds improves these outcomes composite skin substitutes is thought to be based on the
and at the same time promotes the wound-healing pro- excretion of a mix of growth factors and cytokines.
cess. DenovoDerm™, Hyalograft 3D®, Dermagraft®, Some novel autologous composite skin substitutes
and TransCyte® are a few of these known cellular der- are DenovoSkin™ and Permaderm®. Both of these
mal skin substitutes. The first two are, respectively, made composite skin substitutes are made with a bovine col-
of autologous fibroblast seeded in bovine collagen and lagen scaffold. Another described full-skin substitute is
hyaluronic acid scaffolds, and the latter two are respec- the TissueTech Autograft System™, which is essentially
tively made of allogeneic fibroblasts seeded in a polygla- the combination of a dermal skin substitute (Hyalograft
ctin and nylon scaffold. Other experimental studies have 3D®) with a CEA (Laserskin®). A major advantage of
looked into using adipose-derived regenerative cells in autologous composite skin substitutes is its one-stage
combination with Integra®, and some attempts have character. Except for the initial skin biopsy from which
been made to create skin substitutes with nanotechnol- the autologous cells are harvested and cultured, no sec-
ogy. However, the effectiveness and safety of these meth- ondary procedures such as split-skin transplantations
ods still need to be demonstrated outside of the are required. Most of these are newly developed skin
experimental stages of development. constructs, which are still undergoing trials, and none
Most of the cellular dermal substitutes are produced are commercially available at present. Besides regulatory
using living neonatal fibroblasts. Examples include obstacles (see below), other downsides to the further
TransCyte® and Dermagraft®. TransCyte is produced by development of autologous composite skin substitutes
culturing neonatal fibroblasts on a nylon mesh, where the are the high production costs, long preparation time,
cells deposit collagen, other matrix proteins, and growth and the necessity for a well-organized production-to-
factors. After freezing, the cells are no longer alive, but clinic transfer. Nevertheless, these are important devel-
the matrix proteins and growth factors remain and can opments, since in the end, these advancements may lead
actively promote healing, e.g., for deep partial thickness to clinically applicable regenerative full-skin substitutes,
acute wounds. Dermagraft®, however, is composed of comprising of not only dermal and epidermal structures
living allogeneic neonatal fibroblasts cultured on a poly- but also vasculature, skin appendages, and even nerves.
glactin scaffold. The neonatal cells provide the extracel-
lular matrix compounds and growth factors needed for
efficient tissue regeneration. The allogeneic compounds 37.4 Subcutaneous Fat
in the skin substitute will subsequently stimulate granula-
tion tissue formation that enables secondary closure or In recent years, there has been an apparent shift from
eventual coverage with a split-skin graft. Compared to merely thinking about reconstructing the dermis and
the autologous counterparts, allogenic skin substitutes epidermis, to the inclusion of the subcutis. It has become
have thus far predominantly been successfully used for more clear that the subcutaneous fat layer plays an
the treatment of chronic diabetic ulcers. essential role in the gliding and mobile functions of the
skin. This characteristic is especially important in ana- this regulation. Scaffolds made of isolated and/or puri-
tomical locations where the skin is relatively thin, such fied animal or human-derived proteins, however, are
as the back of the hand or the tibia. Scars in these areas classified as medical devices. One of the main features of
can easily fuse to underlying tendons or bones if subcu- these regulations is that the production of ATMPs for
taneous fat is missing. Recent studies have noted benefi- human use must take place under Good Manufacturing
cial effects on scar quality of lipo-injection with the Practice (GMP) conditions. This is translated into high
patient’s own fat, harvested by liposuction. Lipofilling standards of production facilities, which is only possible
of these scars showed an increase of elastic fibers at the in a select few centers and represent a considerable
dermopapillary layer, which could account for the administrative burden for importing and exporting
improvement of scar quality [4, 12–14]. The sustainabil- ATMPs across international borders. These strict regu-
ity of a mere single treatment of autologous fat grafting latory and production requirements imply intensive col-
in mature adherent scars showed to promote a lasting laboration between centers for the further development
improvement in scar elasticity and tactile pliability [15]. of ATMP’ and for successful commercial exploitation
Although there is not enough solid clinical evidence yet, of these novel treatment options.
the data gathered so far indicate that fat grafting could
become a new treatment modality in improving scar
quality and outcome after burns. Further research 37.6 Conclusion
should aim at elucidating the best indications, timing,
and techniques as well as frequencies of application. Acellular skin substitutes have gained a solid position in
the treatment options for acute and chronic wounds as
well as scar revisions, with improved outcomes in skin
37.5 Regulatory/Safety Issues quality over standard split-skin graft treatment.
Autologous cellular skin substitutes still hold a promise
Further development of cell therapy and tissue engi- for the future. Tissue repair and regeneration through
neering for better clinical outcomes with regard to the use of autologous cells promote superior healing
wound healing and the reduction of scar formation is a over the known methods. There are still some drawbacks
common recommendation in studies on the use and in the production and application of tissue-engineered
development of skin substitutes. However, new regula- skin constructs, but further research, automated pro-
tions have become effective during the last decade, which duction process, and harmonizing our treatment prac-
designate cell-based therapy as advanced therapy medic- tices will bring us closer toward a scarless future.
inal products (ATMPs). Practically, this means that cell-
based therapies in Europe are under direct assessment
37 of the European Medicines Agency (EMA, a monitor-
Take Home Messages
ing institute of the European Union), which is dedicated
to the scientific evaluation and supervision of market 55 Acellular dermal substitutes have proven their effi-
access of medicinal products. In the USA, the Food and cacy in reaching better scar quality compared to
Drug Administration (FDA) is the relevant authority, split-skin grafting for acute and reconstructive
where the Office of Cellular, Tissue, and Gene Therapies treatment.
(OCTGT) exerts the tasks to evaluate and supervise 55 Acellular dermal substitutes can be used in a one-
market access of ATMP products. step procedure, providing immediate wound
The European Regulation (EC) No. 1394/2007 pro- coverage, or two-step approach, which allows
vides the overall framework on production and use of prevascularization of the dermal component prior
ATMPs within the European Union. According to this to epithelial grafting.
regulation, an ATMP is a “medicine for human use that 55 Epidermal cell sprays can be used to treat pigment
is based on genes, cells or tissue engineering.” When disorders in scars and/or to increase
elaborating on the definition of tissue-engineered prod- epithelialization rate during acute wound healing
ucts, such products may contain or consist of engineered 55 Fat grafting is used successfully on adherent scars
cells or tissues, with the purpose to regenerate, repair, or as autologous fat injection to improve scar
replace a human tissue, and it may contain viable or elasticity and regenerate a gliding layer underneath
nonviable cells or tissues of human or animal origin. a scar.
This means that most of the skin substitutes with living 55 Cellular dermal and full-skin substitutes are in
cells (both autologous and allogeneic), adipose tissue, clinical trials for treatment of acute and
and matrices containing human and/or xenogeneic reconstructive wounds.
material fall under the regulatory issues associated with
323 37
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9. Pirayesh A, Hoeksema H, Richters C, Verbelen J, Monstrey
1. Desai MH, et al. Lack of long-term durability of cultured kera-
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2016;364:83–94. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00441-015-2293-6.
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artificial dermal substitute improve repair in full-thickness skin
12. Byrne M, O’Donnell M, Fitzgerald L, Shelley OP. Early experi-
wounds. Burns. 2012;38:1143–50. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
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MM, Middelkoop E. Biological background of dermal substi-
325 38
Facial Scars Reconstruction

Luc Téot
Contents
38.1 Objectives of the Chapter – 326
38.2 Techniques – 326
38.3 Critical Analysis of the Literature – 330
References – 331

326 L. Téot
38.1 Objectives of the Chapter and length and width. The expander is connected
via a silicone tubing to a valve which is also inserted
The objective of the chapter is to present the different under the skin at a limited distance from the expander
reconstruction techniques, distinctly describing the ones edges. After a period of 2 weeks, the expander filling
recruiting autologous skin and subcutaneous tissues, will start, and the amount of liquid determined on the
transferred from surrounding color-matching donor site rate of filling and the needed projection to obtain the
areas as well as techniques suitable for a complete face desired skin expansion. Usually the skin expander is
transplantation from a living human donor, with this overexpanded to 1.5 of its volume, in order to obtain
homologous transfer being realized using microsurgical an even skin expansion. Possible complications may
revascularization. include extravasation of the expander (in case of rigid
The aim is to minimize as far as possible the con- silicone angle), a too rapid expansion inducing a local
sequences of facial scars, which induce a loss of the devascularization and stretch marks, the long dis-
dynamic aspect of the face and loss of the specific mim- tance from the back to the face and the postop edema
ics of each human character to express different emo- sometimes causing flap tip necrosis
tions. Consequences of the different surgical strategies But a good skin compliance, normal contours,
are described, including local, regional, and systemic and emotional expression are usually noted after the
potential complications. reconstruction.
3. Prefabrication
In 2000, the main author proposed the neofabrica-
38.2 Techniques tion of a cervico-deltopectoral flap used as an island
flap after skin perfusion boosting. This technique,
1. Skin Resurfacing called prefabrication, was developed on the principle
Used in postburns scars involving retractions and that when a vascular carrier (a fascia including an
loss of skin capacity, the resurfacing using dermal artery and a vein) is inserted between the expanded
substitute and partial thickness skin grafts is the skin and the silicone balloon, the expanded skin ter-
easiest technique to perform. Excision of the scars ritory can be extended and its neovascularization
is done via a long meticulous surgical debridement, amplified. The technique was published in 2000 in
preventing to severe venous and arterial pedicles, The Lancet, opening the way to the creation of flaps
resecting the hard thick scar tissue, which may be larger than the normal anatomy allows it [3].
strongly adherent to the muscular and aponeurotic Technically, the radial forearm facial flap
structures of the face around the orifices, mouth, (20 cm × 6 cm) is harvested with the radial artery and
nose, and ears. The neck is extensively freed from the vein, which are microsurgically branched on the
retracting scars, allowing a restauration of the move- facial vessels artery and vein using a limited incision.
ments up and down and laterally on each side. Cov- The fascia is inserted subcutaneously over the clavic-
38 ering using dermal substitute has become more and ular bone anteriorly, the trapeze muscles posteriorly,
more popular in burns surgery since the initial works and the deltoid muscle laterally. A transfixient suture
on Integra [1]. is needed at the distal end of the fascia in order to
2. Pedicled-Expanded Deltopectoral Flaps prevent any gliding possibility.
Among the commonly used donor sites, the del- Depending on the surface to cover, the amount
topectoral site was conceived as one of the most suit- of expansion and size and capacity of the expander
able donor tissues for the reconstruction in the face may vary. When the complete face should be cov-
and neck for its adjacent site and match in color and ered, a 2-liter skin expander will be inserted between
texture [2]. This technique uses an island flap, which is the vascularized fascia and the underlying structures.
prepared and expanded to the size of the surface to be The valve and tubing are positioned posteriorly on
covered over the face and the distance of the flap ped- the back.
icle to the distal end of the flap. This is a two-staged A progressive filling of the skin expander is real-
procedure. The size and projection of the silicone ized twice a week, with a regimen allowing to get the
expander should precisely be determined before the surface of the face (25 cm × 30 cm) on the shoulder
first surgical step. Thanks to a limited incision outside after 3–4 months. An arteriogram is realized before
the future face flap which will be drawn over the dor- the second stage in order to confirm the viability of
sal skin, a large expander will be inserted in a cavity the fascia and its capacity to revascularize the extra
created subcutaneously between the subcutaneous fat skin obtained thanks to the skin expansion. This
and the underlying muscle aponeurosis. The expander arteriogram shows all the new arterial ramifications
is chosen based on its capacity of inducing a predeter- emerging from the radial transplanted artery, a sign
mined skin projection, surface of the projected area, which was interpreted by the radiologists as a certi-
327 38
.. Fig. 38.1 Before and after prefabricated flap on the neck of a young male presenting a contractile postburn scar
tude that the fascial vessels were inducing the new

flap vascularization.
During the second step, a flap large enough to
cover the entire face (if needed) is designed over the
expanded skin. The dissection starts from lateral to
medial over the shoulder, with a particular attention
not to harm the vascular pedicle. Once the flap is
harvested and the flap pedicled on the arteriovenous
pedicle, all facial scars are removed deep to the fas-
cia, in order to get a maximum surface covered by the
new flap. Orifices (mouth, eyes, nostrils) are opened
in front of the anatomical corresponding zones.
Long-term results are good, with the transplanted
skin depth remaining adapted to the volume of the
face, thanks to the precompression realized during
the skin expansion (. Figs. 38.1, 38.2, 38.3, 38.4, .. Fig. 38.2 Aspect of the expanded skin flap before the second
procedure
38.5, 38.6, and 38.7).
This technique allows to get a precompressed
large piece of skin, well vascularized and conform- 4. Superthin Flaps
able. The whole face can be covered with a large The “superthin flap” concept was introduced by
viable piece of skin. There is no need for complemen- Ogawa et al. in 1994 [4], based on the subdermal vas-
tary drugs. cular network (SVN).
328 L. Téot
and then about 1000 cc of saline was injected dur-

ing a 2-month period. In the second operation, the
flap was thinned primarily and applied to the recipi-
ent site. Three weeks after the second operation, the
pedicle of the flap was cut down and sutured.
In 2007, the authors reported an expanded
“superthin flap” for reconstruction of the face and
neck for the first time in a patient.
In their series the authors reported different flap
sizes, ranging from 4 cm × 14 cm to 10 cm × 22 cm.
Expanded volume ranged from 800 cc to 1200 cc.
All flaps survived completely, and scar tissues were
replaced with normal skin. Flaps did not shrink
after the operations, and contractures did not
.. Fig. 38.3 During the second procedure, the orifices (mouth, recur. The main advantages of the expanded flaps
nose,) must be reopened adequately
are the potential to create large thin flaps with a
texture and color matching with the recipient area.
The donor site can be closed primarily; and micro-
surgery is not required. However, the disadvantage
of the method is the requirement for two or three
operations.
The advantages and limits of the techniques are
using skin expansion with or without microsurgery.
This technique may be considered safe in terms of
skin manipulations, the obtained tissue being con-
formable enough to redrape the whole face without
lymphatic accumulation. Edema can be maintained
at a low level, especially when using complementary
compressive techniques comparable to the ones used
in postburn-grafted faces. However, the second stage
(flap positioning) after skin expansion is crucial in
order to prevent distal regions of the flap to be par-
tially devascularized and become distally necrosed,
a complication issuing to a potential tissue loss. The
38 transferred tissues are coming from areas where the
dermal component is thicker than desired for facial
tissues like the eyebrows or lips, but the global aspect
of the transplanted face is compatible with a nor-
mal life, thanks to a daily adapted makeup and some
retouching on the eyebrows and the lips. The skin
has been submitted during skin expansion to a pres-
sure which limits the depth and gives a thin texture.
However, in most of the cases, complementary surgi-
cal retouches will be needed for refining the red lips,
nasal skin depth and nostrils, columella, and eye-
brows, reshaped using liposuction, fat transfer, and
mucosal surgery
5. Facial Allotransplantations
.. Fig. 38.4 One year postoperative aspect
Historical Aspects
The Pioneers
Superthin flaps were used in different clinical The first clinical case was realized in November
situations. Twenty-one expanded flaps were used to 27, 2005, in Amiens (France); the patient presented a
reconstruct 21 face or neck scar cases in 9 males and disfiguration after a severe dog bite. She was submit-
12 females. In the first operation, an expander was ted to the world’s first partial face transplant This
inserted on the fascia of the pectoralis major muscle, disruptive approach established loss of quality of
329 38
.. Fig. 38.5 Preoperative aspect face and profile female 28 years old
partial and near-total facial myocutaneous flaps

and complex osteomyocutaneous grafts [5]. Fif-
teen patients received fully vascularized grafts, and
2 patients died of transplant-related and infectious
complications
Facial transplantation was proposed to restore
quality of life and enable social reintegration.
Results publishing the first facial transplants created
some polemics all over the world. The main discus-
sions were concerning the long-term aesthetic and
functional outcomes where more precisely defined
outcomes are expected. In addition, significant
technical, medical, and ethical issues remain to be
solved, such as the secondary late failure and need
.. Fig. 38.6 Arteriogram before the second procedure. Note the for a second transplantation, recently reported by
good vascularization of the pedicle and the branches covering the
freshly expanded skin area
two authors [6, 7].
In 2018, Ozkan et al. [8] presented their long-term
experiences with a series of five face-transplanted
life and social exclusion due to scarring as a medical patients in terms of surgical aspects and postopera-
consideration comparable to a life-threatening situ- tive outcomes. Possible salvage strategies in case of
ation, as it imposed an immunosuppression for life. difficulties were also described. Five patients, four
In 2015, 12 partial and 5 full facial transplants receiving full-face transplantation and one under-
were recorded in the literature. Procedures included going partial transplantation were included. The
330 L. Téot
These situations need be resolved for it to be

accepted as a safe procedure.
Advantages and Limits of the Homologous
Transplantation
After more than 50 transplants, the concept of
“face transplantation” has emerged even if several
considerations should be mentioned: the immu-
nological science used for these transplantations is
derived from the ones used in organ transplantation,
and the antirejection regimen should be adapted to
the rejection levels of the transferred tissues, their
rejection capacities depending on their structure and
vascularization (skin, muscle, aponeurosis), etc. The
number of cases already realized all over the world is
limited, and each case has his/her own multifactorial
problems, linked to their own medical history, the
preoperative difficulties during transplantation, the
rate of opportunistic infections, and the compliance
of the patient [9].
The ethical discussions ended with a mandatory
preliminary authorization for transplantation in
most of the countries where they were realized. This
frame has limited the number of cases but opened a
disruption in the “no-harm” principle, due to the risk
of potential complications induced by immunosup-
pression in a non-vital medical situation. However,
the intense need for more social inclusion of these
.. Fig. 38.7 Four years postoperative, the quality of life has abandoned patients has transformed the conserva-
strongly improved. This young woman married, had a child, and tive approaches into more progressive possibilities.
returned to work
patients were aged between 19 and 54 years. Two 38.3 Critical Analysis of the Literature
had extensive burn scars to the face, and three had
suffered gunshot injuries. The posttransplant induc- The scarce literature concerning large face reconstruc-
38 tion immunosuppressive regimen included ATG plus tion is the reflection of the limited number of patients
tacrolimus, mycophenolate mofetil, and prednisone. presenting a scar incompatible with a minimal social
Patient files included their etiologies, preopera- life or the difficulty to find surgical teams able to sus-
tive preparations, surgical techniques, immunosup- tain a complex program including microsurgery, mul-
pressive regimen, postoperative courses, revisional tiple actors, and adapted rehabilitation and care. The
surgeries, together with challenges including acute choice between the two strategies may be led by other
rejection episodes, and immunosuppressive drug considerations, like the ethical problem of submitting
complications. the patient to immunosuppression for the rest of his/
No re-surgery due to vascular compromise was her life. Several authors have considered this as a prog-
required in any case. One of the five patients was ress opening the way to a large diffusion; others have
eventually lost due to complicated infectious and simply refused to consider that facial tissues would
metabolic events 11 months posttransplantation. be compared to any organ transplant performed on a
The other four patients were still alive, with a mean daily basis all over the world like the kidney, pancreas,
follow-up time of 53 months, and had satisfactory lung, or heart.
functional transplants and cosmetic appearance. In conclusion, extensive facial scars remain a difficult
Potential complications may be linked to compli- challenge for reconstruction. Even in highly sophisti-
ance and psychological maturity of the patients, the cated teams, the capacity of a homologous facial trans-
risk of opportunistic infections, and malignancies. plantation needs to be prepared. The technique demands
331 38
a permanent immunosuppression, and even if the ethi- References
cal problem was more or less solved, the opportunistic
infections remain a risk, and the long-term conse- 1. Nuri T, Ueda K, Fujimori Y. Ten-year follow-up after treating
quences are unknown in terms of life-threatening issues. extended burn scar contracture with an autologous cultured der-
mal substitute. Plast Reconstr Surg Glob Open. 2018;6(6):e1782.
The techniques imposing a long-term preparation like
https://doi.org/10.1097/GOX.0000000000001782.
skin expansion plus or minus microsurgical revascular- 2. Ma X, Li Y, Li W, Liu C, Liu H, Xue P, Cui J. Reconstruction of
ization are more usual. The specificity of the transferred facial-cervical scars with pedicled expanded deltopectoral flap.
tissues is less fine than with a complete homologous J Craniofac Surg. 2017;28(6):1554–8. https://doi.org/10.1097/
transfer and will need complementary techniques (fatty SCS.0000000000003901.
3. Teot L, Cherenfant E, Otman S, Giovannini UM. Prefabricated
tissue removal or fat injections, makeup, etc.). A more
vascularised supraclavicular flaps for face resurfacing after post-
EBM-based approach is needed to compare the results burns scarring. Lancet. 2000;355(9216):1695–6.
and mainly quality of life after allotransplantation ver- 4. Gao JH, Ogawa R, Hyakusoku H, Lu F, Hu ZQ, Jiang P, Yang
sus auto transfers. L, Feng C. Reconstruction of the face and neck scar contrac-
tures using staged transfer of expanded “Super-thin flaps”.
Burns. 2007;33(6):760–3.
Take Home Message 5. Garrett GL, Beegun I, D’souza A. Facial transplanta-
Face disfiguration represent difficult cases where tion: historical developments and future directions. J Lar-
yngol Otol. 2015;129(3):206–11. https://doi.org/10.1017/
the technical capacities of restoring a normal face
S0022215114003478.
using long and complex surgical techniques have to 6. Morelon E, Petruzzo P, Kanitakis J, Dakpé S, Thaunat O,
be weighed to the motivation and understanding of Dubois V, Choukroun G, Testelin S, Dubernard JM, Badet L,
the patient. Psychological testing should be realized Devauchelle B. Face transplantation: partial graft loss of the
before proposing surgery, in order to prevent disil- first case 10 years later. Am J Transplant. 2017;17(7):1935–40.
https://doi.org/10.1111/ajt.14218.
lusions and bad feelings afterward and to drive the
7. Lantieri L: report of a facial transplantation failure and need for
patient toward the right choice to do. All potential second procedure. Dublin 2018, Make Better Summit.
complications have to be explained, as well as the 8. Özkan Ö, Özkan Ö, Ubur M, Hadimioğlu N, Cengiz M, Afşar
length and risks of each procedure, keeping in mind İ. Face allotransplantation for various types of facial disfigure-
that some strategies will need several procedures and ments: a series of five cases. Microsurgery. 2018;38(8):834–43.
https://doi.org/10.1002/micr.30272.
that the final result will only be visible a long time
9. Giatsidis G, Sinha I, Pomahac B. Reflections on a decade of
after the last procedure. face transplantation. Ann Surg. 2017;265(4):841–6. https://doi.
org/10.1097/SLA.0000000000001760.
333 39
Invasive Techniques in Scar

Management: Fat Injections
Contents
39.1 Adipose-Derived Stem Cells: Their Biological Properties – 334
39.2 The Guidelines – 334
39.3 The Procedure – 335
39.4 he Free Fat Grafting and Scars [3–9]

T
(. Figs. 39.5, 39.6, 39.7, and 39.8) – 336
39.4.1 T he Skin Texture, Thickness, and Pliability – 339
39.4.2 The Fibrosis – 339
39.4.3 The Volume and Contour – 340
39.4.4 Pain: The Analgesic Effect – 340
39.4.5 The Possible Applications – 340
39.5 he Ancillary Procedures to Increase the Overall Survival

T
of Adipose Cells – 340
39.5.1 T he Plasma-Rich Platelet [10] – 340
39.5.2 The External Volume Expansion [11] – 341
39.5.3 The Future – 341
39.6 Something to Discuss: The Oncological Point of View – 341

References – 342

334 F. Bassetto et al.
39.1 dipose-Derived Stem Cells: Their

A
Background Biological Properties
Since the end of the nineteenth century, fat grafting has
become one of the most promising treatments for aes- Obtained by a lipo-aspiration procedure, ADSCs can
thetic and reconstructive purposes. Its very first appli- be found in large quantities, representing a fraction
cation dates back to 1889 when Van der Mullen used of 1/500–1/1500 cells for a total of 5000 per cell each
fat grafting to treat a diaphragmatic hernia; some years gram of fatty tissue taken, with stem potential 500 times
later, in 1893, Neuber A. treated posttraumatic depressed higher than the medullary equivalent.
facial scars with a small-dimension autologous fat graft The adipose-derived stem cells have both a regenera-
taken from the forearm. Neuber, indeed, noticed that tive and a volumetric effect due to multiple mechanisms:
the application of small pearls of fat, compared with the 1. They produce a sort of filler effect because of the
bigger ones, could bring to better aesthetic results. Later, direct differentiation of the preadipocytes to mature
in 1910, Lexer reported the application of the autolo- adipocytes. This differentiation is promoted by an
gous fat grafting for facial rejuvenation; in fact, he uses auto-paracrine stimulation too.
the fat as a filler for periorbital and facial wrinkles. Dur- 2. They have an antioxidant effect and protect against
ing his experience, Lexer noted that, in order to obtain damage due to ischemia reperfusion, reactive oxygen
a good aesthetic results, the fat should not be damaged species (ROS), and hypoxia.
during the taking procedure. 3. They induce angiogenesis promoting the perfusion of
In the same period, authors reported their experi- the treated area, supporting existing vascular structures,
ence with the engraftment of fat tissue, and in 1911 and having a paracrine promotion of angiogenesis.
Brunning noticed that fat graft could be reabsorbed. 4. They modulate inflammation suppressing the T- and
From 1912 to the Second World War, many stud- B-cell proliferation via NFkB-mediated mechanism;
ies have reported on the application of lipofilling for they also produce IL6 and IL8. These cytokines can
“aesthetic purpose” as treatment of the scars; but in recruit monocytes and macrophages in the site of
the meantime, researchers such as Wasserman in 1926, injury because of their chemoattractive role.
and later Neuhof, Shapiro, and others, demonstrated 5. They modulate the granulation tissue and other pro-
that the fat grafting was a “living tissue” in which there cesses as fibrosis and/or reepithelization. In fact, they
were present preadipocytes which could later become upregulate type I procollagen a1mRna, and they stim-
mature adipocytes. They also noted that even if there ulate the migration of keratinocytes and fibroblasts.
were a degenerative process for the first months after 6. They secrete lymphangiogenic factors.
the implantation, later there was the presence of a 7. They recruit systemic endogenous stem cells via a
regenerative process with a full transformation of the home chemokine gradient to the area of injury.
preadipocytes in mature adipocytes after 5 months.
But it has been only during the end of the twentieth
century that the real features and potentiality of the autol- 39.2 The Guidelines
ogous fat graft started to become clear. In fact, it was only
39 during that period that researchers started to demonstrate
the presence of stem cells, the adipose-derived stem cells,
As every procedure, the free fat grafting also has to fol-
low some guidelines. From 2007 to 2014, the US Food
which could survive after the transplantation and regener- and Drug Administration and the American Society
ate the adipose tissue. Nowadays, it is a common opinion of Plastic Surgeons (ASPS) and American Society for
that there are three zones that arrange the autologous fat Aesthetic Plastic Surgery (ASAPS) proposed many
grafting: (1) the outer one called “surviving zone,” (2) the guidelines [1, 2], but it has been only in 2016 that there
intermediate one called the “regenerating zone,” and( 3) have been clear guidelines. In fact, FDA defined the adi-
the inner one called the “necrotic zone.” pose tissue as a “structural tissue” because it is a “con-
As the name suggests, the intermediate zone or nective tissue that stores energy in the form of lipids,
regenerating zone can replace the dead adipocytes insulates the body, and provides cushioning and support
in necrotic/center area; this process is allowed by the for subcutaneous tissues and internal organs”; but this
presence of the so-called stromal vascular fraction definition restricted its use. Nowadays, the guidelines
(SVF). The SVF indeed consists in a multiple cellular can be summarized as follows:
lineage composed by fibroblasts, pericytes, endothelial 1. The graft should be taken and used in the same patient
cells, and mesenchymal stem cells which composed the at the same session. Delayed grafting is not allowed.
“adipose-derived stem cells” (ADSCs) and which can 2. The graft should be minimally manipulated. Based on
promote wound healing stimulating the reepitheliza- the definition given by FDA, the minimal manipula-
tion and neo-angiogenesis. tion is “a process that doesn’t alter the original features
But how can ADSCs do this? of the tissue, which maintains its utilities.” The graft
shouldn’t be sizing. Even if centrifugation is consid-
Invasive Techniques in Scar Management: Fat Injections
335 39
.. Fig. 39.1 Centrifugation
.. Fig. 39.2 Decantation
ered a sizing procedure, nowadays the immediate cen- 4. The graft has to be harvested with sterile technique;
trifugation at low speed (3000 rpm for 3–5 minutes) is the contact with air has to be minimal. In order to per-
allowed, but decantation and mechanical purification form this process, a so-called closed system has to be
are preferable, because they don’t alter any features of used that is featured by a sterile disposable canister
the tissue (. Figs. 39.1 and 39.2). for collecting, separating, concentrating, and trans-
3. The manufacturing of the graft may not involve com- ferring the fat graft (. Fig. 39.3).
bination with another article, except for water, crys- 5. The graft has to be taken with small cannulas
talloids, or a sterilizing, preserving, or storage agent. (3–4 mm) and injected with 2–2.5 mm cannulas in a
Enzymatic process is not allowed. Separation and retrograde way (retrograde fat distribution). Actually
reinjection of the stromal vascular fraction are not this is not a new guideline; indeed it was there already
allowed. Till some years ago, enzymes were permit- in 1893 when Neuber A. treated scars noticing that
ted to be used as collagenase in order to “upgrade” small-dimension fat graft could be more effective
an adipose stem cell (ASC)-poor fat. In fact, the col- than bigger one (. Fig. 39.4).
lagenase could disrupt the link between the ASC per-
mitting to add some freshly isolated stromal vascular
fraction in order to obtain a so-called ASC-enriched 39.3 The Procedure
fat. Nowadays, this enzymatic process is considered
manipulation, so it cannot be allowed. Also, today Set up by Coleman in 1925, in order to improve overall adi-
it is possible to prepare the adipose tissue with a pose cell survival, the procedure is featured by a tumescent
tumescent solution, and the lipoaspirate obtained technique lipo-aspiration with cannulas or micro cannulas
can be added with sterile saline without altering the from regions as, for example, the abdomen, medial thighs,
tissue. This process guarantees the keeping of the hips, and trochanteric region. The fat taken can be centri-
original features of the tissue, but it doesn’t help us fuged for 3000 rpm for 3–5 minutes or decanted in order
in increasing the engraftment of the free fat graft; so, to separate the oily part, which can be calcified if injected,
as we will see later, we can use some ancillary proce- from the seric part and the “real” fat. After being sepa-
dures to increase the survival of the fat grafting, as rated, the adipose tissues are injected, with small cannulas,
plasma-rich platelet. in other regions as, for example, the face. The lipofilling
.. Fig. 39.3 Closed system
.. Fig. 39.4 The cannulas
39
procedure can be executed under general or locoregional 39.4 he Free Fat Grafting and Scars [3–9]
T
anesthesia; it depends on the volume of adipose tissue that (. Figs. 39.5, 39.6, 39.7, and 39.8)
we have to take and on the area that has to be injected. The
procedure is not free of peri- and postoperative complica- Considering its biological properties, we can propose the
tions such as infection, hematoma, or calcifications. free fat grafting both to stimulate wound healing and to
It also has to be also considered that the free fat graft- treat or prevent scarring, because it can act and improve
ing can be physiologically reabsorbed. Unfortunately, more than one feature of a scar:
the engraftment percentage is a subjective parameter, 1. The skin texture, thickness, and pliability
and it varies from 10% to 70% and in some comes till a 2. The volume and contour
total reabsorption. This feature can be brought to mul- 3. The fibrosis
tiple sessions in order to obtain the correct volume. 4. The pain
337 39
a b
c d
POSTOP 1 YR
.. Fig. 39.5 Skin texture and color: a Pre-lipofilling after radiotherapy for sarcoma; b 40 days postop; c preop second lipofilling; d post-
second lipofilling at 1 year
.. Fig. 39.6 Fibrosis control in Dupuytren’s disease

a b
39
.. Fig. 39.7 a Volume and contour: dog bite scar; pre-lipofilling; interoperative. b Volume and contour: postoperative results
339 39
.. Fig. 39.8 Pain and nerve release: posttraumatic nerve entrapment
39.4.1 he Skin Texture, Thickness,

T studies demonstrated that there is also an improvement
and Pliability in melanin secretion. These last utilities can also mod-
ify the skin color, thereby reducing the erythema and
As demonstrated in 2009 by Mojallal et al. in an experi- improving normal color of the skin.
mental mouse model, the transplantation of human adi-
pose tissue to nude mice brought to an improving in the
thickness of dermis. These results were obtained, thanks 39.4.2 The Fibrosis
to a stimulated neosynthesis of type I collagen fibers,
with a consequent composition of a denser extracellular Related to skin thickness, fibrosis can be due to dis-
dermal matrix. This skin feature improved its texture, eases as, for example, connective tissue diseases or
thickness, and pliability. Dupuytren’s disease or treatment such as radiotherapy.
Some years later, in 2013, Klinger M. et al. performed We used lipofilling in the treatment of a specific con-
a study on humans, and they noted that the areas treated nective tissue disease called scleroderma or systemic
with free fat grafting assumed features that were simi- sclerosis. This systemic connective tissue disease is fea-
lar to normal skin in terms of elasticity and softness. tured by a progressive skin fibrosis especially on the face
In order to demonstrate these features, they also used and in particular in the perioral region which brings to
a durometer evaluation that demonstrated a significant the so-called microstomia. The patients affected (usu-
reduction of skin hardness. ally female) report a bad lips sensation and progressive
But why do ADSCs behave this way? As we said mouth dryness, difficulty in speaking, oral hygiene, and
earlier, ADSCs can modulate and reduce inflammation; feeding. In our experience, the application of fat grafting
in perioral region has improved the symptoms reducing presence of the adipose stem cells can stimulate the nerve
skin stiffness and improving opening the mouth. repair mediated by the brain-derived neurotrophic factor
Regarding the use of lipofilling in Dupuytren’s dis- (BDNF), an adipose-derived neurotrophin which is fun-
ease, this pathology is due to a fibrotic degeneration of damental in nerve growth and repair. But this is not the
the longitudinal fibers of palmar aponeurosis, with the only mechanism to improve analgesic effect: as we said
consequent involvement of subcutaneous septa, the loss earlier, fat tissues are featured by an anti-inflammatory
of subcutaneous fat, and the adherence of dermis to effect which is mediated both by the TGFβ production
palmar aponeurosis. In this case the autologous adipose that can modulate and suppress T-cell function and by
tissue is used as adjuvant therapy to prevent the forma- the production of IL 10 a cytokine which is abundantly
tion of new fibrotic tissue (. Fig. 39.7). produced by ADSCs and is known to inhibit Cd4 and
Finally, regarding radiotherapy, the fibrosis is a sort CD8 lymphocytes reducing the inflammation response.
of adverse event that rises years after the end of radio-
therapy treatment and that it is due to the presence of
an important post irradiated fibro-necrotic tissue fea- 39.4.5 The Possible Applications
tured by local dystrophic fat lobules, smaller but thicker
vessels, and a perivascular fibrosis. In this case the fat Based on the aforementioned effects, we can propose
grafting reduces the necrotic areas and improves neoan- the free fat grafting for the treatment and prevention of
giogenesis with a consequent increasing in skin quality. multiple kinds of scars such as the following:
It is supposed that these results are due to the intrinsic 1. The treatment of atrophic and/or depressed scar, for
ability of the ADSCs to secrete growth factors, as angio- example, in case of acne or previous removal of bulky
genic ones, as we said earlier. neoformations. In case of atrophic and/or depressed
scar, the free fat grating can be used both for a volumet-
ric effect, indeed it fills the empty spaces, and for regen-
39.4.3 The Volume and Contour erative effect, indeed it can improve the skin texture.
2. The treatment of retracting scars which can limit not
As we said earlier, the free fat grafting has a trophic/vol- only the aesthetic point of view but also many func-
umetric effect. As Mojallal noticed the autologous free tions as the flexor extension of the neck or of the
fat grafting has to be considered as a dynamic filler. In elbow. In this case we can associate fat grafting with
fact, the “fat filler” doesn’t have only an immediate effect surgery as z-/w-plasty or flaps.
of restoring volume, but it has the ability to produce 3. Unstable posttraumatic scars in order to obtain both
adipogenesis with the consequent transformation of the scar stabilization and to improve wound healing.
preadipocytes in mature adipocytes. This can bring to 4. Fibrotic diseases such as Dupuytren’s disease and
an increased volume of the soft adipose tissue. The plas- connective tissue diseases such as scleroderma, as we
ticity that features the adipose tissue makes it a good said previously.
filler to restore the contour too, not only in posttrau- 5. Fibrotic irradiated tissue.
matic scars but also in postoperative deformities and/or 6. Fibrotic response to foreign bodies named peripros-
thetic fibrotic and, often, contracted capsule: this
39 congenital malformation or adult progressive and self-
limited deformation as, for example, in Parry-Romberg response can be described as a pathological and
syndrome (the adult hemifacial atrophy). excessive deposition of collagen fibers around a
mammary implant, in this case, the lipofilling.
7. Postsurgical deformities.
39.4.4 Pain: The Analgesic Effect 8. Nerve release in case of neuromas or posttraumatic
pain.
According to Coleman who demonstrated the posi-
tive effect of free tissue transfer on neuralgias, Riyat
et al. published in 2017 a review in which they noticed 39.5 he Ancillary Procedures to Increase
T
as the lipofilling had an analgesic effect, demonstrated the Overall Survival of Adipose Cells
with tests as, for example, POSAS or McGill Pain
Questionnaire, on 966 patients. This effect seems to be 39.5.1 The Plasma-Rich Platelet [10]
due to multiple aspects: first of all, there is a mechanical
release. To perform the injection, we have to insert the Known as PRP, it is a product obtainable by a blood
cannula under the scar in the space of the dermo-hypo- draw of at least 20 cc. It is featured by a high concentra-
dermal junction, and then we proceed to distribute the tion of platelet >300–350 × 103 platelets/μL, (three to
fat in a retrograde way to reproduce a sort of a weblike five times than normal) and the production of growth
matrix. This procedure can mechanically release fibrotic factors, including PDGF, TGF β, VEGF, IGF-1, FGF,
adherence and nerve entrapment, but most of all, the and EGF, released by the α granules of the activated
341 39
platelets. These factors promote tissue repair, modulate esis stimulated by growth factors can bring to the onset
inflammatory processes and neoangiogenesis, and ulti- of a new neoplasia or a recurrence if the free fat graft
mately regulate homeostasis of tissue and regenerative is injected in a recipient site which is recently affected
process. The PRP is easily obtainable without morbid- by a cancer, especially in a breast that has undergone
ity for the patient, and it can be associated to free fat a nipple-sparing mastectomy or a partial mastectomy
grafting during the same session, in order to increase the (quadrantectomy). Many studies have been performed
percentage of engraftment and to improve the overall in order to demonstrate the safety of the fat grafting
adipose cell survival. in such patients, but nowadays, even if a correlation
between lipofilling and neoplasm or its recurrence has
not been demonstrated, it is preferable to propose the
39.5.2 The External Volume Expansion [11] free fat transfer after 2 years free of disease.
In order to improve on-site adipogenesis and overall

adipose cell survival, a new technique called external 39.7 Conclusion
volume expansion (EVE) is being used in these years.
This procedure is based on tissue expansion combined In light of our experience, the free fat grafting is con-
with the mechanobiology principles which explain sidered an effective and promising treatment for scars.
how mechanical forces, such as the ones produced by The biological properties of ADSCs combined with
the application of the negative pressure therapy, can be an easy and quick procedure, a low morbidity for the
transduced in the cells in order to stimulate processes patients, and a high compliance make lipofilling an ideal
as cellular shaping, proliferation, and differentiation. In treatment to propose. Unfortunately, the treatment has
fact, studies demonstrated that the EVE application can some limitations. First of all it cannot be proposed to a
increase cell proliferation, deep dermis capillary density, very slim patients; in fact we need fatty areas to obtain
and adipogenesis due to the edema and inflammation ADSCs; secondly, as we said earlier, the percentage of
response which are proadipogenic factors. reabsorption of fat grafting subjectively varies from 10%
to 70% till the complete reabsorption in extreme cases.
This negative feature can result in multiple treatment
39.5.3 The Future sessions in order to obtain the right volume, but unfor-
tunately it is not possible to set the number of sessions
Recently the fat graft has been proposed for the treat- required since the beginning.
ment of keloids or hypertrophic scars. Keloid is a fibro- Fortunately, new studies and new research on cell
proliferative disorder which is known as pathological therapy help us to avoid or reduce this problem, as we
scar, and it is featured by an excessive production and saw that the use of the external negative pressure ther-
deposition of extracellular dermal matrix due to pro- apy and/or the combination of free fat grafting with the
longed inflammatory and proliferative phases of wound plasma-rich platelet can improve the fat engraftment
healing. Nowadays, there is not a gold standard treat- and the overall adipose cell survival with consequent
ment for pathological scars; it is actually based both better morpho-functional results.
on prevention with compressive garments or silicone
gel or sheets both on topical injection of keloid with
anti-inflammatory drugs as corticosteroids. Based on Take Home Messages
the anti-inflammatory properties of the free fat graft- 55 The fat grafting contains stem cells called adipose-
ing and on its ability to stimulate neoangiogenesis and a derived stem cells.
better skin quality, it has been proposed to use it in the 55 The adipose-derived stem cells are pluripotent
treatment of hypertrophic/keloid scars, for example, in cells.
postburn patient. Even if the first impressions are abso- 55 The fat grafting is an easy procedure with low
lutely positive, unfortunately, as Lee G et al. noted in morbidity rate.
2017, there is a lack of high-level literature about this 55 The fat injection has both a volumetric and a
field, so further studies are required. regenerative effect.
55 The fat injection stimulates neo-adipogenesis and
neoangiogenesis, and it modulates inflammation
39.6 Something to Discuss: The Oncological and fibrosis.
Point of View 55 The fat grafting can be reabsorbed.
55 We can use external volume expansion and/or the
Even if the adipose tissue transfer has multiple benefit combination with plasma-rich platelet to improve
effects, recently it has been supposed that the pluripo- engraftment and overall adipose cell survival.
tent adipose-derived stem cells and the neoangiogen-
References 4. Bassetto F, et al. Fat grafting in the treatment of skin fibrosis

and scars. J Wound Technol. 2014;24:17–19.
5. Mojallal A, et al. Improvement of skin quality after fat graft-
1. US Department of Health and Human Services. Tissue guid-
ing: clinical and observation and an animal study. Plast Reconstr
ances: human cells, tissues, and cellular and tissue-based prod-
Surg. 2009;124:765.
ucts (hct/ps) from adipose tissue: regulatory considerations;
6. Lee G, et al. Autologous fat grafting in keloids and hypertrophic
draft guidance. www.fda.gov/BiologicsBloodVaccines/Guid-
scars: a review. Scars Burn Heal. 2017;3:2059513117700157.
anceComplianceRegulatoryInformation/Guidances/Tissue/
7. Riyat H, et al. Autologous fat grafting for scars, healing and
ucm427795.htm. Accessed 8 June 2015.
pain: a review. Scars Burn Heal. 2017;3:2059513117728200.
2. American Society of Plastic Surgeons and the Plastic Surgery
8. Bassetto F, et al. Fat grafting in wound healing and scar control.
Foundation. Docket #FDA-2014-D-1856 (HCT/Ps). www.
J Wound Technol. 2016;31:54–55.
plasticsurgery.org/Documents/Legislation-Advocacy/Regulatory/
9. Klinger M, et al. Autologous fat graft in scar treatment. J Cra-
asps-response-hctp-draft-guidance.pdf. Accessed 7 July 2015.
niofac Surg. 2013;24:1610Y1615.
3. Bassetto F, et al. Adipose-derived stem cells to modulate scar
10. Osaid H Alser, Ioannis Goutos (2018). The evidence behind the
tissue: from biological basis to clinical application. In: Shiff-
use of platelet-rich plasma (PRP) in scar management: a litera-
man MA, Di Giuseppe A, editors. Stem cells in aesthetic pro-
ture review. Scars, Burns & Healing 4:205951311880877.
cedures. art, science and clinical techniques. Berlin: Springer;
11. Lujan Hernandez J, et al. Induction of adipogenesis by external
2014.
volume expansion. Plast Reconstr Surg. 2016;137(1):122–31.
39
343 40
Additional Invasive Techniques

in Scar Management
E. de Bakker, M. C. E. van Leeuwen, O. W. M. Meijer, and F. B. Niessen
Contents
40.3 Types of Radiation Therapy – 344

40.3.1 E xternal Beam Radiation Therapy (EBRT) – 344
40.3.2 Brachytherapy (Internal Radiation) – 344
40.4 Excision and Radiation Type – 345
40.5 Recurrence – 346

40.5.1 Complications – 346
40.6 Safety Concerns – 347
40.7 dditional Thoughts on the Biomechanisms of

A
Radiotherapy in Keloid Treatment – 347
References – 348

344 E. de Bakker et al.
40.1 Background various sorts of tumors. The benefit of brachytherapy

over external radiation therapy is the ability to deliver
Soon after the discovery of radiation, radiotherapy was radiation as very localized and enabling a higher dose
recognized as a treatment technique for tissue over- with fewer side effects and fewer treatments needed for
growth. Also, hypertrophic scars and keloid disorder the same effect. Brachytherapy for the treatment of
were treated both therapeutically and for prevention of keloid scars is nowadays always combined with excision.
recurrent growth following surgery. After an enthusiastic start, the usage of brachyther-
Both patients and care providers might hesitate apy declined due to the problematic radiation exposure
about radiation treatment considering the associated for staff and patients while handling the radioactive
ominous reputation and tissue burden. While radiation materials. The advent of novel radiation delivery meth-
treatment represents a significant burden, for the patient ods and the use of new radioactive sources in the 1950s
as well as financially and logistically, it is also safe and and 1960s caused a renewed interest in brachytherapy.
characterized by low recurrence rates, high patient satis- Current remote afterloading devices provide safety by
faction, and, in combination with excision, excellent manually placing a hollow catheter (. Fig. 40.1b) first
aesthetic results. Therefore, when other techniques fail and then loading the radioactive source later through
in preventing keloid disorder recurrence, radiation treat- the catheter. It was not until 1976 that Malaker et al.
ment is a valid option and should be considered. introduced this technique for keloid treatment. Current
This chapter will provide an overview of the history methods focus on excision of the lesion followed by
of radiation treatment for keloid disorder. The available adjuvant radiation therapy. Although this method offers
techniques and suggested dosages, as well as the authors’ total scar eradication with an optimal aesthetic and low
experiences and vision on indications and biological recurrence rates (mean, 10.5%), its use is limited due to
working mechanisms, are described. significantly higher costs in comparison with other treat-
ment options, as well as availability of the technique in
the hospital and the need for more advanced specialist
40.2 Introduction care (e.g., plastic surgeon/dermatologist/radiation
oncologist with interest in keloid scar treatment).
Soon after the discovery of X-ray technology, radiation
was recognized as a possible treatment modality for
excessive tissue growth. Like malignant tumors, aberrant 40.3 Types of Radiation Therapy
scars are proliferative tissue overgrowths and were there-
fore also considered valid targets for treatment with 40.3.1 xternal Beam Radiation
E
radiation. L. Freund first described the positive effect of Therapy (EBRT)
roentgen treatment on a hypertrophic scar in 1898.
Harris then described the same effect on a keloid disor- The classic form of radiation therapy uses a radiation
der in 1901, whereas Wickham recommended radium source which emits energy onto the target area. Regular
for the treatment of keloid scars. Already in 1909, X-ray radiation is probably the most widely available
Freund combined surgical excision of the keloid with and least expensive radiation option. It does not pene-
postoperative radiation, where he left the wound open trate too deep, so underlying structures remain undam-
and waited 2–3 days before starting radiation treatment
40 [1]. In the following period, various treatment protocols
aged. Due to the inaccuracy of the technique, however,
more skin side effects are seen. In superficial radiation
were described using external radiation with relatively therapy (SRT), low-energy X-rays (the same range as
good results. Folke Jacobsson described in 1948 that in diagnostic X-rays) emit photons at 20–150 kV reaching
625 cases treated, a total regression of 73.6% was an effective depth of 3.5–16 mm. At higher energy of
achieved, most of which with radiation alone (The 200–500 kV, an effective depth of 2 cm is reached (ortho-
Treatment of Keloids at Radiumhemmet, 1921–1941). voltage radiation). Electron beam radiotherapy uses a
External beam radiation therapy uses a radiation linear accelerator to create β-rays. It reaches a depth of
source which emits energy onto the target area. The dis- 2–6 cm and can be more accurately delivered.
advantage of this technique is that it gives a relatively
high dose to the adjacent healthy tissue due to the large
distance between the radiation source and the target. 40.3.2 Brachytherapy (Internal Radiation)
Brachytherapy, where the radiation source is placed
inside or adjacent to the area requiring treatment, was In brachytherapy, a hollow catheter is placed either
pioneered in medicine soon after the discovery of radio- interstitially during closure or superficially on the desired
activity in 1896 and was widely used in the 1930s to treat target area (see . Fig. 40.1a–c). After this procedure,
Additional Invasive Techniques in Scar Management
345 40
a b
.. Fig. 40.1 a Keloid of the earlobe. After excision, a hollow catheter is placed before closing the wound b. The catheter is fixed into place
to ensure precise radiotherapy delivery c
the catheter is loaded with a radioactive source. The 40.4 Excision and Radiation Type
treatment regimen can either be low-dose rate (LDR) or
high-dose rate (HDR). In LDR a low-dose-rate radioac- Radiotherapy should be reserved for recurrent keloid
tive source is used to treat for a longer time frame (20– scars because of its invasive characteristic and signifi-
72 hours). It requires hospitalization in a lightly shielded cant cost. It should be noted that both excision-only and
chamber. In HDR the patient is transferred to a shielded radiation-only have higher recurrence rates compared to
chamber after the excision. Here, a high-dose-rate radio- excision followed by radiation [2]. The keloid is prefera-
active source is loaded into the catheter remotely by per- bly excised in an extralesional fashion [2] and closed pri-
sonnel in a separate area for a short exposure marily. If this is not an option due to the size of the scar
(5–10 minutes). Because of the short treatment duration, or high tension on the wound edges, skin grafts can be
HDR can effectively be used as an outpatient treatment used, or excision of the core of the keloid can be per-
option and is therefore preferred over LDR. The main formed.
advantage of brachytherapy to external beam radiother- Close cooperation with the local radiotherapy
apy is the diminished exposure of surrounding tissue, department is necessary to facilitate radiation therapy
which also provides the possibility to administer a higher for keloids. Radiation equipment usually represents a
dose in a shorter time frame. Additionally, because the significant cost to any hospital, and keloid treatment
applicator can be shaped to fit the desired area, uneven with radiation therapy will most likely only be per-
surfaces will receive the same dose, and deeper structures formed in a small fraction of treatments. This means
can be avoided. The most commonly used radioactive physicians will probably be bound to techniques that are
source is Iridium-192 which emits γ-rays. already available in their hospital. Usually, a form of
external radiation will be available, while brachytherapy brachytherapy and external radiation therapy (HDR,
may be more common in larger medical centers in devel- 10.5 ± 15%; range, 0–44; LDR, 21.3 ± 2.1%; range,
oped countries. 19.4–23.6; external, 22.2 ± 16%; range, 0–72) [2].
When planning the procedure, two main consider-
ations should be timing and adequate dosage of the
radiation therapy. The first dose should be administered 40.5 Recurrence
as soon as possible after excision. A clear decrease in
recurrence rate was seen in external radiation if treated When reviewing the literature, it should be kept in mind
within 7 hours as opposed to the first 24 hours. HDR that recurrence is often defined differently. It can be
brachytherapy should be administered in the first described as any regrowth of tissue, mild or total relapse,
24 hours after surgery and is also likely more effective in or even regrowth extending beyond the borders of the
the first 7 hours [3]. Many protocols, therefore, opt to original lesion. Symptoms like pain or itching or any
transfer the patient to the radiation department immedi- other complaint in the operated area not related to radi-
ately after excision [2]. Choosing the right dosage is ation may be counted as recurrence. With respect to
important and there is no “gold standard” (yet). The radiation therapy, recurrence is usually correlated to the
concept of biological effective dose (BED) is important administered BED; the higher the BED, the lower the
in the radiation regimen to be formed. BED is the mea- recurrence and vice versa. Since the opposite can be said
sure used to quantitatively indicate the biological effect of complications, a balanced approach should be made
of any radiotherapy treatment. Because it corrects for toward BED. Recurrence rate is also influenced by loca-
the dose per fraction given and the fraction number, it tion; in a recent meta-analysis, Mankowski et al. found
will allow comparison of all kinds of treatments and the chest and trunk to have higher recurrence rates
modalities. In keloid treatment, it would appear that (34%) as opposed to the ears (12%) [5]. Furthermore, to
administering less than a BED of 10–12 Gy is correlated properly assess recurrence, a follow-up of at least 1 or 2
with a higher recurrence rate [2]. Literature suggests years posttreatment should be considered to avoid bias
there seems to be a strict threshold because doses of less by missing recurrences.
than 10 Gy repeatedly report higher recurrence rates.
This would also mean that a single fraction could be
enough, possibly preventing an overnight stay and/or 40.5.1 Complications
additional hospital visits. At present, there are not
enough studies yet in support of this, and a recent study Complications following radiotherapy of the skin are
even found a higher recurrence rate in a 13 Gy scored with the toxicity criteria of the Radiation Therapy
single-faction protocol [4]. In a multicenter comparison Oncology Group (RTOG) and the European
of HDR brachytherapy, 2 × 6 Gy (BED of 19) treat- Organisation for Research and Treatment of Cancer
ment gave an equally low recurrence and lower compli- (EORTC) [6]; see . Table 40.1. Since radiotherapy
cation rates than using 2 × 9 and 3 × 6 Gy [4]. influences wound healing, wound-related complications
Administering more than a BED of 20 Gy seems unnec- like wound dehiscence, infection, and the failure of the
essary in HDR brachytherapy [4]. In the treatment of wound to close (chronic wound) are additional entities
earlobe keloids with EBRT, a BED of 15–22.5 over two to consider. The most commonly seen complications are
fractions (2 × 10 Gy) was found to be sufficient [5]. In a erythema, temporary and permanent pigmentation dis-
40 recent systematic review, HDR brachytherapy achieved turbances, and telangiectasia. Wound-related complica-
the lowest mean recurrence rate, followed by LDR tions are rarely seen when administering doses as
.. Table 40.1 Toxicity criteria of the Radiation Therapy Oncology Group (RTOG) and the European Organisation for Research
and Treatment of Cancer (EORTC) [6]
Grade 1 2 3 4
Acute Follicular, faint or dull Tender or bright Confluent, moist Ulceration, hemorrhage,
erythema/epilation/dry erythema, patchy moist desquamation other than necrosis
desquamation/decreased desquamation/moderate skin folds, pitting edema
sweating edema
Late Slight atrophy; pigmentation Patch atrophy; moderate Marked atrophy; gross Ulceration
change; some hair loss telangiectasia; total hair telangiectasia
loss
347 40
discussed earlier. Reported recurrence and complication tissue is damaged, and blood vessels are severed. To pro-
rates vary. A recent retrospective study comparing vide the upcoming immune cells and fibroblasts with
2 × 9 Gy, 3 × 6 Gy, and 2 × 6 Gy reported minor com- enough nutrients and oxygen, new blood vessels are
plications in 57%, 40%, and 33.7%, respectively, and formed along the wound edges, while the surroundings
18.6%, 13.8%, and 3.3% major complications, respec- of the wound show redness as a sign of vasodilation.
tively. Recurrence was the same for all groups (25%) [4]. This process starts during the first hours following
Pigmentation complications are more commonly seen in wounding [11]. Endothelial dysfunction has been linked
people with a darker skin (Fitzpatrick V–VI) who seem to abnormal wound healing [10, 12, 13], so by suppress-
to benefit from brachytherapy in which the irradiated ing endothelial cells and therefore angiogenesis due to
area is greatly reduced [7]. It should be noted that pig- radiation, the formation of dysfunctional blood vessels
mentation differences are less prevalent in brachyther- could be prevented and inflammation decreased, ulti-
apy in comparison with cryotherapy [8]. Furthermore, mately potentially suppressing keloid formation and
HDR brachytherapy yields good results in patient- preventing recurrence [1, 10].
reported outcomes such as the Patient and Observer In the classic definition, hypertrophic scarring is con-
Scar Assessment Scale [7]. fined within the boundaries of the original lesion,
whereas a keloid scar grows beyond its boundaries.
However, in close visual inspection of hypertrophic
40.6 Safety Concerns scars, we see that they also can extend beyond the bor-
ders of the original lesion. The extension beyond the
When administering radiotherapy for benign diseases, scar borders is less compared to keloid disorder, and the
concerns will arise about the risk of inducing secondary ongoing process of scar formation stops earlier. In the
malignancy in the treated area. As of now, only a few case of keloid disorder, the vascularity is the highest just
cases have been described in external radiotherapy, and around the keloid as may be observed clinically during
Ogawa et al. found the risk to be very low, with an esti- excision (. Fig. 40.2).
mated incidence of 0.1–0.0335% [3]. No cases of late
malignancy have been described while using brachyther-
apy. Of course, the possibility should be mentioned 40.8 Conclusions
when discussing therapeutic options with the patient [3].
Radiotherapy is a last resort option for recurrent and
therapy-resistant keloids and hypertrophic scars. It rep-
40.7 dditional Thoughts on the
A resents a significant burden, both financially and logisti-
Biomechanisms of Radiotherapy cally as well as to the patient. On the other hand, It is a
in Keloid Treatment very efficacious treatment option (in preventing recur-
rence) while obtaining the most optimal esthetic result.
The working mechanism of radiation therapy to prevent It is a safe procedure and most patients experience no or
the recurrence of the keloid scar is still the subject of minor side effects. The therapeutic goal should be to try
research. Initially, the application was based on the prin- and excise the entire keloid (extralesionally) and start
ciple that radiation inhibits tissue growth, and since radiation treatment as soon as possible, preferably
both keloid disorder and hypertrophic scars are consid- within 7 hours. Between external radiation and LDR
ered tissue overgrowth reactions, they were treated as and HDR brachytherapy, the most preferable option is
such. Early irradiation, within 7 hours of surgery, has high-dose-rate (HDR) brachytherapy because of the
been shown to result in lower recurrence rates as opposed 55 Ability to customize the device per treatment area,
to a later moment [2]. This suggests that interfering in therefore only radiating the target area while mini-
the early stages of wound healing is paramount in pre- mizing radiation damage to the healthy surrounding
venting recurrence of the disorder. Radiation is espe- tissue
cially harmful to dividing cells; the fact that particularly 55 Lower total BED compared to external radiation to
the most proliferative cells are vulnerable explains its achieve the same effect
effectiveness in treating cell overgrowth. 55 Ability to deliver the desired BED in a short period
Fibroblasts have been linked to keloid disorder for a of time, allowing an outpatient setting
long time, and ionizing radiation has been proven to
influence keloid fibroblast proliferation [9]. Current the- The optimal dose appears to be around a BED of
ories consider keloids to be an immunological problem 20–30 Gy; however, more research works are needed to
where endothelial cells and neovascularization may play determine treatment protocols. Physicians should adjust
a pivotal role as well [10]. During surgery or trauma, the their therapies on the merit of experience and existing
a b
.. Fig. 40.2 a Hypertrophic scar on the shoulder (age 18 months) scar after breast reduction surgery (age 2 years) extending beyond its
with apparent vascular involvement. b Hypertrophic scar after cesar- borders
ean section (age 5 years) extending beyond its borders. c Hypertrophic
literature in collaboration with the local radiotherapy References

department and in accordance with the wishes of the
patient. 1. Ogawa R, Yoshitatsu S, Yoshida K, Miyashita T. Is radiation
40 therapy for keloids acceptable? The risk of radiation-induced
carcinogenesis. Plast Reconstr Surg. 2009;124(4):1196–201.
Take Home Message https://doi.org/10.1097/PRS.0b013e3181b5a3ae.
55 Consider excision and radiotherapy as a last resort 2. van Leeuwen MCE, Stokmans SC, Bulstra AEJ, et al. Surgical
excision with adjuvant irradiation for treatment of keloid scars: a
for therapy-resistant keloids.
systematic review. Plast Reconstr surgery Glob open.
55 HDR brachytherapy started <7 hours after surgery 2015;3(7):e440. https://doi.org/10.1097/GOX.0000000000000357.
and a BED of ±20 is recommended. 3. Goutos I, Ogawa R. Brachytherapy in the adjuvant management
55 The chance of secondary malignancy seems very of keloid scars: literature review. Scars, Burn Heal. 2017;3:205951
low. 3117735483. https://doi.org/10.1177/2059513117735483.
4. Bijlard E, Verduijn GM, Harmeling JX, et al. Optimal high-
dose-rate brachytherapy fractionation scheme after keloid exci-
sion: a retrospective multicenter comparison of recurrence rates
349 40
and complications. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 2017;100(3): 9. Ji J, Tian Y, Zhu YQ, et al. Ionizing irradiation inhibits keloid
679–86. fibroblast cell proliferation and induces premature cellular senes-
5. Mankowski P, Kanevsky J, Tomlinson J, Dyachenko A, Luc cence. J Dermatol. 2015;42(1):56–63. https://doi.org/10.1111/1346-
M. Optimizing radiotherapy for keloids: a meta-analysis system- 8138.12702.
atic review comparing recurrence rates between different radia- 10. Huang C, Liu L, You Z, et al. Endothelial dysfunction and
tion modalities. Annals of Plastic Surgery. 2017;78(4):403–11. mechanobiology in pathological cutaneous scarring: lessons
https://doi.org/10.1097/SAP.0000000000000989. learned from soft tissue fibrosis. Br J Dermatol. 2017;177(5):1248–
6. Cox JD, Stetz J. Toxicity criteria of the radiation therapy oncol- 55. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjd.15576.
ogy group (RTOG) and the European organization for research 11. Butzelaar L, Schooneman DPM, Soykan EA, et al. Inhibited
and treatment of cancer (EORTC). Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. early immunologic response is associated with hypertrophic
1995;31(5):1341–6. scarring. Exp Dermatol. 2016;25(10):797–804. https://doi.
7. Van Leeuwen MCE, Stokmans SC, Bulstra AEJ, Meijer OWM, org/10.1111/exd.13100.
Van Leeuwen PAM, Niessen FB. High-dose-rate brachytherapy 12. Butzelaar L, Ulrich MMW. Mink van der Molen AB, Niessen
for the treatment of recalcitrant keloids: a unique, effective treat- FB, Beelen RHJ. Currently known risk factors for hypertrophic
ment protocol. Plast Reconstr Surg. 2014;134(3):527–34. https:// skin scarring: a review. J Plast Reconstr Aesthet Surg.
doi.org/10.1097/PRS.0000000000000415. 2016;69(2):163–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bjps.2015.11.015.
8. Bijlard E, Timman R, Verduijn GM, Niessen FB, Hovius SER, 13. van der Veer WM, Bloemen MCT, Ulrich MMW, et al. Potential
Mureau MAM. Intralesional cryotherapy versus excision with cellular and molecular causes of hypertrophic scar forma-
corticosteroid injections or brachytherapy for keloid treatment: tion. Burns. 2009;35(1):15–29. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
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351 XI
Specific Attention Areas

in Scar Management
Contents
Chapter 41 Specific Attention Areas in Scar Management:

Management of Atrophic Scars – 353
Chapter 42 Specific Attention Areas in Scar Management:

Specific Scar Management Depending on Anatomical
Features (Face, Hair, Breast, Hand, Joints, Foot) – 363
Julian Pötschke and Gerd G. Gauglitz
Chapter 43 Management of Scars in Skin of Color – 371

Huidi Tchero
Chapter 44 Scar and Scarring in the Elderly – 379

Chapter 45 Management of Scarring Following

Aesthetic Surgery – 385
Alexandra Chambers
Chapter 46 Scars in Pediatric Patients – 397

Anne Le Touze
Chapter 47 Genital Scars – 405

353 41
Specific Attention Areas in Scar

Management: Management
of Atrophic Scars
Contents

41.1.1 Common Principles – 354
41.2 Atrophic Acne Vulgaris Scarring – 354

41.2.1 esurfacing and Tightening Techniques – 354
R
41.2.2 Dermal Lift Techniques – 355
41.2.3 Volume-Imparting Techniques – 356
41.2.4 Isotretinoin Treatment – 356
41.2.5 State-of-the-Art and Combinatorial Approaches – 356
41.3 Striae Albae – 358
41.4 Burn Atrophic Scars – 360
References – 361

354 M. T. Clementoni and E. Azzopardi
41.1 Background and familiarity with one system, geared toward a thera-
peutic solution.
Atrophic scars represent some of the most difficult and
insidious pathologies confronting the reconstructive
surgeon. Deriving from the ancient Greek “a-trophos” 41.2 Atrophic Acne Vulgaris Scarring
(wasted), the term presents a vivid representation of the
clinical picture and an area of scar management particu- Atrophic scarring is substantially more common than
larly worthy of specific attention. hypertrophic [5]. Being able to deconstruct the presenta-
The atrophic scars typically develop as a result of tion into the component symptoms is crucial. Often the
an intracutaneous inflammatory process. Rather than components of the presenting complaint are a mixture
exuberant inflammation, the process results in of contour and dyschromia, which can be general or
reduced matrix regeneration and focally reduced col- specific to particular areas or even single scars. It is
lagen production. Focal contraction of the scar tissue important to enquire about the physical consequences
will result in uneven soft tissue defects. Clinically, which the patient perceives, such as the inability to apply
these result in contour defects on the surface of the makeup, which are key areas of concern, past treatment
skin [1]. regimes, and the frequency of recrudescence. Tendency
Several pathologies may result in atrophic scars [2], to hypertrophic, keloid, or poor scarring is asked.
This chapter is intended for the experienced laser practi- Enquiring about postoperative social commitments is
tioner tackling three clinical conditions presenting to important, considering the variation in recovery times
the reconstructive specialties, often as a last resort after with the various treatments while sun exposure without
exhaustive traditional management: acne, striae albae, adequate protection may dramatically alter the result
and burns. It explores common principles, followed by and incidence of complications. Examination estab-
state-of-the-art management and evaluation of the lishes skin type and excludes residual active inflamma-
senior author’s experience. tion, extent, and grade of disease. Application of the
Goodman and Baron classification imparts some degree
of objectivity in concluding one’s deliberations to focus
41.1.1 Common Principles on the appropriate therapeutic modalities (. Table 41.1).
Management of atrophic acne scarring depends on
These atrophic conditions wound both tissue and psyche. the infrastructure and equipment available to the practi-
They tend to be underestimated causes of significant tioner; therefore, a critical appraisal of traditional meth-
morbidity for the individual patient who often either ods is presented first, followed by state-of-the-art
loses all hope of amelioration or presents with unrealis- methods and our experience thereafter. For ease of ref-
tic expectation. Therefore, its appropriate management erence, these techniques are grouped by their main mode
entails identification of their concern, their attitude of action into resurfacing and tightening, dermal lifting
toward the risk/benefit of the management proposed, techniques, and dermal volumization techniques.
and setting their expectations at an appropriate and real-
istic level. It is important to emphasize that current
treatment modalities can improve but cannot completely
remove atrophic scars. Scarring from acne vulgaris and
41.2.1 Resurfacing and Tightening
burns has been associated to a range of mental health Techniques
issues including depression as well as embarrassment,
41.2.1.1 Microdermabrasion
41 poor self-esteem, and general social impairment. Early
and appropriate involvement of multidisciplinary opin- Microdermabrasion is a minimally invasive technique
ion is key [3, 4]. that improves texture but only addresses superficial
Appropriate clinical documentation not only helps scars, although its combination with aminolevulinic
set the baseline at presentation but also allows the acid photodynamic therapy (ALA-PDT) is more effec-
patient to observe progress and build confidence. Both tive, based on RCT evidence [7]. In principle, subsequent
two-dimensional photography and three-dimensional wound remodeling results in neocollagenesis and hence
photography are useful adjuncts in management, given increased dermal thickness. Its main use is for well-
reproducible conditions and serial repetition. defined superficial scars with distinct borders or broad-
Further, an objective grading of the condition is key based scars with indistinct borders. Its main drawbacks
to identify appropriate therapeutic options in mind. are high operator dependence and a suboptimal safety
While classification systems are extensively discussed profile. Further adverse effects may include dyschromia
elsewhere, it is our experience that the use of one over and scarring. For these reasons it has been largely
the other is not in itself as important as consistency, replaced by laser.
Specific Attention Areas in Scar Management: Management of Atrophic Scars
355 41
be more effective on rolling scars, and collagen deposi-
.. Table 41.1 Post-acne scars, qualitative global grading
system (Goodman and Baron) [6]
tion happens slowly, with the final result taking several
repeat sessions and up to a year to be complete. Needling
Grade Disease Features and tests seems to confer added value as a method for transcuta-
level neous drug delivery. Several such applications have been
reported, such as combinations with TCA, platelet-rich
I Macular These scars are erythematous, hyper- or
plasma (PRP), and CROSS. Current best evidence sug-
hypopigmented macules
They do not represent a problem of gests that results are operator-dependent, frequency-
contour but that of color dependent, and concentration-dependent and that depth
and degree of post-inflammatory hyperpigmentation
II Mild Mild atrophic or hypertrophic scars
that may not be obvious at social are unpredictable, requiring experience and expertise;
distances of 0.5 m or greater and may for this reason, the authors have moved away from these
be covered adequately by makeup or techniques toward light and laser therapy.
the normal shadow of shaved beard
hair in men or normal body hair if
extrafacial
41.2.2 Dermal Lift Techniques
III Moderate Moderate atrophic or hypertrophic
scarring that is obvious at social 41.2.2.1 Punch Excision
distances of 0.5 m or greater and is not
covered easily by makeup or the Punch excision is a simple and quick technique that con-
normal shadow of shaved beard hair verts a discrete atrophic scar into a well-apposed, well-
oriented surgical “healthy scar” which is easier to manage
in men or body hair if extrafacial. Can
be flattened by manual stretching ofby both surgeon and patient. An appropriately sized
the skin (if atrophic)
punch biopsy is used to perform full-thickness excision.
IV Severe Severe atrophic or hypertrophic The wound is then sutured along relaxed skin tension
scarring that is evident at social lines (RSTLs). Observing the elongation of the circle
distances greater than 0.5 m and is not
covered easily by makeup or the normal
into an ellipse with tension allows the practitioner to
shadow of shaved beard hair in men or choose the optimal orientation for closure. It is also use-
body hair if extrafacial. Cannot be ful to avoid closely spaced defects and thus excess trac-
flattened by manual stretching of the tion. Punch excision is replaced by sharp elliptical
skin excision to avoid standing cone formation, when the
defect is larger than 3 mm. Once healed, the resulting sur-
gical wounds can be incorporated into laser remodeling.
Punch grafting replaces the punch excision with a
41.2.1.2 Chemical Peels and Microneedling similarly sized graft, of better quality in principle, but is
Chemical peels can improve pigmentation and tone and laborious and often results in suboptimal color and tex-
texture. Bhargava et al. reported that glycolic acid (35%) tural mismatch. Punch elevation is another less com-
peels and salicylic (20%) – mandelic acid (10%) peels monly practiced technique reserved for boxcar scars
were more effective for ice-pick than boxcar scars. Twice- with sharp edges and normal bases. The punch biopsy
weekly stronger strength peels seem to be more effective tool is used to excise the scar and its walls down to fat.
than daily low-strength creams. Trichloroacetic acid This is followed by careful tissue elevation for the surface
(35%) peels with a short downtime seemed to be particu- to sit slightly proud of surrounding skin to allow for
larly effective in darker skin types. Yet others combine subsequent retraction. The punched base is then secured.
needling with TCA peels to good effect. Caution needs While both techniques are described in the literature, a
to be taken in view of several potential adverse effects clear advantage of either compared to punch excision
including prolonged erythema and post-inflammatory and suturing, or our preferred techniques illustrated
hyperpigmentation. These side effects are more preva- hereunder, is not immediately evident.
lent but by no means limited to deep peels. Paradoxically,
very high concentrations of TCA have demonstrated 41.2.2.2 Subcutaneous Incision
high efficacy in atrophic scars, and boxcar scars in par- Subcutaneous incision (subcision) frees dermis tethered
ticular, and have been rebranded as chemical reconstruc- by fibrous bands causing rolling scars. This technique
tion of skin scars (CROSS). Skin needling is another employs a needle (ideally tribevelled) by severing adherent
method, based on the principle of percutaneous induc- bands in a subcutaneous plane. Given adequate infiltra-
tion of collagen, creating dermal microclefts, with col- tion with adrenaline-containing local anesthetic, risk of
lagenesis resulting from the cascade of growth factors hematoma formation is minimized. The technique does,
unleashed by the wound-healing process. It appears to however, run the risk of subcutaneous nodule formation.
41.2.3 Volume-Imparting Techniques a single lesion of fractional CO2 laser therapy. Relatively
low energies were used as well as a limited number of
41.2.3.1 Filling Techniques treatments. Currently, there is no evidence on the long-
Both autologous (lipotransfer) and alloplast (nonani- term success of this modality in the management of
mal, cross-linked hyaluronic acid, NAHA) have been atrophic acne scarring [10].
described to improve the volume underneath atrophic
scars. The technique mandates prior release of the teth-
ered scarring, without which the defect may be exagger- 41.2.4 Isotretinoin Treatment
ated due to volumization surrounding a tethered defect.
Additionally, the technique is prone to the same compli- Exposure to isotretinoic acid within 6 months was often
cations of the volumizing agent. There is some evidence cited a contraindication to treatment with a second
that dermal fillers can be used to impart volume which modality [13], although more recently this view has been
can be useful for soft boxcar or rolling scars [8]. While challenged. Historically, a few case series reported
this produces some improvement of the dermal volume adverse events (development of keloids and hypertro-
to counter the atrophic nature of the scar itself, the phic scars, delayed healing) when patients recently com-
results are dependent on the nature of the dermal filler. pleting isotretinoin treatment received dermabrasion
Injections of cross-linked hyaluronic acid stimulate col- and laser. “Spontaneous” keloids were also described in
lagen formation by dermal fibroblasts and ameliorate patients on isotretinoin. More recently, literature
skin quality [9]. Several studies claim advantages of dif- describes successful treatment of atrophic acne scarring,
ferent fillers, and this is extensively discussed elsewhere including fractional laser and dermabrasion; chemical
[10]. However, the emerging consensus is that dermal peels in patients on isotretinoin challenge the traditional
fillers offer very little on their own in the management of view of withholding treatment for 6–12 months. Rather,
atrophic acne scars and work best as combination ther- these adverse events result from individual variations in
apy. Traditionally, fillers care combined with prior sub- immunologic and inflammatory pathways. Early treat-
cision [8]. The combination of dermal fillers with ment of acne scars is critical for improved quality of life.
high-pressure blast-effect devices is discussed further in The risk/benefit implications of treating the patient early
this section as part of our current regime. need to be considered in the light of informed consent.
41.2.3.2 Dermal and Fat Autografting

Two less common techniques used for correcting volume 41.2.5 State-of-the-Art and Combinatorial
deficit in atrophic acne scarring are dermal grafting and Approaches
fat autografting. They are included for completeness, as
the practitioner may occasionally encounter patients Most of the studies published today attempt to perform
having been on the receiving end of this technique. In head-to-head comparison between different treatment
dermal grafting, harvested dermis is processed and modalities, in the attempt to identify the better option.
implanted into recipient areas. This traditional tech- This is understandable from a cost–benefit perspective
nique’s limitations are that it is limited to atrophic scars due to the prohibitive outlay of some therapeutic modal-
at least 4 mm in diameter; necessitates pocket dissection ities (. Fig. 41.1).
for insetting the graft, which may simultaneously mean Here we concentrate on combinatorial approach
subcision; multiple incisions; and inclusion of epidermis (. Table 41.2) for the more taxing Goodman type 3–4
may lead to inclusions and dermal cysts. acne scars. There is a clear trend in the literature that
41 Lipotransfer involves harvesting, processing, and favors combination treatments, and trends are now
insetting adipose tissue, which then will be needed to starting to emerge about useful synergies especially for
survive by developing a blood supply from surrounding the more severe acne types [2, 14].
tissues. Evidence regarding its use in atrophic acne scar-
ring is controversial. A combination of fat grafting and 41.2.5.1 Fractional Radiofrequency (FRF)
condensed nanofat has been successfully used to treat Fractional radiofrequency (FRF) transmits bipolar cur-
atrophic scars [11]. Other studies claim that this tech- rents through contact electrodes or paired microneedles.
nique may improve atrophic acne scars and texture [12]. This results in controlled, loco-temporal thermal dermal
Azzam et al. claim that fat grafting proved to be more injury, inducing a wound-healing response. Clinically,
effective in the treatment of acne scars than ablative this results in improved texture, tightening, and some
fractional CO2 laser treatment. However, it should be improvement of skin clarity. There is consensus in the
pointed out that this study’s methodology suffered from literature that three to six treatments provide optimal
limited validity. Follow-up was limited to 3 months after effects, ranging from 25% to 75% improvement and
357 41
.. Fig. 41.1 Morphological clas-
sification of post-acne scarring [13]
.. Table 41.2 Proposed combinatorial approach and treatment schedule for treatment of atrophic acne scarring
Treatment Effect Repeats Typical interval duration Typical side effect duration
Bipolar radiofrequency Regeneration 5 45–60 days 5–7 days

Hyaluronic acid/high Dermal revolumization 3 45–60 days 1–2 days
pressure
Fractional CO2 Resurfacing/tightening 1/2 9–12 months 5–7 days
Schedule, temporal interval, and side effect duration are based on expert experience, using calibrated and maintained technology.
Equipment settings vary between different manufacturers and versions
patient satisfaction. Radiofrequency with microneedles (lignocaine/tetracaine cream 70 mg/g). The patient is
(RFM) delivers energy through microneedles (both advised a rigorous regime of UV protection (≥50%) and
insulated/non-insulated). The initial, mechanically emollients to accelerate healing and decrease the risk of
induced microneedle wound-healing response [15] is fol- PIH.
lowed by controlled thermal energy, up to 3.5 mm deep.
This results in focal epidermal ablation, and controlled 41.2.5.2 igh-Pressure Dermal Filler
H
thermal damage to dermis, and, consequently, neocol- Deposition
lagenesis, neoelastogenesis, and ground substance depo- More recently, low-viscosity NAHA dermal fillers have
sition [16]. Clinically, this results in textural amelioration, been employed to replenish volume loss associated to
dermal density, and scar grading, whereas transepider- volume loss. Early studies were performed using micro-
mal water loss and sebum measurements did not change droplet applicators [19]. Even though these limited stud-
[17]. Some hybrid devices achieve this with a mixture of ies did report a beneficial effect, with recent improvements
RF and galvanic energy. Transient posttreatment effects in high pressure, needle-less transdermal delivery sys-
include pain, redness, mild swelling, and some crusting tems have allowed the development of high-pressure
for up to 5 days. Track marks (<6%) and post- transdermal hyaluronic acid delivery. The latter leads to
inflammatory hyperpigmentation (<3%) have been a controlled “blast effect,” releasing tethered scars while
reported. Lesions arising from ice-pick and hypopig- improving delivery of the NAHA to a controlled surface
mented acne scars do not respond optimally to this area and depth. The combined physicochemical blast
treatment modality from a revolumization perspective, deposition effect is purported to be synergistic and pro-
but there may be benefit from resulting skin tightening. motes sustained neocollagenesis [19]. Limited level 4 evi-
Due to the risk of cross-infecting unaffected areas, RFM dence does not allow pooling of data, but consistent
is contraindicated in patients with any areas of active beneficial effects have been reported on difficult-to-treat
acne. anatomical areas and skin types. Patel et al. used jet vol-
Pre- and post-therapeutic regimes are integral to a umetric remodeling (JVR) technology to deliver cross-
positive outcome. Makeup removal, and adequate dry- linked hyaluronic acid, using 40–45% pressure vs. levels
ing of the skin, is essential to avoid short-circuiting and 4–5 filling, and demonstrated a beneficial effect on ice-
epidermal injury. In contrast to other authors [18], we pick and boxcar scars. Although level 4 evidence is based
have achieved acceptability with topical anesthesia only on small case series, remarkable results are reported, on
.. Table 41.3 Evidence summary for JVR on the face and neck, since 2011, in the literature (English language)
Ref. Technique Reported Mean age Follow-up Area Skin types Areas
improvement – reduction (years) (months) (Fitzpatrick) (n)
in Goodman score (%)
[21] JVR/Histo/SP 50 54.7 6 Neck Korean (II–V) 12

[22] JVR/SP 27.6 (face)/21.2 (neck) 53.2 3–18 Face/neck I–IV 34
SP standard photography, JVR jet volumetric remodeling, Histo histological analysis. Search String “Pneumatic AND Hyaluronic”/
limits: English, human since 2010
a cohort of patients which are difficult to manage tech- FX is performed to feather out the troughs and crests of
nically. Benefits include shortened procedure times and the scars. This is typically done at a fixed distance from
minimal downtime for a sustained improvement in the the skin using a spacer. However, the authors prefer to
Goodman score. Murine model histological evidence use a “spray painting” technique, by holding the hand-
supports the notion that the pneumatic injection of piece still further away from the skin, on increased den-
NAHA induces neocollagenesis and dermal thickening sity, resulting in a more efficient and effective resurfacing
[20] (. Table 41.3). (. Table 41.4).
Using this technique, substantial improvement has
41.2.5.3 Laser been demonstrated histologically, and efficacy has been
Laser now enjoys a solid evidence base in acne treat- maintained for up to 3 years. The results appear to be
ment. Traditional ablative laser therapy involved whole- more significant when compared to non-ablative modal-
sale, partial thickness ablation of diseased dermis. While ities, albeit at the cost of increased downtime. It is
this produced impressive results, it was associated with important to advise patients appropriately regarding the
significant and prolonged side effects. In our practice importance of pre- and posttreatment regimes
this has been entirely overtaken by ablative fractional (. Table 41.5).
laser (AFL). Several ablative and non-ablative lasers Non-ablative laser can also be useful in the correc-
have been described for the treatment of acne and which tion of acne scarring. This modality trades off minimal
are well-described elsewhere [10]. downtime, against slower, lower degrees of improve-
In fractional laser, the laser beam is split into multi- ment, compared to ablative laser. Particularly useful is
ple hundred columns, which create noncontiguous zones Erbium glass (1565 nm) fractioned laser which may be
of thermal injury. These microthermal zones result in used to refine dermal texture and contour. In shallow
noncontiguous columns of epidermal and dermal abla- atrophic depressions requiring low energy for adequate
tion, resulting in epidermal regeneration and neocolla- penetration, high density may stimulate neocollagenesis,
genesis. There is consensus in the literature that repeat while the corollary settings on elevations may induce
treatment is necessary, when offered in monotherapy, flattening.
but this may not always be the case when offered as part Picosecond laser may also be used to the same effect
of a regime intended to address the separate aspects of with some distinct advantages. Hyperpigmentation may
atrophic acne scarring pathology. Fractional carbon be effectively treated on collimated beam settings, with
41 dioxide laser addresses both scar elevation and recon- the picosecond duration resulting in light-reduced
touring (. Fig. 41.2). inflammatory response. In fractionated mode, picosec-
The skin stretch test of Goodman et al. [6] ond laser results in light-induced optical breakdown
(. Table 41.1) is a good indicator with which to assess (LIOB) which stimulates gentle neocollagenesis.
the amenability of scars for laser. Scars not correcting
with a simple stretch test indicates that it will likely not
correct with laser therapy but may require prior treat- 41.3 Striae Albae
ment with either punch excision or high-pressure injec-
tion of hyaluronic acid or, in select cases, subcision. Lineae albae present another difficult challenge, espe-
In a first pass, a narrow size scanning pattern is tar- cially in darker-skinned individuals. Myriad treatments
geted at the scar base, with the aim of achieving lift have been described, none entirely satisfactory. Several
(Deep Fx). The second pass targets the edges of sharp- eponymous terms are used interchangeably, but we prefer
edged scar (such as boxcar scars), contouring it to a the one proposed by Nardelli’s “striae atrophicae,” as it
smoother scar edge (Deep Fx). In the third pass, active embodies the current histopathologic understanding [23].
359 41
a b
.. Fig. 41.2 Figure 1a repesents the face before fractional CO2 procedure and b is the patient 6 months later
.. Table 41.4 Suggested typical settings for post-acne AFL protocol
Cycle size Pulses Density (%) Pattern cycle (Hz) Energy (mJ) Aim
1 DFX 2 1 5–10 300 15–20 Base of scar

2 AFX 2 1 9 350 40–60 Flange out Boxcar scars,
Handpiece at 45°
3 DFX 1 15 300 17.5 Tighten surrounda
4 AFX 1 3 125 100– Re surface full face
DFX Deep Fx™, AFX Active FX™

aFor
severe scarring (optional)
Compared to adjacent unaffected skin, striae albae pres-

.. Table 41.5 Suggested pre- and posttreatment considerations
ent histologic evidence of attenuated dermal papillae,
Phase Advice with the latter nearly entirely substituted with collagen
fibers running parallel to the skin.
Pretreatment Trofolastin demonstrates level 2 evidence of positive
All patients Back to “normal shade” with results for their prophylactic use in SD [24]. Tehranchinia
complete loss of holiday tan et al. [25] observed some degree of improvement in 80%
of patients after two treatment sessions within a 4-week
SPF 50+ (every 2 h)
interval. However, 76.7% of patients remained dissatis-
Fitzpatrick 3–6 Initiate Kligman regime from 8 weeks fied. The authors concluded that this modality resulted
pretreatment, stop 2 weeks pre Rx
in minimal improvement with mild side effects. It also is
tretinoin (0.02%); hydroquinone (4%); apparent that Trofolastin’s mode of action is related to
vitamin c (3%); hydrocortisone (1%)a the deposition of hyaluronic activity [26]. Additionally, it
Posttreatment is well established that fractional laser treatments induce
long-term clinical and histological improvement of
All patients Emollients plus SPF 50+ (every 2 h)
mature atrophic scars [26], including increased architec-
Antivirals PO tural reorganization toward normalization, such as col-
Consider antimicrobials as per local lagen structure (from thick surface paralleled hyalinized
protocols (antifungals, antibiotics) bundles to uniform dense interwoven fibers with higher
vascularization), and decreased inflammation. Unlike
aWith particular attention to an airtight container, avoid Taudorf et al., we do not perform stack pulsing. First as
mucosal, periocular, and perioral areas, and avoid pooling in
nasolabial sulcus
unless there is complete immobility, true stacking is
impossible to achieve and, secondly, because stacking

.. Table 41.6 Therapeutic burn phases
does increase risk of excessive thermal damage.
Clinical evidence supports the use of JVR with Phase Typical procedures Aim
NAHA promoting sustained neocollagenesis and
increased dermal depth, while the blast effect untethers Immediate Tracheostomy, Life/limb saving
the underlying scarring of lineae alba [27]. The combi- escharotomy
nation of JVR to non-ablative fractional laser gives, in Early Burn wound Excise dead tissue
our opinion, a substantial improvement over both tech- excision and Reduce evaporative
niques used alone. NAFL then provides an effective tool grafting loss
to address dermal recontouring, by stimulating collagen Intermediate Periorbital, Protect special
synthesis in troughs and the opposite effect in surround- perioral, address senses
ing areas. While effects of individual treatments appear functional gain Improve ROM
deficit arising due
to be long-lasting, we have also observed that one-off
to increasing
treatments are rarely as effective as repeated cycles mobility
spaced 6–8 weeks apart.
Late Incisional/ Address functional
excisional release deficit
Improve range of
41.4 Burn Atrophic Scars movement
Address pain,
Great strides have been registered in acute burn manage- pruritus
ment, resulting in increased burn survival, even with
major and previously unsurvivable burns. As a result
patients are presenting with increased requirements relat-
ing to morbidity and quality of life, arising both from the .. Table 41.7 Wavelengths described from atrophic burn scars
mechanism of injury and subsequent interventions
Wavelength Lasing Modality Effect
required to safe life and limb. Atrophic burn scars form (nm) medium
an important minority of burn scars. Often interspersed
with hypertrophic counterparts, they result in wound 10,600 CO2 Fractioned Lower (×10)
instability and breakdown and contribute to poor cos- water affinity,
metic outcomes. The postoperative course of a burn scar more
coagulation,
is summarized symptomatically in . Table 41.6. less bleeding,
A plethora of lasers have been described in the treat- favorable to
ment of atrophic scars (. Table 41.7), both non-abla- LADD
tive and ablative with an approximate cutoff of 200 nm. 2790 Er, Fractioned More water
Fractional ablation, first described by Mannstein [28], Cr-YSGG affinity,
produces arrays of microscopic thermal damage zones narrower rim
(MTZs) throughout the epidermis and dermis, affecting of thermal
only a part of the surface area, with consequent remod- coagulation
around
eling and neocollagenesis for up to 6 months after treat- MTZs
ment with permanent results [29]. Less energy is required
to achieve the desired depth (≤2 mm) of penetration in 2940 Er: YAG Fractioned
41 atrophic or flat scars, allowing higher fractionated densi- 1540,1550,1565 Er: Glass Fractionated For scars
with a
ties to be used, depending on the device, (≤10%).
thickness
Non-ablative fractional resurfacing (NAFR), in
lower than
contrast, leaves the epidermis intact (ad dermis) whilst 2 mm
forming MTZs. A focused dermal injury instigates der-
mal remodeling and neocollagenesis [28]. The result is a CO2 carbon dioxide, Er YAG erbium-doped yttrium alumi-
bloodless cylindrical coagulation area within dermis. num garnet, Er,Cr-YSGG erbium, chromium-doped yttrium
The clinical advantage is lower risk of infection and pig- scandium-gallium-garnet, LADD laser-assisted drug delivery
ment alteration, as the epidermis is intact.
Post-procedure discomfort after AFR is surpris-
ingly limited. Patients generally return to normal activ- NAFR requires far less downtime, dyschromia, PIH,
ity within 1 day, but downtime may be up to 7 days and with lower analgesia requirements, at the expense of
requires several topical applications which may inter- more treatment sessions being required. In consider-
fere with clothing and social activity. In contrast, ation of these reasons, for flat or atrophic scars, there is
361 41
emerging consensus in the literature that NAFR is the tightness, due to the minimal dermal component of a
treatment of choice [30]. We also suspect that such wide split-thickness skin graft. Our early experience with this
variety of data exists in part from the prohibitive cost technology has produced excellent results when used in
of each technology. Having access to the entire range of tandem with fractional laser, where we have observed
technologies in our center, we favor the use of NAFR synergistic dermal “re-plumping” and substantial
Er:YAG to raise the base of atrophic scars on higher- improvement of skin texture.
density settings.
While the optimal timing of fractional laser therapy
is not yet determined, current trends in the literature 41.5 Conclusion
over the past 5 years favor earlier intervention. Scars of
any age can be considered for fractional resurfacing. In Atrophic scars present a significant challenge to the
practice, the contrast between postoperative regimes reconstructive specialist, with acne, linea albae, and
required by laser and complex burn surgery poses prac- burns being topics worthy of special consideration.
tical limits on how early a laser intervention may be suc- Optimal treatment is not based on superiority of one
cessfully offered. Notwithstanding, younger scars are particular treatment over another but rather by the spe-
more susceptible to remodeling, and some studies now cialist’s ability to precisely identify the component parts
suggest that the ideal timeframe may be as early as of the presenting complaint and bringing his entire
4–12 weeks post-injury, repeated every 1–2 months until armamentarium to bear. We believe, based on experi-
response plateaus or the therapeutic aims are attained ence and balance of current evidence, that combined,
and may help in scar remodeling, reduce contracture repeat treatment produces the best results and that these
rates, and expedite rehabilitation [31]. must be carefully balanced against the relative costs:
physical, social, and economic, in consideration of each
Vascular Laser Lasers targeting abnormal scar prolifera- patient’s individual needs.
tion have the potential to improve scar characteristics. A
number of wavelengths are often used for this purpose,
Take Home Messages
including millisecond range potassium titanyl phosphate
(KTP) 532 nm, pulse dye laser (PDL) 595 nm, and 55 Atrophic scarring is the final common pathway
neodymium:yttrium aluminum garnet (Nd:YAG) resulting from reduced matrix regeneration and
1064 nm. Although the primary target of PDL is hemo- focally reduced collagen production.
globin, its mechanism of action is not fully understood. 55 Addressing patient concerns, expectations, and
After multiple treatments, PDL results in some softening, attitude to risk/benefit is key.
flattening, and smoothening [32]. However, melanin acts 55 Techniques may be considered according to their
as a potential competitor; therefore, conservative settings principal mode of action: resurfacing and
need to be used in darker individuals. tightening, dermal lifting techniques, and dermal
Fractioned picosecond modality laser has the poten- volumization techniques.
tial to produce light-induced optical breakdown, limited 55 Acne scars affect physical, psychological, and
to the dermis, which may stimulate dermal inflamma- social well-being. Involvement of multiprofessional
tion, remodeling, and neocollagenesis. There is still advice is important.
some controversy regarding the timing of appearance 55 In appropriately selected patients, combined
and significance of microscopic epidermal necrotic RFM-JVR-AFL treatment, tailored to individual
debris (MEND). In one such study, this phenomenon needs, is more likely to produce appropriate results.
was noted as early as 3 h (post-pico-532 nm) and within 55 Repeat treatment is likely to be needed.
24 h (both 532 and 1064 nm wavelengths) [6]. 55 Color laser may lead to substantial improvement
Burn reconstruction really starts in the immediate in dyschromias.
postburn period with adequate first aid therapy that
limits the zone of stasis and hyperemia and careful,
multimodality management including judicious debride-
ment and maximal attention to dermal sparing. References
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integral part of this armamentarium. Additionally, our 1. Poetschke J, Gauglitz GG. Current options for the treatment of
pathological scarring. J Dtsch Dermatol Ges. 2016;14(5):467–
recent experience suggests that JVR (NAHA) is a useful
77. https://doi.org/10.1111/ddg.13027. [published Online First:
adjunct in achieving revolumization of selected atrophic 2016/04/28].
burn wound reconstructions. In particular, resurfacing 2. Zaleski-Larsen LA, Fabi SG, McGraw T, et al. Acne scar treat-
with split thickness skin grafts often leads to a honey- ment: a multimodality approach tailored to scar type. Dermatol
combed appearance, reduced elasticity, and a feeling of Surg. 2016;42:S139–S49.
3. Koo J. The psychosocial impact of acne: patients’ perceptions. J 18. Ibrahim O, Munavalli GS, Dover JS. Radiofrequency with
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mental health problems, and social impairment are increased in 19. Halachmi S, Ben DA, Lapidoth M. Treatment of acne scars with
adolescents with acne: a population-based study. J Investig hyaluronic acid: an improved approach. J Drugs Dermatol.
Dermatol. 2011;131(2):363–70. 2013;12(7):e121–3.
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363 42
Specific Attention Areas in Scar

Management: Specific Scar
Management Depending
on Anatomical Features (Face,
Hair, Breast, Hand, Joints, Foot)
Contents
42.1 car Treatment Options for Different Anatomical

S
Localizations – 364
42.1.1 F ace – 364
42.1.2 Hair – 366
42.1.3 Hands – 367
42.1.4 Feet – 368
42.1.5 Joints – 368
References – 370

364 J. Pötschke and G. G. Gauglitz
Background lem around the feet. Scars can lead to deformities of

Scarring can have a variety of different detrimental the toes, too, like mallet, hammer, or claw toes which
effects on the affected patients. While small scars are can lead to progressive joint damage and painful clavus.
often little more than an aesthetically unpleasing In general, scarring around functionally important
blemish, scarring has the potential to drastically affect areas of the body like the hands, feet, and joints can
patients’ lives. cause dire impairments throughout the demands of the
Ultimately, not only the scar type but also the patient’s everyday life. Problematically, if left untreated,
dimension of the affected areas and their location joint damage, a permanent reduction of one’s range of
play a large role regarding the impairments they movement, and thus progressive worsening of the
might cause. patient’s condition long after the initial trauma are
Different aspects come into play when certain potential consequences.
areas of the body are affected by severe scarring, and Therefore, physicians need to make sure that their
they should be taken into consideration when plan- proposed treatment not only improves the scarring but
ning the treatment. that it is also suitable to reduce the risk of secondary
Severe facial scarring causes a multitude of issues. damage.
It is incredibly stigmatizing for affected patients and In this chapter, we aim to provide an overview of
will likely cause significant psychological suffering. therapeutical options for the treatment of scarring in
This oftentimes has detrimental effects on the different anatomical localizations.
patients’ social life leading to isolation and thus fur-
ther psychological problems. Facial scarring can have
a variety of functional impairments, too. It can cause
impaired closure of the eyelids leading to lagophthal-
mos or leading to ectropium or entropium, all of
42.1 car Treatment Options for Different
S
which can endanger the patients’ vision and result in Anatomical Localizations
pain and unease.
Microstomia is another common consequence of 42.1.1 Face
facial scarring, leading to a reduction of the mouth
opening, thus greatly impairing the intake of food When planning treatment for facial scars, physicians
and beverages as well as hindering speech or oral need to take all the aspects of the scarring into consider-
hygiene all the while causing significant discomfort. ation. If functional impairments like impaired opening
On the head, scarring can lead to hair loss or cica- or closure of the eyes and mouth are present, the initia-
tricial alopecia which, while problematic in men, too, tion and success of suitable therapeutic options are
can be downright devastating in women, where hair required more promptly than it would be with merely
loss and baldness remain stigmatizing. aesthetic impairments so that permanent damage
The chest is another aesthetically important area beyond the scarring itself can be avoided.
where scarring can lead to a significant psychosocial If swift therapeutic success is required, surgical inter-
burden, especially in women. vention remains the gold standard. Common indica-
While scarring of the hands can be aesthetically tions for surgical intervention in facial scarring include
unpleasing, too, its most problematic consequence is microstomia, which is often the result of facial burns,
the functional impairment it can cause. Especially in acid attacks, or the ingestion of caustic fluids. It hinders
burn patients, the functional consequences of the sustentation and oral hygiene and impairs speech.
scarring can be so severe that not only the patients’ Techniques for commissuroplasty to widen the oral
opening through the advancement of mucosal flaps
42 ability to work but to maintain their self-reliance
throughout their daily lives is also at risk. Even with after scar excision have been published as early as 1831
immediate physiotherapy and occupational therapy by Dieffenbach and have since been modified and refined
after surgical treatment, functional impairments by Converse in 1959, Friedlander in 1974, and others
often remain and are exacerbated by the incipient (. Fig. 42.1). Often, commissuroplasty is aided postop-
process of scarring thus leading to a lasting need for eratively by splinting to avoid fresh scar contractures.
further treatment. Lagophthalmos is another indication for swift surgi-
Similar problems arise with scarring on the feet. cal intervention. It, too, is often caused by thermal or
Since walking around throughout the day places a chemical injuries. If left untreated, corneal ulcers, infec-
great load on the scars which are often less durable tions, and pain are common ailments associated with
than healthy skin, instable scarring is a common prob- this affliction, and permanent damage to the patient’s
vision is a large risk.
Specific Attention Areas in Scar Management: Specific Scar Management Depending on Anatomical…
365 42
a b
.. Fig. 42.1 A 7-year-old child with severe microstomia due to burn tively b, and 4 weeks after surgery c. As a result of the surgery, the
scarring. Scar revision was performed with bilateral commissuro- teeth are visible again, when the mouth is opened, thus facilitating
plasty (Converse plasty). Images were taken before a, intraopera- dental hygiene
Ensuring sufficient closure of the eye is therefore a laser has proven more effective than its Er:YAG coun-
priority. Consulting an ophthalmologist is important in terpart [1]. Through the radiance of heat into the sur-
determining if surgical intervention is necessary and rounding tissue, the CO2 laser stimulates heat shock
when it is best performed as well as to assess the extent proteins which trigger a cascade of molecular pathways
to which reconstructive surgery is necessary. leading to increased levels of scar remodeling factors
A variety of treatment options exist for the recon- like transforming growth factor beta 3 (TGF-β3) and
struction of the eyelids. Where full-thickness defects matrix metalloproteases. Since treatment with the
that affect both the anterior and posterior lamella of the Er:YAG laser results in almost no heat transfer to the
eyelids can require complex reconstructions based on surrounding tissue, those effects are less pronounced.
local flaps, oftentimes, only the anterior lamella is Widespread hypertrophic scarring as the result of
affected. Here, reconstruction with full-thickness skin burns, scalds, or chemical agents is becoming a frequent
grafts remains the standard (. Fig. 42.2). In lower eye- indication for the use of fractional ablative lasers, too.
lid reconstruction, lateral canthopexy is routinely per- Through its ability to penetrate deep into the scar tissue
formed to avoid sagging of the lateral corner of the eye, to stimulate remodeling within the deep dermis all the
thus leading to ectropion. This technique often results in while being an effective tool for superficial ablation of
good function and cosmesis. the irregular, ropelike and tuberose scars that often
Lasers, too, play a vital role in the treatment of facial result from the aforementioned trauma, the CO2 laser
scarring. Ablative laser treatment has been used for has become an oft-used and reliable tool for facial scar
years to treat atrophic acne scars and has proven reliable revision. While studies have shown significant improve-
and effective. Since the advent of fractional lasers, side ment of scar texture and firmness after just one session
effects and after-treatment downtimes have been reduced [2], commonly, repeated treatments are necessary to
significantly while maintaining a good treatment effi- achieve satisfactory results. Furthermore, the scar
cacy. In the treatment of acne scars, the fractional CO2 remodeling stimulated through the treatment continues
.. Fig. 42.2 A patient with pro-

a c
nounced facial scarring and lag-
ophthalmos after sustaining burn
injuries. Recurring conjunctivitis
and a corneal ulcer led to the
indication for surgical revision of
the lagophthalmos. The scars
were released, and the anterior
lamella of the upper and lower
eyelid were reconstructed using a
full-thickness skin graft from the
upper arm of the patient. Image b
a shows the preoperative site,
while b and c show the postopera-
tive results where full closure of
the eyelids can be achieved
for months so that final results can only be expected skin expanders is necessary to provide the required tis-
after 6–9 months. Thus, while able to loosen contrac- sue. Side effects of this course of treatment are frequent
tures and greatly improve facial scarring, other tools and include expander malfunction, infection, and dehis-
should be chosen where immediate scar relief is required. cence or “breaking” of the skin over the expanders. If
Medical needling is another option that aims to successful, however, the scarred tissue can be excised
improve scarring through percutaneous collagen induc- completely, and permanent hair loss of the scarred areas
tion. It has been shown to significantly improve acne can be revised.
and burn scars in connection with a low-risk profile and If neither local flaps, skin grafting, nor tissue expan-
minimal side effects [3]. Satisfactory scar treatment, sion are an option after scar excision, free-flap recon-
however, often requires multiple sessions, and thus far, struction can be considered. Here, fasciocutaneous flaps
clinical studies have often relied solely on subjective should be considered since the healthy skin architecture
means of evaluation thus leading to a continued demand seems preferable for receiving a hair transplant as
for evidence. opposed to muscle flaps that have been covered with
Ultimately, it seems best to combine different thera- split-thickness skin grafts. After successful reconstruc-
peutic paths. While surgical intervention is paramount tion and consolidation, fasciocutaneous flaps can easily
for the treatment of severe functional impairments, it is be thinned to provide a natural contour and integrate
rarely able to improve pliability and texture of scars thus well into the surrounding tissue, and consequently, hair
normalizing the look and feel of scarred skin. Here, the transplantation can be attempted to restore a natural
combination of surgical intervention with fractional appearance. Hair transplantation can also be performed
ablative laser treatment might provide a more holistic on scars or skin grafts; however, this will require both
approach to the treatment of severe facial scarring sufficient thickness of the subcutaneous tissue and ade-
resulting in improved overall results and lasting patient quate tissue perfusion so that the hair grafts are likely to
comfort and satisfaction. take.
Hair transplantation is the standard therapy for alo-
pecia of the eyebrows or eyelashes, too. While surgical
42 42.1.2 Hair techniques for reconstruction of the eyebrows are avail-
able, too, local flaps or composite grafts from the scalp
Scarring in areas of hairy skin will often result in hair will look different than natural eyebrows. Furthermore,
loss. This is particularly problematic in widespread scar- in composite grafts, less so in pedicled flaps, the risk of
ring. While small scars can easily be excised even on the reduced perfusion might lead to renewed hair loss, thus
immobile parts of the scalp, larger scars resulting in pro- compromising results. Overall, for this indication, hair
nounced hair loss are often difficult to treat. transplantation might lead to more natural results.
On the scalp, the scarred, hairless tissue is excised If hair transplantation is considered, patients should
and replaced by healthy surrounding skin. Ideally, local be aware that multiple sessions are required to achieve a
flaps from the scalp can cover the wound defect after satisfactory hair density. Furthermore, it is paramount
excision; sometimes though, pre-expansion through that sufficient donor sites are available [4].
367 42
42.1.3 Hands for the affected web spaces are prescribed for overnight
use for a year after surgery.
Normalizing function in scarred hands is paramount to Volar flexion contractures are often treated through
avoid lasting impairments. Scarring of the hands is com- multiple Z-pasties, thus lengthening the scar and resolv-
mon in burns and scalds and often leads to widespread ing the contracture.
scarring, either through the trauma itself or through the Especially in widespread dorsal contractures, treat-
resultant surgical treatment and skin grafting. ment remains difficult. Ensuring full closure of the fist is
Oftentimes such scarring will lead to contractures of the central to ensure good hand function; however, scarring
web spaces, thus greatly affecting thumb or finger abduc- is often rigid and restrictive.
tion and diminishing grip strength. Closure of the fist is To ameliorate these impairments, different tech-
commonly impaired, too, as contractures of the dorsum niques should be considered. One option is to replace
of the hand and fingers inhibit full flexion. the scarred tissue. After scar resection, full-thickness
Such problems are often addressed surgically to skin grafts or dermal substitutes like Integra® in combi-
allow for swift improvement of the functional impair- nation with split-thickness skin grafts can be used to cre-
ments and to allow for early mobilization through phys- ate a thicker, more flexible, and pliable skin in commonly
iotherapy and occupational therapy. stressed areas like the dorsum of the hand. Studies have
Loosening of contractures of the web spaces has shown that this might lead to improved pliability and
been described through many different techniques such functional results, both in acute and secondary burn
as single or multiple Z-plasty, butterfly, or jumping man reconstruction [5]. This, however, requires adequate cov-
flaps as described by Shaw or Trident flap plasty accord- erage of functional structures like neurovascular bun-
ing to Glicenstein or Hirshowitz (. Fig. 42.3). Many dles or tendons so that the grafts will take reliably.
other techniques have been described as well, but their Otherwise, local or more likely free-flap coverage will be
common goal is to loosen the contracted linear scar and required. That course of action will, however, likely lead
deepen the affected web space. to multiple surgical revisions as flaps are often bulky and
It is important when planning web space scar revi- require subsequent thinning and contouring.
sion that adjacent web spaces are never treated at the Laser therapy should be considered when improv-
same time, to avoid perfusion problems to the finger in ing the skin quality and rigidity is required. Fractional
between, should one of the neurovascular bundles get ablative CO2 laser treatment has proven effective in
damaged during surgery. Therefore, when planning to releasing contractures and improving scar firmness,
operate on multiple web spaces on one hand, pairings of and different authors have described swift improve-
web space 1 and 3, 2 and 4, or 1 and 4 are possible, while ments in range of motion and scar quality in patients
other combinations should be avoided. with burned hands [6, 7].
Postoperative regimens vary, but commonly, load- After scar revision on the hands, dedicated hand
free assisted exercising can be started shortly after sur- therapy is imperative to achieve lasting improvements
gery. Ideally, compression gloves with silicone spreaders regarding hand function and strength. After severe
a b c
.. Fig. 42.3 A patient with severe impairment of the abduction of the first web space and serial Z-plasty along the radial side of the
the thumb following burn injuries to the right hand with consecutive index finger b, abduction of the thumb is drastically improved c
scarring of the first web space a. After double opposing Z-plasty in
trauma and scarring, patients often require months of as a primary therapy option in mild to moderate cases
therapy to reach satisfactory results and to enable self- where its capabilities to loosen contractures and to
reliance throughout their daily lives. soften the scarred skin might yield promising results or
The ideal time for scar revision should be carefully at least ease subsequent surgery.
weighed, too. Especially in the pediatric patient popula- Complications of surgery around the foot include
tion, where scar contractures might inhibit physical and hyperkeratosis, which is especially common around
functional development, timely intervention is indicated the load-bearing areas like the heel or the ball of the
to avoid lasting damages that can be hard or even impos- foot, where scarring can often result in this cumber-
sible to reverse. some problem, which is associated with significant
In general, if possible, the conservative treatment of pain, thus hindering walking and resulting in severe
scarring through compression gloves, silicone finger discomfort. Authors have noted that hyperkeratosis
spreaders, and hand-therapy should be exhausted, espe- oftentimes forms protectively around a scarred area to
cially throughout the phase of scar maturation to avoid minimize pressure on said area. Especially early on
unnecessary surgery or even exacerbation of the scar- during the wound healing phase after local or free
ring through stimulation of the scarring process. flaps to the heel or the sole of the foot, hyperkeratosis
can often hinder the healing process by overgrowing
the wound margins and thus inhibiting complete
42.1.4 Feet fusion of the wound margins. Therefore, after surgical
treatment of the foot, medical foot care presents an
Severe scarring of the feet can lead to a variety of prob- important adjunct, not only to ensure patient comfort
lems for the affected patients. Common causes of scar- but also to facilitate wound healing and to minimize
ring located on the feet include burns and scalds but also complications.
complex physical trauma. As with treating scarred hands, surgical or laser-
Oftentimes such injuries cause contractures of the based interventions should always go along with conser-
toes that will lead to painful malposition and toe defor- vative means like compression garments, scar massages,
mities that can greatly impair walking. and physiotherapy to optimize treatment results. This
Unstable scarring around the feet is a frequent prob- should be continued until the scar activity has subsided.
lem, too, and chronic wounds and tears open under the
daily stress those scars are exposed to.
These common problems results in a high urgency 42.1.5 Joints
for scar therapy regarding the feet. The goal is to pro-
vide stable skin that is flexible and resistant to the daily Scarring over joints can be particularly cumbersome to
strain the feet are exposed to. deal with. The constant tension that the healing tissue is
Scars resulting from burns or scalds are commonly exposed through the movement of the respective limb
located on the dorsum of the foot, and resultant contrac- will encourage scar hypertrophy after trauma but also
tures of the toes can often be released through excision after scar revision. This should be taken into
and Z-plasty or other local flaps, not unlike contractures consideration when planning the treatment of scars that
on the dorsum of the hand. Similarly, though, more run over joints.
severe scarring or unstable scars might require excision Plenty of treatment options are available, but ideally,
of larger scarred areas and then skin grafts or a combi- a combination is chosen to avoid recidivism of problem-
nation of a dermal substitute (like Integra® or atic scarring.
Matriderm®) and skin grafts. Full-thickness scars that Linear hypertrophic scarring can be released through
require excision onto the extensor tendons might even Z-plasty or other comparable techniques relying on
require free flaps for successful defect reconstruction. local flaps. While hypertrophic scars commonly show a
42 Severely contracted joints might require capsulot- great tendency for regress without treatment after an ini-
omy for release, and sometimes, temporary Kirschner tial phase of growth activity and a consecutive constant
wire transfixation is indicated to achieve lasting rehabili- phase so that invasive treatments are not considered a
tation of the affected joints [8]. first-line treatment option, an exception can be made if
The data on laser treatment for severe scarring of the hypertrophic scars are under constant tension.
feet is scarce. In light of the capabilities of fractional As this stress can be considered a major cause of
ablative lasers, however, it seems prudent to consider the scar hypertrophy, resolving it through surgery or
this line of therapy as an adjunct in more severe cases or fractional ablative laser treatment can result in
369 42
s ubsiding hypertrophy and symptoms thus constitut- over several weeks so that the scar can then be excised
ing a causal therapy. with the expanded skin now covering the defect.
Supportive measures that should be considered to However, such treatment is often difficult because of
avoid renewed hypertrophy include intralesional triam- expander malfunction and infections. Other options
cinolone acetonide or 5-fluorouracil injections, silicone include free-flap reconstruction after scar excision, fol-
gel or sheets, and pressure therapy. lowed by hair transplantation. Especially in hair loss of
Widespread scarring can be treated through serial the eyebrows and lashes, hair transplantation remains
excision. Here, the scar is excised in two to three con- the gold standard, and achieving a near natural result
secutive operations every 3–4 months. This allows the in the hands of an experienced surgeon is often possi-
remaining skin to stretch thus facilitating complete ble. Scarring of the hands can result in the loss of self-
scar removal that would not have been possible in one reliance in affected patients. Oftentimes, the web spaces
single step. To avoid stretching of the scar, wound clo- are contracted thus limiting abduction of the thumb or
sure should be performed in a layered fashion. The spreading of the fingers. This can be addressed through
subcutaneous and corium sutures should provide large deepening of the web spaces, for example, through dou-
tensile strength that remains over an extended period. ble opposing Z-plasty. Afterward, compression gloves
Many studies, most recently by Gupta et al., have with silicone spreaders are fitted to ensure permanence
shown that superior scar appearance results can be of the achieved results and to inhibit renewed contrac-
achieved by using intradermal polydioxanone (PDS) tures. If contractures on the dorsum of the hand inhibit
sutures when compared to polyglactin 910 (Vicryl) closure of the fist, complex reconstructions can become
sutures [9]. necessary if larger areas of scarred tissues need to be
Alternatively like in other problematic areas, frac- replaced. Laser treatment can assist in improving scar
tional ablative lasers have shown great potential to ame- quality. Overall, a combination of treatment options
liorate scar contractures and should be considered a should be considered. Physiotherapy and occupational
treatment option and be discussed with patients [10]. therapy as well as compression garment therapy should
Successful treatment, however, will likely require be included into the treatment algorithm to improve
repeated treatment sessions. functional results and to inhibit renewed pathological
scarring. On the feet, scars often lead to toe deformities
which impair walking and make wearing regular shoes
42.2 Conclusion uncomfortable or impossible. Here, surgical interven-
tion is indicated. Since the feet are exposed to a lot of
When treating pathological scarring, taking the ana- strain throughout the day, scars are often unstable and
tomic location of the scar into account is imperative repeatedly crack and tear, leading to chronic wounds
when choosing the right form of treatment. and strong patient discomfort. Here, excision and skin
Facial scarring can be extremely disfiguring and replacement through skin grafts, often together with
beyond the aesthetic implications often results in severe dermal substitutes or even free flap reconstruction, can
functional impairments like microstomia and lagoph- become necessary.
thalmos, among others. Treatment should be initiated Overall, it is important to remember that scarring is
quickly to avoid secondary damage to the affected a multifaceted problem. Through their firmness and
organs. Commonly, surgical intervention remains the contraction, they cause functional problems, their irreg-
gold standard. Contractures are loosened through local ular appearance and color can be aesthetically displeas-
flaps (e.g., Z-plasty), and skin defects after scar excision ing, and all of these effects can put an enormous strain
can be treated through split- or full-thickness skin on the quality of life of the affected patients. Treating
grafting. Fractional laser treatment as an adjunct has such scarring, especially in exposed areas or where func-
become an important factor in improving facial scar- tion is greatly impaired, should therefore address the
ring as they are able to improve scar firmness and complexity of this problem. This is oftentimes only pos-
smoothen their irregular surface. Similar effects are sible by combining surgical, laser-based, and conserva-
sought through the use of medical needling, though tive treatment paradigms into an individual treatment
objective clinical data on its efficacy are largely lacking. plan for the affected patients. This ensures not only
Alopecia is a problem when scars affect the scalp. Often, immediate but also long-term improvements and inhib-
the healthy skin is expanded through skin expanders its renewed scarring.
Take-Home Messages
References
55 Common functional impairments after scarring of
the face include microstomia and lagophthalmos 1. Reinholz M, Schwaiger H, Heppt MV, Poetschke J, Tietze J,
that require swift surgical attention to avoid sec- Epple A, et al. Comparison of two kinds of lasers in the treat-
ondary damage to the affected organs. ment of acne scars. Facial Plast Surg. 2015;31(5):523–31.
2. Poetschke J, Dornseifer U, Clementoni MT, Reinholz M,
55 While surgery remains the standard for severe Schwaiger H, Steckmeier S, et al. Ultrapulsed fractional ablative
functionally impairing scars of the face, fractional carbon dioxide laser treatment of hypertrophic burn scars: eval-
lasers have become a staple in improving scar uation of an in-patient controlled, standardized treatment
firmness and surface irregularities and should be approach. Lasers Med Sci. 2017;32(5):1031–40.
used in combination with surgery to improve 3. Aust MC, Knobloch K, Reimers K, Redeker J, Ipaktchi R,
Altintas MA, et al. Percutaneous collagen induction therapy: an
overall results. alternative treatment for burn scars. Burns. 2010;36(6):836–43.
55 Hair loss in scarred areas can be addressed in a 4. Farjo B, Farjo N, Williams G. Hair transplantation in burn scar
variety of ways. Expanding healthy, surrounding alopecia. Scars Burns Heal. 2015;1:2059513115607764.
tissue can help create enough tissue so that the scar 5. Cuadra A, Correa G, Roa R, Pineros JL, Norambuena H, Searle
can be excised in its entirety and the resultant S, et al. Functional results of burned hands treated with
Integra(R). J Plast Reconstr Aesthet Surg. 2012;65(2):228–34.
defect can be covered with the expanded skin. 6. Krakowski AC, Goldenberg A, Eichenfield LF, Murray JP,
55 If this is not possible, the scarred tissue can be Shumaker PR. Ablative fractional laser resurfacing helps treat
replaced by fasciocutaneous free flaps, and these restrictive pediatric scar contractures. Pediatrics.
flaps can then be contoured afterward and receive 2014;134(6):e1700–5.
hair transplants. 7. Sorkin M, Cholok D, Levi B. Scar management of the burned
hand. Hand Clin. 2017;33(2):305–15.
55 Hair transplants are the gold standard for hair loss 8. Chang JB, Kung TA, Levi B, Irwin T, Kadakia A, Cederna
of the eyebrows and eyelashes. PS. Surgical management of burn flexion and extension contrac-
55 Improving function in scarred hands is imperative tures of the toes. J Burn Care Res. 2014;35(1):93–101.
to maintain self-reliance in affected patients. 9. Gupta D, Sharma U, Chauhan S, Sahu SA. Improved outcomes
Contractures of the web spaces can easily be of scar revision with the use of polydioxanone suture in com-
parison to polyglactin 910: a randomized controlled trial. J Plast
treated through local flaps to deepen the web Reconstr Aesthet Surg. 2018;71(8):1159–63.
space, and results are commonly good when 10. Willows BM, Ilyas M, Sharma A. Laser in the management of
assisted by compression garment therapy burn scars. Burns. 2017;43(7):1379–89.
afterward.
55 Scarring of the feet can be severely impairing for
affected patients. Contractures that result in toe
malposition or deformities should be addressed to
ensure that the patients can walk and wear shoes
comfortably.
42
371 43
Management of Scars in Skin

of Color
Huidi Tchero
Contents
43.2 How Scars Evolve Differently in Skin of Color? – 372
43.3 Management of Scars in the Skin of Color – 373

43.3.1 onsurgical – 373
N
43.3.2 Surgical – 375
43.3.3 Response Rates and Side Effects in Skin of Color – 376
43.3.4 Recurrence Rate – 376
43.4 Management of Scars in Asian Skin – 376
References – 377

372 H. Tchero
43.1 Background able. In Hispanics, African-Americans, and Asians,

keloids develop in up to 6–16% of those populations. The
Scars are a normal process of dermal healing following tendency for keloid expansion was also observed in
laceration, skin incision, or tissue loss. Frequently, they patients suffering from dermatological diseases which
are associated with burns, penetrating wounds, or surgi- lead to a protracted inflammatory reaction [1].
cal cuts. Morphologically, they appear erythematous The presentation of keloid and hypertrophic scars
and firm with elevated fibrous masses that are evolving can vary in patients with skin of color. Scars can be
within the margins of the wound and might revert later. hyperpigmented or very large in patients with darker
They can cause cosmetic disfigurement, functional skin. Although keloid and hypertrophic scars appear
impairment, and psychological negative outcomes, usually within 1 year after trauma or surgery, few cases
affecting the patients’ quality of life. These patients of people with skin of color who developed spontane-
often seek medical advice to recover the color, texture, ous keloid scars were reported within the literature as
pliability, and relief of the associated pain [1]. In this well.
chapter, we discussed how scars evolve differently in the Under the microscope, keloids appear as a twirling
skin of color, explored the available treatment modali- nodular arrangement of collagen fibers, characteristi-
ties, and recommended planned treatment modalities in cally with hyalinized, coarsened collagen bundles.
keloid management based on the published evidence. Moreover, they have an acellular collagen center with
adjoining hyper-proliferative fibroblasts. Their center
covers dense fibers of immature collagen that are feebly
43.2 How Scars Evolve Differently in Skin supplied by blood vessels without lymphatic or elastin.
of Color? Several mechanisms have been hypothesized for the
development of keloids, for example, deviant collagen
Injury to the tissue could significantly produce inflam- production, abnormal growth factor regulation, and
mation, which is in turn associated with infiltration of genetic vulnerability. Elevated levels of transforming
neutrophils, monocytes, and macrophages, and release growth factor beta (TGF-β) are suggested to be involved
of pro-inflammatory cytokines, which induce fibroblast in keloid development; nonetheless, several other media-
migration and proliferation, resulting in disproportion- tors are tending to be elaborated. Still, there is a lack of
ate extracellular matrix (ECM) deposition besides colla- confirmed hypothesis that could elucidate keloid patho-
gen accumulation [2]. This process is exaggerated when it genesis. Immune cells were also suggested to be involved
affects the deep dermis, which would be complicated by in keloid scar formation.
the formation of a permanent scar. The scope of scar Inherited genes increase predisposition for keloid tis-
types varies from atrophic, flat, to raised dermal scars [3]. sue development; however, still, exact genes involved
The pathogenesis of hypertrophic scars might be have not been acknowledged. Remarkably, keloid is
returned to atypical ECM metabolism following an odd exclusive to humans, and the animal model of keloid
and exaggerated fibroblastic stimulation. Histologically, scars is absent. A large Japanese genome-wide associa-
it exhibits organized overexpression of types I and III tion study (GWAS) discovered four single-nucleotide
collagen, deposition of fibronectin, and overexpression polymorphisms (SNPs) in three chromosomal segments
of pro-inflammatory interleukins (IL), such as IL-4, in patients with keloid scars. These SNPs include
IL-6, IL-13, and IL-21, as well as downregulation of rs8032158, situated in intron 5 of chromosome 15 that
IL-12 and interferon (IFN)-γ expression [2]. The inci- downregulates NEDD4 gene, which chiefly affects
dence of hypertrophic scars associated with a burn is up keloid severity. A study of admixture mapping recog-
to 78%. The risk factor for hypertrophic scar includes nized potentially mutual genetic regions between a
dark skin, neck or upper limb age (younger), site, female group of Black, Chinese, and Japanese patients on chro-
gender, healing time, the severity of the injury, and the mosome 15q21.2–22.3, within which NEDD4 inhabits.
increase in a number of operations. In analogous studies among relatives, one on chro-
Keloids are different from hypertrophic scars in a mosome 2q23 and the other on chromosome 7p11 were
43 variety of ways: they propagate outside the margins of recognized in Japanese patients and African-American
the wound zone and invade the adjacent skin with no patients, respectively. Notwithstanding evidence of
regression, conversely to hypertrophic scars that develop familial keloid formation, there was a changeability in
within the edges of the original wound and frequently phenotypic presentations and scar severity between
regress in months. Keloids are a common fibro- families; hence, polygenic inheritance pattern is mostly
proliferative disorder that could happen due to abnormal included in keloid inheritance [4].
healing process succeeding cutaneous injury. Keloids Although there are no clear evidence regarding the
could evolve in any race; however, persons with more pig- influence of inherited genes on the higher frequency or
mented color (Fitzpatrick IV, V, and VI) are more vulner- severity of scar among patients with skin of color, it was
Management of Scars in Skin of Color
373 43
previously observed that the ethnicity of families with universally demarcated as the standard. Presently, the
multiple affected members is mainly African-American treatments used have at best inadequate or indefinite
and Indian. Variations in the age of onset, severity of effectiveness, with possible adverse drug reactions.
the scars, and response to treatment in the same ethnic Furthermore, many of these treatments require long
group may highlight the role of multiple gene mutations treatment durations, might worsen the lesions, or could
in the pathogenesis of the scar. Nevertheless, the pattern not prevent recurrence [3]. Multiple treatments for
of gene involvements in scar pathogenesis is an area of keloid, with varying efficacies, have been stated to date.
further research. Traditionally, a number of treatment regimens, for
example, cryotherapy, interferon, and verapamil, have
been applied for treating keloid, with unreliable success
43.3 anagement of Scars in the Skin
M levels. Though, more novel treatments such as intrale-
of Color sional steroid injections, imiquimod, silicone gel, radio-
therapy, lasers, electrical stimulation (ES), bleomycin,
The prevention of scars can be achieved by proper clean- 5-fluorouracil (FU), surgery, and photodynamic therapy
ing and debridement of wounds, avoidance of unneces- (PDT) have also been tested, not all have revealed effi-
sary invasive procedures in high-risk population, and cacy in ethnic pigmented skin. These treatment modali-
prophylactic measure. Modalities that prevent wound ties were reviewed in detail (. Fig. 43.1). However, due
stretch – such as silicone gel sheets or tapes – and intra- to the lack of studies on ethnic skin, some included
lesional corticosteroids exhibited promising results inn studies presented data on pigmented, as well as nonpig-
scars prevention; however, the evidence is still weak. mented keloid skin.
To identify the most suitable management strategy, a
thorough clinical examination should be done. This
assessment must contain a full medical history, a detailed 43.3.1 Nonsurgical
keloid scar history, any family history of keloids, and a
psychosocial assessment. Moreover, a detailed examina- 43.3.1.1 Intralesional Steroid Injections
tion should be conducted, including location, color, Intralesional injection of corticosteroid (alone or with
contour, size, pliability, and symptoms, i.e., pain and other agents) is one of the commonest treatment meth-
itching. Keloid is an untreatable disease, but nonethe- ods for hypertrophic scars and keloids. They are injected
less, physicians might be able to manage the manifesta- each 4–6 weeks as insoluble triamcinolone acetonide
tions of keloid, counting reducing scar size and redness (0–40 mg/mL) until pain, scar, and pruritis subside. The
and mitigating inflammation; this might reduce the response of patients to the treatment ranges from 50%
recurrence rate of such lesions and may even yield com- to 100%, while the recurrence rate ranges from 9% to
plete extinction of lesions. Deterrence of signs and 50%. However, 63% presents with complications like
symptoms’ exacerbation and impediment of recurrence localized ulceration, dermal atrophy, and telangiectasia
after therapy are the main treatment goals of keloids. or hypopigmentation. Noteworthy, pain might be man-
Clinically, it is challenging to forecast if a scar will aged through applying a local anesthetic. Corticosteroids
progress into either a hypertrophic scar or keloid. alone represent the most efficient for young keloids,
Increasing skin tension in specific locations and orienta- while older keloids are further resistant [2].
tions while closing the wound and the existence of infec-
tions and foreign bodies may amplify the chance of 43.3.1.2 Silicone Gel/Sheet
keloid development. The more susceptible sites on the Using silicone gel/sheets is assumed to diminish mobil-
body for keloids include the earlobes, mandibular angle, ity and decrease the scar tension. How silicone gel works
posterior neck, shoulders, upper arms, upper back, and is uncertain; however, it may serve as an impermeable
anterior chest. Bleeding, ulcerative, or firmly attached membrane to preserve hydration of the skin. A former
scars should undergo histopathologic investigation as a RCT with 21 patients compared silicone gel with no
differential diagnosis of keloids. The possible differential therapy. Gold et al. found a reduction in hypertrophic
lesions might be keloidal scleroderma, scar sarcoidosis, scarring and keloid incidence following silicone gel use.
dermatofibroma, dermatofibrosarcoma protuberans, However, the limitations of this trial were short follow-
morphoeic basal cell carcinoma, and metastatic skin up period (only 12 weeks), and the blinding and tech-
nodules. niques of randomization were not stated.
Several therapeutic modalities are used in the man- In another RCT by De Oliveira and colleagues, 26
agement of keloid; though, due to unknown resolution patients suffering from keloids or hypertrophic scars
rates and high recurrence rates, it is challenging to sup- had a mixture of silicone gel sheeting and non-silicone
port any specific therapy. While several strategies exist, gel sheeting, while the control group received no treat-
owing to the absence of level I evidence, none of them is ment. They found no statistically significant difference
374 H. Tchero
.. Fig. 43.1 Treatment modali-

ties for a scar in colored skin
in the symptoms or size of scar by taking any of the ent races. Using radiotherapy as an adjuvant has
treatments; however, both scar types were combined in revealed good scar resolution rates from 67% up to 98%.
their analysis, and the follow-up period was <6 months. Yet, the retrospective study design, different follow-up
These findings were in parallel with the results of intervals, and lacking universal clinical evaluation have
O’Brien and Pandit study that was carried out among 13 weakened this success rate.
trials including 559 subjects, observing the efficacy of
silicone gel in the management of abnormal scarring in 43.3.1.4 Photodynamic Therapy (PDT)
vulnerable groups. These studies collectively highlighted The cytotoxic effects of PDT (with methyl-amino levu-
the demand for further controlled trials to approve the linate and amino levulinic acid) were investigated in dif-
safety and efficacy of silicone gel sheeting. ferent keloid lesional sites. One study concluded that the
success of PDT depends on the photosensitizer precursor,
43.3.1.3 Radiotherapy the location, and the number of fibroblasts at the lesion
Radiotherapy is preferred in elder adults who failed to site. A beneficial effect of topical application of methyl-
respond to other treatments. It is used only in elderly amino levulinate PDT was initially observed in a patient
patients because of the theoretical risk, however, there is with resistant keloid. There is a case series with 20 keloid
a low risk of carcinogenesis. In resistant keloids, we patients who were examined for the effect of PDT. The
could use ionizing radiation with intralesional excision. results showed that PDT reduced pain and pruritus
It acts via inhibiting collagen synthesis and inducing scores, reduced flow of blood, improved pliability and
apoptosis of proliferating cells, which might rebuild a reduced levels of collagen in keloid, and resulted in a
balance between keloid degeneration and collagen syn- decrease of volume of keloid without recurrence over the
thesis. It is given in doses of 15–30 Gy, ranging from 3 to follow-up period (9 months) [5]. These findings direct
40 Gy among the studies, along six periods with accu- potential utility of PDT in the management of keloid and
rate dosimetry and proper protection in the postopera- necessitate a further high-quality clinical trial to confirm
tive duration [2]. the safety and efficacy of photodynamic therapy.
43 Doornbos et al. retrospectively analyzed 203 patients
with keloid lesions using radiotherapy postsurgical exci- 43.3.1.5 Electrical Stimulation
sion. They elucidated the correlation between dose and Electrical stimulation (ES) was investigated in relieving
response, with bigger doses decreasing the recurrence the keloid symptoms, such as pruritis and pain. Lately,
rate more efficiently. Conversely, Klumpar et al. found a new in vitro system examined the efficacy of various
no significant dose–response correlation. Moreover, ES types on collagen expression in keloid fibroblasts
some investigators as Ragoowansi et al. and Maarouf and revealed that ES could inhibit formation of colla-
et al. have supported the use of immediate postoperative gen I in keloid. Two case series confirmed the efficacy
radiotherapy [3]. Large-scale clinical trials are required of degraded wave ES in few patients with painful
to investigate a dose–response correlation among differ- keloids, and the regimen exhibited significant amelio-
375 43
ration of the symptoms [6]. Moreover, Sebastian and ing recurrence, although it has the potential for unfortu-
colleagues investigated the efficacy of PDT with and nate compliance because it is dependent on its continuous
without ES and reported that the excitation improved application by the patient [1].
the cytotoxic effects of PDT. Large-scale studies are
needed to confirm the effectiveness of PDT-ES combi- 43.3.2.2 Cryosurgery
nation therapy. Smaller keloid lesions have been treated by cryosurgery;
however, substantial pain and occasionally prolonged
healing times posttreatment limit its usage. The hypoth-
43.3.2 Surgical esized mechanism of action is through ischemic damage
that results in cellular anoxia producing necrosis of tis-
Surgery is needed in patients with hypertrophic scars sue. Furthermore, it modifies collagen synthesis and
with contractures, particularly when affecting joints that stimulates differentiation of keloid fibroblast near nor-
result in function loss. Hypertrophic scars may impede mal phenotype, thereby reducing keloid scar size [8].
movement when they do abnormal forces on adjacent Intralesional cryosurgery is a technique advanced
tissues or cross the joints. The elbow, knee, and shoulder from simple cryosurgery, which was first announced, by
are most commonly affected joints by contractures fol- Shepard and Dawber. A simple cryosurgery, including
lowing burn injury. Surgery must be approached with pray technique or liquid nitrogen contact, etc., might
caution as surgical scars may themselves increase the produce vascular injury causing necrosis of tissue,
risk of keloid in pigmented skin. Recent studies showed anoxia, sloughing, and consequently scar flattening.
no difference between surgical cutting modalities in This procedure could take two to ten treatment sessions
terms of scar characteristics [7]. with an interval of 20–30 days between each session.
Surgical excision of keloids must be executed with The success rate was reported ranging from 32% to 74%
substantial precaution, owing to the high recurrence following two or more therapies, with superior response
risk. Excision could result in a bigger lesion and rates among hypertrophic scars over keloids. There are
increased possibility of recurrence. The link between complications such as pain and immediate blistering
scarring and mechanical stress scarring is due to keloid with long-term risk of dermal atrophy that could be
scars occurring primarily in sites of excessive stress and hyper- or hypopigmented. Conversely, intralesional
mobility, for example, the shoulder, scapular region, and cryosurgery includes introducing a recent intralesional
sternum. Therefore, it has been encouraged that cases cryoneedle (Cryoshape™) inside the scar over the long
subjected to surgery in these specific locations must have axis. This probe is formed of an elongated uninsulated
a long time of local skin support and splintage. needle having double lumen with a safety vent and a
sealed, cutting, distal tip prepared to augment the pen-
43.3.2.1 urgical Excision and Adjuvant
S etration of firm, dense scar. The probe proximal end is
Therapy linked with liquid nitrogen that is pressurized to circu-
The essential method in keloid treatment is surgical late within the needle that results in an ice ball forming
removal and primary closure, then injection of local ste- around the cryoneedle leaving the adjoining scar tissue
roid. Initial surgical excision followed by postoperative totally frozen, thus resulting in an apparently normal
injection of steroid and silicone sheeting showed a 15% collagen regarding its structure and organization with a
recurrence rate. Other modalities, for example, wearing decrease in myofibroblasts and mast cells in the scar.
a body corset or supportive bra, can furthermore This technique was first described in 1993 by Weshahy
decrease the risk of keloid in the mid-sternal region or and later popularized by Har-Shai et al. and has revealed
upper trunk. Precautions to be considered while per- superior efficacy over simple cryosurgery, with a reported
forming the first keloid surgery include not putting ten- clinical effect ranging from 20% to 75% reduction in the
sion on the adjacent skin while closing the lesion. All scar volume. The main complications are peritreatment
possible causes of residual inflammation, i.e., entrapped edema and epidermolysis, temporary hypopigmenta-
hair follicles or dermal sinus tracts, should be excised to tion, and pain (while this pain is lower than simple cryo-
avoid recurrence. In case of large-sized keloid, serial therapy). The main advantage of intralesional over
excision would be well thought out to diminish skin ten- simple cryotherapy was melanocyte sparing feature that
sion. The injection of corticosteroid may be performed accounts for a lower incidence of dyschromia as the
with surgery, then once every month for about temperature of skin surface is less influenced in intrale-
4–6 months. Surgeons should avoid local Z-plasties, sional cryotherapy [2].
W-plasties, and skin flaps beyond the defect to avert A hospital-based clinical trial was performed on 30
recurrence of bigger keloid. Of note, the use of silicone patients with keloid using cryotherapy. The findings
as a prophylactic method has so far been recommended demonstrated that cryosurgery was an essential treat-
in many studies except for Niessen et al.’s study. Topical ment regimen for recent keloid, chiefly in smaller lesions.
steroid tape has also exhibited effectiveness in prevent- Also, they found that both thicknesses and duration of
376 H. Tchero
keloid were the main agents in defining treatment out- (silicone gel and silicone gel sheets) based on their easy
come by cryosurgery. These findings were supported by administration and strong supporting evidence. Several
Tziotzios and colleagues who recommended cryosurgery second-line therapies were recommended in case of fail-
for reduction of scar size. Recently, a case study investi- ure of the first-line treatment, including intralesional
gated the efficacy of cryosurgery plus surgical excision steroid or 5-flourouracil injections, as well as radiother-
combination in 12 participants with keloid after apy. Despite lack of strong evidence, laser treatments
12 months. They demonstrated that shaving linked to have been increasingly accepted in these patients; how-
cryosurgery was beneficial in the management of bulky ever, further studies are needed to confirm its efficacy
keloid lesions because all cases showed improvement and determine the optimal wavelength and amount of
signs. Yet, it is arduous to follow this treatment modality energy required. Surgery is generally considered a last
owing to the small sample size [3]. resort in resistant keloids. It can be combined with
radiotherapy “sandwich technique,” which has shown
relatively low recurrence rates in Japanese patients [9].
43.3.3 esponse Rates and Side Effects
R
in Skin of Color
43.5 Conclusions
It is well-recognized that skin type significantly affects
scar response to various modalities of treatment. Keloids are considered a challenging medical condition
Previous reports have shown that African-American for both patients and medical health professionals owing
patients had lower vascular response to topical cortico- to its high recurrence rate. The existing body of evidence
steroid than Caucasian patients. Relatively low response has tried to investigate the pathophysiology and molecu-
to bleomycin was reported among patients with skin of lar basis involved in scar development using a reliable
color. Patients with skin types IV–VI showed low and reproducible model of a keloid. These endeavors
response rates to different types of laser as well. would optimize the treatment and improve the outcomes
In terms of safety concerns, patients with skin of of the disease. Currently, it is crucial to robust the pub-
color are more reliable to higher incidence of adverse lished evidence, merged with clinical outcome, to deliver
events than patients with lighter skin types. The risk of patients with the best therapeutic regimens for scars.
hypopigmentation after cryotherapy is more prominent Moreover, additional large-scale, long-term, and high-
in patients with darker skin due to cold sensitivity of quality RCTs are indispensable to conclude the safety
melanocytes. While excessive melanin in patients with and efficacy of these treatment options further, and also
skin of color can absorb more laser and lead to hyper- comparative studies are compulsory to identify the best
pigmentation, the high prevalence of melasma among treatment modality for scars in the pigmented skin.
patients with darker skin may contribute to post-laser Finally, standard guidelines and protocols are manda-
hyperpigmentation as well. Hereditary hemolytic dis- tory to standardize the progress of such promising treat-
eases are more prevalent among African-American, and ment modalities on a global scale.
they may impair healing after laser excision of the scars. The current body of evidence has emphasized the
requirement for additional long-term clinical trials with
larger sample size to assess the efficacy of the
43.3.4 Recurrence Rate aforementioned treatments strongly. Several studies

were short-term clinical trials with small numbers of
Keloid scars are associated with high rate of recurrence, patients included, and the others were case series.
especially when treated with surgical excision alone. Besides, lacking stratification of patients into categories
However, there are no current published data that according to the type of lesion, i.e., keloid or hypertro-
address the effect of skin type on the rate of recurrence phic scars, location, a degree of severity, or ethnicity of
after scars treatment. the patients, was present in some of these studies. The
different types of scars are diverse at the molecular level
43 and morphologically. Furthermore, the difference in
43.4 Management of Scars in Asian Skin skin color, site, number, and size of the scar could
respond differently to the same modality of treatment.
Recent guidelines on the management of scars in Asian Therefore, this variability ought to be taken into consid-
patients recommended that scar prevention should be eration when designing those studies. Likewise, the mea-
initiated in the immediate postoperative period owing to sures used to assess scar characteristic and response to
the high risk of developing poor scars. The recom- treatment were variable among the studies. Therefore, it
mended first-line therapy was silicone-based products is a compulsory requirement to use universal tool for
377 43
assessment and implantation of measures to monitor References
cellular and metabolic activities in the tissue of keloid
which, in turn, would support tailoring specific modal- 1. Visscher MO, Bailey JK, Hom DB. Scar treatment variations by
ity of treatment with each category of patients to ensure skin type. Facial Plast Surge Clin. 2014;22(3):453–62.
2. McGoldrick RB, Theodorakopoulou E, Azzopardi EA, Murison
the best response of disease to treatment.
M. Lasers and ancillary treatments for scar management Part 2:
Keloid is unique for human tissue. This esoteric keloid, hypertrophic, pigmented and acne scars. Scars Burns
nature made keloids’ preclinical studies scramble owing Heal. 2017;3:2059513116689805.
to the absence of animal models. Nonetheless, the 3. Ud-Din S, Bayat A. Strategic management of keloid disease in
advent of an in vitro organ culture model of keloid was ethnic skin: a structured approach supported by the emerging
literature. Br J Dermatol. 2013;169:71–81.
fundamental in facilitating the study of disease molecu-
4. Andrews JP, Marttala J, Macarak E, Rosenbloom J, Uitto
lar biology, pathophysiology, and the response among J. Keloids: the paradigm of skin fibrosis—pathomechanisms and
variable therapeutic modalities. This model was found treatment. Matrix Biol. 2016;51:37–46.
to be a valuable tool for investigating new treatments 5. Ud-Din S, Thomas G, Morris J, Bayat A. Photodynamic ther-
and optimizing the treatment that would exhibit the apy: an innovative approach to the treatment of keloid disease
evaluated using subjective and objective non-invasive tools. Arch
optimum safety and efficacy in a diminution of the
Dermatol Res. 2013;305(3):205–14.
keloid scar mass size. Hence, it is considered as a pro- 6. Ud-Din S, Giddings PD, Colthurst J, Whiteside S, Morris J,
spective approach for new therapies assessment. Bayat A. Significant reduction of symptoms of scarring with
electrical stimulation: evaluated with subjective and objective
assessment tools in a prospective noncontrolled case series.
Take-Home Messages Wounds. 2013;25(8):212–24.
55 Pigmented skin has a higher chance of developing 7. Ismail A, Abushouk AI, Elmaraezy A, Menshawy A, Menshawy
E, Ismail M, et al. Cutting electrocautery versus scalpel for sur-
hypertrophic and keloid scars following wounds.
gical incisions: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Surg
55 Thorough history taking and clinical examination Res. 2017;220:147–63.
are essential for accurate assessment and 8. Durani P, Bayat A. Levels of evidence for the treatment of keloid
management of abnormal scars in pigmented skin. disease. J Plast Reconstr Aesthet Surg. 2008;61(1):4–17.
55 Several therapeutic modalities for keloid 9. Kim S, Choi TH, Liu W, Ogawa R, Suh JS, Mustoe TA. Update
on scar management: guidelines for treating Asian patients. Plast
management are available; however, there is lack
Reconstr Surg. 2013;132(6):1580–9.
of evidence to identify one strategy as the gold
standard.
55 Nonsurgical modalities for keloid management
include intralesional steroid injections,
radiotherapy, photodynamic therapy, and
electrical stimulation.
55 Surgery is needed in patients with hypertrophic
scars with contractures, particularly when affecting
joints that result in function loss.
55 Combination therapies of surgical and nonsurgical
modalities have shown some promising results;
however, further research is needed.
55 Large-scale clinical trials and clinical practice
guidelines are needed to direct the development of
effective treatments for keloid management.
379 44
Scar and Scarring in the Elderly

Contents
44.2 Epidemiology of the Elderly: A Factor to Consider – 380
44.3 efinition of Elderly in Medicine: Should We Make

D
Distinctions? – 380
44.4 From Skin Aging to Dermatoporosis – 380

44.5 Consequences of Age on Wound Healing – 381
44.6 requent Comorbidities Altering Wound Healing

F
in the Elderly – 381
44.7 hat Scarring Problems Are Usually Observed

W
in the Elderly? – 382
References – 383

380 H. Colboc and S. Meaume
Aims of the Chapter

.. Table 44.1 Main factors of frailty in the elderly
55 To provide demographic data on the elderly and the
definition of elderly in medicine Age over 85 years
55 To bring elements of skin aging and dermatoporosis
Loss of autonomy for an activity of daily life or more
55 To describe the consequences of age on healing and
major comorbidities in elderly that impair healing Impairment of cognitive functions
55 To address the main problems raised by scars in the Reduced nutritional reserves
elderly – these scars are not the hypertrophic scar,
Inadequate social support (loneliness, poverty)
the keloids, or the scars due to cosmetic aspects but the
recurrence of a wound on a scar, the Marjolin’s ulcer, Sedentary lifestyle, confinement, postural instability
the hyperkeratosis, the unstable scars, and the adhesion Poorly compensated sensory disturbances
to the deep plane of old scars
Kidney and liver failure
Depressive symptoms
44.1 Introduction Polymedication
The population is getting older all over the world. This

means that more people are living with chronic illnesses,
ronment, these are subjects of more than 75–80 years,
which reduce their independence and force them to take
and the distinction between the healthy elderly and the
various medications. Healthcare professionals should
polypathological elderly becomes important. The state
take this into account when managing scar and scarring
of health of the elderly is multifactorial. It depends on
problems in older patients. Until now, research works pri-
genetic, environmental, social, psychic factors, and the
marily focus on the treatment and prevention of wounds
existence of multiple pathologies. It is not necessarily
in the elderly – acute (dissecting hematoma, skin tears,
linked to age. For 30 years the concept of fragile old
etc.) or chronic (pressure ulcers, leg ulcers, diabetic
man/woman has been developed [4]. It obeys to several
wounds of the foot, etc.) – but too little was done concern-
definitions and criteria which vary accordingly to the
ing the problem of scarring itself and even less on scars
numerous publications of which it is the subject and
associated with the loss of skin function along the time.
makes it a dynamic medical concept. Only 10–20% of
the nonagenarians or centenarians are considered frag-
ile. These are the so-called geriatric patients who require
44.2 pidemiology of the Elderly: A Factor
E specific management. Most people over the age of 75 are
to Consider not frail and considered “fit” with good functional
autonomy and good social integration and few patholo-
According to the United Nations’ report on the aging of gies. Conversely, the frail elderly present functional limi-
the world population, adults over 60 years will outnum- tations and a decline in their ability to adapt and
ber younger people by 2050 [1], and in Europe alone, anticipate. To distinguish these two types of elderly pop-
more than 20% of the population will be over 65 years in ulation, standardized geriatric assessments have been
2025 [2]. As this population ages, many older people will developed using validated scales of autonomy, nutrition,
live with chronic conditions, reduced independence, cognition, etc. [5]. This evaluation is not only performed
polypathology, and polypharmacy, a situation health- by geriatrician if one wishes exhaustive but can also be
care professionals should take into consideration when realized by nonspecialists and paramedics: nurses, phys-
dealing with dermatological, scarring, and scar condi- iotherapists, social workers, dieticians, occupational
tions. While governments encourage the growing trend therapists, and speech therapists. The objective of such
in Europe to promote an adapted elderly management, assessments is to provide a supportive plan adapted to
the specific wound healing and scarring care provided by each patient, a compromise between what is desirable
surgeons, physicians, and caregivers is increasingly and feasible or reasonable and what is not (. Table 44.1).
important but scarcely discussed [3].
44 44.4 From Skin Aging to Dermatoporosis

44.3 efinition of Elderly in Medicine:
D
Should We Make Distinctions? Skin aging leads to alteration of the skin and conse-
quently to the loss of its physiological barrier role. Skin
If the WHO defines elderly as over 65 years of age, the aging leads to alteration of the skin and consequently
increase in life expectancy in good health means that to the loss of its physiological barrier role. It is the con-
when we talk about elderly people in the medical envi- sequence of intrinsic (genetically programmed) and
381 44
and thus the density of fiber collagen and glycosamino-
glycans, with thinning of the dermal thickness. Associated
with this quantitative drop is a qualitative drop in resid-
ual fibers. During aging, a decrease of hydrophilic char-
acter of the glycosaminoglycans, responsible for the
hydration of the dermis, is observed. This chemical mod-
ification can explain the dermal thinning and xerosis
seen in the elderly. These changes also affect the micro-
vascularization, with thinning of the vessel wall, which
may explain the tendency to hematoma and purpura
(Batman’s purpura) typically observed in the elderly.
44.5 onsequences of Age on Wound

C
Healing
Physiological healing has three main stages, directly
impacted by aging: the first stage is hemostasis and
inflammation, second stage is cell proliferation, and
third stage is tissue remodeling. With age, platelet adhe-
sion to the damaged endothelium is increased, decreas-
ing the healing time. The local inflammatory answer to
injury is reduced, following a decrease in the expression
of molecules of adhesion. The proliferation phase is also
impaired by slowing the renewal keratinocyte evokes
above and also a decrease in response to growth factors.
Finally, tissue remodeling, the final stage of wound heal-
.. Fig. 44.1 Dermatoporosis: Bateman purpura, skin tears, hyper- ing, is also impaired in the aging subject due to an imbal-
pigmentation, and spontaneous stellar pseudo-scars ance between metalloproteinases and their physiological
inhibitors, in favor of metalloproteinases and therefore
extrinsic factors. These extrinsic factors are numerous, the destruction of collagen [9]. The different healing
and include more specifically drugs aggravating the phases are therefore altered by these phenomena in the
physiological xerosis (hypolipidemic oral, allopurinol, elderly: reduction of the wound contraction, cell prolif-
hydroxyurea and cimetidine) [6], deficits in essential eration, neovascularization, delay of the inflammatory
fatty acids, in vitamins (B group vitamins, E, PP, C, A), phase, and slower epithelialization [10].
zinc, magnesium as well as malnutrition frequent in the Apart from these deleterious aspects, elderly healing
elderly patient and environmental factors such as smok- presents some advantages. Thanks to a decrease in
ing and exposure to ultraviolet (UV). For some patients, inflammation, pathological scarring such as hypertro-
skin aging can become can constitute a real functional phic scars and/or keloids is rarely observed in elderly.
organ failure, far from cosmetics considerations. The After skin excision for tumor, sometimes needing a con-
term “dermatoporosis” was recently proposed by Saurat sistent loss of substance, the aged patient skin laxity
[7, 8] to cover all the manifestations and implications of generally allows an easy reapproximation of the edges
this chronic skin syndrome linked to skin fragility and and the suture may be realized without tension, issuing
insufficiency. to good scarring. However, suturing itself can be
The clinical manifestations of dermatoporosis impacted by the increased skin tears risks due to the der-
(. Fig. 44.1) include morphological markers of fragility matoporosis.
(skin atrophy, Bateman’s purpura, spontaneous stellar
pseudo-scars, hyperpigmentation), as well as the func-
tional expression of skin fragility (skin tears, poor heal- 44.6 requent Comorbidities Altering
F
ing, dissecting hematoma). The first signs appear around Wound Healing in the Elderly
the age of 60, while the disease itself, with its related com-
plications, is observed between the ages of 70 and 90. Many comorbidities frequent in the elderly can decrease
On a microscopic scale, skin aging is manifested by a wound healing. Undernutrition and diabetes can delay all
thinning of the dermo-epidermal junction and an exten- type of wound, while arterial or venous diseases and edema
sion of the keratinocyte renewal time. In the dermis, (linked to heart, kidney or liver failure) can delay healing
there is observed a decrease in the number of fibroblasts of lower limbs wounds. Elderly patients are also more
exposed to treatments that can delay healing, especially Post-irradiation scars in cancer treatments (breasts
systemic corticosteroid therapy and cancer chemotherapy. for example) pose the problem of radiodermatitis and
radionecrosis which evolves and worsens over time, in
particular in the elderly who were irradiated at a time
44.7 What Scarring Problems Are Usually when the administered doses were high.
Observed in the Elderly? Some scars from childhood linked to operated ortho-
pedic malformations are associated with joint deforma-
Traumatic and surgical acute wound healing is rather tions of osteoarthritis because of mechanical forces
good even in very old patients, and hypertrophic or keloid pressure or friction exerted on those scars or because of
scars are rare, at least in the Caucasian population [11]. underlying medical problems in the region: arterial dis-
The poor quality of the scar is usually not a major ease or neuropathy.
problem (appearance, color, shape) [12] except in Marjolin’s ulcer [14], a rare and aggressive skin
exposed regions (face) or when impacting the function cancer, develops late on scars from burns (. Fig. 44.3)
(heel, eyelid, and periorificial areas). or from delayed wound-healing problems: chronic
Pruritus and/or pain may appear very lately after the osteitis, burns, pressure ulcers, lupus scar, skin graft,
trauma/surgery and occur after 20 or 30 years. They are and radiodermatitis. Squamous cell carcinoma are
linked to dermatological problem (dry skin) or neuro- more frequently observed than basal cell carcinoma,
genic disorders. These situations may be treated symp- melanoma, or sarcoma. The occurrence of a wound
tomatically with appropriate cosmetics [13]. A few of on a scar aged of more than 20 years always requires a
them need surgery, but war, posttraumatic, and post- biopsy [15].
surgery scars are not usually reasons to go to see a doctor. Hyperkeratosis is common especially on scars on
Atrophic and adherent scars can be improved by plantar aspect of the foot, the heel, next to the Achilles
injecting fat under the scar, a recent technique present- tendon, or on the toes and the lateral aspects of the foot,
ing the advantage of being scarcely invasive when anti- due to a thickening of the stratum corneum reaction to
coagulation is not needed or should be stopped friction or to mechanical conflict, especially in case of
(. Fig. 44.2). loss of sensibility (diabetes, nerve damage). Cracks can
The reappearance of a wound on a scar should be con- appear and constitute entry doors exposing to the risk
sidered differently. The recurrence of a tumor may be at of deep infection (. Fig. 44.4).
the origin of the scar. A biopsy or the recurrence of a Unstable scars may appear because of their location,
chronic ulcer (arterial or venous, pressure, or diabetic foot sometimes due to a poor quality of the dermal compo-
ulcers) is needed to diagnose a malignant transformation. nent (absent or fibrotic) or insufficient preventive mea-
It can also lead to the reassessment of the patient sures taken against external agents (shoes, stockings,
and indication of preventive treatment of compression bandages, prosthesis, etc.).
or discharge (cushion, shoe, soles). These wounds finally closed after a succession of clo-
sure and multiple reopenings, source of discomfort, and
risk of cancer transformation (. Fig. 44.5). The treat-
ment of these unstable scars becomes more and more
complex due to the underlying diseases and comorbidi-
44
.. Fig. 44.2 Atrophic scar/defect: In this stage 4 pressure ulcer, the

healing process led to a neoskin adherent to the underlying struc-
tures like aponeurosis, muscle, tendon, and bone. The possibility to
inject adipose tissue under the skin should be discussed .. Fig. 44.3 Marjolin’s ulcer on an old burn scar
383 44
ties. Biopsies often need to be done to rule out a malig-
nant degenerescence.
Adherence to the depth is a problem that worsens with
age. Healing occurring on a wound with loss of deep
substance (dermis, fat, gliding capacities) and not cor-
rectly repaired (for exemple using negative pressure
therapy, skin substitute or flap) may lead to an atrophic
scar adherent to the deep plans. These adherent scars
can disrupt normal skin movements and mobilisation
of the patient, specially when located near an articula-
tion. These adherences are exposed to skin reopening
due to the loss of elasticity of age-related skin.
44.8 Conclusion
Epidemiological studies are lacking and the literature is

poor on the subject. Hypertrophic and keloids do not
seem to be a frequent problem in the elderly. The absence
of inflammation and tension on the scar is undoubtedly an
explanatory factor that perhaps merits more basic
research. However, persistent functional problems lead
aged patients to consult. Chronic wounds or sites of a
long-lasting healing process are associated to an increased
risk of malignant transformation, that must be take into
consideration by the clinician. Regarding scars, elderly
patients are usually less concern by the cosmetic aspects
and its impact on the quality of life. The existence of
underlying diseases can reopen certain scars or pressure
ulcers and therefore the treatment must be adapted accord-
ing to the comorbidities. The geriatrician sometimes has a
role to play in establishing the therapeutic plan.
.. Fig. 44.4 Scar becoming problematic with the age due to
mechanical forces, trauma, pressure over the scar, underlying pathol-
ogy (osteitis, diabetes, vascular diseases venous or arterial) issuing to
hyperkeratosis, and potential neoplasic transformation Take-Home Messages
55 The number of elderly people is increasing.
55 The tension on the scars is often less because the
skin of the elderly is less elastic (modification of
the extra cellular matrix).
55 Keloid and hypertrophic scars are rare in the
elderly.
55 Scars problems are more often malignant
degenerescence, hyperkeratosis, atrophy, instability,
or adherence to the depth.
55 A biopsy must be performed if the scar reopens or
persists in an elderly patient.
References
.. Fig. 44.5 Scar instability: consequence of poor quality of der- 1. United Nations. World population ageing: 1950–2050.
mal component (absent or fibrotic) and poor preventive measures New York: United Nations; 2001.
taken against external mechanical agent (shoes, stocking, bandage, 2. European Commission. Ageing. Available from: http://ec.europa.eu/
prosthesis, etc.). Succession of closure and reopening phases health/ageing/policy/index_en.htm. Accessed December 2014.
3. Rechel B, Doyle Y, Grundy E, McKee M. Policy brief 10: how 10. Sgonc R, Gruber J. Age-related aspects of cutaneous wound
can health systems respond to population ageing? vol. 36. healing: a mini-review. Gerontology. 2013;59:159–64.
Geneva: World Health Organization; 2009. 11. Monarca C, Maruccia M, Palumbo F, Parisi P, Scuderi N. A rare
4. Buchner DM, Wagner EH. Preventing frail health. Clin Geriatr case of postauricular spontaneous keloid in an elderly patient.
Med. 1992;8(1):1–17. In Vivo. 2012;26(1):173–5.
5. Dent E, Kowal P, Hoogendijk EO. Frailty measurement in 12. Brands-Appeldoorn A, Maaskant-Braat S, Zwaans W, Dieleman
research and clinical practice: a review. Eur J Intern Med. J, Schenk K, Broekhuysen C, Weerdenburg H, Daniel R, Tjan-
2016;31:3–10. Heijnen V, Roumen R. Patient-reported outcome measurement
6. Greist MC, Epinette WW. Cimetidine-induced xerosis and astea- compared with professional judgment of cosmetic result afeter
totic dermatitis. Arch Dermatol. 1982;118:253–4. breast-conserving therapy. Curr Oncol. 2018;25(6):553–61.
7. Saurat JH. Dermatoporosis – the functional side of skin aging. 13. Humbert P, Dréno B, Krutmann J, Luger AT, Triller R, Meaume
Dermatology. 2007;215:271–2. S, Seité S. Recommendations for managing cutaneous disorders
8. Kaya G, Saurat JH. Dermatoporosis: a chronic cutaneous insuf- associated with advancing age. Clin Interv Aging. 2016;11:
ficiency/fragility syndrome. Clinicopathological features, mecha- 141–8.
nisms, prevention and potential treatments. Dermatology. 14. Cruickshank AH, Gaskele E. Jean-Nicolas Marjolin: destined to
2007;215:284–94. be forgotten? Med Hist. 1963;7:383–4.
9. Quan T, Fisher G. Role of age-associated alterations of the der- 15. Yu N, Long X, Lujan-Hernandez JR, et al. Marjolin’s ulcer: a
mal extracellular matrix microenvironment in human skin aging: preventable malignancy arising from scars. World J Surg Oncol.
a mini-review. Gerontology. 2015;61(5):427–34. 2013;11:313.
44 org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appro-
385 45
Management of Scarring
Following Aesthetic Surgery
Alexandra Chambers
Contents
45.2 Patient Selection for Cosmetic Surgery – 386

45.2.1 E valuating Medical Risks – 386
45.2.2 Assessment of Constitutional and Genetic Risks – 387
45.2.3 Modification of Lifestyle – 388
45.2.4 Psychological Assessment and Expectations Management – 389
45.3 rophylactic Measures in Cosmetic Surgery to Reduce

P
Excessive Scarring – 389
45.3.1 hoice of Surgical Techniques – 390
C
45.3.2 Methods to Control Better Healing – 390
45.4 Treatment of Scars Following Aesthetic Surgery – 391

45.4.1 S urgical Treatments – 391
45.4.2 Non-surgical Treatments – 392
45.4.3 Long-Term Management of Patients with Scars After Cosmetic
Surgery – 392
References – 394

386 A. Chambers
45.1 Introduction time to explain and to provide realistic management

of patient expectations. Only after clearly describing
the risks and answering questions can patients make a
valid informed decision.
Aesthetic (Cosmetic) Surgery The scar risk and acceptance matrix (. Table 45.1) is
Aesthetic surgery’s principal purpose is to improve an example of a simple clinical tool that can be used to
physical appearance and self-esteem. quantify the risks of cicatrix formation. This is a com-
munication tool that can help a patient’s understanding
and, when used in a clinical practice, only requires a few
Demand for cosmetic surgery procedures continues to minutes of consultation time. The parameters taken into
grow at a rapid pace around the world, with a 9% increase account for this calculator are the preexisting medical
in treatments performed in 2017 compared to the previ- conditions that might affect healing, life style risks, the
ous year. This translated into 20 million more cosmetic patient’s constitutional tendencies to poor scarring, and
surgery procedures [1]. According to the International the patient’s expectations about scar appearance.
Society of Aesthetic Plastic Surgery (ISAPS), the USA, Each row of the matrix can contribute an inte-
Brazil, Japan, Italy, and Mexico account for 41.4% of ger value from 1 to 5 according to the descriptions in
the world’s cosmetic interventions. Breast augmentation, each column. Adding the results from each row gives a
liposuction, eyelid surgery, rhinoplasty, and abdomino- total score, with low values corresponding to low risk.
plasty were the most popular treatments. Patients with medium and high risk should be well
All surgical procedures have inherent risks, and aes- counseled before their procedure, and the preventative
thetic surgery is not an exception. One of the risks is measures (to be described later in this chapter) should
poor scarring, and this can occur from postoperative be taken before surgery. A very high-risk score might
infection, wound dehiscence, tissue necrosis, or simply justify declining treatment. The following subsections
from abnormal healing tendencies. Unfavorable scarring describe each row of the calculator in more detail.
is not uncommon following cosmetic surgery; the inci-
dence can vary from 5% after breast augmentation to as
high as 8% after abdominoplasty [2, 3]. The impact of 45.2.1 Evaluating Medical Risks
excessive scarring can be disturbing to a patient and can
incite significant morbidity and psychological distress. Reviewing a patient’s medical history is key for identify-
The experience can also be disheartening for the sur- ing patients who might be at risk for the types of com-
geon, as the patient will likely blame them for scars. For plications that can lead to poor scarring. The following
example, in the UK, approximately a quarter of medi- examples illustrate some of the issues to consider.
cal malpractice claims after cosmetic surgery are related 55 Individuals with cardiovascular disease and hyper-
to poor scarring and, on average, generate roughly tension might be at higher risk of bleeding or inad-
£300,000 in awards [4]. The cost of remedial scar treat- equate tissue perfusion.
ment can be quite expensive, taking time and resources 55 Chronic lung disease and poor peripheral circulation
of both the patient and the surgeon. can cause inadequate oxygenation of skin. This in
Given the risks of poor scarring, it makes sense for turn could lead to a potential necrosis at the surgical
cosmetic surgeons to take as many precautions as pos- site.
sible to avoid inferior outcomes. This chapter explores 55 Autoimmune and connective tissue diseases can give
preventative measures to preclude the occurrence of rise to excessive fibrosis and scar thickening. They
unacceptable scars, as well as treatment strategies for can also lead to suboptimal collagen deposition,
when they nevertheless develop. resulting in atrophic or widened scars.
55 Immunosuppressed or diabetic patients will have
a greater chance of postoperative infection and a
45.2 Patient Selection for Cosmetic Surgery problem healing.
55 Allergies to certain medications or substances, like
All cosmetic procedures are elective, and identify- latex or adhesive dressings, might compromise an
ing patients at risk for poor scarring is a key starting otherwise successful surgery.
step. It is important to develop a selective approach 55 Some medications and supplements can promote
in offering aesthetic treatments to reduce unfavorable postoperative bleeding or predispose to hyperpig-
45 outcomes and to mitigate potential problems. Patients mentation.
must be included in the decision-making process, 55 Patients, who have previously developed unsightly
beginning with providing a clear explanation of the scars, might be prone to keloid and hypertrophic or
risks for their specific case. The surgeon must take the atrophic healing.
Management of Scarring Following Aesthetic Surgery
387 45
.. Table 45.1 Scar risk and acceptance matrix
Score 1 2 3 4 5
Medical risks None Hypoxic chronic Suppressed Autoimmune connective Peripheral

state immunity, tissue diseases Vascular
CVD including steroid Post-bariatric surgery disease
Hypertension use malabsorption Hyper-viscosity
Diabetes states
Fitzpatrick skin Skin 1–3 Any skin type Any skin type Skin 4–5 Skin 6
type and No history of Red, pigmented or Multiple stretch Previous hypertrophic scar Previous
constitutional poor scarring slightly uneven marks, very loose Post-inflammatory keloid scars
tendencies Dry skin with low and lumpy scars skin hyperpigmentation
sebaceous activity BMI > 30 Atrophic scars BMI < 18
present Thick skin, higher
sebaceous activity
Lifestyle Healthy life style Sedentary, hectic No sun Alcohol abuse Smoking (any
lifestyle protection and Recreational drugs use type)
Binge dieting overuse of sun Nicotine
beds replacement
Psychological Expects scarring Expects scarring Expects scarring, Expects scarring but only Expects no scar
assessment and Accepts Hopes for no poor which can be a minimal at all
patient possibility of a scarring easily disguised
expectations poor scarring,
including keloid
A cumulative score of 5 or below is indicative of low risk for unfavorable scarring and low probability of patient distress with a scar.
Scores 6–10 indicate medium risk, scores 11–15 predict high risk, and scores 16–20 very high risk
In summary, a good understanding of the patient’s med- scars [6]. Both the MYH9 gene (coding for a non-muscle
ical history and how this could affect the scar formation myosin) and apolipoprotein1 (APOL1) have been impli-
process is important for the surgeon’s treatment plan, cated in non-diabetic kidney disease and keloid scarring
which also helps the patient understand their specific in people of African descent (see . Fig. 45.1). There is
risks. A discussion of these issues is an important part a hypothesis that a haplotype MYH9-APOL1 is likely
of helping the patient to make an informed decision. responsible for keloid formation [7]. Brown et al. [8]
found a genetic association between HLA-DRB1∗15
status and the risk of developing keloid scarring in indi-
45.2.2 Assessment of Constitutional viduals with a pale complexion.
and Genetic Risks In a practical clinical consultation, the surgeon can
simply enquire about ethnicity and make an examination
Being either under- or overweight increases surgical of the patient’s skin. Pigmentation tendencies and any
risks, and this also has an effect on postoperative recov- previous scars or marks (for example from vaccinations
ery [5]. Patients with one of these characteristics may or injections) will help estimate risks. . Figure 45.2
suffer from nutritional or metabolic abnormalities (or illustrates a tendency to form a keloid scar following
both). Accounting for this before proceeding with a cos- mesotherapy injections for improving fine décolletage
metic surgery is strongly advisable. lines.
Also of note is the specific case for patients who have Note that age plays a role in constitutional scarring
undergone bariatric surgery to control their weight. tendencies. Older patients with thinner and dryer skin
These patients often develop a condition of malabsorp- have almost no chance of developing keloid scarring,
tion and a significant metabolic shift. whereas teenagers with higher sebaceous and cellular
For some individuals, there will be inherent famil- activity have a higher chance of developing pronounced
ial or racial risks that can contribute to excessive scar- scars.
ring. Although, no specific genetic mechanisms have yet As already stated, poor scarring can negate the ben-
been identified, individuals with the skin type 4–6 on the efits of the cosmetic surgery. A careful explanation of
Fitzpatrick scale are at higher risk for more noticeable the risks is essential before embarking on a procedure.
388 A. Chambers
.. Fig. 45.1 Unilateral keloid scar formation after gynecomastia and mastopexy surgery in a patient of African origin with skin type 6
ing tissue to the effects of nicotine, carbon monoxide,

hydrogen cyanide, and nitric oxide. These all impair
wound healing. There are numerous retrospective and
prospective cohort studies of levels 2 and 3 evidence
demonstrating the relationship between smoking and
delayed postoperative healing.
That said, there are studies with level 1 evidence
showing ameliorating effects on surgical outcomes when
preoperative smoking is discontinued for 4 weeks or lon-
ger prior to surgery [9]. When embarking on a smok-
ing cessation protocol, patient compliance should be
checked with a carbon monoxide breath or urinary coti-
nine test just prior to surgery.
Heavy use of alcohol can cause vasodilatation and
.. Fig. 45.2 Nodular keloid scarring after a needle prickle of pre- increase perioperative bleeding. Patients should be
sternum skin
advised to refrain from drinking alcoholic beverages
for 2 weeks before and after their surgery. A blood test
The patient needs to be fully informed and should have for gamma-glutamyl transferase (GTT) can establish
the time to weigh the risks versus the benefits of a pro- whether a patient is abstaining and compliant with the
cedure. Procedural planning and early preventative recommendation.
interventions can change the balance toward a more A balanced diet and supplements of vitamin D, zinc,
acceptable final outcome. and iron have a positive impact on postoperative healing.
Substance abuse can have complex effects that
potentially include reducing a patient’s compliance to
45.2.3 Modification of Lifestyle preoperative protocols, and this can also decrease their
immunity. These types of issues are serious enough;
A patient’s lifestyle choices can have important effects however, it should be noted that in some regulatory con-
on their postoperative recovery, including scarring. It is texts, individuals suffering from addictions might not be
important to assess these types of risks and to advise the considered capable of giving a valid consent to cosmetic
patient on the steps to be taken before and after surgery. surgery.
Furthermore, as some patients may not fully follow pro- Physically fit, active, and psychologically stable indi-
posed lifestyle modifications, it is wise for the surgeon viduals tolerate surgery better and recover faster [10].
to plan on compliance tests and to enter these into the In summary, it is important that the patient be
45 patient’s medical record prior to surgery. informed that their surgical outcome will depend on life-
It is well known that smoking tobacco products has style. This should be particularly emphasized for those
a detrimental effect in the perioperative period by expos- who need to make changes prior to surgery.
389 45
45.2.4 Psychological Assessment honest assessment while also avoiding harming patients
and Expectations Management who are at risk. There are some practical tools that can
be considered for this.
Evaluating a patient’s psychological state of mind can First, consider making a video recording of all con-
be challenging for cosmetic surgeons; however, it is an sultations with every patient. This will be the primary
essential component of every presurgical consultation. record of what was discussed, including facts presented
It is important to evaluate a patient’s motivations for about surgical risks, and indications of the patient’s
surgery for several reasons. First, it can give an indica- expectations.
tion of whether they will be apt to follow the key pre- Make liberal use of before- and after-photos. It can
and postsurgical advice they have been given to optimize be quite difficult to understand a patient’s perspective,
their surgical outcomes. Second, it can help identify and it is equally difficult for a patient to understand the
those patients who may have unreasonable expectations likely outcomes without concrete examples. Particularly
and give an indication of the likelihood of them becom- important is the patient’s appreciation of scarring pat-
ing combative or litigious (regardless of the outcome). terns and their acceptance of their inevitability. The
Finally, it is a required step in determining whether a before- and after-photos present an excellent opportu-
patient suffers from body dysmorphic disorder (BDD), nity for gauging the patient’s sentiments on scarring.
which, depending on the regulatory context, could Asking the patient for permission to contact their
potentially legally disqualify them from surgery. GP is an important step of the consultation process.
Psychological assessment and expectations manage- The GP can often provide relevant information about
ment is a difficult process, especially since most surgeons the patient’s medical history that is relevant to the safety
are not trained in how to do this. There are some common of a surgical procedure.
sense steps that can be used without too much difficulty. Finally, it is worthwhile to be abreast of psychologi-
The first is to look for indicators of psychological imbal- cal risk factors for various segments of the population
ance during the consultation process. For example, note and to fold such statistics into the patient’s overall eval-
whether the patient is overly concerned with minor cos- uation. For example, some patients might not be open
metic defects. If this is the case, then even the most nomi- about their true motives for cosmetic interventions, and
nal scarring will likely be unacceptable to the patient. in some contexts, their aims might be controversial [11].
Show the patient before- and after-photos for a Recognized factors associated with a poor psychosocial
broad spectrum of surgical outcomes, and ask them for outcome of aesthetic surgery include [12] the following:
feedback on which ones correspond to their hopes and 55 Being of a young age and of male gender
expectations. If the patient indicates a strong preference 55 Having unrealistic expectations of the procedure
for an unrealistic outcome for their body type and age, 55 Having had previous unsatisfactory cosmetic treat-
the surgeon should factor this observation into the score. ments
The consultation process should be used to determine 55 Exhibiting minimal deformity
the history of psychological treatments, as well as the 55 Motivations based on relationship issues
patient’s history of past cosmetic procedures. Although 55 A history of depression, anxiety, or personality dis-
a patient may hide their psychological care, a physical order
examination will turn up scars that may be easily asso-
ciated with past cosmetic surgeries. This can be used to For cases where the surgeon has a serious doubt about a
begin a conversation about the patient’s satisfaction with patient, it makes sense to defer surgery while collecting
past procedures, and what revisions they have undergone. more data. The surgeon can insist on a letter from the
Finally, the surgeon should always ask the patient for GP stating their opinion that it would be safe for the
permission to contact their general practitioner (GP) for a patient to undergo surgery. In highly borderline cases,
confirmation of their medical history. If the patient refuses, it might make sense to ask the patient to undergo a psy-
this might be a warning flag, although it may simply be chological assessment before proceeding with treatment.
due to negative social perceptions of aesthetic surgery.
However, if the patient’s medical condition or medical his-
tory might possibly contraindicate a surgical procedure, it 45.3 rophylactic Measures in Cosmetic
P
is essential that the patient obtain a letter from their GP Surgery to Reduce Excessive Scarring
indicating that undergoing surgery would be safe.
Realize that no psychological evaluation will be 100% Scarring is an inevitable result of all surgeries; however,
effective. Some patients with psychological issues such as already discussed, patients will be more critical and
as BDD will have learned how to game doctors with less accepting of scars from cosmetic procedures than
credible answers. Nevertheless, the surgeon must make for those obtained after surgeries for illness or injury.
a good effort at trying to provide the patient with an Even after extensive preoperative counseling, patients
390 A. Chambers
typically do not fully appreciate the realities of scarring. 55 Compression garments to reinforce tensile strength
This means that cosmetic surgeons should make every across a wound and to reduce stretching and friction
effort to minimize scarring by utilizing all available tools 55 Adhesive tapes and plasters
and methods to optimize healing. This section reviews a 55 Topical flavonoids
range of current options. 55 Botulinum neurotoxin type A (BoNTA)
55 Platelet-rich plasma (PRP)
55 Microneedling + topical applications
45.3.1 Choice of Surgical Techniques 55 Imiquimod
55 Bioengineering and recombinant DNA
Careful planning is the best approach to achieving suc-
cess for any surgery, and this is especially true for elective The first step in postsurgical scar optimization is the use
cosmetic procedures. The following discussion provides a of compression therapy. Although the effects are poorly
list of points that should be planned for prior to surgery. understood, compression keeps wounds reinforced and
Meticulous surgical field preparation and antibacte- prevents both stretching and friction. A wide range
rial prophylaxis are crucial in mitigating risk of infec- of compression and support garments are available.
tion. Infiltration with local anesthetic and adrenaline, Pressure levels should be sustained at 15–40 mmHg for
combined with a careful hemostasis, will help reduce at least 23 h/day over a period of 6 months. This pres-
bleeding during and after the operation. Both infection ents, however, a problem of patient compliance due to
and hemorrhage can be detrimental to wound healing restrictiveness of such a regime.
and should be avoided at all cost. This can be managed with the use of various adhesive
The surgeon must take care not to damage vascular tapes and plasters to cover the already closed wounds.
dermal plexus when undermining skin and take into These keep the scar undisturbed and protected and can
account blood supply via a vascular pedicle when lifting be more comfortably used over a longer period of time.
flaps and cutting through tissues. Inadvertently damag- A randomized controlled study of 70 patients using a
ing local circulatory pathways will lead to skin necrosis paper tape on their wounds showed this to be an effec-
and devastating consequences. tive strategy [15].
Incisions should be made bearing in mind the natu- More specialized dressings and skin substitutes can
ral skin tension vectors. Avoiding crossing these will be utilized to promote epithelization by creating matrix
diminish the likelihood of wound dehiscence, scar wid- for a cellular migration, providing a protective barrier,
ening, or hypertrophy. Similarly, avoid areas with tight and sustaining a moist environment. Silicone gel and
skin such as the presternal, upper shoulders, and over sheets have been shown to reduce unfavorable scarring
the extensor surfaces of joints [13]. in randomized controlled studies [16, 17], but a meta-
Try to strategically hide scars by placing incisions as analysis of 13 trials involving 559 patients demonstrated
much as possible in the natural creases of the skin or only weak evidence that silicone can reduce the inci-
where imperfections can be disguised by clothing. dence of abnormal scarring in high-risk individuals [18].
Finally, a cosmetic surgeon must handle tissues gently, That said, silicone softens the scar and makes it more
approximate edges of the wound carefully, and make use comfortable for patients, and because of this, it may be
of fine instruments and suturing materials. While closing worthwhile. It is recommended to use silicone dressing
tissue incisions, a surgeon should bear in mind how the for at least 12 h a day for 2 months from 2 weeks after
tensile strength of the wound will evolve during the heal- the surgery.
ing process. The tension strength of the wound, related Topical flavonoids such as Contractubex (Merz
to cross-linking of collagen, will only be 3% of that of a Pharma, Frankfurt, Germany) or Mederma skin care
normal skin after roughly 1 week, 30% after 3 weeks, and gel (Merz Pharmaceutical, Greensboro, CA, USA)
80% after about 12 weeks [14]. This should be reflected are used to keep scars soft and supple from the second
in the choice of suturing techniques and materials. Non- week after surgery for up to 6 months. Their efficacy has
absorbable sutures can be removed after 7–10 days, but been found to be controversial, but the dietary bioflavo-
appropriate additional scar holdup is required during the noid quercetin can also improve scarring by suppress-
first 3 months with adhesive tapes, dressings, and garments. ing fibroblasts proliferation via inhibition of SMAD
intercellular transduction protein [19]. This reduces the
actions of the transforming growth factor β (TGF-β)
45.3.2 Methods to Control Better Healing and reduces fibroblasts activity.
45 In clinical practice, cosmetic surgeons can use botu-
Postsurgical techniques to influence and optimize scar linum neurotoxin type A (BoNTA) immediately after
formation are varied. Some methods are well estab- wound closure. Injections of 15U of the preparation
lished, while others are still experimental. A brief review have been shown to improve scarring following 6 weeks
of modalities currently in use is summarized here. after a facelift [20].
391 45
Platelet-rich plasma (PRP) has gained some popu- 45.4 reatment of Scars Following
T
larity for skin anti-aging, chronic wound management, Aesthetic Surgery
and scar therapy. Treating a wound bed with PRP has
shown substantial benefits for better wound healing, Pronounced scarring following surgery is common. Up
an increased survival of fat grafts, and the accelera- to 40% might display hypertrophic scar features, and
tion of cartilage and bone grafts uptake in a system- 6–16% of these will evolve into a keloid scar (especially for
atic review of 15 randomized controlled trials and 25 patients of African descent). Scar atrophy can result from
case-controlled studies [21]. Platelet-rich fibrin also wound infection and inflammation, but it is less common.
proved to be useful in aesthetic and reconstructive If, after all other precautions, a scar begins to display
applications. features of pathological healing, or is simply too notice-
Also note that the repeated microneedling at a con- able, treatment plans are still available and can do much
trolled depth and topical application of retinol and to remediate the situation. Management of scars after
marine collagen reversed both atrophic and hypertro- aesthetic surgery does not differ from any other scar
phic scars to a more even appearance after a year of treatment. The therapeutic approach can be divided into
treatment [22]. surgical and non-surgical methods.
Attempts have been made to use Imiquimod 5%
cream to prevent keloid recurrence after surgical exci-
sion. This topical immune-response modulator stimu- 45.4.1 Surgical Treatments
lates a proinflammatory cytokine interferon, which
increases collagen breakdown. Imiquimod also alters Traditionally, keloid and hypertrophic scars are excised,
the effects of apoptosis-associated genes. The prepara- and tissue is manipulated to allow for more favorable
tion was used daily for a fortnight after a surgery. Later healing afterward. Excision with a linear, tension-free
it was applied three times a week under a dressing for closure should be used. If the defect is a large one, or
1 month. The efficacy for this prophylaxis is still ques- the wound is in a high skin-tension area, a split- or full-
tionable, as the result of this double-blinded, placebo- thickness skin grafting with Z-plasty or W-plasty skin
controlled pilot study showed no significant difference closure flaps is recommended (. Fig. 45.3). That said,
in keloid deposition rates in the two groups [23]. hypertrophic scars tend to spontaneously regress for up
Interesting research in tissue bioengineering is to 12 months. This suggests that surgical revisions should
attempting to bring new methods to improved wound probably not be made until after a 1-year time window.
healing, with an objective of even achieving scarless
regeneration. Promising results have been obtained using
therapies based on TGF-β. A preparation of a recom-
binant version of this cytokine marketed as Juvista by
Renovo Laboratory (Manchester, UK) has shown a 70%
improvement in wound healing and scar appearance in
a phase 2 trial. Other therapies developed by the same
company include formulations of mannose-6-phosphate
(M6P; marketed as Juvidex) and another preparation
based on estradiol (marketed as Zesteem) [24].
In another study, a preparation of recombinant
human TGF-β3, called avotermin, was injected before
the skin was cut and again 24 h after wounding in
healthy participants. A dose of 50 ng/100 μl of the drug
per linear centimeter achieved 10% scar improvement
in three double-blinded, placebo-controlled studies.
However, the investigators had commercial interests in
TGF-β3, which may weaken their claim. Nevertheless,
they demonstrated a strict adherence to established pro-
tocols and research standards and conducted a rigorous
statistical analysis [25].
Whatever methods be used to prevent unfavorable
scarring, they must be initiated early enough to influ-
ence the processes of tissue healing. Failure to do so
might lead to florid scarring that might subsequently be .. Fig. 45.3 Skin flap closure with W-plasty following a forehead
more difficult to treat. lift with hair line advancement surgery
392 A. Chambers
Hypertrophic scars rarely recur after excision, and as intervention or in addition to other treatments. Pulse-shots
such, they require no adjuvant treatments following the at a fluency of 3.5–5.5 J/cm2 are fired to cover the entire
removal. Keloid scars on the other hand can redevelop scar, making sure the shots do not overlap. Treatments
after excision. This will occur in more than half of all are repeated four to six times every 3 weeks. Hyper- and
cases, and so will likely require additional therapeutic hypopigmentation, blistering, and small bruises are pos-
interventions. This should be undertaken immediately sible after the treatment but tend to be transient.
after their excision. It is sometimes possible to destroy scar tissue by sub-
The most commonly used methods for controlling jecting it to subzero temperatures. For example, cryo-
keloid scar recurrence include corticosteroid injections therapy with liquid nitrogen is an option. Rarely used
or radiotherapy. In recent years, a mixture of 5 fluoro- to improve scars caused by cosmetic surgery, it can be
uracil (5FU) with triamcinolone has become popular. nevertheless be useful for pretreatment before repeat-
The cocktail is made of 3 ml of 5FU 50 mg/ml and 1 ml ing injections of corticosteroids in smaller scars. This is
of the steroid containing 40 mg/ml triamcinolone. An especially the case if laser is unavailable or has proven to
amount of 1–2 ml of this mixture is used for postopera- be ineffective.
tive tissue infiltration at the level of excision plane and Recalcitrant scars can be subjected to radiotherapy.
below it. The treatment can be repeated after full epithe- This method is mostly combined with the surgical exci-
lization of the wound. Postoperative pressure should be sions but is rarely used in aesthetic practice. The methods
applied for 6 months afterward, and silicone gel should of radiotherapy choice include superficial X-rays, elec-
be used for 2 months. tron beam therapy, and low or high-dose-rate brachy-
therapy. They all can be utilized, but not for breast or
tummy tuck scars due to their potential for carcinogenic
45.4.2 Non-surgical Treatments side effects.
Atrophic tissue healing is another type of pathologi-
A broad range of treatments with no cutting of scars cal scarring, leading to a volume loss and an indented
is available for cosmetic surgeons. Therapeutic choices surface formation. The treatment objective is to restore
vary from injectable preparations to interventions based the tissue deficit and to reinforce thinning and hollowing
on a variety of technologies. Whatever method is being of the scar surface. For the former, corrections are made
employed, it should be done in a timely fashion with with fillers and fat grafts. The latter can be achieved
stepwise escalation to the next option if the current one with stimulating therapies such as microneedling,
is ineffective. Sculptra injections, free-floating PDO, or gold threads.
The first choice of non-surgical treatment for early An example study using a controlled depth micronee-
keloid formation scars is intra-lesional corticoste- dling approach proved to be effective for both atrophic
roid injections. In most cases, steroid injections act as and hypertrophic scars [22]. Early keloid scars can also
a second-line modality for hypertrophic scars if less- respond to this type of intervention (. Fig. 45.4). This
invasive options, such as silicone dressings and support suggests that all pathological scars may have similar
tapes, fail. pathways for regression.
Corticosteroids suppress inflammation in the wound; Another promising modality for treatment of scar-
they reduce collagen and glycosaminoglycans synthesis, ring is botulinum neurotoxin type A (BoNTA). Keloid
while increasing collagen degradation. Glucocorticoids can be treated successfully with diluted BoNTA and the
inhibit fibroblasts proliferation and enhance their degra- technique for that is described in 7 Chap. 8.
dation. The most commonly used preparation is triamcin-
olone 40 mg/ml. A dose of 10 mg or 40 mg is injected into
a scar, every 1–2 months. Usually two to three sessions are 45.4.3 Long-Term Management of Patients
all that is required. Scars become flatter and softer with with Scars After Cosmetic Surgery
alleviation of symptoms, but a recurrence rate is common
and can be as high as 50%. Side effects of corticosteroid Even with a conscientious effort made by both the
injections are telangiectasia and dermal atrophy. Topical patient and the surgeon to control and optimize scar-
corticosteroid preparations in the form of creams can be ring, some patients will find it difficult to accept their
massaged into post-blepharoplasty scars. Corticosteroid outcomes. These patients may be especially psychologi-
tapes are sometimes applied after aesthetic surgery for cally vulnerable if their scars are located in areas easily
breast reduction. However, efficacy of topical corticoste- seen. Examples include the eyelids after a blepharo-
45 roids for scar reduction has never been proven. plasty or in front of the ears after pretragal incision used
Laser treatment modality is next in line after corticoste- during rhytidectomies.
roids. Pulsed-dye laser (PDL) with a wavelength of 585 nm The surgeon has some responsibility to help these
is most commonly used for treating scars as a stand-alone types of patients come to terms with their scars. The
393 45
.. Fig. 45.4 Keloid scar following rhytidectomy was improved by using microneedling and topical retinol
process will likely involve a combination of approaches, primarily choose aesthetic surgery for non-essential
including counseling, cognitive behavioral therapy, cam- health reasons. Because of this, when poor scarring
ouflage makeup, and medical tattooing. A multidisci- occurs, cosmetic surgeons are at much higher risk for
plinary approach to the psychological rehabilitation of patient dissatisfaction and potential legal action.
the patient will likely be needed to succeed. The surgeon A wide variety of therapeutic and prophylactic
should be empathetic to the patient’s perspective and be methods are available for the management of posttrau-
prepared to help with what can often be a lengthy and matic and postsurgical cicatrix. Thus, the main point of
arduous process. this chapter is that surgeons should put into place pre-,
intra-, and postsurgical processes to mitigate scarring
risks.
45.5 Conclusion Finally, regardless of the objective severity of cos-
metic surgical scars, this is an important component of
Scarring after cosmetic surgery is the same as that from a patient’s perception of the success of the procedure.
accidents, disease, or other types of surgical procedures. Surgeons should take an active role in providing patients
The context, however, is completely different. Patients with information and compassionate support.
394 A. Chambers
Take-Home Messages 7. Keeling BH, Taylor BR. Keloids and non-diabetic kidney dis-
55 Always bear in mind that a scar following aesthetic ease: similarities and the APOL1–MYH9 haplotype as a pos-
sible genetic link. Med Hypotheses. 2013;81(5):908–10.
surgery impacts a patient far more than its objec- 8. Brown JJ, Ollier WE, Thomson W, Bayat A. Positive associa-
tive evaluation and it negatively contributes to the tion of HLA-DRB1∗15 with keloid disease in Caucasians. Int J
overall perception of otherwise successful treat- Immunogenet. 2008;35(4–5):303–7.
ment. 9. Rinker B. The evils of nicotine: an evidence-based guide to smok-
55 Carefully evaluate the potential risk of scarring ing and plastic surgery. Ann Plast Surg. 2013;70(5):599–605.
10. Levett DZ, Edwards M, Grocott M, Mythen M. Preparing the
and take appropriate measures to reduce it prior patient for surgery to improve outcomes. Best Pract Res Clin
to surgery. Anaesthesiol. 2016;30(2):145–57.
55 Manage patient expectations by providing suf- 11. Macgregor FC. Selection of cosmetic surgery patients: social and
ficient explanation of the range of potential out- psychological considerations. Surg Clin N Am. 1971;51(2):289–98.
comes. 12. Honigman RJ, Phillips KA, Castle DJ. A review of psychosocial
outcomes for patients seeking cosmetic surgery. Plast Reconstr
55 Avoid offering elective cosmetic surgery to people Surg. 2004;113(4):1229.
at high risk of very poor scarring or to those with 13. Son D, Harijan A. Overview of surgical scar prevention and
highly unreasonable expectations. management. J Korean Med Sci. 2014;29(6):751–7.
55 Plan and execute an appropriate surgical tech- 14. Buchanan PJ, Kung TA, Cederna PS. Evidence-based medicine:
nique. wound closure. Plast Reconstr Surg. 2016;138(3S):257S–70S.
15. Atkinson JA, McKenna KT, Barnett AG, McGrath DJ, Rudd
55 Employ prophylactic measures and treatments in M. A randomized, controlled trial to determine the efficacy of
a timely fashion. paper tape in preventing hypertrophic scar formation in surgical
55 Take active measures to minimize the formation incisions that traverse Langer’s skin tension lines. Plast Reconstr
of keloid and hypertrophic or atrophic scarring Surg. 2005;116(6):1648–56.
should they occur. 16. Gold MH, Foster TD, Adair MA, Burlison K, Lewis T. Preven-
tion of hypertrophic scars and keloids by the prophylactic use of
55 Keep careful records (written and video) of the topical silicone gel sheets following a surgical procedure in an
consultation process, surgical techniques, and office setting. Dermatol Surg. 2001;27(7):641–4.
postsurgical treatments, making specific mention 17. Chan KY, Lau CL, Adeeb SM, Somasundaram S, Nasir-Zahari
of the management of scarring. M. A randomized, placebo-controlled, double-blind, prospec-
55 Provide emotional and medical support to a tive clinical trial of silicone gel in prevention of hypertrophic
scar development in median sternotomy wound. Plast Reconstr
patient, who is troubled by a scar after her or his Surg. 2005;116(4):1013–20.
aesthetic surgery. 18. O’Brien L, Pandit A. Silicon gel sheeting for preventing and
treating hypertrophic and keloid scars. Cochrane Database Syst
Rev. 2006;(1):CD003826.
19. Phan TT, Lim IJ, Sun L, Chan SY, Bay BH, Tan EK, Lee
ST. Quercetin inhibits fibronectin production by keloid-derived
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1. International Society of Aesthetic Plastic Surgery (ISAPS) Sta- 20. Chambers A. Effects of botulinum toxin a observed during
tistics 27 June 2017, Hanover, Germany. https://www.isaps.org/ early scar formation following rhytidectomy: controlled, double-
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395 45
397 46
Scars in Pediatric Patients

Anne Le Touze
Contents
46.1 Introduction/Background – 398
46.2 Healing Specificities in Children – 398

46.2.1 F etal Healing – 398
46.2.2 Pediatric Peculiarities in Healing – 398
46.2.3 How to Manage Wound Healing in Children – 398
46.3 Pathological Scars – 399

46.3.1 linical and Histological Aspects – 399
C
46.3.2 Easing Factors – 400
46.3.3 Prevention and Treatment [13] – 401
46.4 Defective or Disgracious Scars – 403
46.5 Scars and Growth – 403
References – 403

398 A. Le Touze
46.1 Introduction/Background 46.2.2 Pediatric Peculiarities in Healing
A child is not a miniature adult. Although physiological Very few data on this subject is available in the literature.
healing process is not different in children, their growth Nevertheless, “healing behavior” is peculiar and varies
potential gives them some specificities in terms of heal- all along childhood [7].
ing and scaring. Disturbance of healing process or inap- 55 0–6 months
propriate wound treatment will lead to pathologic scar. Infants before the age of 6 months heal very
Pathologic scars can disrupt growth in children. fast and with very discreet scar. It happens as if
the inflammatory response was immature, therefore
attenuated. Perhaps some phenomena of prenatal
46.2 Healing Specificities in Children period are perpetuated after birth.
55 2 years – teenage
46.2.1 Fetal Healing On the contrary, the inflammatory expression of
the scar dominates this period, and the phenomena
Experimental and clinical studies point that fetal heal- of remodeling seem amplified, major, and disabling.
ing is scarless [1]. Fetal healing mechanisms are still The few comorbidities of healthy organisms and the
poorly known, although many endogenous and exog- physiological mechanisms linked to growth are an
enous factors seem to differ from those of adult heal- undeniable asset for the good evolution of the child’s
ing mechanisms. The main difference probably lies at wounds. Scarring is often very fast but can be explo-
the level of the immune system and the inflammatory sive. Hypertrophic scaring could be considered as
response. All these studies concern different animal physiological at this age, as it is constant.
species and any extrapolation towards human species 55 6 months – 2 years
should be cautious. The evolutive pattern of scar is unpredictable at
Macrophages are known to be the major agents this age, sometimes still discreet, sometimes already
of the inflammatory response and tissue regeneration very inflammatory.
process in adults. In early gestation, healing process is
accomplished with poor influx of macrophages, while
the influx of macrophages in the wound is more impor- 46.2.3 ow to Manage Wound Healing
H
tant at the end of gestation [2]. The embryo seems to be in Children
able to heal without macrophages, and therefore with-
out undergoing inflammatory response. Nevertheless, As the inflammatory response is constant and “explo-
the embryo is able to respond to inflammatory stimuli sive,” the healing process must be carried out over a
[3]. Explanation for this paradox could be the imma- short period of time to prevent excessive production of
turity of the inflammatory system, but we need further collagen.
exploration to understand this ambiguity. Except for children under palliative care, most of
Collagen is scarce in the healing wound due to the the wounds can undergo surgery: mechanical cleans-
lack of response of the fibroblasts to transforming ing, suturing, grafting, flaps. Before, instead of or after
growth factor beta 1 (TGFβ1). TGFβ1 induces glycos- surgery, we use dressings or negative pressure wound
aminoglycan synthesis all along gestation: glycosamino- therapy (NPWT).
glycan is much more important than collagen in the scar Management of pain is essential and difficult: pain
matrix in fetus [4]. and fear are often entangled; level 2 painkillers are not
Amniotic fluid provides the fetus with an environment recommended before 12 years old. Therefore, level 3
rich in growth factors necessary for its development. High painkillers are often necessary but to be administrated
concentration of hyaluronic acid in the amniotic fluid has in health institutions. Inhalation of 50–50% N2O–O2
been supposed to be the extrinsic and intrinsic factor of mixture and any adjuvant technique of analgesia may
non-inflammatory fetal healing [5]. Further experimen- be useful (hypnoanalgesia, video distraction, virtual
tal studies need to prove that the quality of fetal wound reality, etc.) [8, 9].
healing is due to intrinsic factors [6]. Even if scarless fetal Surgical techniques have to be adapted according to
healing mechanisms are uncertain, absence of inflamma- age, psychomotor development, thickness of teguments,
tory response seems to be the key point. and potential of growth. Thinner sutures are used with
Nevertheless, at the end of gestation, inflammatory young children. Rapid absorbable sutures that generate
response appears and scar becomes visible. Further an inflammatory response are to be avoided on exposed
exploration of fetal healing and better knowledge areas. On the contrary, intradermal slow absorbable
46 should allow for promising clinical applications. sutures are a good option to avoid marks. Cyanoacrylate
399 46
a b c
d e f
g
h
.. Fig. 46.1 a–d: Good-quality intradermal suture; e and f: good-quality epidermal suture; g and h: cyanoacrylate tissue adhesive; i: poor-
quality epidermal suture, too thick sutures and under wedging
tissue adhesive may be used but is appropriated for very 46.3.1 Clinical and Histological Aspects
superficial wounds (. Fig. 46.1).
Dressings have to be painless at removal, easy to At the beginning of their evolution, it is not possible to
apply. It is better to realize dressing with hand rather distinguish hypertrophic scars from keloid scars: both
than with forceps because it is quicker and less fright- remain very inflammatory beyond the normal period,
ening. Topics should be elementary; healing is rarely a red, hot, tense, and itchy. Only the evolution can distin-
problem in pediatric practice as child’s body continu- guish them (. Fig. 46.3).
ously synthesizes tissue for growth. Therefore, NPWT 55 Hypertrophic scar: despite a marked and prolonged
is most often rapidly effective, preparing wound to be inflammation period, the inflammatory signs will
grafted. Flap indications are therefore less frequent in eventually be amended, leading to scar enlargement
pediatric practice than in adult practice. and fibrosis resulting in a thick scar. Histologically,
collagen is abundant, is immature (collagen III in
excess), is organized in more flat bundles than in a nor-
46.3 Pathological Scars mal dermis, and contains nodules. Secretion of trans-
forming growth factor β (TGFβ) and platelet derived
Scar is the result of the healing process. Ideal scar is thin, growth factor (PDGF) is abundant. Fibroblasts are
flat, white, supple, elastic, and painless, but it exists and numerous, responsible for the secretion of collagen in
is perfectly identifiable under microscope (. Fig. 46.2). excess. Mast cells are numerous, secreting histamine
Pathological scars are due to dysregulation of heal- which is probably responsible for pruritus.
ing phenomena, especially due to the dysregulation that 55 Keloid scar: evolution goes on forever, leading to exten-
occurs during the modeling phase. This results in pro- sion of lesions beyond the initial limits of the scar, with
longed or definitive inflammation and are called hyper- persistence of inflammatory signs. Sometimes, telangi-
trophic or keloid scars [10]. ectasia appears at the surface of the scar. Histologically,
400 A. Le Touze
.. Fig. 46.2 “Ideal” scars
c
cicatrisation
chéloïdienne a
Volume de la cicatrice
cicatrisation
hypertrophique
cicatrisation
normale
2 mois 6 mois 12 mois b
.. Fig. 46.3 Pathological scars: a: evolution diagram; b: hypertrophic scar; and c: keloid scar
we found the same characteristics as for hypertrophic 55 The age of the patient is a determining factor.
scar but with a complete disorganization of the col- Hypertrophic and keloid scars are exceptional in
lagen arrangement: there are no more beams but col- the elderly and are very common in young people
lagen fibers randomly connected and poorly oriented. and around puberty. It is therefore essential for
pediatric surgeons to be familiar with this scar
pathology.
46.3.2 Easing Factors 55 The location of the wound plays a clear role: the
scapular region, the ear area, and the midline of the
Most often, pathological scars occur on a particular field. trunk (presternal and medio-abdominal) are particu-
Although the causal link is not always obvious, there are larly concerned by the development of pathological
several factors that contribute to the same scar. scars.
55 There is no male or female predominance. The sex 55 The types of wounds, such as deep burn, soiled
ratio for pathological scars is equal to 1. wounds, and presence of foreign bodies in the
55 There is no evidence of hereditary factor. However, wound, will prolong the cleansing phase and there-
some authors have questioned about the hereditary fore the inflammatory phenomena.
characters of keloid scars [11]. 55 Hormonal factors: the preponderance of pathologi-
55 Nevertheless, the ethnic origin seems to be decisive. cal scars at the time of puberty, the impact of preg-
A preponderance of keloid scars is observed in sub- nancy on scars, and the regression of hypertrophic
jects with pigmented skin (Black, Asian, Métis, etc.). scars at the time of menopause seem to evoke the
Some studies submit biological hypotheses related to role of estrogen. Some studies have looked at the use
46 the characteristics of pigmented skins, but there is no of antiestrogens in the treatment of hypertrophic
evidence at the moment. scars [12].
401 46
Although all these factors may have been suggested –– Reduce tension on the scar
as favoring pathological scars, only the age, the ethnic –– Use Langer’s or Borges’s lines in surgery.
factors, and the location of the wound are really the –– Reduce tension on scar by using strips and
determining factors. Mechanism of occurrence of these splinting adjacent joints.
pathological scars is not yet totally understood. 55 Treatment of pathological scars
Some treatments are well established, even if their effi-

46.3.3 Prevention and Treatment [13] cacy is disappointing. Other treatments are rather per-
spectives and subject to current studies. However, the
Treatment is often disappointing. Many treatments have evolution of these scars is sometimes so hopeless for the
been proposed, but they are quickly abandoned as they are patient that minimally invasive techniques deserve to be
ineffective. The physio-pathological approach of mecha- tempted, even if their efficacy is very inconsistent.
nisms has helped rationalize treatments, particularly by Several techniques can be associated either simulta-
acting on inflammation. Nevertheless, the results often neously or successively.
remain below the expectations of the patient and the phy- When a scar becomes inflammatory, the earlier the
sician. treatment will be initiated, the more effective it will be.
Prevention, especially in high-risk population such Preventive techniques can be used as treatment tech-
as pediatric patients, is often effective. niques, but they will not be so effective.
55 Prevention of pathological scars 55 Massages
55 To be really preventive, treatment must be applied as 55 Pressure therapy (. Fig. 46.5)
soon the wound is healed: a few days after primary 55 Silicone sheets
closure or as soon as epimerization is achieved in sec- 55 Steroids have been used for a long time to treat
ondary closure. pathologic scars.
–– Reduce inflammation
–– Decrease healing time by activating mechanical
cleansing.
–– Decrease healing time by using surgical means
of cover (grafts, flaps).
–– Use non-absorbable or slow absorbable intra-
dermal sutures for which inflammatory response
is less intense.
–– Massage of recent scars reduce edema and
mechanically dissociate molecular aggregates.
Therefore, massages have a real mechanical
action. Massages are most often made with an
emollient cream because they are better toler-
ated. However, massages would be just as effec-
tive as without cream.
–– Pressure therapy will also reduce edema, induc-
ing a relative tissue hypoxia, thereby minimizing
local inflammation. Silicone sheets act in a same
way on inflammation [14] (. Fig. 46.4). .. Fig. 46.4 Silicone sheet on hypertrophic scar
a b c d
.. Fig. 46.5 Different devices for pressure therapy

402 A. Le Touze
They can be used as topic (cream or ointment) or lem: it must be a step in a therapeutic scheme, associ-
in situ injections. ating several techniques, and must be proceeded only
Local application may be dangerous in children, at the end of the scar maturation, when the inflam-
as the dose of absorbed steroids is difficult to evalu- matory phenomena have calmed down.
ate. An overdose in steroids can lead to a partial or Intralesional excision is the only way to prevent
complete Cushing syndrome, which may occur due recurrence, but it does not mean that it consistently
to abusive local application of corticoids. gives the expected result. The volume of the scar will
For this reason, we prefer local injections of ste- decrease, which will improve comfort and release
roids in pediatric practice, using steroids of delayed functional effects, and perhaps the residual scar will
action with minimal general effects. Injection is probe more receptive to the complementary treatments
ceeded with dermo-jet or syringe and needle after that are necessary to avoid recurrence.
local anesthesia (. Fig. 46.6). Nevertheless, it is An injection of delay-steroids can be performed
often more comfortable to do so under general anes- in the dermis of the banks of the excision wound
thesia in day surgery unit. Injections can be repeated before closing by non-absorbable sutures. Pressure
until at least 2 months between two injections so as therapy will be prescribed systematically as soon as
not to overload the scar with steroids. The only con- healing is achieved (10 days).
traindication is the local infection. Most of the time, 55 Radiations (X-rays, radium, iridium) may be pro-
flattening of the scar and disappearance of func- posed, but they are not to be used in pediatric prac-
tional signs (pain, pruritus) are observed. tice because of carcinogenic risk.
However, it is necessary to be cautious because 55 Anti-neoplastic substances [16] have been the subject
steroid overload results in epidermal thinning and of research in recent years: Interferons, mitomycin
appearance of telangiectasia. C, bleomycin, 5-fluorouracil [17] are all molecules
55 Cryotherapy [15] may be used with inconsistent that are used as injections in situ, either alone or in
results: it may be used by contact or with freezing combination with corticosteroids. These treatments
needles (. Fig. 46.7). have to be used very carefully and when there is no
55 Surgery will induce more inflammatory reactions. other therapeutic possibility in pediatric practice
Therefore, surgery on its own will not solve the prob- because of their interaction with growth.
55 Laser therapy has been tried on pathological scars
[18] and is easy to use in pediatric practice under
contact local anesthesia.
55 Finally, it may be wise, in some situations, to allow
time for inflammatory phenomena to decrease spon-
taneously before initiating aggressive therapies. This
implies to support the patient because the evolution
often seems hopeless.
Multiple treatments are proposed for these pathological

scars due to their uncertain efficacy and the difficulty in
.. Fig. 46.6 Intralesional injection of steroids achieving results that satisfy the patient (and the physician).
b c
46 .. Fig. 46.7 a–c: Cryotherapy

403 46
46.4 Defective or Disgracious Scars 46.6 Conclusion
Some scars are defective or disgracious and do not dis- Healing physiology is not different in children but the
turb the healing process: hypotrophic or enlarged scars, importance of inflammatory mechanisms makes the
adherent scars, dyschromic scars, tattooed scars, granu- resulting scar different. Hypertrophic scar is physiologi-
loma, technical defects, etc. cal in pediatric practice and has to be prevented.
All scars that present defects but no pathology of the
healing process can be corrected by surgery, irrespec-
tive of the technique used: surgical recovery, adipocytes Take-Home Messages
transplantation (Coleman technique), dermabrasion 55 Obtain rapid closure of wound in children.
with or without vaporization of autologous keratino- 55 Always prevent hypertrophic scaring in pediatric
cytes, etc. However, it will be necessary to wait at least practice.
until the end of the maturation phase to consider sec- 55 Follow-up children with wide scars until end of
ondary surgery. growth.
Deciding what is the best time to practice this sur-
gery is sometimes difficult in pediatric practice. Apart
from functional indications for which the question
hardly arises, the indications are most often aesthetic. It References
is then necessary to ensure the child’s actual motivations
and that this is not a parental request. 1. Longaker MT, Adzick NS. The biology of fetal wound healing:
a review. Plast Reconstr Surg. 1991;87:788–98.
If the child is voluntary, a “contract” must then be
2. Hopkinson-Woolley J, Hughes D, Gordon S, Martin P. Macro-
passed with the child or teenager emphasizing three key phage recruitment during limb development and wound healing
points: in the embryonic and foetal mouse. J Cell Sci. 1994;107:1159–67.
55 The disgracious scar will be replaced by a scar that 3. Oztürk S, Deveci M, Sengezer M, Günhan Ő. Results of arti-
hopefully will be of better quality. There is no magic ficial inflammation in scarless foetal wound healing: an experi-
mental study in foetal lambs. Br J Plast Surg. 2001;54:47–52.
rubber for scar.
4. Kishi K, Nakajima H, Tajima S. Differential responses of col-
55 Postoperative scar management (e.g., strips, silicone, lagen and glycosaminoglycan syntheses and cell proliferation to
possible splint, and refraining from sportive activi- exogenous transforming growth factor beta 1 in the developing
ties) is constraining but necessary for a good result. mouse skin fibroblasts in culture. Br J Plast Surg. 1999;52(7):
55 If the patient is not able to undergo scar manage- 579–82.
5. Longaker MT, Adzick NS, Hall JL, Stair SE, Crombleholme
ment, surgery is useless.
TM, Du BW, Bradley SM, Harrisson MR, Stern R. Studies in
fetal wound healing, VII. Fetal wound healing may be modu-
All these scar anomalies can be corrected, but it is of lated by hyaluronic acid stimulating activity in amniotic acid. Br
course essential to prevent and avoid them. J Plast Surg. 1990;25:430–3.
6. Longaker MT, Whitby DJ, Ferguson MW, Lorenz HP, Harrisson
MR, Adzick NS. Adult skin wounds in the fetal environment
heal with scar formation. Ann Surg. 1994;219:65–72.
46.5 Scars and Growth 7. Le Touze A. Cicatrisation normale et pathologique. In: Cap-
tier G, editor. Chirurgie plastique de l’enfant et de l’adolescent.
During the first 2 years after healing, the scar matures. Montpellier: Sauramps Medical; 2015.
Contraction of the scar is current and normal due to the 8. Jeffs D, Dorman D, Brown S, Files A, Graves T, Kirk E, Mere-
dith-Neve S, Sanders J, White B, Swearingen CJ. Effect of virtual
action of myofibroblasts. After this period of time, the reality on adolescent pain during burn wound care. J Burn Care
scar is quiet and more or less definitive. Res. 2014;35(5):395–408.
In pediatric practice, the patient will grow with 9. Burns-Nader S, Joe L, Pinion K. Computer tablet distraction
the scar. This may induce tractions because the scar is reduces pain and anxiety in pediatric burn patients undergoing
fibrous and does not grow as much as the patient. If hydrotherapy: a randomized trial. Burns. 2017;43(6):1203–11.
10. Lee HJ, Jang YJ. Recent understandings of biology, prophylaxis
this is not corrected, it may induce bending because of and treatment strategies for hypertrophic scars and keloids. Int J
asymmetric growth. Mol Sci. 2018;19(3):711.
Psychomotor development may be disturbed by scars. 11. Marneros AG, Norris JE, Olsen BR, Reichenberger E. Clini-
Physicians should be aware that psychological impact of cal genetics of familial keloids. Arch Dermatol. 2001;137(11):
scars evolves over time all along childhood and teenage. 1429–34.
12. Gragnani A, Warde M, Furtado F, Ferreira LM. Topical tamoxi-
Therefore, pediatric patients with scars have to be fol- fen therapy in hypertrophic scars or keloids in burns. Arch Der-
lowed all along their growth period to detect the need matol Res. 2010;302(1):1–4.
for scar surgery, whether it is for functional purpose or 13. Monstrey S, Middelkoop E, Vranckx JJ, Bassetto F, Ziegler UE,
for aesthetic and psychological purpose. Meaume S, Téot L. Updated scar management practical guide-
404 A. Le Touze
lines: non-invasive and invasive measures. J Plast Reconstr Aes- treatment of keloids and hypertrophic scars: a review. Ann Plast
thet Surg. 2014;67(8):1017–25. Surg. 2010;64(3):355–61.
14. O’Brien L, Jones DJ. Silicone gel sheeting for preventing and 17. Ren Y, Zhou X, Wei Z, Lin W, Fan B, Feng S. Efficacy and safety
treating hypertrophic and keloid scars. Cochrane Database Syst of triamcinolone alone and combination with 5-fluorouracil for
Rev. 2013;(9):CD003826. treating hypertrophic scars and keloids: a systemic review and
15. O’Boyle CP, Shayan-Arani H, Hamada MW. Intralesional cryo- meta-analysis. Int Wound J. 2017;14:480–7.
therapy for hypertrophic scars and keloids: a review. Scars Burn 18. Jin R, Huang X, Li H, Yuan Y, Li B, Cheng C, Li Q. Laser ther-
Heal. 2017;3:2059513117702162. apy for prevention and treatment of pathologic excessive scars.
16. Shridharani SM, Magarakis M, Manson PN, Singh NK, Basdag Plast Reconstr Surg. 2013;132(6):1747–58.
B, Rosson GD. The emerging role of antineoplastic agents in the
46
405 47
Genital Scars
Contents
47.1 Epidemiology and Etiology of Genital Wounds – 406
47.2 Genital Skin Anatomy and Microstructure – 408

47.2.1 evelopment of Genital Organs and Homology Between Sexes – 408
D
47.2.2 Anatomy of Male and Female Genitalia – 408
47.2.3 Microstructure of the Genital Skin – 408
47.3 athophysiology of Genital Wound Healing, Lymphedema

P
and Scarring – 410
47.3.1 S kin Architecture and Biomechanics – 410
47.3.2 Moist Environment and Bacterial Colonialization – 412
47.3.3 Hormonal Influences – 413
47.4 Acute Wound Repair of Genital Skin After Trauma – 415
47.5 hronic Inflammatory Diseases of the External Genitalia

C
and Tissue Fibrosis – 416
47.5.1 L ichen Sclerosus et Atrophicus/Balanitis Xerotica Obliterans – 416
47.5.2 Behçet’s Disease – 418
47.5.3 Chronic Inflammation due to Foreign Body Reaction – 418
47.5.4 Congenital and Acquired Genital Lymphedema and Tissue
Fibrosis – 418
47.6 Treatment of Genital Wounds and Scars – 418

47.6.1 T reatment of Acute Wounds and Tissue Defects – 420
47.6.2 Treatment of Genital Wounds and Scars After Burn Injury – 420
47.6.3 Gender Reassignment Surgery – 421
47.6.4 Treatment of Chronic Genital Skin Diseases – 423
47.6.5 Lymphedema Treatment – 423
47.7 Postoperative Management for Scar Prevention – 423
References – 424

406 U. Mirastschijski
47.1 pidemiology and Etiology of Genital

E
47 Background Wounds
Excessive scarring of the genitalia is uncommon despite
the fact that approximately 30% of men are circum- Since the ancient times, male circumcisions have been
cised worldwide with minor complication rates and no practiced by many communities mainly as a purity or
mention of scarring. After burn injury, severe scarring religious ritual (. Fig. 47.1). Female genital mutila-
is commonly seen in the perineal or suprapubic area tion (FGM)/cutting is still a common practice in many
but rarely occurs to the outer genital organs. Skin anat- African countries, no matter the religious background
omy, inflammatory response, and hormonal metabo- of the people. Little is known on the incidence and
lism differ between the genitals and the extragenital severity of scarring in the genital area despite the fact
skin and might therefore account for differences in that 30% of all men on the earth are circumcised [37].
wound healing and scarring. Owing to the high regen- Aside from circumcisions and ritual cuttings, other
erative potential of genital skin, the management of types of injuries, infections, tumors, skin diseases,
genital wounds aims at the stabilization of the local tis- and malformations can lead to abnormal wound heal-
sue with infection control and demarcation of necrotic ing and scarring of the genital skin. Due to the mul-
tissue. Reconstruction of tissue defects and scars com- titude of causes for genital trauma with subsequent
prises plastic surgical skin tissue transfer, including flap scarring, a general incidence for genital scars is diffi-
surgery and the restoration of the urinary and sexual cult to provide. As a consequence, I will first describe
function in an interdisciplinary context. different origins for genital tissue defects with special
focus on cutaneous wound healing and scarring of
the outer genitalia, that is, the vulva, the scrotum,
and the penis. For wound repair of the urinary system
zz The objectives of this chapters are as follows or the vagina and uterus, I would like to refer to the
55 To give an overview on the epidemiology and cause corresponding urological or gynecological literature
of genital scarring and textbooks.
55 To point out specific features of genital skin anatomy
55 To inform on the pathophysiology on skin wound zz Causes for genital scarring and fibrosis
healing, lymphology, and scarring of the outer geni- 55 Trauma, for example, burns, injuries to the pelvic
tals in women and men area, autoerotic injuries, genital self-mutilation
55 To describe management of genital wounds and tis- 55 Sequelae of any type of infections, for example,
sue defects Hidradenitis suppurativa/acne inversa, Fournier
55 To give an overview on conservative and surgical gangrene, viral infections, and sexually transmitted
treatment of genital wounds and scars diseases
.. Fig. 47.1 Ritual act of cir-

cumcision: relief in the tomb of
Ankhmahor at Saqqara (sixth
dynasty, 2345 BC; © CC BY-SA
3.0). This work is licensed under
a Creative Commons Attribu-
tion-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported
License
Genital Scars
407 47
55 Dermatological diseases, for example, various combat-related injuries being mostly associated with
inflammatory autoimmune diseases (e.g., Behçet’s severe polytraumatic incidents (62.1%). There are no
syndrome or Crohn’s disease with ulcerations, pyo- reports on scarring after this type of injury.
derma gangraenosum), bullous skin diseases, lichen Infections are quite common in the genital area.
sclerosus et atrophicus (LSC), lichen planus With several body orifices being anatomically located
55 Religiously/culturally motivated, for example, cir- in close relation, a multitude of commensal microbia
cumcisions, FGM/-cutting, or self-inflicted proce- is constantly present. In case of small lesions, lacera-
dures, for example, piercings, tattoos, foreign body tions, or immune incompetence of the host, germs can
insertion penetrate into deeper tissue layers and cause severe
55 Iatrogenic/surgical interventions, for example, aes- infections, for example, abscesses or gangrenes with
thetic surgery, cosmetic procedures, including foreign high mortality rates. Predisposed patients develop
body application; circumcision for phimosis; treat- chronic infections of the sweat glands and hair folli-
ment of malformations; genital reassignment surgery cles in the groin and genital area, also called hidrade-
55 Tumors followed by oncological surgery with/with- nitis suppurativa or acne inversa. Without appropriate
out radiation therapy treatment, they develop fistulas with recurrent infec-
55 Lymphatic disorders: congenital (Milroy’s or Meigs’ tions and subsequent scarring to the perineal crease.
disease) or acquired (e.g., after tumor surgery, lymph The annual prevalence of hidradenitis suppurativa
node excision, irradiation; infectious: filariasis) is around 1% with an estimate of 70 million patients
worldwide [14].
The literature search for causes of genital wounds that Fournier gangrene is a life-threatening necrotizing
result in scarring yields some information on burns or fasciitis of the genitalia with an incidence of 1.6/100,000
combat injuries with concomitant affection of the geni- patients that affects mostly men (10:1) [18]. The only
tal organs. The incidence of burn injury to the genita- sufficient cure is the radical surgical debridement of the
lia is rare with around 1.5% [15] but associated with a entire infected and necrotic tissue with accompanying
higher mortality rate with 17% in comparison to non- antibiotic treatment. Massive tissue losses can be the
genital burns (4.7%) [12]. In contrast to perineal and consequence with plastic surgical reconstruction after
inguinal scar contractures that are a common sequela successful elimination of the infection. Because the tis-
after burns to the lower abdomen and groin area, exces- sue defects have a tendency to spread over the groin area
sive scarring is rarely attributed to the outer genital as well, scar contractures are found as remnants of this
organs (. Fig. 47.2). type of genital infection (. Fig. 47.3).
The shift from high velocity to more explosive weap-
ons during the end of the twentieth century and the use
of improvised explosive devices resulted in more geni-
tal injuries in military conflicts than noticed before [1].
Genitourinary trauma accounted for only 5.3% of all
.. Fig. 47.3 Inguinal hypertrophic scarring with scar contractures

after hidradenitis suppurativa and recurrent inguinal infections that
culminated into a Fournier gangrene with vast tissue excision and
postoperative scarring. The resulting scar contractures impaired the
abduction of the left leg. Please note the instable scar with recur-
rent ulceration between the prepubic area and the left inguinal crease
.. Fig. 47.2 Inguinal scar contracture with impairment of the adjacent to the contracture (arrow). Aside from severe scarring, a
abduction of the right leg but without involvement of the big labia buried penis grade III is present. No scarring of the penile skin or
after severe burn injury glans but of the pubic skin and groin is present
The incidence of autoerotic or self-inflicted genital tive anatomical entity at the embryonic stage and further
47 injuries has not been determined but is extremely low differentiation into male and female genitalia during the
and patients present sporadically. Genital lesions can fetal period. . Table 47.1 summarizes the homologous
derive from blunt, strangulating, or penetrating trauma anatomical and microscopic structures.
and go as far as to incomplete or total amputations.
Self-inflicted genital injuries can derive from neurotic,
psychotic, and various other types of mental disorders 47.2.2 natomy of Male and Female
A
or associated diseases and are seen in gender dysphoric Genitalia
conditions.
It appears that the genital skin tends more to chronic The main anatomical differences between genital and
ulcers or fistulas seen in various dermatological dis- skin of other body areas are the lack of fat tissue to the
eases or infections than to healing with excessive scar scrotum, penis and labia minora, the absence of hair
formation. Despite reports on scarring after Behçet’s to the penile and small labia skin, and the reduced or
syndrome, it seems that the genital skin heals with atro- missing cornified epidermal layer of the epithelium of
phic rather than hypertrophic scarring. Of note, exces- the prepuce and the small labia. With regard to biome-
sive swelling of the outer genitalia is another feature chanics, the genital skin is highly elastic and flexible
that occurs typically after trauma or surgery and that because it lacks a firm attachment to underlying struc-
differs to skin wound repair of other body areas. Genital tures, for example, bones or cartilage. A subcutane-
lymphedema can be idiopathic and associated with con- ous smooth muscle layer, also called Dartos muscle or
genital malformations but is also present after cancer Tunica dartos that is found in the scrotum and big labia,
therapy and infections, for example, filariasis. Chronic is reminiscent of the subcutaneous carnosus muscle in
genital lymphedema can ultimately lead to severe fibrotic fur bearing animals and enables a gliding between the
conditions and elephantiasis. skin and the underlying connective tissue. Of note, the
The genitalia differ in several regards from other anatomic relict of the carnosus muscle in humans is the
body sites. Urogenital and anal orifices and the sur- Scarpa fascia that is found in most other parts of the
rounding skin are colonized by resident microbia in a body underneath the subcutaneous fat layer. The geni-
moist environment, there is abundant highly elastic skin talia are devoid of fat and the Scarpa fascia. Instead,
around the external genital organs that is loosely fixed the Dartos fascia is found here. An illustration of the
to the pelvic bone, and the cutaneous microstructure, genital anatomy for both sexes is shown in . Figs. 47.5
inflammatory reaction, and hormonal responsiveness and 47.6.
are different compared to other tissues. In the following
sections, all these features and their influence on genital zz Summary: Differences Between Genital and
wound repair and scarring will be elucidated in detail. Nongenital Skin
Genital skin differs from other regions:
55 No subcutaneous fat tissue, no Scarpa fascia; instead
47.2 enital Skin Anatomy
G tunica dartos with smooth muscle cells (scrotum and
and Microstructure big labia) or dartos fascia with loose attachment of
the skin (penis)
For a better understanding why genitalia behave dif- 55 No tight attachment of the skin to underlying bone
ferently to skin from other body sites, the macro- and or cartilage
microstructure of the genital skin and organs, including 55 Little or no keratinizing epithelia—mucous surfaces
lymphatics, are important and will be described in the of small labia, glans, and prepuce
following paragraphs. The knowledge of the anatomy 55 Reduced hair growth—skin of scrotum and big labia
is the prerequisite for the appropriate conservative and 55 Moist environment due to mucous surfaces and a
surgical treatment. multitude of mucous secreting glands
55 Constant microbial contamination—cutaneous, gen-
itourinary, and intestinal flora
47.2.1 evelopment of Genital Organs
D
and Homology Between Sexes
47.2.3 Microstructure of the Genital Skin
Female and male outer genitals derive from the same
embryological origins with different development The skin is the largest organ of the human body that
depending on the sex of the infant. The develop- protects us against biological (e.g., microbial), chemical
ment of the external genitalia is presented in detail in (e.g., acids, bases), physical (e.g., irradiation, pressure),
. Fig. 47.4, which depicts the common origin of respec- thermal (heat, cold), and other threats, including exsic-
Genital Scars
409 47
a b
Genital
tubercle
Umbilical cord
Labium
Genital tubercle majus
Labium
Hind limb
minus
Cloaca Urogenital
membrane
Tail
Glans
clitoridis
Glans penis Labium
Scrotal swelling majus
Labium
Edge of groove
minus
on phallus
Opening of
Opening of urogenital
urogenital sinus sinus
Perineum Perineum
Anus Anus
Glans penis
Prepuce
Cavernous Glans
urethra clitoridis
Scrotum Labium
majus
Raphe Labium
Anus minus
Vestibule
Vaginal
orifice
Anus
.. Fig. 47.4 Development of the external genitalia in a men and b women
cation. We sense our environment by touching things Epidermis and dermis are separated from each other by a
and we are simultaneously protected by pain receptors basement membrane that is also the limit for vasculature.
in the skin. We regulate our body temperature via the The epidermis is free of vessels and nourished by means
cutaneous vasculature, and we communicate with other of oxygen diffusion. The subcutaneous fat is separated
people via mimics or smell—all provided by our intact from the deeper fat by a superficial fascia, called Scarpa
skin. To ensure its protective function, the skin possesses fascia. In the genitalia, this superficial fascia is called
an intricate architecture that can vary depending on the Colles (women) or Dartos fascia (men). This anatomical
body site, for example, eyelid, back, palms, oral cavity, structure is of importance because it serves as a fixation
or genitals. The general micro-structure of the skin com- point between fat layers whereas it provides elasticity and
prises three different entities, that is, the epidermis, the sliding properties to the genital skin.
dermis (cutis) consisting of the upper/papillary and the The cutaneous surface of moist environments is
lower/reticular dermis, and the subcutaneous fat layer. characterized by the absence of the cornified layer and
47 .. Table 47.1 Homology of male and female genitalia
Male Female Microscopic structure of the skin
Glans penis Glans clitoridis Multilayered, nonkeratinizing epidermis, dermal tissue with abundant innervation
Penile foreskin Clitoral prepuce Outer face of foreskin: epidermis with cornified layer;
Inner face: nonkeratinizing epidermis; mucous epithelium; no subcutaneous fat tissue
Frenulum penis Frenula clitoridis (pair) Nonkeratinizing, mucous epithelium, no fat tissue
Penile shaft skin Small labia Penis: epidermis with cornified layer
Labia: outer surface with thin cornified layer; inner surface: no cornified layer
Both sexes: no hair; no subcutaneous fat tissue; many elastic fibers;
Penis: highly flexible attachment to underlying tissue via Dartos fascia (fascia penis
superficialis)
Scrotal skin Big labia Hair bearing epidermis (labia: only outer surface), epidermal cornified layer
Labia: subcutaneous fat layer and smooth muscle cells
Scrotum: no fat, but contractile tunica dartos with smooth muscle cells and
myofibroblasts
hair follicles. Instead, different types of glands, for 47.3.1 Skin Architecture and Biomechanics
example, apocrine and eccrine, secrete fluids that mois-
turize the surface and protect the mucous epithelium The genital skin has to master many challenges, for
(. Figs. 47.7, 47.8, and 47.9). example, fast volume changes during sexual activity, sex
steroid sensitivity with permanent hormonal changes,
the presence of several body openings with constant
47.3 Pathophysiology of Genital Wound commensal microbial presence, and infectious threats
Healing, Lymphedema and Scarring deriving from sexual contacts. In that context, it is
breathtaking to understand the extraordinary adaption
Cutaneous scarring with tissue fibrosis is the result of a of the genital skin to its multiple tasks. To encounter
postnatal wound healing process. The longer the dura- aforementioned challenges, it is excellently equipped
tion and the excessive the inflammatory response in the anatomically and physiologically to address specific fea-
healing course, the more likely is the development of tures of the genital microenvironment.
aberrant scarring and severe tissue fibrosis. However, Notably the male genital skin has to manage fast
scar formation varies depending on the body site, the volume changes that occur during sexual activity and
skin architecture and anchorage to underlying struc- for thermal regulation of the testes. These physiological
tures. tasks are addressed by several means: (i) abundance of
Little is known about the pathophysiological pro- skin tissue on both the penile shaft and the scrotal sac,
cesses of genital cutaneous wound repair except for the (ii) the Dartos fascia on the penile shaft and the Tunica
general clinical statement that genital wounds heal fast, Dartos with the Dartos muscle in the scrotum, and (iii)
with enormous swelling and almost invisible scarring. In a high amount of elastic fibers in the dermis. In all three
the following, I will describe features that are different items, the genitalia differ from skin of other body areas
between the genitalia and the skin of other areas of the that is firmly attached to the underlying structures by a
body and that influence acute wound healing or chronic rather immobile fat layer. High skin elasticity and abun-
scarring (. Fig. 47.10). It is beyond the scope of this dance of tissue are the prerequisite for tension-free acute
chapter to include urethral, vaginal, or anal epithelial wound healing with unapparent scars—optimal repair
repair; tissues that derive from different developmen- conditions present in the genitalia. A drawback is the
tal origins and with differential healing behavior (e.g., tendency of the outer genitals to enormous swelling and
ulcerations, adhesion or fistula formation) compared to edema after surgery or trauma. The good side is that due
genital skin. to its elasticity and intricate lymphatics, the swelling of
the genital tissue resolves as fast as it occurs in healthy
subjects.
Genital Scars
411 47
.. Fig. 47.5 Anatomy of the male external genitalia. Of note, no fat tissue is present in the penis or scrotal tissue underneath the skin.
(Source: Mirastschijski & Remmel, Intimchirurgie, Springer Verlag, 2019)
47.3.2 oist Environment and Bacterial

M by little or nonkeratinizing squamous epithelia. The
47 Colonialization secreted fluids of multiple glands prevent the exsicca-
tion of mucous membranes and provide a moist micro-
Urethral, vaginal, and anal orifices are transition zones environment. It is an established fact that moist wound
between mucous membranes and keratinizing skin. As healing contributes to faster wound closure and reduced
depicted previously, parts of the genitalia are covered scarring.
The proximity of the genital skin to different orifices
is Janus sided. Aside from the beneficial moist milieu,
bacterial load and stringent body fluids such as urine
bear constant threats to the fragile mucosal skin lack-
1
ing the protective epidermal cornified layer. And again,
2 the genital mucosal skin is well prepared to address both
3
biological and chemical challenges. In contrast to other
parts of the body, keratinocytes and fibroblasts of the
4
5
6 Epidermis
7
8
Papillary dermis
9
10 Reticular dermis
11
12
500 µm
.. Fig. 47.8 Histological section from the abdominal skin stained

.. Fig. 47.6 Anatomy of the female external genitalia with hematoxylin-eosin. (By courtesy of Dr. D. Jiang and Dr.
Y. Rinkevich, Helmholtz Center Munich. © All rights reserved)
Multilayered, non-keratinizing Multilayered, keratinizing

squamous epithelium squamous epithelium
Epidermis Cornified layer
Blood capillaries of Basement

the papillary dermis membrane
Skin type found in moist environments, Skin type found over the entire body;
e.g. glanspenis/clitoridis, innerside of on palms and soles the cornified layer
the prepuce, oral cavity is much thicker
.. Fig. 47.7 Microstructure of nonkeratinizing and keratinizing skin

Genital Scars
413 47
.. Fig. 47.9 Microstructure
of the skin from different body a
areas: a arm, b penis, and c
small labia. Note the dense
dermal structure with multiple
vessels in a and lose collagen
bundles in b and c with high
similarity of penile and labial
skin. Scale bar in all sections
500 μm. (Elastica-van-Gieson
stainings; by courtesy of Dr.
D. Jiang and Dr. Y. Rinkevich,
Helmholtz Center Munich)
b c
genital skin are equipped with a fast immune response 47.3.3 Hormonal Influences
to bacterial presence. By secreting antimicrobial pep-
tides (AMPs) and defensins and with glandular mucous 47.3.3.1 I ncreased Aromatase Activity
fluids, bacteria are held at a distance. The immune and Intracrine Estrogen Production
response is fast and so is the resolution with quick con-
Hormone responsivity of tissues has profound impact
version of M1 to M2 macrophages and reduced expres-
on wound healing. Estrogens accelerate wound clo-
sion of proinflammatory cytokines [38]. Upon injury,
sure whereas testosterone delays healing [10]. Skin is a
skin cells increase the interleukin (IL)-1α production
major source of extraglandular sex steroid hormones
15-fold in comparison to vaginal epithelial cells with
that are produced from circulating dehydroepiandros-
only threefold increase. IL-1β and tumor necrosis fac-
terone (DHEA, [24, 28]) (. Fig. 47.11). The intracel-
tor (TNF)-α were only secreted by cutaneous epithelia
lular enzyme aromatase converts DHEA downstream
in contrast to mucous epithelial cells [9]. With regard
into the weaker estrogen Estrone or via testosterone
to profibrotic mediators, TGF-β is significantly elevated
into the more potent 17β-estradiol. Both estrogens act
in normal skin keratinocytes but not in mucosal epithe-
via the estrogen receptors (ERs) α and β, and stimulate
lia and without induction of fibrotic processes in the
keratinocyte and fibroblast migration [11]. In genital
underlying connective tissue. In summary, the reduced
fibroblasts, aromatase expression is androgen depen-
inflammatory response of mucosal epithelia to injury
dent. Interestingly, estrogens stimulate fibroblast con-
is sufficient to ensure wound closure without inducing
tractility without increasing alpha-smooth muscle actin
serious scarring.
expression or myofibroblast differentiation [31]. Upon
47 Skin architecture
• Non-keratinizing mucous epithelia

• Elastic fiber rich dermal tissue
• Absence of fat tissue
• Dartos muscle / fascia
Moist/mucous • Abundance of loose tissue
environment Biomechanics
• Increased epidermal water • Reduced mechanical tension

evaporation due to absent / due to lack of firm tissue fixation
reduced keratinizing epithelia
• Constant shift of tissue volume
Genital
• Abundance of mucus (sexual activity/ thermal
wound
secreting glands homeostasis)
healing
and scarring
Hormonal influences Barrier epithelium
• High hormonal sensitivity of • Constant exposure to

genital skin due to microbia from the urogenital
differential expression of tract and intestines
sex steroid receptors
• Increased expression of anti-
• Reduced inflammatory microbial peptides(AMP)
response due to increased and defensins
intracrine estrogen
production Acute trauma: Chronic disease:
Fast resolution of Continuous
inflammatory response inflammatory response
Little/no scarring, Atrophic scarring,

Fast wound healing Tissue shrinkage
.. Fig. 47.10 Factors that influence genital wound repair and differ from skin from other body regions
mechanical wounding, aromatase activity increases phage infiltration into wounds and by dampening the
400-fold in keratinocytes with increased intracellular proinflammatory signaling of IL-6 and TNF-α [5].
bioavailability of estrogens. Testosterone reduces aro- Of note, estrogens are also important antioxidants
matase activity, albeit this effect is not present in case that reduce cellular oxidative stress and apoptosis and
of low oxygen levels in tissues. Estrogens reduce the increase keratinocyte migration and collagen synthe-
cellular inflammatory response via downregulation of sis by dermal fibroblasts [38]. In menopausal women,
the proinflammatory cytokine macrophage migration cutaneous estrogen insufficiency manifests by atrophic
inhibitory factor (MIF) [6], by reduced TLR-4 medi- skin changes and a diminished defense against reactive
ated MAPK activation, by the reduction of macro- oxygen species.
Genital Scars
415 47
.. Fig. 47.11 Simplified
description of intracrine sex Estrogen receptors α/β
steroid hormone production by
skin cells. Dehydroepiandros-
terone (DHEA) is released by 17βHSD
the adrenal cortex and further
Estrone 17 β-estradiol
processed directly into estrogens
by aromatase or into testos- Adrenal Adrenal 17 βOHSD
terone by 17-β-hydroxysteroid gland cortex
Aromatase Aromatase
dehydrogenase (17-β-HSD).
Estrone is reversibly oxi- 5 αR
dized into 17β-estradiol by DHEA Testosterone DHT
17β-OHSD. Testosterone can 17βHSD
be either directly converted into
the estrogen 17β-estradiol by Kidney
aromatase or irreversibly con-
verted into dihydrotestosterone Androgen receptor
by 5-α-reductase (5αR) [39]
47.3.3.2 ndrogen and Estrogen Receptor

A tivity was found in the labia minora and nongenital
Expression in Genital Skin skin. There are no differences in sex hormone receptor
Estrogens act via estrogen receptors and testosterone via expression between pre- and postmenopausal women.
androgen receptors (ARs) that are expressed by many Progesterone receptors are not present in genital skin. In
cell types. For instance, AR expression differs between men, ARs were located to basal keratinocytes and stro-
genital and nongenital skin with upregulation in genital mal fibroblasts of the penile foreskin. No AR expres-
fibroblasts. In general, it appears that sex steroid hor- sion was found in nongenital cutaneous keratinocytes or
mone expression is higher in stromal cells than in epithe- fibroblasts but in fibroblasts of hair follicle papillae or
lial cells, implying higher responsiveness of fibroblasts in cells of pilosebaceous ducts and glands, skin struc-
to hormonal influences. Aside from receptor expres- tures that are influenced by androgens in their function
sion, the binding capacity and metabolism of sex ste- and structure. The highest intensity of AR staining was
roid hormones differs between different skin regions. noted in genital skin. ERs were similarly expressed in
Testosterone binding capacity of the AR is higher in postnatal penile skin with localization to basal epithelia
genital compared to nongenital skin cells [39] from both and stromal cells adjacent to the urethra and the urethra
sexes—independently of age—and testosterone degra- itself with age-dependent reduction [27]. Aromatase is
dation is up to 30 times faster in genital skin compared not colocalized with estrogen receptors, and levels of
with nongenital skin [30]. aromatase, ERα, and ERβ decrease with age [27].
Sex hormone receptor expression in genital skin dif- In summary, ARs and ERs are highly expressed in
fers between prenatal and adult genital skin due to the genital skin in contrast to skin of other body areas with
terminal differentiation of the external genitalia that is fast binding and degradation of testosterone or conver-
dependent on hormonal influences. In fetal skin, ARs are sion into estrogen by increased aromatase activity. A
very similarly expressed in both sexes with the absence summary of hormonal differences between genital skin
of ARs on the preputial skin, penile shaft/labia minora, and nongenital skin is given in . Table 47.2.
and scrotal skin/labia majora. ARs are expressed in the
tissue of the glans and inner prepuce of both sexes and
in the stromal tissue of the labia. 47.4 cute Wound Repair of Genital Skin
A
ER was present in fetal female genital skin except for After Trauma
labia minora and majora [16] and prominent ER stain-
ing was found in the entire developing fetal penis includ- Depending on the type and severity of the injury, two
ing skin, glans, inner prepuce, and stromal cells [4]. main clinical symptoms characterize traumatized geni-
Interestingly, ARs and ERs were colocalized in penile talia, namely enormous bleeding and swelling. When
tissues. the hematoma resolves and the swelling disappears,
Less detailed information is available with regard to wounds heal with almost no visible scarring even after
adult genital skin. In women, ARs are found in kerati- major trauma. An example for invisible genital scarring
nocytes and fibroblasts of the labia majora and minora is the fact that one-third of the male world population
and in the adjacent extragenital skin. ER immunoposi- is circumcised [37] without any report of hypertrophic
47 .. Table 47.2 Hormonal differences between genital skin and nongenital skin
Genital skin Nongenital skin
Androgen receptor Higher expression in labia majora and minora Only present in hair follicles and pilo-sebaceous
Upregulated in fibroblasts and basal keratinocytes duct keratinocytes
Colocalization with ER Low expression in extra-genital skin
Estrogen receptors Highly expressed in penis and labia minora Lower expression compared to vulva or vagina
Restricted to basal keratinocytes and stromal Expressed by keratinocytes and fibroblasts
fibroblasts Absence in skin appendages or blood vessels
Expression decreases with age
Testosterone Higher AR-binding capacity of testosterone Higher rate of conversion into DHT
30 times faster degradation Higher 5-α-reductase activity with irreversible
Reduced effect on aromatase activity in low-oxygen formation of DHT
conditions
Estrogens No conversion of 17β-estradiol into the weaker estrone Threefold increased metabolism of
Stimulate fibroblast contractility without 17β-estradiol into estrone
alpha-smooth-muscle actin (ASMA) expression
Aromatase Higher activity in fibroblasts with conversion of Expression in skin fibroblasts, keratinocytes of
testosterone into 17β-estradiol the outer root sheath and in terminal hair
Dose-dependent reduced activity by testosterone follicles and in cells of sebaceous glands and
Aromatase expression androgen dependent ducts
AR androgen receptor, ER estrogen receptor, DHT dihydrotestosterone
scarring to the preputial skin. Despite major trauma 47.5 hronic Inflammatory Diseases
C
after female genital mutilation/cutting, the genital skin of the External Genitalia and Tissue
heals uneventfully if the girl survives postinterventional
Fibrosis
bleeding and infection. Cutaneous genital infections are
disastrous and can rapidly lead to septic conditions with
Several skin diseases with autoimmune background
high lethality. Fournier gangrene is one example of nec-
can affect the outer genitalia with chronic inflamma-
rotizing fasciitis of the genital skin with a mortality rate
tion leading to tissue shrinkage and atrophy. Chronic
of 80% without surgery [18]. Obviously, the loose archi-
lymphedema after tumor surgery and/or irradiation,
tecture of genital skin provides optimal means for rapid
with infectious background or due to congenital malfor-
subcutaneous bacterial spreading leading ultimately to
mation of lymphatic organs, leads to tissue fibrosis and
multiple organ failure and death.
stiffening and to verruca-like epidermal changes in the
The aforementioned characteristics of the outer
long run. In the following, the most common chronic
genitalia with regard to architecture, fixation, micro-
diseases and changes to the genital skin will be described
environment, hormonal influences, and reduced
in detail.
inflammatory response orchestrate the fast resolution
of the acute wound healing process with reduced scar
formation. Albeit the apparently scar-free wound heal-
ing properties of genital skin, there is one exception. 47.5.1 ichen Sclerosus et Atrophicus/
L
The ventral part of the prepuce ends in the so-called Balanitis Xerotica Obliterans
frenulum that is fixed to stromal tissue of the ventral
side of the glans bridging to the penile shaft. In case Lichen sclerosus et atrophicus (LSC), also called bala-
of excessive tissue removal during circumcision, the nitis xerotica obliterans in men, is the most common
frenulum can shrink and pull the glans in direction of chronic dermatitis localized to the mucous membranes
the penile shaft that is painful, gives discomfort during and skin of the genitalia. LSC is found in females and
erection, and can cause reduced sensation of the glans males with a ratio of up to 10:1 and has a double peak
penis (. Fig. 47.12). in females with occurrence in prepubertal and post-
menopausal age. In men, LSC is the most common
Genital Scars
417 47
.. Fig. 47.12 Examples for
scar formation to the male a
genitalia. a Invisible scar after
circumcision. Note differential
pigmentation of the outer
penile skin and the remaining
inner part of the prepuce. b
Scar after excessive circumci-
sion with shortening and scar-
ring of the frenulum (arrow).
c Scrotal scar (arrow) after
multiple excisions of silicone
granuloma and subcutaneous
fibrotic tissue
cause of acquired phimosis [3] and affects the glans women [17] and up to 30% of men [3]. Other LSC-
and the prepuce (. Fig. 47.13). Typical symptoms associated diseases comprise autoimmune thyroiditis,
are a thickening of the foreskin that impairs retrac- vitiligo, or pernicious anemia. The etiology of LSC is
tion. Whitish plaques can extend over the entire glans not fully understood. An autoimmune origin with T-
with affection of the urethral meatus followed by ste- and B-cell-driven response to a yet unknown antigen is
nosis and voiding problems. In females, the anogenital discussed because dense T-lymphocytic infiltrates with
area is frequently affected forming an 8-shaped efflo- concomitant vasculitis and extensive tissue destruc-
rescence around the vulva and the anal orifice with tion are found in LSC-tissue sections. The glycoprotein
opaque plaques and papules. In chronic disease, these extracellular matrix protein 1 (ECM 1) has been tar-
atrophic lesions can lead to a complete destruction of geted as putative autoantigen because the symptoms
the vulva with resorption of the small labia, narrow- of the autosomal recessive disorder lipoid proteinosis
ing of the vaginal introitus and burying of the clitoris. resemble acquired LSC with thickening and scarring
The patients’ quality of life is severely reduced due to of skin and mucosa [2]. Another related dermatosis,
chronic pruritus, pain, and obstipation resulting from the Lichen planus, presents with similar symptoms and
painful defecation in women and painful erection and etiology that makes the initial differentiation between
hygienic problems in men. Of note, LSC is associated lichen sclerosus and lichen planus difficult [35].
with squamous cell carcinoma formation in 5% of
in to the scrotum or under the penile skin for girth

47 enhancement with catastrophic complications such as
granuloma formation, infections, swelling, and local tis-
sue necrosis [33]. Alternatively polymethylmethacrylate
(PMMA) microspheres or autologous fat are used as fill-
ers or silicone implants for permanent enlargement [19,
20]. The placement of permanent, alloplastic foreign
body material in an environment populated by a variety
of commensal microbes is risky due to the inherent dan-
ger of infection. In case of granuloma, tissue necrosis, or
implant infection, the foreign material must be removed
with subsequent tissue loss. Foreign body materials can
initiate a chronic inflammatory process with cutaneous
thickening and subcutaneous tissue fibrosis leading ulti-
mately to a shrinkage of the entire penile shaft. Details
of the surgical treatment after foreign body injection are
shown in . Fig. 47.14.
47.5.4 ongenital and Acquired Genital

C
Lymphedema and Tissue Fibrosis
Lymphedema is defined as low- (<1 g/100 ml) or high-
(>1 g/100 ml) protein fluid retention in the interstitial
space [8]. Congenital malformation of lymphatic ves-
sels can cause chronic lymphedema. Acquired lymph-
edema occurs after surgery (. Fig. 47.15) for various
.. Fig. 47.13 Patient with Lichen sclerosus et atrophicus to the reasons (cancer, gangrene, foreign bodies, etc.), irradia-
penile glans and after several circumcisions and reconstruction of tion, or filariasis. The swelling is due to an imbalance
a buried penis. Note central ulceration (thin arrow) surrounded by
opaque and shiny skin changes of the glans including meatal stenosis
of the production and absorption, including drainage
(arrowhead) and granuloma formation (thick arrow) of the lymph that can be caused by an obstruction, dis-
ruption, or insufficiency of the lymph vessels. Chronic
lymphedema affects the surrounding tissue with fibro-
47.5.2 Behçet’s Disease sis and the skin with rhagades and recurrent infections,
blister formation, wart-like epidermal excrescences,
Aphthous stomatitis (oral ulcers) and genital ulcers are and scarring.
common features of Behçet’s disease. The etiology of
the autoimmune vasculitis is unknown. The most com-
mon site for genital ulcer formation is the scrotum in 47.6 Treatment of Genital Wounds
men and the big labia in women. Interestingly, scrotal and Scars
and big labia ulcers heal with normal, nonhypertrophic
scarring whereas skin lesions on the small labia heal The manifold the causes for wounding and scarring to
without scars similar to oral ulcers [22]. the genitalia are, the diverging are the treatments as
well. The choice of the appropriate surgical technique
is orientated on the depth, magnitude, and location of
47.5.3 hronic Inflammation due to Foreign
C the defect and the quality of the surrounding tissue.
Body Reaction Needless to say that the delicate genital anatomy of
both sexes and the variety of tissue defects or scars that
The size of the penis is of central importance for many can extend over to adjacent body areas require highly
men who build their self-confidence on the penile length. skilled surgeons with expertise in reconstruction of the
In that context it is not surprising that a plethora of dif- genitalia. Aside from defect closure, restoration of the
ferent substances were used for penile enlargement over voiding and sexual function are central to each recon-
centuries. Vaseline, paraffin, liquid mercury, silicone structive procedure and require often an interdisciplin-
(. Figs. 47.12c and 47.14), or cod liver oil were injected ary setting.
Genital Scars
419 47
a b
c d
.. Fig. 47.14 Penile skin necrosis after silicone oil injection. a Tis- and granuloma c. d Postoperative result after full-thickness skin
sue necrosis over the entire penile shaft preoperatively. b, c Intraop- grafting with epidermal thickening and hypopigmentation 6 weeks
erative situs b after meticulous excision of all foreign body material after grafting
47 a b
.. Fig. 47.15 Penile lymphedema a Penile lymphatic vessels and infection with a multiresistant Staphylococcus aureus and different
lymph drainage on the dorsal side of the penile shaft (arrow). b enterobacteriaceae. Note massive swelling of the penile shaft (arrow)
Fournier gangrene on the base of a chronic acne inversa with mas- with burying of the glans due to loss of dorsal lymphatic vessels and
sive tissue resection of the prepubic and groin area after necrotizing drainage pathways after debridement
47.6.1 Treatment of Acute Wounds The reconstruction of the female genitalia is similar
and Tissue Defects as in men with primary closure of small lesions and flap
surgery in case of larger tissue losses. An elegant proce-
Small acute wounds and tissue defects are commonly dure for reconstruction of the big labia is the anterior
closed primarily due to the abundance, elasticity, and obturator artery perforator flap (aOAP) that is har-
loose fixation of the genital skin and tissue. For instance, vested from the groin area [29]. Interestingly, the flap tis-
primary closure of scrotal defects after up to 50% tissue heals with minimal scarring once it is transferred to
sue loss is feasible, otherwise local or distant flaps (e.g., the vulva in contrast to its harvest site in the groin that
bilateral gracilis flaps; . Fig. 47.16) or skin grafts are is prone to hypertrophic scarring (personal communica-
used to reconstruct the scrotal sac [18]. Superficial skin tion with Prof. Dr. Uwe von Fritschen, Desert Flower
loss to the penile glans recovers by conservative treat- Center, Helios Klinikum Emil von Behring, Berlin).
ment, and deeper tissue defects need skin grafting, for
example, with oral mucosa or thin split-thickness skin
[34]. Penile shaft defects can be elegantly closed using 47.6.2 Treatment of Genital Wounds
preputial flaps in case the patient is not circumcised. and Scars After Burn Injury
Otherwise, split-thickness or full-thickness skin grafts
are the current state-of-the-art for penile shaft recon- The golden standard for treatment of partial-thickness
struction. Drawback of free skin grafts is the lack of (deep second degree) and full-thickness (third degree)
cutaneous elasticity and sensation. In case of abundant burns is debridement of the necrotic tissue with skin
scrotal tissue, local neurovascular flaps (e.g., midline grafting. Due to its high regenerative potential, a more
raphe scroti artery, MiRA-flap) can restore—at least in conservative approach is the current clinical practice
part—tissue texture and sensation [26]. for genital skin until full demarcation of the necrotic
tissue. As mentioned earlier, the genitals are capable of
Genital Scars
421 47
a b c
.. Fig. 47.16 Plastic–reconstructive surgery of the scrotum with the defect by tunneling underneath the perineal crease. Harvest areas
bilateral gracilis muscle flaps covered by a split-thickness skin graft. are depicted with arrowheads. c Postoperative site after 1 week with
a Preoperative site with almost complete loss of the scrotal tissue. almost complete skin graft take. d Situation after 3 weeks with little
Both testes are exposed (white arrow) with lymphedematous swelling scarring and a skin texture resembling the natural scrotal appear-
of the penis (arrowhead). b Intraoperative situs after debridement. ance. Note split-thickness harvest site to the right thigh (arrowhead)
Both gracilis muscles (white arrow) are mobilized and rotated into
compensating for rather large tissue losses with only 47.6.3 Gender Reassignment Surgery
minor scar formation [15]. In contrast, severe scarring
and scar contractures are common to the groin and Genital gender reassignment surgery comprises the for-
perineal area that can impair the movement of the mation of a female vulva, including big and small labia,
lower extremities (. Figs. 47.2 and 47.3). After scar a clitoris with a clitoral hood and a vagina in male-to-
excision, local skin flaps, for example, Z-plasties, are female transsexuals and the formation of a penoid with
usually used for wound closure and tension release. functional elongation of the urethra and a scrotum in
In case of insufficient local tissue, distant, pedicled, female-to-male transsexuals. Highly specialized surgeons
or free flaps with microvascular anastomosis are stan- perform these extraordinary procedures in an interdisci-
dard procedures and belong to the repertoire of a plas- plinary context with astonishing results. Notably scar-
tic–reconstructive surgeon (. Fig. 47.17). For further ring is minimal despite extensive surgical intervention to
detailed information, the recently published textbooks the genitalia with relocation of ontogenetically homol-
for genital [25] or burn [13] reconstructive surgery are ogous entities. My profound fascination for absent or
recommended. minimal genital scarring derives from patients after gen-
der reassignment surgery (. Fig. 47.18).
a b
47
.. Fig. 47.17 Scar contractures to the inguinal and perineal region ring. Previous reconstructive surgery included local tissue transfer
after burn injury. a Preoperative situs with scar contractures span- for scar release to the right groin (arrow). b Postoperative situs after
ning over both groins that impair the range of motion of both legs. multiple Z-plasties
Of note, the genital area, including the big labia, is devoid of scar-
a b
.. Fig. 47.18 Male-to-female transsexual patient after genital reas- and the vaginal entrance. a. ventral aspect, b. caudal aspect (By cour-
signment surgery. Note construction of all vulvar structures with big tesy of Dr. Jürgen Schaff, PSC Munich)
and small labia, a clitoris covered completely by the clitoral prepuce
Genital Scars
423 47
47.6.4 reatment of Chronic Genital Skin
T The treatment of filariasis is antimicrobial; in case
Diseases of genital elephantiasis, surgical removal of penile and
scrotal tissue is indicated for debulking although clinical
Chronic genital ulcers can originate from autoimmune studies on the postsurgical outcome are scarce [21].
diseases, infections, pressure sores, etc. Describing
details on the systemic rheumatologic treatment of
autoimmune disorders is beyond the scope of this chap- 47.7 ostoperative Management for Scar
P
ter. More information on diagnosis and therapy of der- Prevention
matologic autoimmune disorders is provided in excellent
reviews [7, 32]. Postoperative excessive scarring of the genitalia is
LSC in women responds well to topical corticoste- rare and limited to free partial-thickness skin grafts
roid ointments whereas phimoses in men require surgi- to the penile shaft. In contrast, hypertrophic scarring
cal intervention. Circumcision with complete removal and scar contractures are common to the perineal and
of the penile foreskin is the gold standard that leads to inguinal area with postoperative compression therapy
relapse-free recovery from LSC [3, 7]. and mobilizing physiotherapy being imperative. With
regard to the genitals, lymphedema formation is more
common and an issue for intensive postoperative care.
47.6.5 Lymphedema Treatment Standard or tailor-made individual compression gar-
ments are available and recommended for 3–6 months.
Depending on the underlying cause of noninfectious Compression panties for women are available in dif-
genital lymphedema, the treatment is primarily con- ferent sizes. With regard to male compression therapy,
servative with a complex decongestive physiotherapy the issue is more problematic due to difficulties in han-
(CDP), according to Földi [8]. To ensure permanent dling penile compression stockings and the fixation to
lymphatic drainage, compression therapy is recom- the penile base. Our group has developed such a penile
mended not only in patients with lymphedema but compression stocking in cooperation with highly quali-
also in patients after genital reconstruction. Surgical fied orthopedic technicians who produce individually
intervention in secondary genital lymphedema is con- tailored pressure garments for men after skin grafts or
troversially discussed and should be limited to selected flap surgery with postoperative lymphedematous swell-
patients in the hands of experienced surgeons and ing. After a short training period, all men were capable
physiotherapists [23, 36]. of handling the stocking by themselves (. Fig. 47.19).
a b c
.. Fig. 47.19 Postoperative treatment after reconstruction of a ment with tailor-made pressure garments to prevent excessive scar-
genital and perineal defect after Fournier gangrene. a Preoperative ring. Note separate compression panty for the perineal area and a
site after multiple debridements. b Postoperative situation 4 weeks tailor-made stocking for the penile shaft
after defect closure with split-thickness skin grafts. c Adjuvant treat-
We recommend the prescription of at least two pairs References

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tion with fast-onset and quick resolution. 15. Ismail Aly ME, Huang T. Management of burn injuries of the
55 Androgen and estrogen receptors are highly perineum. In: Herndon D, editor. Total burn care. London: Else-
expressed in genital skin. Genital wound repair vier; 2018. p. 609–17.
16. Kalloo NB, Gearhart JP, Barrack ER. Sexually dimorphic
benefits from hormonal responsiveness and
expression of estrogen receptors, but not of androgen recep-
increased presence of sex steroid hormones due to tors in human fetal external genitalia. J Clin Endocrinol Metab.
intracrine production by skin cells. 1993;77:692–8.
55 Chronic inflammatory conditions caused by auto- 17. Kirtschig G. Lichen sclerosus-presentation, diagnosis and man-
immune disorders, infections, or foreign mate- agement. Dtsch Arztebl Int. 2016;113:337–43.
18. Lehnhardt M, Wallner C, Daigeler A. Reconstruction of the
rial can lead to severe tissue fibrosis followed by
male genitals after Fournier gangrene. In: Mirastschijski U,
shrinkage and destruction of the outer genitalia. Remmel E, editors. Intimchirurgie. Berlin: Springer; 2019.
55 Chronic lymphedema manifests in enormous p. 253–63.
swelling of the outer genitalia with long-term tis- 19. Lemperle G, Casavantes L. Penisvergrößerung durch Injektion
sue fibrosis and wart-like epidermal changes. von PMMA-Mikrosphären. In: Mirastschijski U, Remmel E,
editors. Intimchirurgie. Berlin: Springer; 2019. p. 79–89.
55 Reconstruction of tissue defects or scar contrac-
20. Lemperle G, Elist JJ, Jethon C. Penisvergrößerung mit dem Pen-
tures should include the functional restoration of uma-Silikon-Implantat. In: Mirastschijski U, Remmel E, editors.
micturition and sexuality. Intimchirurgie. Berlin: Springer; 2019. p. 69–78.
55 Reconstructive interventions to the outer genitalia 21. Lim KH, Speare R, Thomas G, Graves P. Surgical treatment
are complex and delicate and should exclusively be of genital manifestations of lymphatic filariasis: a systematic
review. World J Surg. 2015;39:2885–99.
performed by experienced surgeons specialized in
22. Mat MC, Goksugur N, Engin B, Yurdakul S, Yazici H. The fre-
genital surgery. quency of scarring after genital ulcers in Behcet’s syndrome: a
prospective study. Int J Dermatol. 2006;45:554–6.
Genital Scars
425 47
23. Mcdougal WS. Lymphedema of the external genitalia. J Urol. Van Beurden M, Helmerhorst TJ, Blok LJ. An autoimmune
2003;170:711–6. phenotype in vulvar lichen sclerosus and lichen planus: a Th1
24. Mills SJ, Ashworth JJ, Gilliver SC, Hardman MJ, Ashcroft response and high levels of microRNA-155. J Invest Dermatol.
GS. The sex steroid precursor DHEA accelerates cutaneous 2012;132:658–66.
wound healing via the estrogen receptors. J Invest Dermatol. 36. Torio-Padron N, Stark GB, Foldi E, Simunovic F. Treatment of
2005;125:1053–62. male genital lymphedema: an integrated concept. J Plast Recon-
25. Mirastschijski U, Remmel E. Intimchirurgie. Berlin: Springer; str Aesthet Surg. 2015;68:262–8.
2019. 37. Who. Male circumcision. Global trends and determinants of
26. Mirastschijski U, Schwenke C, Schmiedl A. Plastic- surgical prevalence, safety and acceptability. In: Data ILC-i-P, editor.
reconstruction of the male genitals. In: Mirastschijski U, UNAIDS/07.29E/JC1320E. Geneva: WHO Press; 2007.
Remmel E, editors. Intimchirurgie. Berlin: Springer; 2019. 38. Wilkinson HN, Hardman MJ. The role of estrogen in cutaneous
p. 189–206. ageing and repair. Maturitas. 2017;103:60–4.
27. Mowa CN, Jesmin S, Miyauchi T. The penis: a new target and 39. Zouboulis CC, Chen WC, Thornton MJ, Qin K, Rosen-
source of estrogen in male reproduction. Histol Histopathol. field R. Sexual hormones in human skin. Horm Metab Res.
2006;21:53–67. 2007;39:85–95.
28. Nelson LR, Bulun SE. Estrogen production and action. J Am
Acad Dermatol. 2001;45:S116–24.
29. O’dey DM, Bozkurt A, Pallua N. The anterior Obturator Further Reading
Artery Perforator (aOAP) flap: surgical anatomy and applica- Ismail Aly ME, Huang T. Management of burn injuries of the
tion of a method for vulvar reconstruction. Gynecol Oncol. perineum. In: Herndon D, editor. Total burn care. London: Else-
2010;119:526–30. vier; 2018. p. 609–17.
30. Pinsky L, Finkelberg R, Straisfeld C, Zilahi B, Kaufman M, Hall Mills SJ, Ashworth JJ, Gilliver SC, Hardman MJ, Ashcroft GS. The
G. Testosterone metabolism by serially subcultured fibroblasts sex steroid precursor DHEA accelerates cutaneous wound healing
from genital and nongenital skin of individual human donors. via the estrogen receptors. J Invest Dermatol. 2005;125:1053–62.
Biochem Biophys Res Commun. 1972;46:364–9. Mirastschijski U, Remmel E. Intimchirurgie. Berlin: Springer; 2019.
31. Pomari E, Dalla Valle L, Pertile P, Colombo L, Thornton Mowa CN, Jesmin S, Miyauchi T. The penis: a new target and
MJ. Intracrine sex steroid synthesis and signaling in human source of estrogen in male reproduction. Histol Histopathol.
epidermal keratinocytes and dermal fibroblasts. FASEB J. 2006;21:53–67.
2015;29:508–24. Nelson LR, Bulun SE. Estrogen production and action. J Am Acad
32. Saccucci M, Di Carlo G, Bossu M, Giovarruscio F, Salucci A, Dermatol. 2001;45:S116–24.
Polimeni A. Autoimmune diseases and their manifestations on Terlou A, Santegoets LA, Van Der Meijden WI, Heijmans-
oral cavity: diagnosis and clinical management. J Immunol Res. Antonissen C, Swagemakers SM, Van Der Spek PJ, Ewing PC,
2018;2018:6061825. Van Beurden M, Helmerhorst TJ, Blok LJ. An autoimmune
33. Schill S, Panfilov DE, Mirastschijski U. Intimchirurgie beim phenotype in vulvar lichen sclerosus and lichen planus: a Th1
Mann. In: Mirastschijski U, Remmel E, editors. Intimchirurgie. response and high levels of microRNA-155. J Invest Dermatol.
Berlin: Springer; 2019. p. 49–68. 2012;132:658–66.
34. Schwenke C, Melchior S. Peniskarzinom aus uro-onkologischer Torio-Padron N, Stark GB, Foldi E, Simunovic F. Treatment of male
Sicht. In: Mirastschijski U, Remmel E, editors. Intimchirurgie. genital lymphedema: an integrated concept. J Plast Reconstr
Berlin: Springer; 2019. p. 207–15. Aesthet Surg. 2015;68:262–8.
35. Terlou A, Santegoets LA, Van Der Meijden WI, Heijmans- Zouboulis CC, Chen WC, Thornton MJ, Qin K, Rosenfield R. Sex-
Antonissen C, Swagemakers SM, Van Der Spek PJ, Ewing PC, ual hormones in human skin. Horm Metab Res. 2007;39:85–95.
427 XII
Psychological Impact of
Burn Injuries
Contents
Chapter 48 Psychological Impact of Living with Scars

Following Burn Injury – 429
Chapter 49 Makeup Therapy for Scars – 435

Joëlle Nonni
429 48
Psychological Impact of Living

with Scars Following Burn
Injury
Contents
48.2 Psychological Problems After a Burn Injury – 430

48.3 Psychological and Social Impact of Living with Scars – 431
48.3.1 ody-Esteem and Self-Esteem Concerns – 431
B
48.3.2 Social Self-Consciousness of Appearance – 431
48.4 Factors Impacting Adjustment – 431

48.4.1 urn Severity and Scarring – 431
B
48.4.2 Facial Involvement – 432
48.4.3 Concealed Scars – 432
48.4.4 Gender – 432
48.4.5 Importance of Appearance – 432
48.5 I nterference of Psychological Problems with the Perception

of the Scar – 432
48.6 Management – 433

References – 434

430 N. E. E. Van Loey
48.1 Background chapter include to know the prevalence rates of diverse

psychiatric disorders that can develop in the aftermath
There is no getting around it: a severe burn injury is a of burn injury, to be aware of signals that may require
48 major life event that can dramatically disrupt a person’s an in-depth examination of underlying problems, to be
life. The traumatic nature of the event, the long hos- aware that psychological problems can affect the per-
pitalization and co-occurring high pain intensity, and ceptions of scar outcomes, to have some knowledge of
the suddenly changed appearance can have a profound risk factors, and, finally, to have knowledge regarding
impact on those affected. Along with medical advances, psychological treatment options to support people liv-
more people with severe burns survive their injury and ing with scars.
live with scars in a society where a high premium is
placed on physical appearance and attractiveness. Scars
resulting from burns can have a conspicuous look and 48.2 sychological Problems After a Burn
P
may capture attention from the environment. When Injury
scars are hypertrophic, they are typically firm, raised,
red, and have a rough surface. Hypertrophic scars can A burn event happens suddenly and can be life threat-
be difficult to conceal when they are located at visible ening. This may elicit a broad range of psychological
body parts. Also, scars in less visible areas can pose a reactions. Although it is documented that a substantial
burden on someone’s life in specific situations such as group of patients has pre-burn existing psychological
the swimming pool, or when the weather is warm and problems sometimes being the cause of the injury, for
more revealing clothing is indicated at that time. example, self-harm during psychosis or suicide attempts,
Living with scars may become even more compli- one may also develop severe and long-term psychologi-
cated in the current society. Professionals and academics cal problems in response to the trauma or the adjust-
are concerned about the changing notions of normal- ment process to a changed appearance. In the acute
ity related to appearance and the increasing demands of phase of burn injuries, there is a large focus on physical
beauty. A recent paper [1] mentioned that an increasing recovery. Along with wound healing and with the stabi-
amount of people in the UK consult the plastic surgeon lization of the physical condition comes the realization
or use cosmetic products to look as good as possible. that scars may be permanent and that appearance has
Pictures on social media are manipulated to present changed. Facing this change may elicit feelings of grief
persons in the best possible way. Body image and the and diminished body and self-esteem.
perception of bodies are changing and result in increas- Severe psychological disorders may be encountered
ing engagement in beauty practices that are justified by such as posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), depres-
the new concept of normality. Unsurprisingly, living in sion, and anxiety. These disorders can become chronic
a world that values beauty can be challenging for those when persons do not receive appropriate treatment.
with a visible difference. It can be particularly challeng- PTSD is included in the Diagnostic and Statistical
ing for the individual himself or herself when there is a Manual of Mental Disorders, 5th Edition (DSM-V) as a
high personal standard placed on beauty. Also, society stress disorder and can develop in response to a trau-
may be less acceptant toward those with a visible dif- matic event. PTSD comprises four symptom clusters:
ference. Therefore, even minor scarring may increase intrusions (intrusive thoughts and memories), avoid-
the call for plastic surgery and cosmetic interventions. ance of trauma-related stimuli, alterations in arousal
Underlying psychological problems may therefore be a and reactivity, and negative alterations in cognitions and
point of attention. mood. Initial higher levels of acute stress symptoms
This chapter has the general purpose to provide may be expected and can be regarded as normal reac-
information about the psychological impact of a tions to a distressing event. For a substantial propor-
burn injury and psychological difficulties that may tion of the patients, the high initial stress levels largely
be encountered when living with scars. Because sur- decrease within the weeks or months following the
vival rates have increased, more people live with the trauma. Severe symptoms of acute traumatic stress are
physical and psychological consequences of burns. reported in approximately 25% of patients admitted to
Consequently, appropriate psychosocial support and a burn center. In a subgroup, however, they persist and
interventions that help burn survivors deal with scars, become chronic. Prevalence rates of full PTSD after
from a personal view and the view from the outside 1 year postburn are around 10% and another 15% may
world, become increasingly important. Also, an under- display severe symptoms that do not meet all criteria,
standing care environment including all professionals, that is, partial PTSD.
that is, medical doctors, nurses, and physiotherapist, Depression is a disorder typically characterized by a
can improve outcomes. Learning objectives of this negative mood and diminished interest or pleasure dur-
Psychological Impact of Living with Scars Following Burn Injury
431 48
ing a period of 14 days or longer. One to 4 years after It is reasonable to expect that persons with more
the burn event, about 10% fulfilled criteria of major severe scarring have greater difficulty integrating the scars
depression with a postburn onset. Generalized anxiety in daily life than a person with minor scarring. But objec-
disorder (GAD) entails the presence of excessive anxi- tive characteristics such as severity of the burn injury
ety and worry, is experienced as challenging to control, in terms of body area affected, the number of surgeries
and is accompanied by physical or cognitive symptoms. needed, or the number of affected body parts are only
GAD was also found to occur in about 10% of burn modestly related to psychological well-being, indicating
survivors after 1 year. This implicates that over time, the that psychological factors may be more important. One
majority of people involved in a burn injury appear to such factor, importance of appearance, showed to mod-
adjust well and they will recover from initial high stress erate the relationship between severity characteristics and
and depressive symptoms but a substantial subgroup body-esteem. This indicates that for those who attach lit-
will have long-term problems [2]. Clinical attention and tle value to their appearance, scars have a lower impact on
screening is needed for PTSD, depression, and anxiety. their body-esteem. For people who highly value appear-
ance, scars negatively affect their body-esteem [6]. These
aspects will be addressed in more detail below.
48.3 sychological and Social Impact
P
of Living with Scars
48.3.2 Social Self-Consciousness
After a burn injury, when wounds are healing and scars of Appearance
start to develop, one has to adjust to this new situation
in which appearance has changed. There are two per- Scars can elicit negative reactions from the environ-
spectives that have a mutual influence: the individual ment. This is well described after burns. Feelings of
perspective and the social perspective. The first refers to stigmatization is one of the documented social prob-
how people look at themselves and the latter perspective lems of living with scars. This feeling may result from
entails the social perspective. reactions from other people such as prejudices, discrimi-
nation, being ignored, intrusive behaviors such as star-
ing, intrusive questions and remarks, or even bullying
48.3.1 Body-Esteem and Self-Esteem [7]. People who have to deal with these reactions may
Concerns develop a feeling of self-conscious and may perceive
stigmatization which may affect self-esteem in a negative
People sustaining a burn injury can be faced with notice- way. This in turn can induce avoidant behavior or some-
able visible differences resulting from large wounds that times (symptoms of) social anxiety. However, the impact
lead to scarring. Besides an altered appearance caused of these reactions may differ across individuals. Some
by these scars, functional limitations can occur if they persons are more prone to feel stigmatized because of a
are located across joints. Both the visible and functional stronger attentional bias toward stimuli that elicit fear.
characteristics can diminish satisfaction with appear- Psychological therapies can help dealing with these reac-
ance and can cause negative self-perceptions and diffi- tions and build self-esteem to increase quality of life.
culties with social interactions that place people at risk
to develop depression and (social) anxiety disorders.
These psychological problems may be debilitating to 48.4 Factors Impacting Adjustment
daily functioning in key areas of living such as occupa-
tional functioning. 48.4.1 Burn Severity and Scarring
Important psychological concepts such as self-
esteem and body-esteem can be damaged when a person In general, the objective severity of scarring showed to
is forced to live with visible differences [3, 4]. Self-esteem be a poor predictor of psychological adjustment. Both
is a generic cognitive representation of the self. It is a small and large defects can elicit body image concerns and
multidimensional concept comprising the view of the diminish satisfaction with appearance. Therefore, it has
person on the different abilities and characteristics. It been argued that a person’s subjective perception is a better
influences how external information is processed, for starting point to assess how persons adjust [4]. However,
example remarks or looks from other people. Body- the body of knowledge that shows (in)direct associa-
esteem refers to the evaluation of one’s own body and tions between injury severity and psychological problems
can be viewed as a part of self-esteem [5]. After acquired is growing. One in-hospital study documented that there
disfigurement, there is a change in body-esteem that a were no differences across groups with minor and severe
person needs to adjust to. burns, but dissatisfaction with appearance increased over
time in the group with more severe burns [6]. Another 48.4.3 Concealed Scars
study found that persons with severe burns showed to
ruminate more often—rumination is considered a cogni- Scars that can be covered with clothes trigger dilemmas
48 tive strategy in which perseverative negative thinking and such as when to show the scars or how to present your-
impaired disengagement from negative stimuli is present— self in certain social situations, how to deal with stares
which in turn predicted the level of depressive symptoms in the swimming pool and at the beach. This can lead to
[8]. However, permanent scarring can act as a reminder to avoidance of these situations because of the reactions of
the burn event and has the potency to maintain psycho- others. Hidden scars can also affect intimacy and sexual-
logical problems. Particularly when persons developed ity, topics still surrounded with taboo. Scars can impact
posttraumatic stress symptoms in response to the burn the ability to enjoy intimacy because one may not feel
event, changes in appearances can trigger re-experiencing attractive and avoid being touched.
the traumatic event, which is an important symptom of
posttraumatic stress disorder [9]. This indicates that more
severe burns, possibly associated with more functional 48.4.4 Gender
problems, can partly drive psychological adjustment. This
does not exclude the fact that less extensive scarring can It is suggested that women are more frequently con-
also elicit appearance-related concerns. Paying attention to cerned about their appearance and therefore find it
the role of the scars in personal life is therefore warranted. harder to cope with visible differences. Little research
provides direct support for this assumption but, in gen-
eral, there is evidence that women (with facial burns) or
48.4.2 Facial Involvement with more severe burns have higher depression scores
and are less satisfied with appearance [13]. These find-
The face is a key figure in identity and it plays a key role ings do not exclude the fact that also (young) men can
in personal communication and expression of emotions. be troubled by (facial) disfigurement and can question
Sustaining a severe facial burn can be a devastating expe- their physical attractiveness. There is, however, evidence
rience as it affects issues that are central to identity and supporting that women were more concerned about the
social interactions. It is commonly expected that persons change in appearance. Men predominantly reported an
with facial disfigurement have more problems compared increased awareness of their whole body and not spe-
to persons with scars located at body parts that can be cov- cifically their appearance. This may indicate there is, in
ered with clothes. Although there is evidence that living general, a higher risk for women to develop appearance
with facial burns may be more distressing than non-facial concerns compared to men because appearance is more
burns, the evidence is not that straightforward. One of valued by women.
the explanations put forward as to why people with facial
burns may adjust relatively well is that they get used to
negative reactions and are therefore better able to antici- 48.4.5 Importance of Appearance
pate these unwanted reactions. Still, it is well established
that persons with facial injury are presented with certain How persons view themselves is closely related to how
social challenges. Unwanted social reactions include star- they feel. The role of scars in psychological problems
ing, intrusive questions and remarks, and prejudices. A after burns is therefore not straightforward. A per-
study comparing persons with facial burns to persons with son’s appraisal of his or her appearance constitutes an
the face not involved found higher problems in several important factor of self-esteem. There is evidence for
domains of functioning such as: emotions, that is, they the importance that persons attach to appearance in the
perceived more anger and sadness, and they had more adjustment process after burns. Importance of appear-
social problems due to appearance issues [10]. Examples ance showed to predict distress of living with burn dis-
are available illustrating that facial differences is given figurement [6].
meaning by others, for example, a woman who is pitied
because she is seen as a victim of abuse [11]. Due to these
responses, the risk to develop social anxiety and avoid- 48.5 Interference of Psychological
ance, low mood, and difficulties with relationship may Problems with the Perception
increase and remains a concern across the lifespan. This of the Scar
is illustrated by a quote from a 60-year-old man who was
injured during childhood: “There is a part of me that hasn’t There is ample evidence that scar evaluation by health
quite made the hurdle to 100% adjustment. I’m comfortable care providers does not match that of the patient and
at home and work, and among my circle of friends. Going is a poor predictor of satisfaction with the treatment
out among strangers brings good and bad days” [12], p. 368. by patients. This may be frustrating for both the patient
Psychological Impact of Living with Scars Following Burn Injury
433 48
and the health care provider. Understanding why these a visible difference [15], although more research in
differences occur may diminish disappointment for larger groups is needed.
both. Psychological problems such as depression can Besides psychological therapies, peer support groups
alter the way scars are perceived. As shown in a study have shown to be beneficial to well-being of burn sur-
[14], many patients with burns were well able to score vivors. Talking to a person who experienced a similar
scar characteristics within the same range as the profes- event and is faced with the same challenges increases
sional. Persons scoring lower on self-esteem, however, empowerment. This was illustrated in the next quote:
rated their scars more troublesome, compared to the “When you meet someone who really knows what you’re
professional’s view. This particularly concerned hyper- going through, you can discuss things in a different way”
trophy, possibly due to the fact that this characteristic [16]. It is assumed that peer support groups can facilitate
is most conspicuous. This indicates that the psychologi- social sharing, which is a specific type of social support
cal state influences how scars are viewed. Particularly in which illness-related emotions are shared.
the discrepancy between the patient’s and professional’s
view may be a starting point to evaluate psychological
factors. 48.7 Conclusion
Bradbury [11] underlines the importance of recog-
nizing psychosocial issues in surgical decision-mak- In sum, a burn injury can have devastating consequences
ing. Having a realistic view on surgical outcomes in in terms of psychosocial well-being. To predict who will
terms of what can be expected and psychosocial fac- adjust well after a burn injury comprises a complex-
tors that may interfere with expectations and decisions ity of factors that should be taken into account. It is
is important. She proposed a three-staged approach an interplay of resilience and vulnerability factors; it
in which individuals working with patients with vis- involves a dynamic process over time. Some indications,
ible differences all have some knowledge on influenc- however, may be points of attention for professionals
ing psychosocial factors, which forms the first stage of in burn care. How persons cope with the consequences
attention. If indicated, patients can be referred to, for strongly depends on the significance they place on the
example, a clinical nurse specialist trained in counsel- value of their physical appearance. Objective factors
ing skills. In the event therapy is needed, referral to such as gender, burn extent, and the extent to which the
a psychologist should be considered. It is emphasized scars are visible all showed to have some relation but
that understanding psychological needs surrounding are poor direct predictors of dealing with the impact of
surgery is imperative to ensure that personal needs scars. However, there are relationships that are worth
are met. considering. If there is a considerable deviation between
the professional’s and the patient’s view on outcome, it
is worth starting a dialogue with the aim to identify the
48.6 Management causes. There is also a higher risk for women to struggle
with visible differences as they, more frequently than
Over the last decades, a number of interventions has men, value appearance and beauty; appearance may
been described that have the objective to help people make up a larger part of their self-esteem and self-worth
dealing with challenges that result from living with a when compared to men. In men, functional problems
visible difference. Social skills training was among the may cause more problems.
first intervention programs aimed at expanding the The challenge for the health care provider is to be
arsenal of responses to a variety of reactions of people. aware of signals that point to underlying psychologi-
Other therapies include cognitive behavioral therapy cal difficulties and judge to what extent another (surgi-
(CBT) in which dysfunctional cognitions, appraisals, cal) intervention adds to the well-being of the patient.
beliefs, and assumptions are identified and changed in A staged approach of professionals with knowledge of
order to learn more useful ways of dealing with the vis- psychosocial problems associated with visible differ-
ible difference [11]. CBT showed to have the strongest ences should become more custom as it is now. It is only
evidence of effectiveness and can support patients to when the patient receives understanding, and whether
come to terms with the visible difference, it can help in it is clear for all parties what is going on in the patient,
decision-making, and showed to be effective in over- that compliance, decision-making, and outcome can be
coming social anxiety [3]. An online program called improved. Interventions focusing at psychological com-
YPFaceIt, which includes elements of CBT and social ponents may be indicated and can make a difference in
skills training, has shown improvement in persons with the final outcome.
Take-Home Messages 7. Shepherd L, Tattersall H, Buchanan H. Looking in the mirror

55 Pay attention to the role of the scars in personal for the first time after facial burns: a retrospective mixed meth-
ods study. Burns. 2014;40(8):1624–34. Epub 2014/04/20.
life. 8. Van Loey NE, Oggel A, Goemanne AS, Braem L, Vanbrabant L,
48 55 A changed appearance can have psychological and Geenen R. Cognitive emotion regulation strategies and neuroti-
social consequences. cism in relation to depressive symptoms following burn injury:
55 Pay attention to signals that indicate underlying a longitudinal study with a 2-year follow-up. J Behav Med.
psychosocial problems. 2014;37(5):839–48. Epub 2013/10/16.
9. Macleod R, Shepherd L, Thompson AR. Posttraumatic stress
55 Be aware of underlying psychosocial issues in sur- symptomatology and appearance distress following burn injury:
gical decision-making. an interpretative phenomenological analysis. Health Psychol.
55 Consider a stepwise approach to recognize psy- 2016;35(11):1197–204. Epub 2016/10/18.
chosocial issues. 10. Ryan CM, Lee A, Stoddard FJ Jr, Li NC, Schneider JC, Shap-
iro GD, et al. The effect of facial burns on long-term outcomes
in young adults: a 5-year study. J Burn Care Res. 2018;39(4):
497–506. Epub 2018/06/15.
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435 49
Makeup Therapy for Scars

Joëlle Nonni
Contents
49.1 Definition – 436
49.2 Characteristics – 436
49.3 The Benefits of Medical Makeup – 436

49.3.1 sychological Impact – 436
P
49.3.2 Social Impact – 436
49.4 Medical Makeup – 436

49.4.1 S tep-by-Step Process – 436
49.4.2 Using Color Correction Is the Best Solution to This Issue – 437
49.4.3 Complementary Colors – 437
49.4.4 The Value of Colors – 437
49.4.5 Compact Foundation Creams – 438
49.4.6 Fluid Foundation Correctors – 439
49.5 Medical Makeup Classes – 440
References – 440

436 J. Nonni
49.3 The Benefits of Medical Makeup

Medical makeup is a solution to hide scars and burns
on the face as well as body, to both men and women. Various studies have highlighted the positive effects of
The objective is to reduce the psychological impact and medical makeup on the patient’s quality of life, particu-
to improve the patient’s self-image. larly in the case of treatment for scars.
Various studies have highlighted the positive effect
49 of medical makeup on the patient’s quality of life.
With medical makeup, patient’s self-confidence gradu- 49.3.1 Psychological Impact
ally comes back.
By learning how to conceal their skin imperfections,
patients:
55 Find it easier to look at themselves in the mirror
55 Regain a more realistic body image
49.1 Definition 55 Enjoy taking care of themselves again
55 Grow in self-confidence
The priorities for medical makeup are different from
those for cosmetic makeup, which is primarily con-
The patient’s self-esteem is boosted and they find it eas-
cerned with fashion and trends. With medical makeup,
ier to look to the future.
first and foremost, camouflage solutions must be found
that do not risk aggravating skin lesions, the objective
being to reduce the psychological impact and to improve 49.3.2 Social Impact
the patient’s self-image. The aim is therefore not to cre-
ate the “most beautiful makeup” but to find corrective After having concealed highly visible lesions, patients:
products that are compatible with medical prescriptions, 55 Are less likely to notice the sometimes “intrusive”
skin sensitivity, the expectations of the patient, and their looks from other people
ability to put on the makeup. Medical makeup is offered 55 Find other people look at them more approvingly again
to both men and women and helps hide lesions on the 55 Maintain or return to social activities
face as well as the body. 55 Are able to continue working if they wish to do so
Their relationship with others is improved, thus avoid-

49.2 Characteristics ing or putting an end to their sense of isolation.
55 Makeup referred to as “medical” is formulated to

guarantee complete safety even for damaged skin [1]. 49.4 Medical Makeup
55 Products are hypoallergenic and non-comedogenic
and must contain a high sun-protection factor. 49.4.1 Step-by-Step Process
55 The quality of textures is important to make it easier
to apply the makeup and also to achieve a natural 49.4.1.1 Evaluation of Needs
result. The first step is to evaluate the needs and expectations
55 It is essential that the makeup be long lasting and of patients.
resistant to water and sweat so that it lasts all day What products does the doctor recommend: emol-
long. That being the case, the description of the lient, sun protection, etc.?
product on the packaging should be checked to make 55 What does the patient want to conceal?
sure they have all these qualities. 55 Does the patient want a highly corrective or a lighter
55 The anhydrous forms, and stick and compact types type of makeup?
are resistant because their outer oily phase is less mis- 55 Does the patient usually apply makeup?
cible with water. For the other formulas, the addition 55 Always remember to adapt the advice according to
of polymer increases the adhesion of the product to sex, age, habits, and preferences.
the skin and thus limits its migration into the water. 55 And to give advice that the patient can easily replicate.
55 By using makeup products that are resistant to water
and perspiration, the makeup hold may be greater 49.4.1.2 Makeup Base
than 10 hours. Applying an emollient cream is essential for correcting a
55 However, one last important point should be empha- skin imperfection. Skin must be moisturized and supple
sized: the makeup must be easy to remove so as not to be able to spread the foundation easily. If the skin is
to cause a secondary irritation. not moisturized, the pigments contained in the makeup
437 49
will stick to raised areas of the skin, the correction will
not be even, and the makeup will not last for the entire
day. If sun protection is required, apply this after the
emollient cream, using it as the makeup base [2].
49.4.1.3 Color Correction

Thick makeup often gives the impression of a mask
effect and sometimes gives burn patients’ faces a frozen
look. The makeup must therefore be lighter so that the
patient does not feel their personality has been stripped
away after having it applied [3].
49.4.2 sing Color Correction Is the Best

U
Solution to This Issue .. Fig. 49.2 Corrector sticks. Source: Eau Thermale Avène. © All
rights reserved
By experimenting with color, we can reduce the intensity
of imperfections, which means less foundation needs to Therefore:
be applied therefore obtaining a more natural result. 55 A green corrector neutralizes imperfections that are
predominantly red: inflammatory scars, rosacea,
psoriasis, etc.
49.4.3 Complementary Colors 55 A yellow corrector neutralizes imperfections that are
predominantly purplish: ecchymosis, angioma, blue-
The principle is to superimpose two complementary col- toned dark circles, varicose veins, etc.
ors in order to neutralize them. 55 A coral corrector neutralizes imperfections that are
As we can see from the chromatic circle (. Fig. 49.1): predominantly dark-blue: tattoos, nevus of Ota, etc.
55 Green is the opposite color to red (. Fig. 49.2)
55 Yellow is the opposite color to purplish blue
55 Coral is the opposite color to dark blue After having applied a corrector, the imperfection
becomes slightly grey; therefore, it is not necessary to
apply as much foundation.
49.4.4 The Value of Colors
The light amplitude of a color is known as its “value,”

from the lightest to the darkest; adding white or black to
a color is all that is required to change its intensity. For
example, with orange, as we can see from the chromatic
circle, its dark value is brown and its light value is beige [4]
(. Fig. 49.3).
In practice, if we want to correct a brown imper-
fection, it is necessary to apply an orange-ish shade to
obtain a bright, light beige color, before applying foun-
dation.
Therefore:
55 A coral corrector neutralizes imperfections that
are predominantly brown: hyperpigmented scars,
melasma, brown-toned dark circles, lentigos, etc.
After having corrected the colored lesions using the

complementary colors or the value of colors, we simply
.. Fig. 49.1 Complementary color circle. Source: Eau Thermale need to cover this with a little foundation to even out the
Avène. © All rights reserved complexion.
438 J. Nonni
49
.. Fig. 49.3 Color value circle. Source: Eau Thermale Avène. © All
rights reserved b
49.4.4.1 Corrective Foundations

Corrective foundations offer several advantages for
medical makeup.
55 Their high pigment concentration allows for correc-
tion using less product.
55 Their excellent resistance means that there is no need
to reapply the product during the day.
55 Their resistance to water and sweat means they can be
used in any situation, both on the face and body.
55 They have a high sun protection factor.
There are two types of corrective foundations:

55 Fluid for mild imperfections
55 Compact for severe imperfections
.. Fig. 49.4 Legs before (a) after (b) make up Source: Eau Ther-
49.4.5 Compact Foundation Creams male Avène. © All rights reserved
These are the most suitable for concealing severe imper- It is better to apply these products with a sponge and
fections and particularly for a long-lasting effect and a therefore the finish can be adapted depending on the
water, sweat resistance finish. intensity of the imperfection.
55 For post-surgery patients: it is better to use a “com- 55 For a high-coverage result or after using a color cor-
fort” texture with a supple formula that is easily rector, apply by dabbing.
applied, even on the most sensitive skin. 55 For a transparent result, apply by smoothing.
55 For remote post-surgery patients: we select a “com-
fort” texture for the face and a “matt-finish” texture Do not forget to regularly clean the sponge with soap and
for the body as there is no transfer and excellent water, or simply by washing it in the washing machine.
resistance [5] (. Figs. 49.4 and 49.5).
439 49
a 49.4.6 Fluid Foundation Correctors
These are more suitable for mild to moderate imperfec-

tions and as they have a lower pigment concentration,
they are ideal for scaly skin. They can be applied using
the tips of the fingers, but if the skin is very dry or scaly, a
sponge is more effective to “blur” the scales. As for foun-
dation brushes, they are chosen for a more transparent
finish and for men who really like this method of applica-
tion.
49.4.6.1 ow to Decide on a Shade

H
of Foundation
People often select the color of their foundation accord-
ing to the color on the inside of their wrist, but this
body area is quite fair and therefore this rarely achieves
a natural result. The most effective method is to test the
product on the jawline to check that there is no demar-
cation between the face and neck. For the body, test the
product next to the imperfection that you are going to
apply makeup to. In case of hyperpigmentation, opt for
a shade that is slightly darker than the skin tone; this
will help with correction.
b
Powder
This is essential to set the makeup and to ensure long-
lasting hold. Opt for a powder suited to the skin tone
and apply it with a large brush for a more natural effect.
When scars are very raised, finish by applying the pow-
der in the opposite direction to get rid of excess product
so that the makeup is less visible. If skin is very scaly, it
is better to avoid applying powder as it accentuates the
appearance of scales.
Corrector Pencils
Eyebrows
Eyebrow corrector pencils are extremely useful for
concealing localized scars around the eyebrows or to
completely redefine and rebalance the eye area. The eye-
brows are so important in makeup that it is said they act
as a “frame for the eyes.”
Lips
In case of scarring around the mouth, a lip pencil is
generally applied after having concealed the scar with
foundation and a little bit of powder. The lip pencil is
therefore used to define the contours of the mouth [6].
In the case of cheilitis, you can suggest using a lip balm
before applying lipstick, which can be used instead of lip
.. Fig. 49.5 Face make up: before (a) and after (b). Source Eau gloss to treat dry lips at the same time.
Thermale Avène. © All rights reserved
440 J. Nonni
Ensure Makeup Lasts longer trained. Usually, these classes or workshops are in
Spray a fine mist of thermal water 20 cm away from hydrotherapy centers specializing (in skin disorders),
the makeup and leaving it to evaporate, this dries the functional rehabilitation centers, or hospitals.
makeup and makes it last longer. This is a very useful At first, patients can have individual advice, and they
technique for body makeup, which is more subject to can also join a workshop with other patients to learn
friction than the face. how to do it by themselves. This last solution is the best
49 way to become autonomous and generally men should
Makeup Removal opt for this more than women, because usually men do
An essential step! Most of the time, makeup remover is not use makeup and they need to be more careful in
put on a cotton pad and rubbed against the skin with applying it.
varying levels of force. If the pressure from the cotton
pad is not strong enough, the makeup is not removed
and if it is too strong, this could cause an irritation. The
most suitable method is to remove makeup with just the Take-Home Message
tips of your fingers. The makeup remover must contain Medical makeup can be applied to all imperfections,
gentle surfactants, be fragrance-free, and in the form of ranging from mild to severe. It can be applied to the
a lotion or gel-like lotion so that it can be applied using face and body and should be offered to men as well as
gentle massage with the tips of the fingers. After hav- women. Various studies have highlighted the positive
ing loosened the makeup and impurities, gently remove effects of medical makeup on the patient’s quality of
the rest with paper tissues before rinsing with a thermal life [7]. It improves patients’ personal relationships
water spray to achieve perfectly cleansed skin. and daily activities and reduces esthetic prejudice [8].
In brief:
1. Evaluation of needs: to evaluate the needs and expec-
tations of patients
2. Makeup base: to prepare the skin before the makeup References
3. Color correction: to neutralize the color imperfection
4. Corrective foundation: to unify the tone of the skin 1. McMichael L. Skin camouflage. BMJ. 2012:d7921.
2. Grognard C. Tatouage et maquillage réparateur, 2008. p. 25.
5. Powder: to set the makeup 3. Delebecque-Eginer C, Ferrere R, Nonni J, Segard C, Encyclo-
6. Corrector pencil: to correct scars or depigmentation pédie Médico-Chirurgicale, Maquillage: Technique de camou-
on eyebrows and lips flage. Cosmestologie et dermatologie. 2000; 50–170-E-10.
7. Fine mist of thermal water: ensure makeup lasts 4. Delamar P. Le maquillage artistique. Editions Vigot. 2002:8.
longer 5. Nel-Omeyer M, Ambonati M, Mengeaud V, Taieb C, Merial-
Kieny C, Intérêt du maquillage correcteur médical chez les
8. Makeup removal: to remove the makeup without grands brûlés : impact sur la qualité de vie , tolérance et accept-
creating irritation abilité cosmétique. J Plaies et cicatrisation. 2007;58: tome XII.
6. Mérial-Kieny C, Nonni J. Maquillage de correction médicale
pour les peaux brûlées. J Plaies et cicatrisation. 2006;53, tome XI.
7. Holmes SA, Beattie PE, Fleming CJ. Cosmetic camouflage
49.5 Medical Makeup Classes advice improves quality of life. Br J Dermatol. 2002;147:
946–9.
Because each patient needs personnel advice, it is impor- 8. Graham JA, Jouhar AJ. The importance of cosmetics in the psy-
tant for them to learn how to hide their imperfections chological appearance. Int J Dermatol. 1983;22:153–6.
from medical make-up specialists or nurses similarly
441 XIII
Emerging Technologies
in Scar Management
Contents
Chapter 50 Emerging Technologies in Scar Management:

Laser-Assisted Delivery of Therapeutic Agents – 443

The Role of Allogeneic Cells – 451
Chapter 52 New Drugs for Scar Treatment – 457

Sun Hyung Kwon, Jagannath Padmanabhan,
Dominic Henn, Kellen Chen, and Geoffrey C. Gurtner

Remodeling of Post-surgical Linear Scar Using
Microplasma Radiofrequency– 465
Wei Liu
Chapter 54 Vacuum Massage in the Treatment of Scars – 475

Peter Moortgat, Jill Meirte, Ulrike Van Daele,
Mieke Anthonissen, Tine Vanhullebusch,
and Koen Maertens
Chapter 55 Shock Wave Therapy for Wound Healing

and Scar Treatment – 485
Peter Moortgat, Mieke Anthonissen, Ulrike Van Daele,
Jill Meirte, Tine Vanhullebusch, and Koen Maertens
Chapter 56 Effectiveness of Corticosteroid Tapes and Plasters

Rei Ogawa
Chapter 57 Suture Edge Tension Control Technologies

for Scar Improvement – 497
443 50
Emerging Technologies in Scar

Management: Laser-Assisted
Delivery of Therapeutic Agents
Contents
50.2 Laser Systems Used for Laser-Assisted Delivery – 444

50.3 arbon Dioxide (CO2) Laser and Erbium:Yttrim-Aluminum-
C
Garnet (Er:YAG) Laser – 445
50.4 echanism of Ablative Fractional Laser-Assisted

M
Drug Delivery – 445
50.5 Technique and Parameters – 446

50.5.1 ain Parameters: MTZ Density and Depth – 446
M
50.5.2 Clinical Application in Scar Treatment: Drugs and Bioactive
Molecules – 446
50.5.3 Other Modalities to Enhance the Effect of Laser-Assisted
Delivery – 448
References – 449

50.1 Background past decades [2]. Laser-assisted drug delivery was first
described in 1987 and initially practiced with fully abla-
Scars can cause significant impact on patients’ quality tive lasers [3]. Laser-assisted delivery has been reported
life. Let alone cosmetic aspect, scars can result in func- and evaluated in animal models for variety of skin dis-
tional and structural comorbidity. However, the treat- eases including premalignant lesions to inflammatory
ment of scars is often challenging due to heterogeneity conditions. Ablative lasers can be effectively used to
of etiologies and clinical presentations. Traditionally, induce absorption of medications beyond the epidermal
surgical revision had been a mainstay for scars requir- barrier. In precancerous skin lesions such as actinic ker-
50 ing structural remodeling to release the contracture of atosis, ablative fractional laser (AFL) is used to induce
underlying tissue and relieve restricted range of motion. penetration of photosensitizer prior to photodynamic
Nowadays, varieties of therapeutic options have been therapy. Chemotherapeutic agents and immunomodula-
successfully introduced including physical therapy, sili- tors like 5-fluorouracil (5-FU) or imiquimod have been
con sheet, cryotherapy, corticosteroids, and laser modal- successfully used. Laser-assisted drug delivery has also
ities. Corticosteroids are often referred to as first-line shown to enhance absorption of topical anesthetics,
treatment but its topical application is often ineffective. nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, and corticoste-
The major rate-limiting step for drug absorption is pas- roids [4].
sage through the stratum corneum, which serves as the
physiological barrier. Considering the pathogenic foci in
scars are usually deep seated in the dermis, intralesional 50.2 aser Systems Used for Laser-Assisted
L
injection is considered as the best treatment option to Delivery
bypass the thick stratum corneum barrier and deliver
higher concentration of corticosteroids at the site. Yet Ablative lasers system has been employed to improve
the procedure inevitably accompanies excruciating pain. skin penetration of active molecules. Laser devices have
Corticosteroid is often associated with localized adverse traditionally been used in continuous mode, in which
events on repeated sessions causing skin atrophy, hyper the entirety of the water-containing epidermis is com-
or hypopigmentation, and telangiectasia. Treatment of pletely ablated. Elimination of the physical barrier of
keloid is even intriguing with varying success rates, and stratum corneum allows transcutaneous delivery of
recurrence rates are high with conventional measures. large molecules, although it requires significant recovery
Target site for topically applied drug is the viable time after removing large areas of stratum corneum. To
epidermis or dermis and the clinical response to a for- overcome significant drawbacks from ablative fractional
mulation is directly proportional to the concentration resurfacing, the concept of fractional photothermolysis
of the drug achieved at the target site. Transcutaneous (FP) was proposed in 2004 [5]. Fractional photother-
absorption is limited by inherent skin barrier properties, molysis (FP) is a technique whereby an ablative laser
minimizing the absorption to only 1–5% [1]. The innate is administered in a fractionated pattern instead of
barrier function of the skin, in particular the stratum full ablation. Fractionated systems create discreet col-
corneum, provides the rate-limiting step in percutane- umns of ablated tissue, known as microthermal zones
ous penetration of drugs and other agents. Many dif- (MTZs), sparing intact portion of skin. The untreated
ferent strategies have been developed to increase the skin surrounding MTZs serves as a reservoir of growth
permeability of the skin transiently for drug delivery. In factors and stem cells promoting tissue regeneration
skin with intact stratum corneum, only small (<500 Da and wound-healing response. Accordingly, ablative frac-
in molecular weight) and lipophilic drugs succeed in tional lasers (AFLs) have provided an emerging option
partitioning into and diffusing through this dense lipid- with a lower side-effect profile. AFL emerged as a prom-
rich layer. Transdermal patches have been used since ising tool in the treatment of scars with minimal pain
1970s but it is limited to drugs with low molecular mass. and rapid wound healing in few days [2]. Moreover, frac-
Accordingly, there is considerable interest in develop- tional laser-assisted drug delivery is employed with high
ing novel drug delivery methods. To enhance topical precision by controlling the area and degree of ablation
delivery of drug, currently available physical techniques through laser settings. MTZs facilitate penetration of
include stripping, microneedling or sonophoresis, or topical molecules from the surface to the layer of inter-
iontophoresis to overcome the skin barrier. est (. Fig. 50.1). Due to its predictable tissue response,
The advent of lasers, particularly fractional laser it can be an effective alternative to injection or topical
systems, significantly advanced scar treatments in formulations of drugs targeting cutaneous diseases.
Emerging Technologies in Scar Management: Laser-Assisted Delivery of Therapeutic Agents
445 50
.. Fig. 50.1 Schematic diagram of ablative fractional laser (AFL)- collagen remodeling (green). Microchannels transverse stratum cor-
assisted drug delivery. AFL irradiation creates microchannels neum and topically applied molecules can reach target tissue in the
extending from the skin surface to the dermis. Microthermal zones dermis and permeate into the skin
(MTZs) vaporize accumulated scar tissue (orange) and influence
50.3 arbon Dioxide (CO2) Laser and

C cedure erythema compared to fractional CO2 laser [4].
Erbium:Yttrim-Aluminum-Garnet When applicable, the combined-mode Er:YAG/CO2
laser system can offer synergistic benefit of ablative and
(Er:YAG) Laser
coagulation effect. Both lasers have been successfully
applied for scar treatment with favorable clinical out-
Carbon dioxide (CO2) laser and erbium:yttrim-alumi-
comes. Fractional CO2 and Er:YAG provided compa-
num-garnet (Er:YAG) laser are the two types of laser
rable outcome, yet fractional CO2 system was associated
devices most commonly studied in regard to laser-
with a higher degree of procedural pain in few stud-
assisted drug delivery. CO2 laser (10,600 nm) heats cells
ies [6]. However, it is difficult to determine superiority
instantly, resulting in vaporization and coagulation of
between the two modalities due to clinical heterogeneity
irradiated cells. Subsequently, denaturation of extracel-
and lack of comparative study design.
lular proteins and heat-induced shrinkage of collagen
is noted in a subjacent residual layer. Histologic studies
of scar tissue after ablative fractional CO2 laser treat-
ment demonstrated complete re-epithelization within 50.4 echanism of Ablative Fractional
M
48 hours. Er:YAG laser (2940 nm) system delivers Laser-Assisted Drug Delivery
energy more precisely without extensive thermal dam-
age to the surrounding tissue, permitting quicker wound Ablative fractional lasers irradiate high-fluence laser
healing and recovery of dermis. CO2 devices generate beam forming multiple, discrete columns of thermal
larger degrees of heat diffusion to the surrounding tis- damage. Ablative fractional photothermolysis (AFP)
sue while Er:YAG system exerts less hemostatic effect. systems generate MTZs by vaporizing full thickness
Differences between fractional CO2 laser and fractional zones of scar tissue that may extend to deep dermis.
Er:YAG laser are similar to their full-field counterparts Surrounding the denatured columns created by MTZs
in that the CO2 systems cause more residual thermal is a collateral area of thermal denaturation that is suf-
damage. Studies have reported that fractional Er:YAG ficient to coagulate collagen. Moreover, thermal irradia-
laser causes significantly less residual thermal dermal tion stimulates neocollagenesis for collagen remodeling.
damage, with a faster healing time and less post-pro- Studies have demonstrated that the increased expres-
sion of heat shock proteins (HSPs) induces anti- get specific depth and diameter by increasing the fluence
inflammatory effect after ablative laser treatment for and induce regulated disruption of epidermal barrier.
scars. Additionally, the altered expressions of matrix In general, relatively modest energy fluence and density
metalloproteinases (MMPs) and tissue inhibitors of are considered applicable for laser-assisted delivery. Low
metalloproteinases (TIMPs) are noted along with energy levels are classically all that are needed to impair
increased expression of growth factors. Collectively, the physical barrier of stratum corneum. By calibrating
the differential expression of anti-inflammatory media- laser settings, it is possible to influence the delivery rate
tors and cytokines attribute to improvement in clinical and drug biodistribution, which may lead to improved
50 appearance of scars. clinical efficacy with shortened incubation time. Studies
MTZs facilitate penetration of topically applied of the effect of laser parameters on the transdermally
drugs and other bioactive agents by acting as an alterna- absorbed molecules are limited.
tive pathway for cutaneous drug delivery. Increased pen-
etration of molecule can be explained by Fick’s first law 50.5.1.1 MTZ Density and Coverage
of diffusion. The diffusive flux of molecule goes from The MTZs consist of sharply confined tissue denaturation
regions of high concentration to lower concentration, with a diameter of about 100 μm at intervals of about
with a magnitude that is proportional to the concentra- 200 μm. In animal models, increased density of MTZs
tion gradient. The degree of flux (J) is described as a achieved overall drug delivery, yet there was threshold
product of partition coefficient (K), diffusion coefficient density to achieve maximum diffusion. Fluorescent label-
(D), and concentration difference across the barrier (ΔC) ing demonstrated that the absorption of topically applied
divided by the diffusion distance (L). Partition coeffi- photosensitizers, immunomodulators, and lidocaine
cient (K) indicates the equilibrium solubility of the drug reached maximum biodistributions of 5%, 10%, and up
molecules available for diffusion across a membrane. to 20%, respectively, while further increase only resulted
in deposition to stratum corneum [3]. More importantly,
K ´ D ´ DC complications, such as scarring and hypopigmentation,
J=
L have been observed at coverages in excess of 45%.
The diffusion coefficient reflects the measure of inher- 50.5.1.2 MTZ Depth and Energy
ent diffusivity of a molecule and determines the diffu- The depth of ablation represents how deep the MTZs
sion rate once the molecule permeates the membrane. extend into the skin and for a given laser beam diameter
The diffusion distance represents the length of a path is mainly controlled by laser pulse energy. Microbeams
for the diffusion. MTZs generated by AFL impact flux of AFL irradiation typically induce MTZs ranging from
in various aspects of Fick’s first-law variables. Firstly, 100 to 300 μm in diameter and it can extend down to
increased permeability via MTZs enables increase in K the deep reticular dermis. The optimal depth threshold
compared to intact skin. Secondly, larger molecules with is yet undetermined as studies report drug deposition
higher diffusivity can permeate directly into epidermis. as both dependent on and independent of laser channel
Lastly, the distance of the diffusion is decreased from depth. It is expected that increase in the laser fluence and
the skin surface and enables delivery to deeper layer. As irradiation time increases the cellular uptake of large
a result, pretreatment with AFL facilitates traditionally molecules across the skin in a dose-dependent manner.
challenging uptake of large hydrophilic molecules. The The usual threshold in the literature is approximately
use of AFL increases the transdermal drug delivery of 200–250 μm in diameter. Hydrophilic or semi-lipophilic
large molecules by 8- to 15-fold [4]. molecules (methotrexate, prednisone, and diclofenac)
are generally dependent on MTZ depth while lipophilic
molecules (lidocaine, ingenol mebutate, and imiquimod)
50.5 Technique and Parameters do not show obvious depth-dependent uptake [6]. The
variation between optimal depths for penetration can
50.5.1 ain Parameters: MTZ Density
M be related to the location of vascular plexus in different
and Depth types of skin used for evaluation.
AFL system irradiates target scar tissue with high pre-

cision by controlling the area and degree of ablation 50.5.2 linical Application in Scar
C
through laser settings such as power, pulse duration, Treatment: Drugs and Bioactive
percentage of skin coverage, and ablation pattern. For Molecules
AFL-assisted drug delivery, the density and depth of
microablative columns should be determined by opera- Delivery of every molecule will vary based on its inher-
tor for the given clinical characteristics of the scars. ent properties such as size, diffusion coefficient, and
MTZs formed by AFP system can be adjusted to tar- individuals’ predisposed skin barrier conditions. In
447 50
stratum corneum, corneocytes are embedded in a lipid a
matrix and bioavailability of hydrophilic drugs is low.
While lipophilic or semi-lipophilic molecules can pene-
trate lipid barrier of the outmost layer of the epidermis,
large or hydrophilic molecules are able to transverse the
stratum corneum after AFL pretreatment.
50.5.2.1 Corticosteroid
Corticosteroid has been a mainstay in the scar treat- b
ment. It is mostly known to inhibit inflammatory
mediators and promotes remodeling of extracellular
matrix. To exert its clinical effect, corticosteroid should
penetrate cell membrane to bind the nuclear receptor.
Sustained release of corticosteroid can be beneficial
because wound regeneration of the inflammatory stages
is known to persist for several days after laser irradia-
.. Fig. 50.2 a A 16-year-old woman with Fitzpatrick skin type IV
tion. Triamcinolone acetonide is the most widely used
with hypertrophic scars after facial reconstruction surgery. b Patient
and available as micronized suspensions of corticoste- underwent five sessions of fractional CO2 laser (eCO2 Lutronic, Goy-
roid crystals. Currently, intralesional injection of corti- ang, Korea. 60 mJ, 10% density) combined with topical application
costeroid has been well advocated in the treatment of of triamcinolone acetonide suspension of 10 mg/mL
both hypertrophic scars and keloids. After its adminis-
tration, micronized crystals of corticosteroids persist in
skin and are released over a period of weeks. However, 50.5.2.2 Other Agents for Scar Treatment
local injection of triamcinolone actinide is often painful When routinely applied, topical corticosteroids do have
and consistent dosing is difficult to achieve throughout risk to cause localized adverse effects such as skin atro-
the scar. phy, pigmentary changes, or telangiectasia. To spare
Combination treatment of AFL and topically such undesired skin reaction, drugs with immuno-
applied corticosteroids demonstrate encouraging results. modulatory function has been applied in various skin
Application of triamcinolone immediately after AFL conditions.
can induce synergistic effect of deep penetration into the 5-Fluorouracil (5-FU) is a pyrimidine analog anti-
scar tissue to induce collagen remodeling. Use of rela- metabolite that results in an irreversible inhibition of
tively low-dose triamcinolone (10 mg/mL) is sufficient thymidylate synthase, commonly used for premalig-
to induce clinical improvement in various types of scars nant skin lesions. Laser-assisted delivery of 5-FU has
including burn, trauma, or surgical scars. AFL-assisted been tested in animal models using various types of
delivery of topical triamcinolone potentially offers laser systems. Pretreatment with AFL resulted in more
an efficient, safe, and effective adjunctive treatment. than 50-fold and 30-fold increase in penetration using
Corticosteroids available as topically applied formula- Er:YAG and CO2 system, respectively. In a study com-
tions demonstrated mediocre effect in scar treatment. paring the effect of 5-FU and triamcinolone to treat
There are only few reports used to alleviate symptoms hypertrophic scars, lesions subjected to 5-FU demon-
or appearance of hypertrophic scars immediately after strated comparable results in terms of scar texture and
surgical procedure [7]. Nevertheless, the combination of height [9]. Appropriate dosing of 5-FU should be evalu-
AFL and topical corticosteroid application yields suc- ated due to concern for increased systemic absorption
cessful result for the treatment of keloid without any with laser-assisted drug delivery, which can expand the
adverse event [8]. AFL-assisted corticosteroid applica- adverse effect profile unlike bland topical application.
tion is a promising tool with minimal pain and rapid Atrophic scars result from loss of dermal or subcu-
wound healing in few days. Beyond the specific action taneous tissue during the wound-healing process. Fillers
of the lasers on scar remodeling, the channels that they are high-molecular-weight biopolymer developed to
create can be used to deliver active molecules to poten- provide structural support for volume restoration of
tiate its efficacy (. Fig. 50.2). On the other hand, the skin. On this account, it is unable to permeate through
presence of MTZ-induced channels is transient mostly intact epidermis and employed by injection. Laser sys-
at presence for 3 to 7 days. Accordingly, disrupted physi- tems, AFL in particular, can improve atrophic scars
cal barrier of stratum corneum is restored within a week by promoting new collagen synthesis after irradiation.
after AFL. Thus, further study is required to determine Concomitant use of AFL and topically applied poly-
the optimal dosage of triamcinolone suspension and L-lactic acid (PLLA) fillers proved to be successful in
potency of topically applied formulations. treating patients with atrophic scars from various eti-
ologies including acne and trauma. Histologic evalua- consist of columns of thermal injury with intact overly-
tion on cadaveric skin demonstrated the penetration of ing stratum corneum. NAFL systems heat tissue with-
PLLA to the dermis, albeit large molecular size [10]. out vaporization, thus being less associated with patient
Additionally, sustained release by prednisolone encap- discomfort. Although the epidermis is not fully vapor-
sulated in PLLA microsphere provided continuous ized, barrier function of the skin in the treated area is
delivery enough to suppress prolonged inflammatory transiently impaired allowing for enhanced drug deliv-
response [6]. Likewise, several bioactive molecules and ery. NAFLs applied alone have confirmed its therapeutic
peptides such as polydeoxyribonucleotide (PDRN) are efficacy in skin rejuvenation and various types of scars.
50 evaluated for potential application for scar treatment. NAFL-assisted drug delivery of minoxidil or corticoste-
Recently, enhanced percutaneous delivery of adipocyte roids can be applied to treat alopecia areata. Fractional
and hematopoietic stem cells by AFL systems has been erbium glass laser (1550 nm) was reported to effectively
evaluated in scar management. enhance percutaneous delivery of photosensitizers [4].
50.5.3.2 Limitations
Further investigations are required to establish the safety
50.5.3 ther Modalities to Enhance
O and efficacy of laser-assisted delivery of molecules as
the Effect of Laser-Assisted Delivery a transcutaneous drug delivery system. The majority
of the existing studies have been performed on animal
50.5.3.1 Emerging Devices models and additional human studies are needed. Drug
AFL-assisted drug delivery of therapeutic agents emerg- permeation through AFL-generated MTZs inevitably
ing devices is one of the latest strategies to enhance raises concern about systemic absorption and potential
cutaneous bioavailability of topically applied molecules. systemic toxicity. Transdermal delivery is considered
Notwithstanding that MTZs can empower to bypass the relatively safe as the dosage required for the therapeutic
skin barrier, passive uptake through MTZs can be inade- effect of a drug is lower than the oral dose and avoids
quate as the channels are rapidly restored within few days. the drug metabolism in the liver. Although most applica-
Furthermore, within few hours after ablation, the depth of tions of laser-assisted drug delivery have been intended
columns is gradually shortened by accumulated fibrin and for local effects in the skin, some reports have demon-
interstitial granulation tissue. Therefore, several physical strated that systemic absorption does occur. Along with
maneuvers have been suggested to enhance the delivery increased transcutaneous absorption, a decreased dose
of active molecules. Ultrasound may temporarily reduce should be considered to minimize side-effects that could
the intact biding of stratum corneum. Acoustic waves by be local or systemic. Further clinical studies are needed
ultrasound may induce cavitation, which increases the to fully evaluate the safety and efficacy of laser-assisted
penetration of molecules. In animal model, active filling drug delivery for scar treatment.
of MTZs was observed by altering the pressure during the
topical application of test molecule [6]. Similarly, com-
bination of sonophoresis and iontophoresis with AFL- 50.6 Conclusion
assisted drug delivery can induce favorable results.
Radiofrequency (RF) devices locally generate heat Laser-assisted drug delivery is an evolving technology
depending on the local electrical resistance and current with many possible applications as a highly targeted
density. RF devices deliver thermal energy to the dermis customizable method for distribution of drugs within
and subdermal tissue, which induces collagen contraction the skin. Current studies have demonstrated that laser
and remodeling by disrupting its structural bond, thereby pretreatment of the skin can increase the permeability
most commonly applied to the treatment of facial rhyt- and depth of penetration of topically applied drug mol-
ides and skin tightening. Advances in laser and energy- ecules. Fractional laser systems can be successfully uti-
based devices expanded clinical indications of RF devices. lized in the treatment of various forms of scarring with
Fractionated RF systems are used to improve scar tex- a very favorable safety profile. Fractional photother-
ture, and bipolar fractional microneedle RF systems have molysis, both ablative and non-ablative, can improve the
shown the resolution of atrophic acne scars. Furthermore, texture of various scars by promoting collagen remod-
ablative fractional RF associated with acoustic pressure eling. AFL-assisted drug delivery systems offer distinct
generated by ultrasound was used to increase the delivery advantage by enabling the topical medication to pen-
of triamcinolone into hypertrophic scars [8]. etrate deeper and reach target pathogenic site even for
The use of non-ablative fractional lasers (NAFL) the systemic drug administration. Corroborative efforts
needs to be examined as a less invasive method of laser- with multidisciplinary measure and novel combinations
assisted drug delivery. NAFL systems create a similar of existing treatments can help ensure optimal clinical
array of microablative columns as does AFLs; the MTZs and cosmetic results.
449 50
Take-Home Message an emphasis on ablative fractional laser resurfacing consen-
55 Lasers are safe and effective means of enhancing sus report. JAMA Dermatol. 2014;150(2):187–93. https://doi.
org/10.1001/jamadermatol.2013.7761.
the delivery of topically applied agents through 3. Haedersdal M, Erlendsson AM, Paasch U, Anderson RR. Trans-
the skin. lational medicine in the field of ablative fractional laser (AFXL)-
55 Ablative fractional laser-assisted drug delivery is assisted drug delivery: a critical review from basics to current
increasingly used to enhance percutaneous uptake. clinical status. J Am Acad Dermatol. 2016;74(5):981–1004.
55 Microthermal zones generated by fractional laser https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaad.2015.12.008.
4. Sklar LR, Burnett CT, Waibel JS, Moy RL, Ozog DM. Laser
create precise, uniform columns of tissue vaporiza- assisted drug delivery: a review of an evolving technology.
tion, which facilitates delivery of various drugs. Laser Surg Med. 2014;46(4):249–62. https://doi.org/10.1002/
55 Ablative fractional laser-assisted corticosteroid lsm.22227.
delivery may take advantage of the newly formed 5. Manstein D, Herron GS, Sink RK, Tanner H, Anderson
channels to penetrate uniformly and deeply into the RR. Fractional photothermolysis: a new concept for cutane-
ous remodeling using microscopic patterns of thermal injury.
scar tissue. Combination of valuable scar treatment Laser Surg Med. 2004;34(5):426–38. https://doi.org/10.1002/
options can create synergistic therapeutic response. lsm.20048.
55 Laser-assisted drug delivery provides a new oppor- 6. Ali FR, Al-Niaimi F. Laser-assisted drug delivery in dermatol-
tunity for a minimally invasive modality in scar ogy: from animal models to clinical practice. Laser Med Sci.
treatment. 2016;31(2):373–81. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10103-015-1853-z.
7. Park JH, Chun JY, Lee JH. Laser-assisted topical cortico-
steroid delivery for the treatment of keloids. Laser Med Sci.
2017;32(3):601–8. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10103-017-2154-5.
8. Cavalie M, Sillard L, Montaudie H, Bahadoran P, Lacour JP,
References Passeron T. Treatment of keloids with laser-assisted topical ste-
roid delivery: a retrospective study of 23 cases. Dermatol Ther.
1. Sandberg C, Halldin CB, Ericson MB, Larko O, Krog- 2015;28(2):74–8. https://doi.org/10.1111/dth.12187.
stad AL, Wennberg AM. Bioavailability of aminolae- 9. Waibel J, Wulkan A. Treatment of hypertrophic scars using laser
vulinic acid and methylaminolaevulinate in basal cell assisted corticosteroids vs laser assisted 5-fluoruracil delivery.
carcinomas: a perfusion study using microdialysis in vivo. Brit Laser Surg Med. 2013;45:14.
J Dermatol. 2008;159(5):1170–6. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365- 10. Rkein A, Ozog D, Waibel JS. Treatment of atrophic scars with
2133.2008.08795.x. fractionated CO2 laser facilitating delivery of topically applied
2. Anderson RR, Donelan MB, Hivnor C, Greeson E, Ross EV, poly-L-lactic acid. Dermatol Surg. 2014;40(6):624–31. https://
Shumaker PR, et al. Laser treatment of traumatic scars with doi.org/10.1111/dsu.0000000000000010.
451 51

Management: The Role
of Allogeneic Cells
Contents
51.2 llogenic Cell Therapy Studied in Scar Management

A
Field – 452
51.3 Human Allogeneic Epidermal Sheets – 452
51.4 ellular Dermal Substitutes and Human Dermal Fibroblasts

C
Therapy – 452
51.5 Human Skin Equivalent – 453
51.6 Bioprinting of Skin – 453
51.7 I njections of Mesenchymal Stromal Cells (MSCs)

for Skin Regeneration – 453
51.8 romising Embryonic(-Like) Stem Cells Therapy

P
for Scar Treatment – 454
51.9 Conclusion/Discussion – 454
References – 455

51.1 Background .. Table 51.1 Human allogenic cell types used in skin
regeneration
After skin injury, the wound-healing process has to occur
as soon as possible to prevent excessive blood loss and/ Source Commercial products and Type of
or infection. In chronic wounds, this normal healing pro- their applications allogeneic cells
cess fails, which results in a pathologic cycle of inflamma-
Skin Apligraf® Living
tion and protease release, leading to the development of –– Venous leg ulcers fibroblasts and
a pathologic scar. Also, in the healing of large and deep –– Diabetic foot ulcers keratinocytes
wounds, scar formation is evident. Nevertheless, in some OrCel®
natural cases, such as fetal skin, humans and animals are –– Partial-thickness burns
51 able to heal scarless due to the fast wound-healing pro- Clinical trials
cess and/or specific fetal characteristics [1]. TheraSkin® Keratinocytes
Scars caused by burns, chronic ulcers from diabe- –– Diabetic foot
tes, infections, skin cancer surgery, and other genetic –– Venous leg ulcers
Cryoskin®
or somatic disease could require effective treatment to –– Chronic nonhealing
avoid functional and psychological troubles and even in –– Neuropathic diabetic
some severe cases to prevent mortality. Most of the cur- ulcers
rent treatments do not prevent scarring. They first aim Neonatal TransCyte® Dead
to reduce local inflammation. foreskin –– Full-thickness and deep fibroblasts
Herein, we will discuss about emerging technolo- partial-thickness burns
gies in scar management using allogeneic cell therapy. –– Partial-thickness burns
Allogeneic cell transplants offer the possibility of large Dermagraft® Living
prefabrication, cryopreservation for instantaneous use, –– Full-thickness diabetic fibroblasts
and repeated applications. They also allow the use of foot ulcers
fetal cells that show interesting properties. Furthermore, Lyphoderm® Keratinocytes
they are applicable for genetic skin diseases inducing –– Chronic venous ulcer
severe scars such as dystrophic epidermolysis bullosa. –– Partial-thickness burns
Current research exploring allogeneic cell therapies for Fetus Studied in animal models Fibroblasts
scar treatment show that they are mostly locally deliv- or involved in clinical trials and/or
ered by grafting and/or by intradermal injections. keratinocytes
Bone Studied in animal models Mesenchymal
marrow or involved in clinical trials stromal cells
51.2 llogenic Cell Therapy Studied in Scar
A Umbilical Studied in animal models
Management Field cord or involved in clinical trials
Adipose Studied in animal models
Allogeneic cell therapies combined with scaffolding tissue or involved in clinical trials
biomaterials have been employed in tissue engineering
approaches for wound care and scar management. We
will describe here the cells and their scaffold used in
scar management. The common cell types used for scar or polyglactin meshes. An example of one product using
treatments are fibroblasts and keratinocytes as commer- allogeneic keratinocytes is Cryoskin® that is available
cial products for skin regeneration (. Table 51.1). The from frozen cells on a carrier dressing [2]. A single blind
emergence of three-dimensional (3D) printing is gaining study shows the efficacy of this cell therapy for the accel-
commercial interest for large-scale production. Research eration of healing of chronic nonhealing neuropathic
works on mesenchymal stromal cells (MSCs) therapy diabetic ulcers. In general, the clinical outcome of the
for scar management are also increasing and show very epidermal sheet grafts is usually not satisfying because
promising results. of the nonpermanent character, ultimate rejection, and
absence of a dermal component.
51.3 Human Allogeneic Epidermal Sheets

51.4 ellular Dermal Substitutes and
C
Epidermal sheets consist of human keratinocytes that Human Dermal Fibroblasts Therapy
are differentiated in vitro to give rise to a stratified epi-
dermal layer. They can be combined with other biocom- In contrast to epidermal sheets, the dermal substitutes
patible substrates (bovine collagen, hyaluronic acid), are composed either of autologous or of allogeneic der-
acellular natural human or porcine materials, or nylon mal fibroblasts. The scaffold for the cells consists mostly
Emerging Technologies in Scar Management: The Role of Allogeneic Cells
453 51
of biomaterials, like benzyl-esterified derivatives of ture release sites in patients suffering from dystrophic
hyaluronic acid (Hyaff-11), polyglycolic acid, or poly- epidermolysis bullosa undergoing hand reconstruction
glactin. TransCyte® is a comparable product containing surgery (7 https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/cdrh_docs/
a nylon mesh coated with porcine dermal collagen that pdf/p010016b.pdf) and also in burn patients undergo-
is seeded with neonatal fibroblasts and fixed to an outer ing excision and grafting [2]. In vitro skin cells used to
silicone membrane. make OrCel® skin equivalent are extensively expanded
The major indication of application consists in that give rise to a low human leukocyte antigen class II
transient wound cover after surgery. One of the most (HLA-II) level of the allogeneic cells. Therefore, OrCel®
successfully bioengineered products is Dermagraft®, skin equivalent is well tolerated by the recipient after
an allogeneic cell culture using neonatal dermal fibro- grafting into wound bed. The company reported in both
blast grown on a biodegradable scaffold. This product clinical trial and commercial experience no clinical signs
showed the capacity to secrete several growth factors, of tissue rejection using the cryopreserved OrCel® prod-
to stimulate angiogenesis, and re-epithelialization from uct. Resorption appears to take place gradually, with no
the wound edge, even after cryopreservation and thaw- remnants of the donor cells or matrix being detectable
ing. In diabetic foot ulcers, its efficacy and its safety were by 2 weeks of posttreatment. Their working hypothesis
demonstrated [2]. is that extracellular secretion of cytokines and growth
In addition, some other clinical trials are ongoing factors by the living cells in OrCel® is the major factor
using a medicinal product comprised of viable alloge- for accelerating wound healing.
neic dermal fibroblasts suspended in HypoThermosol®-
FRS for remodeling scar contractures from burn
patients and from dystrophic epidermolysis bullosa 51.6 Bioprinting of Skin
patients. Fibroblasts are from neonatal foreskin, cryo-
preserved, thawed, and expanded in culture under The use of three-dimensional (3D) bioprinting has
good manufacturing practice at Intercytex Ltd., UK emerged as a flexible tool in regenerative medicine to
(7 ClinicalTrials.gov, Identifier: NCT01564407 [burn bioengineer skin substitutes. There are many kinds of
patients], ISRCTN67757229 [recessive dystrophic epi- bioprinting technologies, but the four more commonly
dermolysis bullosa patients]). used are inkjet-based printing, extrusion-based print-
ing, laser-assisted printing, and digital light processing
(DLP)-based printing—dynamic optical projection ste-
51.5 Human Skin Equivalent reolithography (DOPsL). Cell viability can be affected
by several factors, including bioprinting technique used.
Skin equivalent is only composed of a culture of kera- Jorcano laboratory has developed one bioprinter
tinocytes growing on dermal substitutes containing prototype able to print skin cells, soluble factors, and
fibroblasts. An example of an allogeneic skin equivalent biomaterials in a desired pattern with the help of high-
product is Apligraf® consisting of cultured keratino- precision Cartesian robots. The printing skin mimics the
cytes on a dermal layer of fibroblasts within a bovine structural and molecular structure of the human skin
type 1 collagen matrix (7 http://www.apligraf.com/ [3]. It is the first functional printer to be introduced
professional/). Apligraf® obtained its Food and Drug to the marketplace. To date, there is no allogeneic 3D
Administration (FDA) approval for diabetic foot ulcers printed skin used in patients, but this technology raised
and venous leg ulcers applications. This product has great hopes for the treatment of scar in the future.
been well tolerated in over 150,000 patient applications.
Clinical trials showed that the healing rate of the
venous ulcers treated with Apligraf® as well as the heal- 51.7 I njections of Mesenchymal Stromal
ing time was improved. Healing occurs with less fibro- Cells (MSCs) for Skin Regeneration
sis, which might be because of the construction of the
graft itself containing neonatal cells and growth factors/ MSCs were known to contribute to skin regeneration
cytokines, stimulating a more fetal-like scarless wound and to accelerate cutaneous wound healing. MSCs were
healing. Another product used in clinical trials for the first isolated from bone marrow in the 1970s by their
treatment of venous ulcers is OrCel®, a bilayered cellu- ability to adhere, proliferate, and develop on a plastic
lar matrix containing adult epidermal keratinocytes and surface, displaying fibroblastic morphology. MSCs are
dermal fibroblasts. Donor dermal fibroblasts are cul- multipotent adult progenitor cells that can differentiate
tured within the porous Type I bovine collagen sponge to lineages of mesenchymal cells, including osteoblasts,
while keratinocytes, from the same donor, are cultured chondroblasts, and adipocytes. These can be isolated
on the coated, nonporous side of the collagen matrix. from various adult or perinatal tissues such as adi-
Recently, OrCel® obtained its first FDA approvals pose tissue or umbilical cord. MSCs have shown posi-
for treatment of acute surgical excisions, such as contrac- tive therapeutic effects in many tissue repair situations
through the secretion of trophic factors. In addition, (iPSC) as potentially promising in scar management [9].
allogeneic MSCs are well tolerated after injections due As fetal cells, ESCs are thought to possess antifibrotic
to their immune-modulating effects [4]. ability. An in vitro study showed the capacity of ESC-
Many studies have demonstrated that MSCs exhibit derived macrophages to secrete scarless-like secretome
a number of trophic functions to enhance skin regen- to regulate the altered keloid niche and reverse the pro-
eration, such as promoting angiogenesis, modulating the fibrotic phenotype of keloid fibroblasts [10]. Because
inflammatory response, and limiting tissue fibrosis [5]. In iPSCs are similar to ESCs in many features, they have
in vivo studies, these cells have been used successfully to been evaluated in scar tissue repair. An in vitro recent
limit scar formation. Transplanted allogeneic or xenoge- study documented that iPSC-conditioned medium
neic MSCs transiently survive in the implantation site; may efficiently suppress hypertrophic scar fibroblast
51 their therapeutic potential in wound healing is associated
with their secretion of trophic effects on resident cells.
activation [11].
One of these in vivo studies using a rabbit model showed

that intradermal injection of MSCs can regulate inflam- 51.9 Conclusion/Discussion
mation and prevent the formation of hypertrophic scars.
The MSCs underwent apoptosis rapidly in the injected The allogeneic cell therapy for scar management shows
site, between 24 and 72 hours postinjection. They dem- many advantages: large prefabrication, cryopreserva-
onstrated that apoptosis has an important role in the acti- tion for instant use, and repeated applications. They also
vation of the inflammatory regulatory abilities of MSCs allow the use of fetal cells such as embryonic stem cells.
through TNF-alpha stimulated protein 6 (TSG-6) [6]. Furthermore, they are applicable for genetic skin disease
An in vivo study showed the efficacy of MSCs and inducing wound healing without genetic modifications.
dermal fibroblasts combined to minimize skin hyper- Most of current and emerging therapeutics for scar
trophic scarring [7]. They showed that transplanted management are using allogeneic fibroblasts and kera-
xenogeneic MSCs influenced positively fibroblast prolif- tinocytes as epidermal sheet, dermal substitute, or skin
eration, migration, and extracellular matrix deposition equivalent. The immune rejection of these adult cells is
and reduced inflammation following wounding. This commonly reported, mostly shown for allogeneic kera-
effect was superior to MSC or fibroblast transplantation tinocytes due to different HLA expression and cytokine
alone. This study suggests that MSCs, even if eventu- production. Fetal cells are of particular interest for skin
ally rejected quickly after injection, transplanted with repair due to the high expansion ability, low immu-
fibroblasts normalize matrix regeneration during wound nogenicity, and intense secretion of bioactive factors.
healing. This promising study provides insight into However, the main cellular effect seems in promoting
allogeneic cell therapies as a viable method for antifi- wound healing through secretion of endogenous and
brotic treatment and demonstrates that even transiently exogenous factors rather than cell survival.
engrafted cells can have a long-term impact via matrix Regarding the viability of allogeneic cells, most of the
modulation and effect on other tissue cells. studies on the literature agree on the fact that allogeneic
One of the first randomized, controlled clinical cells do not survive for a long time after transplanta-
trial will study the safety and efficacy of MSCs in skin tion. But most of their therapeutic potential seems to
scar for the treatment of Cesarean section [8]. Eligible be based on their secretion of trophic factors such as
patients received transdermal hydrogel MSCs once a growth factors, cytokines, and extracellular vesicles at
day for six consecutive days. Their outcomes should be least for MSC therapy and also for dermal fibroblasts
available soon (7 ClinicalTrials.gov, NCT02772289). therapy. Extracellular vesicles (exosomes, microvesicles,
and apoptotic bodies) are secreted by most cells of
the organism. These extracellular vesicles are of grow-
51.8 romising Embryonic(-Like) Stem Cells
P ing interest among investigators, specially from MSCs
Therapy for Scar Treatment across multiple fields, including dermatology as a drug
[12]. As MSCs or stem cells, extracellular vesicles dem-
Embryonic stem cells (ESCs) and induced pluripotent onstrate immunomodulatory properties, accelerate skin
stem cells (iPSCs) are defined as pluripotent cells able to cell migration and proliferation, control wound scar-
self-renew. In the field of skin, those stem cells showed ring, and improve angiogenesis. Several clinical trials
some promising results regarding fibrosis care. should appear in the future years testing the safety and
Many in vitro and/or in vivo studies are ongoing on the efficacy of stem cells and derived products for skin
embryonic stem cells and induced pluripotent stem cells scar treatment.
Emerging Technologies in Scar Management: The Role of Allogeneic Cells
455 51
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457 52
New Drugs for Scar Treatment

Sun Hyung Kwon, Jagannath Padmanabhan, Dominic Henn,
Kellen Chen, and Geoffrey C. Gurtner
Contents
52.2 Objectives of the Proposed Chapter – 458
52.3 escription of the State-of-the-Art Historical Evolution:

D
Recent Data – 458
52.4 Transforming Growth Factor-β (TGF-β) – 459

52.5 Interleukins (IL) – 460
52.6 Mechanotransduction Pathway Inhibitors – 460
52.7 Supportive Articles in the EBM Literature – 461
References – 463

458 S. H. Kwon et al.
52.1 Background A paradigm shift in our understanding of the scar

pathophysiology emerged when the role of mecha-
Cutaneous wound healing following injury is a com- notransduction in fibrosis was explored. The role of
plex biological process involving the orchestration of mechanical stress in scar formation had been described
the immune system, inflammatory pathways, mecha- as early as in the 1800s, with the description of Langer’s
notransduction pathways, and various types of partici- lines of skin tension used for surgical incisions to mini-
pating cells. In adult humans, the wound repair process mize scarring. But recent work elucidating the role of
results in the replacement of the damaged functional mechanical cues activating inflammatory pathways and
tissue with a patch of cells (i.e., mostly fibroblasts) and scar-promoting cells highlighted mechanotransduction
disorganized collagen-rich extracellular matrix that is as a central focus of scar pathophysiology [6]. In the past
commonly defined as a scar [1]. While scarring occurs decade, aberrant activation of mechanosensitive skin
in almost all tissues, it is most apparent in the skin. cells have been shown to underlie abnormal wound heal-
Cutaneous scarring poses a significant psychological ing and scar formation in various skin diseases including
52 and physiological burden on patients, and an estimated hypertrophic and keloidal scars, Dupuytren’s disease, and
$12 billion are spent annually on scar treatments in the scleroderma [6]. Offloading of mechanical forces during
USA alone [2]. Additionally, dysfunctional healing and healing of human skin incisions following abdominal
hypertrophic scarring often causes lifelong disability, surgeries has been shown to be effective in reducing scar
which has a significant additional economic impact [1, formation in Phase I clinical trials [7]. In particular, focal
2]. Over 40 million patients undergo surgical procedures adhesion kinase (FAK), a molecular mediator of mech-
annually, which often lead to the formation of hyper- anotransduction, has been identified to play a key role
trophic scars (HTSs) resulting in substantial morbidity in fibrosis and scar formation (. Fig. 52.1) [8]. Animal
and disfigurement of the skin. Similarly, scar forma- studies have shown that pharmacological inhibition of
tion occurring as a result of burns and other forms of FAK can lead to significantly reduced scar formation
trauma leads to severe functional disabilities costing and accelerated wound healing [9].
the economy over $4 billion per year [2]. Keloidal scars, In this chapter, we will review the latest pharma-
which are characterized by excessive fibrosis in areas cological therapies that are being evaluated for scar
of the skin with acne or other minor injuries, represent management in the currently available literature. This
another major fibrotic skin disorder. Several other skin includes agents that have recently completed clinical tri-
fibrotic diseases such as Dupuytren’s disease, psoriasis, als and drugs that target cellular mechanotransduction
and scleroderma lead to cutaneous scarring as well [2]. pathways.
In current practice, cutaneous scars are treated using
corticosteroid injections or cryotherapy, surgical revi-
sions, topical silicone gels, sheets and pressure garments, 52.2 Objectives of the Proposed Chapter
radiation, and laser treatments [3]. These traditional
treatment modalities have shown mixed success and This chapter describes the evidence-based new drug
most methods lead only to partial alleviation of scar therapies introduced in recent scientific literature for
formation. Further, many of these treatment modali- scar mitigation and prevention. Although the underlying
ties are associated with other practical issues such as pathophysiology of hypertrophic scar formation follow-
patient discomfort and pain, multiple and frequent vis- ing injury is far from completely understood, over the
its to the doctor’s office, or even higher recurrence of past decade, advances in our understanding of the cel-
scars [3]. Recent progress in the identification of key sig- lular and molecular mechanisms by which fibrotic scars
naling pathways involved in fibrosis and scar formation develop have paved the way for devising new approaches
has led to the emergence of new therapeutic agents for in scar therapies.
scar treatment, with promising results in animal studies.
Agents targeting collagen synthesis pathways, cytokines,
growth factors, and cytotoxic agents are under investiga- 52.3 Description of the State-of-the-Art
tion for scar therapy. Of these, drugs that inhibit expres- Historical Evolution: Recent Data
sion of transforming growth factor (TGF)-β1/TGF-β2
or augment TGF-β3 had shown initial promise, but have Traditional scar revision technologies include surgi-
been shown to be ineffective in later clinical trials as dis- cal treatment, topical silicone gels, sheets and pressure
cussed below [3, 4]. Similarly, treatment of scars with garments, radiation, and laser treatments [3]. In current
interleukin-10 (IL-10), an interleukin that is involved practice, intralesional corticosteroidal therapies and
in regulating inflammatory pathways, has shown some antiproliferative 5-fluorouracil therapy are also com-
promise in treating psoriasis, but has failed to show any monly used to pharmacologically mitigate hypertrophic
significant benefit for other types of scars [5]. scars, although their effectiveness is mainly supported
459 52
.. Fig. 52.1 Focal adhe-
sion kinase (FAK)-mediated
mechanotransduction. Mechan- Extracellular
ical forces activate FAK, which matrix
activates several downstream Mechanical
effectors and transcriptional forces
factors that mediate cellular
mechanotransduction [6].
Source: Mechanobiology in
Health and Disease, 1st Edi-
tion. Elsevier. © All rights Growth factor Integrins
G-protein coupled
reserved Stretch-activated receptors receptors
ion channels
FAK
Plasma
membrane
Ca2+ NO MAPK Rho PI3K
Cytosol
Transcription factors
Mechanoresponsive genes
Nucleus
by case studies and preliminary clinical studies [3]. These ferent isoforms of TGF-β could contribute to different
treatments are often associated with adverse reactions, stages of wound healing. While TGF-β1 and TGF-β2
such as dermal atrophy or hypopigmentation, leading are expressed highly in postnatal adults, TGF-β3 is the
many patients to seek alternative treatment modalities dominant isoform in fetal wound healing, leading many
after prolonged use. Recent studies have investigated researchers to identify either TGF-β3 as a therapeutic
new pathways to reveal drug targets such as modulators target to upregulate or TGF-β1/GF-β2 as targets to
of wound inflammatory cytokines, growth factors, and inhibit for scarless wound healing [3, 4].
mechanomodulatory mediators as potential targets for Despite strong preclinical outcomes, current TGF-β
scar-mitigating therapies [6]. clinical trials have had disappointing results. Juvista,
a new recombinant TGF-β3 product developed by
Renovo, had shown promise in early phase efficacy tri-
52.4 Transforming Growth Factor-β (TGF-β) als but failed to meet primary endpoints in Phase III
trials [3, 4]. Renovo also pursued a trial with Juvidex
TGF-β expression is involved in almost all stages of the (mannose-6 phosphate), an inhibitor of TGF-β1/TGF-
wound-healing process, including wound inflammation, β2 [3]. Juvidex failed to meet its primary goal in a Phase
angiogenesis, extracellular matrix synthesis, and tissue II trial but it did meet a number of secondary endpoints
remodeling. Various studies have established the impor- [3]. Other researchers have also explored the clinical
tant role this wound-growth factor plays in dermal fibro- potential for a recombinant human antibody to neutral-
blast differentiation into myofibroblasts and subsequent ize TGF-β1 to combat systemic sclerosis, but their clini-
scar formation across a range of fibrotic diseases [3, 4]. cal studies did not prove any difference in efficacy from
Studies exploring the scarless and regenerative ability control during their Phase I/II trials [3]. TGF-β therapy
of the fetus have pointed toward the possibility that dif- could potentially have confounding results due to its
dual importance in both normal wound healing and application of a stress-shielding device on these wounds
also in excessive fibro-proliferation during scar forma- has demonstrated clear efficacy in mitigating scar for-
tion. TGF-β receptors are upregulated during fibrosis, mation [6]. This technology successfully led polymer
and while blocking TGF-β expression seems to prevent stress-shielding devices to the market, and numerous
fibrosis, it can also lead to chronic, nonhealing wounds. patients have seen benefits in the clinic.
Albeit, TGF-β continues to be an attractive pharmaco- Despite success on surgical incisions, polymer mech-
logical target for a wide variety of fibrotic diseases, and anomodulatory devices are difficult to use on large-
newer strategies modulating TGF-β pathophysiology sized excisional wounds, burn injuries, and wounds that
await further investigation. formed in contoured body areas. Alternatively, nonin-
vasive therapeutics that pharmacologically target key
mechanotransduction (cellular machinery that trans-
52.5 Interleukins (IL) duces mechanical stimuli to biochemical signals) path-
ways have also received highlight in recent literature.
52 Neutrophils and macrophages, two of the major cell Currently, a prototype of such therapeutic agents is at
types during the inflammatory phase of wound heal- the early preclinical development stage with transla-
ing, secrete cytokines such as interleukins (ILs). IL-10 tional potential.
has been shown to regulate inflammatory cell function Small molecule-mediated suppressors of pivotal
during wound healing by sequestering pro-inflamma- mechanomodulatory proteins have been studied as anti-
tory IL-6 or IL-8 and by regulating the Th1 cell cyto- cancer agents for many decades. A non-receptor protein
kine production [3, 5], leading some research groups to tyrosine kinase, focal adhesion kinase (FAK), is a key
explore the therapeutic effect of administering IL-10 to upstream mediator of the Integrin mechanotransduc-
the wound bed during early wound healing. The previ- tion pathway and an important inducer of cell adhesion,
ously mentioned Renovo also demonstrated the ability proliferation, migration, and angiogenesis [8, 9]. FAK
of IL-10 to potentially improve scar healing in human is known to be deregulated in cancer and is thought
patients during Phase I/II trials administering Prevascar, to be a rational target to block tumorigenic activities
their recombinant human IL-10 (rhIL-10) product [3]. using pharmacological inhibitors [10]. Because emerg-
However, they were unable to pursue Phase III trials ing studies have shown that FAK transduces mechanical
after failing the aforementioned Juvidex and Juvista tri- stress signals to stimulate the activation of the FAK–
als. Treatment with rhIL-10 has also been explored in ERK–MCP-1 signaling pathway and is an important
several other clinical trials to potentially combat vari- regulator of cancer-promoting pathways [6–8], many
ous inflammatory diseases such as Crohn’s diseases and pharmaceutical companies have taken effort to develop
rheumatoid arthritis with disappointing results, but has later-generation FAK inhibitors that display improved
shown promise in treating psoriasis. pharmacodynamic and pharmacokinetic properties.
Clinical trials are ongoing in human cancer subjects,
and the therapeutic potential to antagonize stromal
52.6 Mechanotransduction Pathway solid tumors seems promising to date [10].
Inhibitors In currently available literature, small molecule-
mediated inhibition of the kinase activity of FAK
During wound healing, mechanical stress plays an has been successfully used to prevent experimental
essential role in promoting pro-fibrotic cellular events bleomycin- induced lung fibrosis and mechanically
through mechanisms that stimulate inflammatory path- induced skin HTS formation [6, 9]. FAK inhibition sig-
way components leading to exuberant fibro-prolifera- nificantly reduced scar-forming fibroblast migration,
tion. Manipulation of the wound mechanoenvironment myofibroblast production of α-smooth muscle actin,
with new medical devices that can modulate local bio- and aberrant collagen extracellular matrix deposition in
mechanics, therefore, has gained a rapidly growing mar- these studies (. Fig. 52.2) [9]. Because wound healing
ket for scar reduction of surgical wounds [6–8]. Based and cancer development share similarities in terms of
on long-standing surgical principles clinically used to overlapping mechanisms that promote transformation,
minimize scar development, these polymer-based medi- proliferation, and survival of cells, FAK inhibitor ther-
cal devices offload mechanical force to release tension apy that can be safely delivered to wound sites would
imposed upon healing surgical incisions. In particular, be a new and promising approach to wound and scar
incisions created at high-tension body locations such as management. In most circumstances, cutaneous scar
the central chest, shoulders, knees, ankles, and/or the development is a localized event; therefore, this provides
back are prone to forming HTS than other body sites. rationale and support to develop targeted FAK inhibi-
For example, abdominoplasty wounds can develop into tor delivery modalities in attenuating scar formation.
wide scars due to their natural high-tension closure, and Localized drug delivery has the advantage of circum-
461 52
a b
c d
.. Fig. 52.2 Pharmacological blockade of focal adhesion kinase α-smooth muscle actin (SMA) was significantly reduced with FAK-I
(FAK) improves wound healing and reduces scarring of murine hydrogel treatment [9]. Source: Journal of Investigative Dermatology
burn wounds. (a, b) Mouse contact burn wound healing was accel- (2018), Volume 138. Elsevier. © All rights reserved
erated with FAK-I hydrogel treatment. (c, d) Wound expression of
venting systemic toxicity while maximizing bioavail- 52.7 upportive Articles in the EBM
S
ability and local drug efficiency. Localized topical FAK Literature
inhibitor therapy ideally requires drug delivery vehicles
that are biocompatible, eliciting no or low immuno- To date, currently available scar treatment modalities,
genicity. Medicated self-adhesive patches that release especially for large-sized excisions and burn-related
therapeutic molecules upon dermal contact may not be injuries, have not led to successful clinical outcomes,
suitable for large-sized open wounds, and other topical and the future market for new wound healing and scar
formulations in the form of topical cream, lotion, or mitigation therapies remains strongly promising. Recent
ointment are easily subject to over- or under-dosing if progress in the identification of new signaling pathways
application amount per treatment is not accurately mea- and cellular components implicated in fibrotic scar for-
sured. The latter is also problematic especially for thera- mation has advanced our knowledge toward developing
peutic compounds with potential toxicological effects at nontraditional therapies for scar treatment. Promising
the systemic level. Therefore, it is scientifically reason- results in preclinical studies have resulted in many publi-
able to devise a dermal delivery vehicle that can deliver cations from multiple research groups with some thera-
topical FAK inhibitor to wounds and/or scars in a con- pies already completing human clinical trials. Scientific
trolled manner. Biopolymers have strong advantages as rationale for these newer therapies is strong; however,
drug delivery carriers because of their ability to carry clinical development of some of these agents have faced
bioactive compounds to target tissues and cells and to failure during clinical trial phases. TGF-β-based thera-
release compounds over a prolonged duration. Recent pies, Juvista and Juvidex, both displayed strong preclini-
studies have used collagen-based bioscaffolds to develop cal effects but failed during multiple human trials. IL-10
biodegradable hydrogels that release FAK inhibitors in products also showed disappointing clinical outcomes. A
a regulated manner upon direct contact with the skin, mechanomodulatory agent, specifically localized FAK
which has proven preclinical efficacy in rodent wound inhibitor therapy, is in its early preclinical development
models for HTS reduction [9]. Development of relevant stage with promising animal data recently published.
drug delivery systems and extensive safety studies on The more we understand the cellular and molecular
potential adverse effects of each agent will be imperative mechanisms underlying fibrosis and scar formation, the
to successful development of pharmaceutical therapies more therapeutic opportunities will be revealed for scar
against fibrotic scar formation. mitigation.
52.8 Clinical Relevance as well as challenging field of translational research into

personalized medicine in the field of plastic and recon-
Cutaneous scar development of the skin, particularly structive surgery. Beyond that, the search for novel phar-
the formation of HTS and keloidal scars following macological treatments addressing molecular targets
wound healing, constitutes a major clinical challenge for in the pathways of wound healing and fibrosis has the
health care, both in terms of individual suffering and potential to improve the lives of numerous patients, and
economic burden. also to generate new products for health care of major
Scar formation can occur at any site of dermal economic value.
lesion resulting from burn-related trauma, or surgical
wounds. Burn patients are particularly prone to severe
disfigurement and functional impairment through often 52.9 Conclusion
extensive scarring, and affected children are the most
vulnerable patient group in regard to long-term suffer- Wound healing and repair following injury is a complex
52 ing. HTS formation affects a variety of life quality deter- and poorly understood process that leads to cutaneous
minants. Cosmetic disfigurement by scar appearance scar formation, which constitutes a significant health
may strongly diminish a person’s self-consciousness, as care burden. Despite spending billions of dollars every
well as their ability to participate in social activities and year on scar management, traditional scar treatment
professional life, and is often associated with serious modalities have not proved to be effective. Treatment
physical impairments, especially in the context of scar- modalities such as corticosteroid injections and radia-
induced contractures. Moreover, scars frequently cause tion can be largely uncomfortable for the patients.
secondary illnesses requiring complex multidisciplinary Surgical revisions, which are targeted at reducing the
treatment not only by plastic surgeons but also by der- wide base of the scar, are associated with high recur-
matologists, physical therapists, and psychotherapists. rence rates in the absence of other therapeutic strate-
In children, abnormal scars can profoundly limit the gies. Identification of key signaling pathways that are
potential of physical as well as emotional and psycho- dysregulated during abnormal wound healing has led to
social development during childhood. Therefore, effec- the emergence of a range of new pharmacological inter-
tive scar treatment approaches can critically determine a ventions that target growth factors, cytokines, and col-
person’s long-term ability to lead a self-determined life. lagen biosynthesis, and have showed promising results
From the perspective of health care professionals, initially but have not led to successful outcomes in later
researchers, and health economists, and for the society clinical trials.
as a whole, scar formation is perhaps still an underesti- The clarification of the role of mechanotransduc-
mated yet growing burden for the public health. In the tion in fibrosis has opened up a new avenue for scar
United States alone, about 500,000 patients are treated therapy research. Offloading of mechanical forces of
for burn injuries each year, resulting in expenses of surgical incisions during healing has been shown to
about $7.5 billion. Conversely, treatment of scarring is be effective in reducing scar formation, which further
a considerable economic factor, generating a $12 billion underscores the importance of mechanical signaling
annual market with further potential to grow [1, 2, 6]. in scar development. Specifically, inhibition of focal
It is a long-standing clinical observation that the adhesion kinase, a key regulator of mechanotransduc-
proneness to HTS formation and keloids is considerably tion has been shown to be effective in attenuating scars
influenced by individual genetic traits as well as eth- and accelerating wound healing. Small molecule inhi-
nic risk profiles [6]. Studies showed that about 16% of bition of FAK blocks the activation of inflammatory
patients with Hispanic or African ancestry are affected signaling pathways, thus uncoupling mechanical force
from keloidal scarring, as patients with darker skin color from pathologic scar formation. This strategy has been
are approximately 15 times more likely to be affected employed to reduce scar formation in burn wounds
than light-skinned individuals. As the individual recur- as well as excisional wounds in mice. Taken together,
rence risk of keloids also strongly depends on consti- recent findings indicate that molecular strategies tar-
tutional determinants, progress in research toward their geting mechanotransduction pathways in general and
identification and, ultimately, targeted modulation can specifically FAK pathway can effectively reduce fibrosis
immediately affect therapeutic strategies of scar forma- and show promise as an effective and versatile strategy
tion in the future. Consequently, scarring is a promising for scar management.
463 52
Take-Home Messages References
55 The underlying pathophysiology of cutaneous
hypertrophic scar formation following injury is 1. Gurtner GC, Werner S, Barrandon Y, Longaker MT. Wound
incompletely understood; however, improved repair and regeneration. Nature. 2008;453:314–21.
2. Padnnanabhan J, et al. In vivo models for the study of fibrosis. Adv
understanding of the molecular mechanisms by
Wound Care. 2019; https://doi.org/10.1089/wound.2018.0909.
which fibrotic scars develop has paved the way for 3. Meier K, Nanney LB. Emerging new drugs for scar reduction.
devising new approaches in scar therapies. Expert Opin Emerg Drugs. 2006;11:39–47.
55 Traditional scar management modalities include 4. So K, et al. Avotermin for scar improvement following scar
surgical revision, corticosteroid injections, and revision surgery: a randomized, double-blind, within- patient,
placebo-controlled, phase II clinical trial. Plast Reconstr Surg.
radiation treatment methods. These conventional
2011;128:163–72.
therapies are often associated with practical issues 5. Asadullah K, Sterry W, Volk HD. Interleukin-10 therapy–review
and higher recurrence rates. of a new approach. Pharmacol Rev. 2003;55:241–69.
55 Recent scientific evidence suggests that mechanical 6. Kwon SH, Padmanabhan J, Gurtner GC. Chapter 14 - Mecha-
stress plays a crucial role in promoting pro-fibrotic nobiology of skin diseases and wound healing, Editor(s): Ste-
faan W. Verbruggen, Mechanobiology in Health and Disease,
cellular events via pro-inflammatory pathways
Academic Press, Cambridge, MA. 2018;415–448.
leading to exuberant cutaneous scar formation 7. Gurtner GC, et al. Improving cutaneous scar formation by con-
and fibrosis. trolling the mechanical environment: large animal and phase I
55 New medical devices that can modulate local bio- studies. Ann Surg. 2011;254:217–2250.
mechanics has gained a rapidly growing market for 8. Wong VW, et al. Focal adhesion kinase links mechanical force to
skin fibrosis via inflammatory signaling. Nat Med. 2011;18:148–52.
scar reduction of surgical wounds.
9. Ma K, et al. Controlled delivery of a focal adhesion kinase
55 Pharmacological inhibitors of the mechanotrans- inhibitor results in accelerated wound closure with decreased
duction pathways are promising evidence-based scar formation. J Invest Dermatol. 2018;138:2452–60.
new scar therapies that block inflammation and 10. Infante JR, et al. Safety, pharmacokinetic, and pharmacody-
pathologic scar formation. namic phase I dose-escalation trial of PF-00562271, an inhibitor
of focal adhesion kinase, in advanced solid tumors. J Clin Oncol.
2012;30:1527–33.
465 53

Management: Remodeling
of Post-surgical Linear Scar
Using Microplasma
Radiofrequency
Wei Liu
Contents

53.1.1 Fractional Microplasma Radiofrequency Technology – 466
53.2 rocedures: Clinical Protocol for Microplasma-Based

P
Tissue Remodeling (. Fig. 53.3) – 467
53.2.1 re-therapy Preparation – 467
P
53.2.2 Microplasma Treatment – 467
53.2.3 Post-therapy Wound Care – 467
53.3 pplication Areas for FMRT-Mediated Tissue

A
Remodeling – 468
53.3.1 icroplasma Therapy for Post-scar Revision Skin to Enhance
M
Cosmetic Result – 468
53.3.2 Microplasma for Early Wound Intervention to Prevent Scar
Formation – 470
53.3.3 Microplasma Remodeling for an Existing Linear Scar – 472
References – 472

466 W. Liu
53.1 Introduction with the formation of micro-channels in a fractional

way (. Fig. 53.1).
A strategy of remodeling of an existed scar is by chang- The device we used in the past 13 years for patient
ing its tissue architecture that can eventually lead to a treatment was a product from Alma Lasers (Caesarea,
grossly non-visible or minimally visible scar. Since some Israel) called PixelRF with both roller and stationary tips.
years, mechanical or energetic manipulation of scarred . Figure 53.1 demonstrates its working mechanism of
skin has received considerable attention in attempts to the device. In general, this device creates the depth of abla-
improve scar quality. Next to techniques as dermabra- tive point in 100–150 μm, and the size of ablative point
sia, CO2 laser, or microneedling, microplasma technol- 80–120 μm in diameter, and heating effect with a unipo-
ogy might represent a new technique in this field [1]. lar can reach the depth of 1000 μm, depending on the
radiofrequency power and pulse duration. However, the
ablative depth could reach to the upper part of the dermis
53.1.1 Fractional Microplasma with increasing energy, and thus to remodel a superficial
Radiofrequency Technology layer of dermis. By this way, the FMRT can remodel tis-
sue structure via ablative microchannel of epidermis and
53 There are four formats of matter: solid, liquid, gas, controlled thermal modification of the underlying der-
and plasma. With energy, solid can be converted into mis, with new collagen synthesis and collagen remodeling
liquid and liquid into gas. Similarly, gas can also be [2, 3]. With this type of working mechanism, the created
transformed into plasma with energy input. The frac- micropore wound can be healed in 7 days (. Fig. 53.2)
tional microplasma radiofrequency technology (FMRT) and thus repeated treatments can be applied.
employs the energy of radiofrequency to act on nitrogen Although this particular device was used because of
of the air in the narrow space between the therapy tip its availability to the author at that time, the effect of
and the treated skin, and thus to form a grid of high- wound/scar remodeling is also likely to be achieved by
energy focal-led plasma sparks, which result in ioniza- other devices such as CO2 fractional laser or others made
tion of a portion of the atoms. With this physical effect, by Lumenis, Cynosure, Alma, or Syneron, depending on
the FMRT can cause mild ablation of the epidermis physicians’ clinical expertise (. Fig. 53.3).
RF energy
a b
RF Energy
• RF Energy D
Distributed
through the
• Nitrogen • Nitrogen tips
• Nitrogen Stratum Corneum
Ablation
• Plasma Stratum lucidum
Stratum granulosum
Stratum apinosum
• Skin Structure
Stratum basale
.. Fig. 53.1 The schematic picture of FMRT working mechanism. a Radiofrequency energy acts on nitrogen to create plasma particles.
b Plasma particles penetrate epidermis in a fractional way. (Photo courtesy from Alma Lasers. © All rights reserved)
Emerging Technologies in Scar Management: Remodeling of Post-surgical Linear Scar Using…
467 53
a POWER TO ACHIEVE Acute

53.2 rocedures: Clinical Protocol
P
for Microplasma-Based Tissue
• The histology shows a crater caused by ablative
effect of a single Pixel RF spike @45Watts
Remodeling (. Fig. 53.3)
53.2.1 Pre-therapy Preparation
1. Patients with skin lesions at the treating area should

be advised not to receive the treatment before the
cure of these lesions, including infectious skin lesions
caused by both virus and bacteria, dermatitis, pso-
riasis, eczema, and urticaria.
2. Patients should be advised for proper management
b POWER TO ACHIEVE 3 days of the micropore wound post-therapy and potential
side effects with signed written informed consent.
• The histology shows re-epithelialization of 3. Photography before the treatment. Be sure that it is
the crater 3 days after Pixel RF
taken before topical anesthesia and it is in the same
conditions of environment such as light, focus, and
positions.
4. Topical application of 5% lidocaine hydrochloric
gel under plastic wrap for 60–90 minutes before the
treatment followed by thorough cleaning and steril-
ization with 70% alcohol.
5. Non-treated skin should be protected with paper
tape surrounding the treated skin if the tip is larger
than the area to be treated.
c POWER TO ACHIEVE 14 days
• The histology shows closure of the crater and healing/

rearrangement of the rate ridges area 14 days after Pixel RF. 53.2.2 Microplasma Treatment
1. Fractional microplasma radiofrequency treatment

was performed with the device of Pixel RF (Alma
Lasers, Caesarea, Israel).
2. A roller tip was used with the power setting at 60–90
watts, and 3–4 passes were usually made in different
directions.
.. Fig. 53.2 Histological demonstration of microplasma working

depth and healing process. a Acute wound immediately after micro- 53.2.3 Post-therapy Wound Care
plasma. b Healing at day 3. c Healing at day 14. (Photo courtesy from
Alma Lasers. © All rights reserved) 1. Patients are advised for comprehensive instructions
of post-procedure care.
2. Sterile saline cleaning and erythromycin eye oint-
ment were topically applied daily for 6 days to pre-
vent infection.
3. Patients are advised not to be exposed to sunlight to
avoid post-therapy pigmentation.
4. Patients are advised to protect the treating area by
avoiding scratching or rubbing.
468 W. Liu
a b c
53
.. Fig. 53.3 Microplasma procedure. a Paper taping is applied to applied to perform the procedure. c The gross view of the treated
protect untreated skin and 2–3 mm skin surrounding the healed wound/skin tissue immediately after the procedure
wound tissue is also included in the procedure. b A roller tip is
5. Patients are advised to have the follow-up regularly. irrigation with triamcinolone acetonide (5 mg/mL)
6. In the case of early wound remodeling, anti-tension or 5-fluorouracil (2–4 mg/mL) or both combined
type or device should be applied before and after the should be applied before wound closure to prevent
treatment. scar formation.
3. After the surgical procedure, tension- reduction
tape (such as 3 M tape) should be applied to keep
53.3 pplication Areas for FMRT-Mediated
A the wound in a tension-free state. Patients are
Tissue Remodeling advised to have the tape changed every 2–3 days
and maintained for at least 6 months post-surgery.
53.3.1 Microplasma Therapy for Post-scar The stiches are removed at day 5 or 6 post-surgery
for head and neck regions, and stich removal can
Revision Skin to Enhance Cosmetic be postponed for 1 or 2 days at other regions. In
Result case of the scar-prone patients who were treated
for hypertrophic scar or keloid, an injection of tri-
Brief descriptions of the procedures for treating a linear amcinolone acetonide (5 mg/mL) or 5-fluoroura-
scar for cosmetic reasons are as follows: cil (2–4 mg/mL) or both combined with lidocaine
1. In general, a patient will visit our clinics and seek into the healed wound can be administered at 1 or
a consultation through discussing what a patient is 2 months post-suturing.
expected and what can be achieved from the proce- 4. In most cases, Pixel RF microplasma is applied to
dures. Then the patient will make an appointment the healed incisional wound at 8 weeks post-surgery.
for a scar revision surgical procedure. Generally, the therapy should include 2–3 mm nor-
2. In the surgical procedure, the patient is given a local mal skin on both sides of the linear wound. The pro-
injection of 1–2% lidocaine for anesthesia. In most cedure is usually applied with a roller tip at 60–70
cases, a w-plasty procedure will be applied along watts with 3–4 passes (. Fig. 53.2).
with the surgical excision of a linear scar to prevent 5. Pixel RF microplasma therapy should be repeated
linear tension, which usually causes observable scar- for 3–5 times with 8–12 weeks’ interval in general
ring after the scar revision. To reduce wound ten- and patients should be closely followed up every
sion, wound edge flap should be freed before wound 4–8 weeks until a linear wound mark and stich marks
closure. In addition, suturing of wound tissue at are completely removed. By this procedure, the lin-
various levels also helps reducing wound tension, ear scar resulting from scar revision procedure can
including subcutaneous, dermal, and epidermal tis- be largely removed and the fine linear scar becomes
sues. For patients who are prone to scarring, wound grossly less visible or non-visible.
469 53
a b c
.. Fig. 53.4 Case presentation of microplasma remodeling of a microplasma remodeling, the gross view reveals complete scar
linear scar resulting from surgical scar revision procedure. a Before remodeling and no visible linear scar at the time points of 8 weeks
surgery. b The gross view of a linear scar at 8 weeks after the first after the third remodeling
microplasma remodeling on a post-scar revision scar. c After 3
a b c d
.. Fig. 53.5 Case presentation of microplasma remodeling of a the first microplasma remodeling. d After 3 microplasma remodel-
linear scar resulting from surgical scar revision procedure. a Before ing, the gross view reveals complete scar remodeling and no visible
surgery. b The gross view of a linear scar at 8 weeks post-surgical linear scar at the time points of 8 weeks after the third remodeling.
scar revision. c Gross view of a remodeled linear scar at 8 weeks after However, erythema resulting from tissue remodeling remains visible
The following are the case presentations. when observed closely (. Fig. 53.4b). Then, the patient
received another two treatments with 8 weeks’ interval
kCase 1 between them. At 8 weeks after the third therapy, the
A 32-year–old female patient visited our clinic to follow-up photo shows no visible linear scar on her head
request for forehead scar treatment solely for cosmetic (. Fig. 53.4c), and the patient was completely satisfied
reason. Physical examination showed a red-colored lin- as the result match her original request of removing her
ear scar with a length of 2 cm and a width of 0.2 cm. forehead scar completely.
In addition, the linear scar was also a bit elevated and
with a few stich marks scar on both sides (. Fig. 53.4a). kCase 2
The patient received a scar revision surgery along with A 27-year-old female patient visited our clinic for cos-
w-plasty procedure. After the surgery, the patient wore metic treatment of a linear scar on her left face. Physical
3 M anti-tension paper tape vertical to the incision line. examination showed a mature flatten linear scar with
Later, silicone gel was also applied topically on the inci- a length of 6 cm and a width of 0.5 cm as shown in
sional line, and then 3 M paper was used. At 8 weeks . Fig. 53.5a. The patient received a surgery of scar
post-surgery, she received microplasma therapy with an revision plus w-plasty. The follow-up photo at 8 weeks
energy of 65 watts and 4–6 passes of rolling therapy. At post-surgery showed an apparent linear scar resulting
8 weeks after the first treatment, the follow-up photo from scar surgical revision, with which the patient was
showed significant improvement of the gross view of significantly unsatisfied despite the fact that an original
her forehead scar, although a fine linear scar remains wide and flatten scar has been transformed into a fine
470 W. Liu
linear scar (. Fig. 53.5b). At this time point, micro- or Neodyne™ or other tension reduction device in
plasma tissue remodeling procedure was applied to the order to maximally reduce the tension-induced scar-
patient with an energy of 70 watts and six passes using a ring during wound healing process.
roller tip. Interestingly, at 8 weeks after the first therapy, 3. Silicone product should be applied as early as pos-
the linear scar has already been significantly remodeled sible, such as Dermatix™, Kelo-cote™ or other
with the previous linear scar obscured; however, the products. This should be applied along with taping
linear scar remained obviously visible (. Fig. 53.5c). or tension-reduction device and wound tension-free
Thereafter, the patient was given another two micro- procedure should not be compromised by other pro-
plasma therapies with 8 weeks’ interval between them. cedures.
At 8 weeks after the third therapy, the follow-up photo 4. Proper surgical procedures for wound closing is
showed that a linear scar resulting from scar revision important as a thick scar will be too difficult to be
surgery was almost completely remodeled with no remodeled for achieving a desirable effect. When
apparently visible linear scar (. Fig. 53.5d). Due to the decided to perform, proper debridement, wound
thorough tissue remodeling process, in which the tissue edge preparation as well as fine suturing should all
structure of a healed linear wound has been significantly be included.
53 changed along with a regenerative skin repair, angiogen- 5. The timing for microplasma procedure can be
esis apparently occurred with manifestation of skin red- decided on the basis of the wound condition. If an
ness (. Fig. 53.5d), which will disappear in 3–6 months injured wound is properly managed with a condi-
after the discontinuation of the treatment. The patient tion similar to that of elected surgical procedure, the
was very satisfied with the end result, in which micro- remodeling procedure can be performed at time point
plasma tissue remodeling played a role significantly about 8 weeks post-wound closure to give a wound
more important than the surgical procedure. sufficient time to heal as a very fine linear immature
scar, which can be completely remodeled with micro-
plasma procedure. If a wound is improperly closed
with a thick linear wound mark and obvious other
53.3.2 Microplasma for Early Wound stich marks, then the procedure should be applied as
Intervention to Prevent Scar early as 1–4 weeks post-wound closure.
Formation 6. The energy of microplasma remodeling can be
adjusted according to the wound condition. For
With the success of remodeling healed linear wound tis- example, a wound of a child or a wound with fine
sue, we wondered if such a concept could be applied to closure technique, then the wound can be treated
tissue remodeling of an early incisional wound to pre- with a relative low energy; whereas a wound is closed
vent scar formation. The scenario is that linear wounds unprofessionally or in a poor condition, a relatively
of non-elected surgical procedures such as trauma and high energy should be applied and the treatment
wounding are usually difficult to prepare an optimal should be repeated until a desirable result can be
condition for their healing, and thus these linear wounds achieved.
are more likely to form an obvious linear scar than the 7. The comprehensive scar-reduction management
wounds created by elected surgical procedure of scar should be continually applied after the remodeling
revision. and maintained for at least for 6 months post-wound
Due to the non-optimal healing condition, the closure.
wound tissue remodeling procedure should be applied
at an early-stage wound. In addition, improvement of The following are the case presentations.
wound healing conditions by other wound manipulation
methods should also be applied comprehensively includ- kCase 3
ing anti-tension, silicone product, drug local injec- A 52-year-old male (. Fig. 53.6)was wounded on his
tion, or even re-suturing of an already sutured wound. left-side face 3 days before, and he came to our clinic for
Following are the general principles: assistance of the wound management in order to prevent
1. When a patient with an acute linear skin wound visits severe scarring. Physical examination showed that there
the clinic, proper wound cleaning should be the first was a linear wound on his left-side face with a length
consideration. In case of severe wounds or appear- of 3 cm. The wound had been closed unprofessionally
ance of early signs of wound infection, antibiotics by single layer suturing with tight knots that would be
should be applied either locally or systemically or bound to form a thick linear scar with obvious stich
both. marks after the healing of the wound (. Fig. 53.6a).
2. Anti-tension tape or device should be applied before To better prepare the wound closure, the stiches were
and after stich removal, such as 3 M tape, Zipline™ removed and the wound was re-opened. After thorough
471 53
a b c d
.. Fig. 53.6 Case presentation of microplasma intervention of an properly closed with fine suturing technique, which paved the way for
early stage wound to prevent scar formation. a The patient has facial further tissue remodeling. c Gross view shows remodeling of a linear
wound 3 days ago with unprofessional wound closure technique. b scar at 8 weeks after the first microplasma remodeling. d Gross view
The stiches were removed and the wound was reopened. After wound shows that post-wound linear scar is almost completely remodeled
debridement and proper position of wound tissues, the wound was with no visible scar
a b c d
.. Fig. 53.7 Case presentation of microplasma intervention of an scar, and thus a steroid injection was given. c Significant improve-
early stage wound to prevent scar formation. a The patient has two ment of the linear scar was observed at 8 weeks after the first micro-
wounds on her face for 5 days. b Early sign of scar formation was plasma remodeling. d Gross view shows almost complete remodeling
observed on her upper face scar at day 12 post-wounding. The arrow of the linear scar except for minor hyperpigmentation caused by
shows elevated tissue growth that would develop into hypertrophic microplasma treatment
wound debridement, wound dermal and epidermal lay- there was a linear scar on her left-side face starting from
ers were properly positioned and closed with fine sutur- suborbital region and extending to the left part of the
ing (. Fig. 53.6b). The stiches were removed at day 5 upper region of the nose. In addition, she also had a
post-surgery and 3 M tape was applied. At 4 weeks post- curved linear wound at the left side of her left ala nasi as
surgery (31 days after wounding), the patient received shown in . Fig. 53.7a. The patient was asked to remove
his first microplasma remodeling. Eight weeks later her stiches and to apply 3 M tape for anti-tension pur-
(87 days after wounding), the follow-up photo showed pose. The patient was given COX-2 inhibitor (oral
significant improved gross view of the healed linear medicine) for 2 weeks to reduce wound inflammatory
wound (. Fig. 53.6c). Then the patient was given the process. At day 12 post-wounding, there was an early
second microplasma remodeling. Eight weeks later sign of scar formation as raised tissue was observed on
(143 day after wounding), the patient was followed up the upper wound of her face (arrow, . Fig. 53.7b). The
with a photo demonstrating that linear wound mark was patient was thus given an injection of low concentra-
almost all removed via tissue remodeling (. Fig. 53.6d). tion steroid to inhibit potential scar formation. Four
The patient was very satisfied with the wound remodel- weeks later, several more injections were given with
ing result. 4 weeks’ interval between them. During the time period,
taping and silicone gel were consistently applied. At
kCase 4 3.5 months post-wounding, the patient was given the
A 11-year-old female was injured on her left-side face first microplasma remodeling. Eight weeks after the
and part of nose 5 days before she visited our clinic. first therapy (5.5 months post-wounding), the scarring
She had concern of possible scar formation on her face was significantly remodeled with obvious improvement
after wound healing. Physical examination showed that of the gross view as shown in . Fig. 53.7c. Afterward,
472 W. Liu
a b`
c d
53
.. Fig. 53.8 Case presentation of microplasma remodeling of an at 8 weeks, respectively, after the first, third, and fourth microplasma
existed linear scar. a Gross view of an existed linear scar at the region remodeling. The end result shows almost no visible linear scar in
between forehead and nose. b–d Gross view of remodeling the scar the region
the patient was given three more procedures of micro- scar was relatively irregular and superficial and was a bit
plasma remodeling. The final follow-up photo demon- raised above the skin. Microplasma remodeling proce-
strated that original scar was barely visible except for dure was applied using a roller tip with 70 watts for 4–6
minor pigmentation. The patient was extremely satisfied passes. . Figure 53.8 shows the tissue remodeling results
with the results. after the first (. Fig. 53.8b), third (. Fig. 53.8c), and
fourth (. Fig. 53.8d) microplasma treatments, which
demonstrated gradual improvement of the gross view of
the linear scar, and the scar was barely detectable at the
53.3.3 Microplasma Remodeling end of the treatment. The patient was very happy with
for an Existing Linear Scar the end result.
As described previously, scar revision surgery along with

Conflict of Interest No conflict of interest.
microplasma tissue remodeling is a preferred procedure
to deal with the significant linear scars in majority cases.
However, direct remodeling with microplasma is also a References
choice for linear scars under certain conditions. These
include (1) a superficial linear scar; (2) an irregular 1. Halachmi S, Orenstein A, Meneghel T, Lapidoth M. A novel
shaped linear scar that is difficult to revise with surgical fractional micro-plasma radio-frequency technology for the
procedure; (3) a linear scar that formed in not too long treatment of facial scars and rhytids: a pilot study. J Cosmet
Laser Ther. 2010;12(5):208–12. https://doi.org/10.3109/1476417
time; and (4) the scar contains less dense collagen. These
2.2010.514921.
linear scars are more likely to be remodeled than other 2. Xin F, Li-hong L, Alexiades-Armenakas M, Luebberding
types of linear scars. S, Cui-ping S, Yue H, Yu-xi A, Dan-xia Y, Rong-ya Y. Histo-
The following is a case presentation: logical and electron microscopic analysis of fractional micro-
plasma radio-frequency technology effects. J Drugs Dermatol.
kCase 5 2013;12(11):1210–4.
3. Wang S, Mi J, Li Q, Jin R, Dong J. Fractional microplasma
A 35-year–old female patient had an irregular linear radiofrequency technology for non-hypertrophic post-burn scars
scar caused by trauma in less than 1 year on the region in Asians: A prospective study of 95 patients. Lasers Surg Med.
between forehead and nose (. Fig. 53.8a). The linear 2017;49(6):563–69. https://doi.org/10.1002/lsm.22640.
473 53
475 54
Vacuum Massage in the

Treatment of Scars
Peter Moortgat, Jill Meirte, Ulrike Van Daele, Mieke Anthonissen,
Contents
54.1 orking Mechanism of Vacuum Massage in Relation to

W
Pathological Scarring – 477
54.2 The Effects of Vacuum Massage on Scars – 477

54.2.1 eneral Effects [1, 10–12] – 477
G
54.2.2 Physical Effects [13–16] – 479
54.2.3 Physiological Effects [2, 10, 13, 15, 17] – 479
54.2.4 Mechanical Effects – 479

Background sage has been frequently used to treat traumatic or

Vacuum massage is also known as depressomassage, burn scars.
vacuotherapy, or Endermologie®. It is a non-inva- Although vacuum massage was invented to treat
sive mechanical massage technique performed with a burns and scars, very little literature is available on
mechanical device that lifts the skin by means of suc- the effects of this intervention. Soon after its devel-
tion, creates a skin fold, and mobilizes that skin fold [1, opment, the device was used extensively in Europe to
2] as displayed in . Figs. 54.1 and 54.2. treat trauma and burn scars [2]. In the course of its use,
Vacuum massage originates from cupping therapy, care providers soon noticed its ability to improve the
a traditional Chinese medicine therapy dating back appearance of cellulite, and consequently most stud-
2000 years or more. A local suction on the skin is cre- ies mainly focused on lipodystrophy to investigate its
ated using heat or mechanical forces in order to create working mechanism. The number of studies concern-
vasodilatation. In the late 1970s, Louis-Paul Guitay ing cellulite is three times higher than those of burns
suffered from severe skin burns after a car accident. or scars.
During his rehabilitation, he had to endure hours of The aim of this chapter is to present an overview of
manual massages every day. This multi-month process the available literature with the physical and physiolog-
was normal practice for burn victims with extensive ical effects of vacuum massage. This was done in order
to find the underlying working mechanisms of Ender-
54 scar tissue in the late 1970s. Massage sessions typi-
cally lasted 3– 4 hours a day and consisted of rigorous mologie® that could benefit the healing of burns and
routines. The therapist rolled skin and tissue back and scars. Analyzing the physical and physiological effects
forth to regain elasticity. As days grew into weeks, Gui- of this treatment can increase insights in the influence
tay became dissatisfied with these incessant treatments. on the scarring process and may clarify the outcome.
They were time- consuming, labor intensive, and he
noticed his results varied drastically based on the skills
of each individual therapist. Endermologie®, taken
from the French term meaning “through the dermis”,
was Louis-Paul Guitay’s way of standardizing mas-
sage therapy to maximize the effect of each treatment.
He developed a mechanical device to copy the manual
massage techniques by means of negative pressure.
This method allowed him to perform the massage in
a more consistent way and was less time consuming.
From then onward, Endermologie® or vacuum mas-
.. Fig. 54.1 Vacuum massage creates a skin fold and mobi-

lizes that skin fold .. Fig. 54.2 Vacuum massage on scars
Vacuum Massage in the Treatment of Scars
477 54
54.1 orking Mechanism of Vacuum
W is discussed for the induction of collagen synthesis in
Massage in Relation to Pathological fibroblasts by mechanical tension. In this case, TGF-β is
induced by tension, which in turn activates collagen syn-
Scarring
thesis via the classic pathways. In addition, fibronectin is
induced by the application of cyclic strain to fibroblasts.
In recent years, there has been an increasing interest in
In parallel, many proteases are downregulated, whereas
the mechanobiology of scars. The influence of mechani-
protease inhibitors are upregulated. As a result of these
cal forces on skin has been examined since 1861 when
events, modulation of mechanical tension results in alter-
Langer first reported the existence of lines of tension in
ations of fibroblast and myofibroblast activity. . Tension
cadaver skin [3]. Internal tension in the dermis leads to
directly modifies gene transcription, induces signaling
cell–extracellular matrix (ECM) and cell–cell interac-
from integrins affecting small GTPases, or induces/inhib-
tions transferring external mechanical forces into bio-
its growth factor signaling, which then indirectly affects
chemical signals inside the cell [4]. Khan et al. reclaimed
ECM protein synthesis by fibroblasts/myofibroblasts [8].
the term “mechanotherapy” and presented the current
By a combination of these mechanisms, mechanical ten-
scientific knowledge underpinning how mechanical load
sion induces an activated, contractile fibroblast/myofibro-
may be used therapeutically to stimulate tissue repair
blast phenotype characterized by high levels of synthesis
and remodeling. It has long been thought that the effec-
of ECM proteins, low protease activity, and high produc-
tiveness and efficiency of physical therapy would improve
tion of fibrogenic cytokines. Translated into a clinical sit-
if our understanding of the cell biology/biochemistry
uation, this means a retractile scar with adhesions between
that participates in mechanics could be improved.
the dermal tissue and the underlying viscera.
Traditional physical therapy focuses primarily on reha-
The mechanotransduction theories provide possible
bilitation, but recent developments in mechanobiology
evidence for several physical non-invasive treatment
that illuminated the effects of physical forces on cells and
options. It was suggested that many of the physical scar
tissues have led to the realization that the old therapy
management methods, including compression therapy,
model should be updated. Recent studies showed how
silicone therapy, adhesive tape, and occlusive dressing
mechanotherapies target particular cells, molecules, and
therapy, are related to mechanotransduction mecha-
tissues. The role of mechanical force in various therapies,
nisms. Mechanical compression seems to induce apop-
including micro-deforming soft tissue techniques, shock-
tosis and to regulate cytokine release, thus reducing
wave, vacuum massage, tissue expansion, skin stretching,
hypertrophic scarring. The effects of mechanical tension
and tension reduction (tissue targeting) therapies is the
on TGF-beta1 and collagen synthesis leads to the
subject of numerous ongoing clinical trials [5–7].
hypothesis that brief, moderate stretch of scar tissue
All adherent cells including endothelial cells, fibro-
seems to downregulate hypertrophy and retraction of
blasts, and myofibroblasts sense tension originate from
scars and could be the best option for splinting, posi-
the environment. Tension is transmitted via cell–ECM
tioning, and postural stretching [9].
contacts, leading to reorganization of the cytoskeleton
and the elicitation of specific signals that modulate gene
expression. In skin, alterations of mechanical forces are
continuously recognized by cells, and their functions are 54.2 he Effects of Vacuum Massage on
T
adapted according to the biological requirements. If Scars
mechanical tension is removed, those tissues undergo
atrophy, indicating the important role of mechanical 54.2.1 General Effects [1, 10–12]
signals for maintaining proper functioning of the organ-
ism. Obviously, fibroblasts and myofibroblasts are cells General effects are defined as the effects inherent to the
implicated in scarring, which is strongly influenced by intervention itself or to the individual who performs the
mechanical tension. treatment. A number of studies mentioned the mea-
The precise mechanisms by which different cell types sured effects were dependent on the number of treat-
transmit mechanical signals are not fully understood. ments. The more the treatment, the higher the effect.
They might involve stretch-activated ion channels, direct After this ascertainment, Adcock et al. also discovered
interactions between structural and signaling compo- that the principal force applied to the tissue during the
nents, or activation of small GTPases. As outlined above, therapy depended on the particular type of maneuver
many cooperative interactions exist between integrins performed, with the suction and the roller tension being
and growth factor signaling. In particular, fibroblast to of minor importance. Moreover, they observed a major
myofibroblast conversion and alpha-smooth muscle actin decrease of tension in thicker tissue.
(α-SMA) expression crucially depend on a combination In four studies performed, the results showed a set-
of mechanical tension and TGF-β. Thus in scarring, gen- back after a follow-up period without treatment, but
eration of tension can induce myofibroblast formation, one study demonstrated the opposite. All these results
causing a self-perpetuating loop. A similar autocrine loop are shown in . Table 54.1.
.. Table 54.1 Basic information available in the literature describing effects of vacuum massage on several skin layers
Literature Etiology Study Targeted skin No. of Assessment LESS

design layer patients score
Moortgat et al. Burn scars CCT Epidermis/ 48 POSAS, touch pressure threshold, 18
[16] dermis DermaLab elasticity
Anthonissen et Burn scars CCT Epidermis/ 47 POSAS, Tristimulus colorimetry, 18
al. [15] dermis trans-epidermal water loss
Adcock et al. [1] Pig skin RCT Dermis/ 12 Histology 17
hypodermis
Adcock et al. [12] Pig skin RCT Hypodermis 4 Intra-dermal tonometry 16
Revuz et al. [11] Aging skin CCT Dermis 24 Subjective assessment of skin laxity and 16
skin loosening, stereophogrammetry,
cutometer
Moseley et al. Scar like RCT Dermis/ 10 Likert scale, tonometry 16
[18] hypodermis
54 Lucassen et al. Healthy skin Pre/post Dermis/ 19 High frequency ultrasound 13
[19] hypodermis
Watson et al. [2] Healthy skin RCT Epidermis/ 5 Laser-Doppler imaging, 13
dermis lymphoscintigraphy, venous flowmetry
Innocenzi et al. Lipodystrophy CCT Epidermis/ 12 Descriptive histology 11
[14] dermis
Innocenzi et al. Lipodystrophy CCT Epidermis/ 15 Quantitative histology 10
[20] dermis
Ortonne et al. Lipodystrophy RCT Dermis/ 30 High frequency ultrasound, fringe 13
[21] hypodermis projection, skin fold thickness
Bourgeois et al. Scars RCT Epidermis/ 20 Subjective assessment of pain, itch, 13
[13] dermis tightness, erythema and skin
smoothening, profilometry
Monteux et al. Lipodystrophy Pre/post Dermis/ 9 Skin fold thickness 11
[22] hypodermis
Marques et al. Healthy skin Pre/post Hypodermis 12 Gene profiling, micro-array 11
[10]
Scuderi et al. [23] Healthy skin RCT Epidermis/ 10 Subjective assessment of skin 10
dermis smoothening and skin tone
Majani et al. [24] Scars Pre/post Epidermis/ 26 Subjective assessment of skin 10
dermis smoothness, pain, tenderness, oedema
and aesthetic improvement, histology
Marquez-Rebollo Scar like Pre/post Epidermis/ 70 Number of indurations 10
et al. [25] dermis
Gavroy et al. [26] Scars CCT Details not 606 Test de glissement 7
available
Lattarulo et al. Healthy skin Pre/post Epidermis/ 34 Laser-Doppler imaging, tcpO2 7
[27] dermis
Worret et al. [28] Scar like Pre/post Dermis 10 Subjective assessment of pain, color and 7
elasticity, quality of life, cutometer
Delprat et al. [29] Scars Pre/post Details not 132 Test de glissement 5
available
RCT randomized controlled trial, CCT controlled clinical trial, tcpO2 transcutaneous oxygen pressure
479 54
54.2.2 Physical Effects [13–16] Meirte et al., where an increased dermal thickness
together with a decreased dermal density were already
An improvement of the tissue hardness and the elastic- noticed in the first 2 hours after a vacuum massage treat-
ity of the skin were the two most observed effects. ment. These results are shown in . Table 54.3.
However, most of the studies used subjective methods to
quantify these effects. Other reported physical effects
were decreased skin fold thickness, decreased face vol- 54.2.4 Mechanical Effects
ume, improved skin laxity, increased epidermal thick-
ness, and improved skin roughness. Recent studies have The suction forces generated by vacuum massage could
shown that elasticity and redness, measured with subjec- elicit an array of mechanical forces within the tissues,
tive and objective assessment tools, were significantly associated with a relaxation of those mechanical forces.
improved after 1 year when the scar was treated for 6 Once stress forces on a wound were relieved, apoptosis
months. The results of one study also revealed that the of myofibroblasts would occur. This finding implies that
vacuum massage had minimal value as additive treat- vacuum massage may release the mechanical stress asso-
ment to pressure garments and silicone when it con- ciated with scar retraction, and thus induce apoptosis.
cerned redness. For elasticity, on the other hand, vacuum This can be another plausible theory for its mechanism
massage + pressure therapy and silicone seemed to per- of action to improve the outcome of (burn) scars.
form better than pressure therapy and silicone alone.
The results are set out in . Table 54.2.
54.3 Conclusion
54.2.3 Physiological Effects Although vacuum massage initially had been developed
[2, 10, 13, 15, 17] for the treatment of burn scars, literature reveals little
evidence for the efficacy of this treatment. Very few
An improvement in blood perfusion was noticed in four studies investigated the effects of vacuum massage on
studies. Fibroblast proliferation was enhanced together human models with scars. The heterogeneous popula-
with an increase in collagen content. Two studies mention and the wide diversity of study designs make it very
tioned an improved venous and lymphatic flow together hard to translate the previously mentioned results
with increased transcutaneous oxygen pressure. toward the burns and scars population in humans.
Smoothening of the dermo-hypodermal junction and a Although the present study contributes additional evi-
decreased dermal interstitial space were also observed. dence for the working mechanism of vacuum massage
One study mentioned altered gene expression profiles in as an anti-scarring agent, the results should be con-
adipose tissue. In another study, a significant decrease firmed by studies on human models. Variations in dura-
of trans-epidermal water loss (TEWL) was found and tion, amplitude, or frequency of the treatment have a
indicated a recovery of the skin barrier. After correction substantial influence on collagen restructuring and
for baseline and age of scar, there was evidence for lower reorientation, thus implying possible beneficial influ-
mean TEWL values in the vacuum massage group, sig- ences on the healing potential by mechanotransduction
nificant after 3 months (p = 0.006). Humbert et al. inves- pathways. Vacuum massage may release the mechanical
tigated the histological effects of vacuum massage and tension associated with scar retraction, and thus induce
discovered an increased migratory ability of fibroblasts apoptosis of myofibroblasts. Suggestions for future
together with increased elastin and hyaluronic acid pres- research include upscaling the study design, investigat-
ence which indicated induced remodeling capacity. The ing molecular pathways and dose dependency, compar-
upregulation of MMP-9 suggests degradation of the ing effects in different stages of repair, including
existing damaged ECM to induce remodeling. These evolutional parameters and the use of more objective
findings were somehow confirmed by the study of assessment tools.
54
480
.. Table 54.2 Overview of the physical effects of vacuum massage on epidermis/dermis/hypodermis
Paper Tissue Tissue Elasticity Elasticity Skin fold Scar Face Skin Epidermal Skin Color Color
hardness hardness subjective objective thickness adhesions volume laxity thickness roughness subjective objective
subjective objective
Delprat et al. Decreased

[29]
P. Moortgat et al.
Gavroy et al. Decreased

[26]
Adcock et al. Decreased
[12]
Revuz et al. [11] No Decreased Decreased
changes
Innocenzi et al. Increased
[14]
Innocenzi et al. Increased
[20]
Ortonne et al Decreased Decreased
[21].
Worret et al. [28] Decreased Increased Increased Decreased
Moseley et al. Decreased Decreased Increased
[18]
Bourgeois et al. Decreased Decreased Decreased
[13]
Monteux et al. Decreased
[22]
Scuderi et al Decreased Decreased
[23].
Marquez- Decreased Increased
Rebollo et al.
[25]
Majani et al. Decreased Increased
[24]
Moortgat et al. Increased Increased
[16]
Anthonissen et Decreased
al. [15]
.. Table 54.3 Overview of the physiological effects of vacuum massage on epidermis/dermis/hypodermis
Paper Blood Dermo- Collagen Collagen TEWL Lymphatic tcpO2 # Fibro- Dermal Superfi- Pain Itch Altered
perfusion hypoder- content orienta- flow fibroblast interstitial cial gene
mal tion blasts pheno- space vascular profile
junction type surface
Lucassen et Smooth-
al. [19] ened
Adcock et Increased Dense

al. [1] longitu-
dinal
bands
Watson et Increased Increased

al. [2]
Lattarulo et Increased Increased

al. [27]
Revuz et al. Dense

[11] longitu-
dinal
bands
Innocenzi et Increased Secret-

al. [14] ing
Innocenzi et Increased Secret- Decreased Increased

al. [20] ing
Ortonne et Smooth-
al. [21] ened
Worret et al. Decreased

[28]
Bourgeois Increased Decreased Decreased

et al. [13]
Marques et Yes
al. [10]
Majani et Decreased
al. [24]
Moortgat et Decreased Decreased

481
al. [16]
Anthonissen Decreased
et al. [15]
tcpO2 transcutaneous oxygen pressure, TEWL trans-epidermal water loss

54
Take-Home Messages 13. Bourgeois JF, Gourgou S, Kramar A, Lagarde JM, Guillot B. A
55 Vacuum massage is a way of standardizing mas- randomized, prospective study using the LPG technique in treat-
ing radiation-induced skin fibrosis: clinical and profilometric
sage techniques to optimize the treatment.
analysis. Skin Res Technol. 2008;14:71–6.
55 Mechanotransduction is the presumed working 14. Innocenzi D, Balzani A, Panetta C. Modifications Mor-
mechanism behind vacuum massage. phologiques De La Peau Induites Par La Technique LPG®.
55 Improved tissue hardness and elasticity are the two DERMOtime settembre 1–4. 2002.
most observed physical effects. 15. Anthonissen M, Meirte J, Moortgat P, Maertens K, Daly D,
Fieuws S, Lafaire C, De Cuyper L, Van den Kerckhove E. Influ-
55 The effect of vacuum massage is highly dependent
ence on clinical parameters of depressomassage (part I): the
on the type of maneuver performed. effects of depressomassage on color and transepidermal water
55 The more treatments are carried out, the higher loss rate in burn scars: a pilot comparative controlled study.
the effect. Burns. 2018;44:877–85.
55 Fibroblast migratory and proliferative capacities 16. Moortgat P, Lafaire C, Dom Y, Douws P, Van Tichelen J. The
effect of prus depressomassage on elasticity and skin fold thick-
are enhanced by vacuum massage.
ness of burn scars. Burns. 2011;37:S6–7.
55 Vacuum massage improves scar elasticity, which 17. Fanian F, Humbert P, Lihoreau T, Jeudy A, Elkhyat A, Robin
will probably lead to amelioration of function. S, Courderot-Masuyer C, Tauzin H, Lafforgue C, Haftek M.
55 Vacuum massage may release the mechanical Mécano-stimulation of the skin improves sagging score and
stress associated with scar retraction. induces beneficial functional modification of the fibroblasts:
clinical, biological, and histological evaluations. Clin Interv
54 Aging. 2015;10:387.
18. Moseley A, Piller N, Douglass J, Esplin M. Comparison of the
effectiveness of MLD and LPG technique®. J Lymphoedema
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483 54
485 55
Shock Wave Therapy for Wound

Healing and Scar Treatment
Contents
55.1 orking Mechanism of SWT in Relation

W
to Skin Defects – 486
55.2 SWT Dose Effect Relationship – 487

55.3 he Effects of Shock Wave Therapy in Soft Tissue
T
Defects – 487
55.3.1 T he Effects of SWT in Wound Healing – 487
55.3.2 The Effects of SWT in Scar Management – 488

cycle [8]. Moreover, as in some other mechanotherapies

Background applied in clinical practice, the main action of SWT
To influence the evolution of an excessive scar toward seems to focus on inducing tissue regeneration and
a normal scar, several physical treatments exist to man- matrix remodeling in vivo [9]. Fibroblasts are the major
age hypertrophic scarring. Physical treatments include mechanoresponsive cells in connective tissue, and are
manual and mechanical massage, physiotherapy, ther- therefore the main target of SWT [10, 11]. Fibroblasts
mal therapy, and shock wave therapy. Manual massage play a crucial role in remodeling of the extracellular
has a wide array of beneficial effects on scars such as matrix (ECM) by synthesizing and organizing connec-
drainage of edema, reduction of pain, and pruritus tive tissue components, and there is a strong believe
and hydration of the skin [1]. Mechanical massage or that SWT has a modulating effect on these actions and
vacuum massage uses gentle vacuum suction to lift the could therefore be of interest in scar prevention and
skin and to create a skin fold [2]. Since scars have a management.
propensity to retract and create contractures in joints, Sukubo et al. (2015) described the beneficial effects
splinting, taping, and posture stretching play a crucial of SWT on macrophage behavior. SWT does not acti-
role in the treatment. Thermal therapy includes high vate resting macrophages and seems to modulate mac-
pressure showers, thread-like showers, and high pres- rophage activity in the inflammatory phase of wound
sure water and aims to mobilize the skin, to improve healing. It inhibits the M1 (pro-inflammatory) activa-
flexibility and to reduce inflammation, pain, and pru- tion in the initial inflammatory phase and enhances the
ritus. All of these techniques are frequently used; how- M2 (anti-inflammatory) activation in the late inflam-
ever, there is only little supporting evidence [3]. matory phase [12]. SWT can also regulate inflamma-
55 The ideal non-invasive scar treatment should be tion via TLR3 pathway in three phases. In an initiation
safe, well tolerated by patients, have low associated phase, it induces a pro-inflammatory reaction mediated
complication rates, is easy to apply, cost-effective, by cyclophylin A and IL6. There is a suppression of
and can be used in an outpatient setting. Shock Wave inflammation in the middle phase and in the limitation
Therapy (SWT) meets all the aforementioned require- phase, there is a late anti-inflammatory effect mediated
ments [4–7]. The application of shock wave therapy in by IL10 [13]. Both findings indicate that SWT, applied
scar management (. Fig. 55.1) is still in its exploration in the wound healing stage or in the early stage of scar
phase; however, there are some interesting findings [3]. development, could prevent pathological scarring.
Non-randomized clinical data suggest that SWT is
beneficial in terms of improved skin elasticity and revi-
talizing dermis in females with cellulite [14]. Fibrillar
adipose tissue fibrosis looks very similar to dermal scar-
ring [15], so the outcomes of clinical trials investigating
cellulite could be transferred to pathological scarring [2].
MR imaging has shown that fibrous septa, visualized in
97% of the area with cellulite depressions, are markedly
thickened in cellulite afflicted areas. Shockwave energy
might weaken the fibrous septa, and thus the afflicted
skin becomes smoother [14]. There is evolving experi-
mental data suggesting SWT activation pathways in
adipose-derived stem cells [14].
Delayed wound healing might be considered as one
.. Fig. 55.1 Shock wave application on a scar of the main reasons to develop hypertrophic scars. SWT
has repeatedly proven to be effective as a wound-healing
modality by decreasing time to full wound closure [4, 5,
16, 17]. From the mechanobiologic point of view, it has
55.1 orking Mechanism of SWT
W been described that the neoangiogenic capacity could be
in Relation to Skin Defects related to the inhibition of endothelial cell apoptosis,
occurring in the very early phase after SWT stimulation
SWT converts external mechanical stimuli into bio- (first 3 hours), as an initial response to the mechani-
chemical cell reactions (e.g., gene transcription lead- cal stimulus. More in detail, it seems possible to detect
ing to collagen remodeling) in living tissue, supported some “preparatory” signals, such as downregulation of
by mechanotransduction pathways, which result in the the genes involved in cell cycle, adhesion and apopto-
activation of numerous cellular events, responsible for sis, probably correlated to an upcoming detachment of
the positive effects of SWT on cell metabolism and cell endothelial junction [9]. After a low-energy SWT treat-
Shock Wave Therapy for Wound Healing and Scar Treatment
487 55
ment (800 shocks, 1 Hz, 0.03 mJ/mm2), mRNA expres- 55.3 he Effects of Shock Wave Therapy
T
sion and protein levels of vascular endothelial growth in Soft Tissue Defects
factor (VEGF) and endothelial nitric oxide synthase
(eNOS) were significantly upregulated. Furthermore, 55.3.1 The Effects of SWT in Wound Healing
the SW therapy enhanced phosphorylation of cave-
olin-1 and the expression of HUTS-4 that represents
Wound healing after SWT is characterized by an upreg-
β1-integrin activity. These results suggest that caveolin-1
ulation of the angio-active factors such as nitric oxide
and β1-integrin are involved in the SW-induced activa-
(NO) and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF)
tion of angiogenic signaling pathways [18].
leading to induced angiogenesis [17], vasodilatation,
We can summarize that the overall effect of SWT is
increase in vascular and capillary density, and increased
an improvement of tissue homeostasis, accompanied by
local blood flow. NO and VEGF are extremely impor-
an improvement of the tissue self-healing abilities.
tant, both in early stage and late stage healing [5, 7, 9,
11, 17]. It has been suggested that an aspect of the early
gene response of endothelial cells to SWT is character-
55.2 SWT Dose Effect Relationship ized by a decreased apoptosis and stimulation of the
extracellular matrix metabolism [5, 9]. SWT will lead
For a full treatment outline, the energy flux density to reduced tissue necrosis in wound healing by increas-
(EFD), the number of pulses, the pulse frequency, and ing cellular proliferation and procollagen production
the number and interval of treatments are the most rele- [11, 23]. In terms of timing, vasodilatation is noticed
vant parameters [5]. Differences in these parameters can at an early stage (first 3 days) and neovascularization at
lead to varying outcomes, emphasizing the dose depen- late-stage post intervention [17]. In a clinical trial inves-
dency of these mechanotransduction events [9]. High- tigating the efficacy of ESWT to heal chronic therapy-
energy SWT can suppress cell growth, while low-energy refractory ulcers, the underlying molecular mechanisms
shock waves might enhance cell proliferation [19]. SWT were also studied in vitro [24]. Fibroblasts reorganized in
applied with an EFD of 0.01–0.03 mJ/mm2 can modu- a radial and star-shaped clustered manner and had large
late the inflammatory pathway in which macrophages “stress” fibers. Cluster formation of fibroblasts was
are involved [12], and with an EFD of 0.08 mJ/mm2 dose dependent, meaning that more applications lead to
SWT can regulate inflammation via the TLR3 pathway. higher clustering. Shock waves also induce upregulation
The EFD for soft tissue indications is typically in the of 67 genes for keratinocytes and 652 genes for fibro-
range of 0.08–0.25 mJ/mm2 [4], while scars and fibroblasts, suggesting that SWT mainly targets fibroblasts
sis are treated with an EFD ranging between 0.15 and [24]. The upregulation of Vimentin on mRNA level
0.33 mJ/mm2. SWT settings of 0.22 mJ/mm2 and 1000 leading to a visible reorganization of the cytoskeleton
pulses seem to be ideal for fibroblast viability and growth provided yet another proof for mechanotransduction as
[20]. Fibroblast viability was also influenced by the num- working mechanism for this intervention.
ber of pulses. The higher the number, the more risk for Besides “general wound healing,” SWT has specifi-
cell destruction [11]. Each cell type seems to be respon- cally been proven effective in burns. First, SWT applied
sive to SWT but probably with different optimal device upon donor site healing burn wounds shows a signifi-
settings and ranges of mechanical stimulation, thus cantly shorter time to complete epithelialization [25].
developing different biochemical effects [8]. A study by Second, burn area perfusion has been evaluated with
Lee et al. showed that the EFD plays an important role Laser Doppler Imaging before and after SWT and
in the targeting of specific mechano-signaling pathways, showed a significantly increased perfusion after extra-
with 0.12 mJ/mm2 being the optimal dose for activating corporeal shockwave therapy treatment [26]. The review
the mTOR-FAK pathway [21] and 0.10 mJ/mm2 showed of Antonic et al. suggested that SWT may decrease the
the best results for inhibiting TGF-β1/Smad pathway need for surgical intervention and associated morbidities
[22] (. Table 55.1). in patients with severely deep partial- or full-thickness
.. Table 55.1 Suggested SWT settings for electro-hydraulic devices when treating wounds or scars
Energy flux density Number of pulses Pulse Treatment Number of

frequency interval treatments
SWT for wound healing 0.03–0.20 mJ/mm2 500–1000 4–6 Hz 1× per week 1–3
SWT for scar treatment 0.15–0.33 mJ/mm2 800–1500 4–6 Hz 1× per week 8–12
.. Fig. 55.2 Cascade of Wound healing

wound-healing processes
after SWT
vascular and capillary
SWT NO + VEGF vasodilatation apoptosis
↑
density
↑ ↑
expression angiogenesis ECM
↑
local blood flow
↑
↑
burns [4]. Joo et al. demonstrated that ESWT signifi- expression, fibronectin, and collagen type I are mea-
cantly reduced burn scar pruritus severity and activi- sured. A significant increase in dermal fibroblast-like
ties-of-daily-living disturbances compared to a control phenotype with low contractility and high migratory
group who received sham treatment. The EFD ranged ability, small vessel density and precursors of extracel-
between 0.05 and 0.20 mJ/mm2, which seemed useful for lular matrix components, probably leads to new and
pruritus in burn scars [27]. The authors hypothesized thinner collagen fascicles and parallel orientation to
that ESWT targeted “neurogenic inflammation,” which the dermo- epidermal junction [30–32]. Synergistic
is an inflammation caused by the release of substances alterations in pro- and anti-fibrotic proteins (TGF-β1
(e.g., SP and CGRP) from primary sensory nerve end- and MMP-2, respectively) suggest a reduced capsule
ings. Nerve fiber loss and the depletion of neuropeptides formation after silicone implantation [33]. One study
might decrease inflammation, and thus may decrease compared ESWT to triamcinolone injections for the
itch [28]. A recent meta-analysis showed that ESWT had treatment of keloids. ESWT showed comparable func-
better therapeutic outcomes on acute and chronic soft tional outcome, together with comparable total sum of
55 tissue wounds when compared to Conventional Wound scores for POSAS patient scale and POSAS observer
Therapy (CWT) [29]. The meta-analysis showed that scale clinically. A significant reduction in collagen
ESWT statistically significantly increased the healing fibers and increased expression of MMP-13 degrading
rate of acute and chronic soft tissue wounds 2.73-fold enzyme could be seen when compared to intralesional
(odds ratio, OR = 3.73, 95% confidence interval, CI: steroid injection [34]. Zhao et al. demonstrated positive
2.30–6.04, P < 0.001) and improved wound-healing area results on planimetric scar characteristics and inhibi-
percentage by 30.45% (Standardized Mean Difference tion of TGF-β1/Smad signaling pathway with Radial
(SMD) = 30.45; 95% CI: 23.79–37.12; P < 0.001). ESWT Extracorporeal Shockwave Therapy [22], as well as
reduced wound-healing time by 3 days (SMD = −2.86, decreased Scar Elevation Index, fibroblast density, and
95% CI:-3.78 to −1.95, P < 0.001) for acute soft tissue α-smooth-muscle-actin expression in hypertrophic scar
wounds and 19 days (SMD = −19.11, 95% CI: −23.74 tissues of a rabbit model [35].
to −14.47, P < 0.001) for chronic soft tissue wounds The most promising results in the research for the
and the risk of wound infection by 53% (OR = 0.47, effects of SWT on scars were presented as preliminary
95% CI: 0.24–0.92, P = 0.03) when compared to CWT data of an ongoing randomized placebo controlled trial
alone. Serious adverse effects were not reported [29] investigating the effects of SWT in the management of
(. Fig. 55.2). hypertrophic scars. The results of the objective assess-
ments showed a statistically significant better perfor-
mance of the intervention group for elasticity assessed
55.3.2 he Effects of SWT in Scar
T with cutometry [36] (. Table 55.2).
Management
Fibrous tissue can be reduced by SWT (at the origin) 55.4 Conclusion
during wound healing processes, but it can also be
remodeled in a second phase of scar formation. Primary All the presented findings are fundamental knowledge
data show that height, pliability, vascularity, and pig- for further investigation of SWT to reduce the fibrous
mentation, all relevant scar parameters, show improve- component in regenerating and remodeling tissues.
ment after SWT [6, 30]. The change in these physical and The dose dependency of the treatment effects remains
physiological parameters will probably lead to ameliora- understudied. Energy Flux Density, number of shocks,
tion in function, which is, for example, demonstrated shock frequency, and treatment interval and number are
by an increase of passive ROM reported in a study on all important parameters in the choice for the most suit-
retracting hand scars [30]. Subjective pain measures also able device settings, in relation to the indication. Future
show a decrease in pain at the scar site after SWT [6, 30]. studies should include these parameters as covariates to
On a histopathological level, the effects of SWT determine the right-specific approach for each scar. The
on fibrosis are plural. A downregulation of alpha- full potential of SWT in wound healing, scar treatment,
SMA expression, myofibroblast phenotype, TGF-β1 and cellulite certainly needs further unraveling.
Shock Wave Therapy for Wound Healing and Scar Treatment
489 55
.. Table 55.2 SWT effects on wound healing, scar formation + remodeling, and cellulite
Effect of SWT on Changes in histopathological parameters Physical and physiological changes
Wound healing Stimulation of the ECM metabolism Angiogenesis

Upregulation of cell-cycle regulatory genes Vasodilatation
Reorganization of the cytoskeleton Increase in vascular and capillary density
Increase in local blood flow
Decrease in apoptosis
Reduction of tissue necrosis
Burn wound healing Shorter epithelialization time
Increase in perfusion
Scar formation and Downregulation on alpha-SMA expression, Formation of new and thinner collagen fascicles
remodeling myofibroblast phenotype, TGF-β1 expression, and Reduced capsule formation
fibronectin Decrease in height
Decrease in collagen type I Increased pliability
Upregulation dermal fibroblast-like phenotype Normalization of vascularity and pigmentation
Increase small vessel density (ratio type I/type III Amelioration of function (range of motion)
collagen) Decrease in pain
Increase in precursors of ECM components
Synergistic alterations in pro- and anti-fibrotic
proteins
Cellulite Decrease of serum malondialdehyde and plasma Weakening of the fibrous septae
protein carbonyls Smoothening of skin
Release of lipid peroxidation products influence
adipose-derived stem cells
Take-Home Messages 4. Antonic V, Mittermayr R, Schaden W, Stojadinovic A. Evidence

supporting extracorporeal shock wave therapy for acute and
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491 56
Effectiveness of Corticosteroid
Tapes and Plasters for Keloids
and Hypertrophic Scars
Rei Ogawa
Contents
56.2 ifference Between Steroid Tapes/Plasters and Steroid

D
Injection – 492
56.3 Typical Usage of Steroid Tapes/Plasters – 492
56.4 ifference Between Deprodone Propionate Plaster

D
and Deprodone Propionate Ointment – 493
56.5 herapeutic Effect and Usage of Steroid Tape

T
Preparations – 493
56.6 Side Effects of Steroid Tapes and Plasters – 495
References – 496

492 R. Ogawa
56.1 Introduction a
In Japan, corticosteroid tapes and plasters have long

served as a first-line therapy for keloids and hypertro-
phic scars. Pediatric patients are particularly responsive
to this type of treatment. This may reflect the fact that
children have thinner skin than adults and the steroids
are therefore more easily absorbed. The postoperative
application of corticosteroid tapes/plasters also signifi-
cantly prevents the development of keloids and hyper-
trophic scars after surgery.
b
External corticosteroid preparations are classified
into five classes on the basis of their vasoconstric-
tor activity and their clinical effect, namely, Group I
(Strongest), Group II (Very strong), Group III (Strong),
Group IV (Mild), and Group V (Weak). Steroid tape
is available in the following three countries in different
preparations. In the UK, the commercially available
formulation comprises a fludroxycortide-impregnated
tape (4 μg/cm2) [1]. Fludroxycortide tape is a Group
III preparation. The USA has a steroid tape prepara-
tion that contains 4 μg/cm2 flurandrenolide, which is
56 also a Group III preparation [2]. In Japan, two steroid
tape formulations are available, namely, the Group
III preparation found in the UK (4 μg/cm2 fludroxy-
cortide tape) and a 20 μg/cm2 deprodone propionate
tape. Deprodone propionate tape is considered to be
a Group I or II preparation [3] (. Fig. 56.1). In our
experience, deprodone propionate tape (Eclar® plas-
ter) is the most effective tape for the treatment and pre-
vention of keloids.
.. Fig. 56.1 The steroid tapes and plasters that are available in
Japan. a Fludroxycortide tape (Teikoku Seiyaku CO., LTD., Kagawa,
56.2 ifference Between Steroid Tapes/
D Japan). b Deprodone propionate plaster (Hisamitsu Pharmaceutical
Plasters and Steroid Injection CO., LTD., Saga, Japan)
Corticosteroid injections rapidly reduce the volume of ing the number of hospital visits of patients with
keloids and hypertrophic scars. However, the downsides pathological scars by adopting this approach. Indeed,
of corticosteroid injections include pain (caused by the many patients now only come to our hospital every
injection itself) and difficulties associated with contra- 3–4 months.
indications such as pregnancy, glaucoma, or Cushing’s
disease [4]. These problems can be overcome by using
steroid tapes/plasters. Most pediatric and older patients
56.3 ypical Usage of Steroid Tapes/
T
can be treated by steroid tapes/plaster alone due to their
thinner skin, which means that the steroids are easily Plasters
absorbed.
Corticosteroid tapes/plasters can also be used in Steroid tapes/plasters should be changed every day.
combination with other therapies such as corticoste- Important tips regarding the treatment of keloids and
roid injection. This is particularly suitable for adults hypertrophic scars with steroid tapes/plasters are as fol-
with keloids and hypertrophic scars. The patients lows. First, the patient should continue to use the tapes/
can apply the steroid tape/plaster every day in their plasters until the elevated mass becomes flat and soft.
homes and undergo the injection when they can go to The patient must also cut the tape according to the
the hospital. In our hospital, we succeeded in reduc- shape of the keloid or hypertrophic scar. Second, once
Effectiveness of Corticosteroid Tapes and Plasters for Keloids and Hypertrophic Scars
493 56
the mass has become flat and soft, the use of steroid (1500 μg). Therefore, deprodone propionate ointment
tape/plaster should be stopped, even if the scar is still will only have the same effect as 24-hr/day depro-
red. This reflects the fact that if the patient continues to done propionate plaster if the ointment is applied to
use the tape just because the scar is still red, capillarecta- the affected area 4 times a day and is covered with an
sia will occur. This is because the steroid treatment thins occlusive dressing technique (ODT) using, for example,
the structures supporting the blood vessels. a polyurethane film.
56.4 ifference Between Deprodone

D 56.5 herapeutic Effect and Usage
T
Propionate Plaster and Deprodone of Steroid Tape Preparations
Propionate Ointment
In adults, deprodone propionate plaster is a more effec-
At this stage, deprodone propionate plaster is the stron- tive therapy for pathological scars than other steroid
gest steroid tape/plaster in the world. Deprodone propio- tapes. However, in pediatric patients, the therapeutic
nate plaster was launched by Hisamitsu Pharmaceutical effect of the other tapes is sufficient (. Fig. 56.2). This
Co., Ltd., Saga, Japan in July 2001. Since the deprodone is indicated by our observational study [3] on the use
propionate in this plaster is at a concentration of 20 μg/ of fludroxycortide tape in 30 adults and 30 pediatric
cm2, each 7.5 cm × 10 cm sheet contains 1500 μg of the patients with hypertrophic and keloid scars. The adults
steroid. The product sheet states that of the 910 cases, 24 were, on average, 37 years old (range 23–67 years),
(2.64%) exhibited side effects to this plaster. The main while the pediatric patients were, on average, 7.2 years
side effects were capillary dilation (nine cases, 0.99%), old (range 2–15 years). Each patient had one scar that
contact dermatitis (five cases, 0.55%), skin atrophy (four was treated with the tape. The scars were on various
cases, 0.44%), and hair folliculitis (four cases, 0.44%). body sites, including the trunk and extremities. The
Deprodone propionate ointment is considered to be scars were over 1 year old and the tape was used for
a Group III preparation: thus, it is 1–2 ranks weaker at least 1 year for 24 hr/day. The results after 1 year
than deprodone propionate tape. This is because of of treatment were judged by using the Japan Scar
differences in the action time and how much steroid Workshop Scar Scale 2015 (JSS) [5]. The results sug-
is absorbed. When choosing between deprodone pro- gest that the fludroxycortide tape improved the scars
pionate ointment or deprodone propionate plaster, it of 20% of the adult patients and 80% of the pediat-
should be noted that to cover the 75 cm2 area of one ric patients. After 1 year of fludroxycortide tape usage,
deprodone propionate plaster, one must apply 0.125 g the 24 unresponsive adults were switched to 24 hr/day
of deprodone propionate ointment. This is because deprodone propionate plaster treatment. Of these 24
the product sheet states that 0.5 g of the ointment can cases, 17 (70.8%) exhibited scar improvements 1 year
coat an area of 300 cm2. However, since the ointment later. Thus, we conclude that adults require a stronger
consists of 0.3% of the active ingredient, 0.125 g of tape to obtain similar responses as children in terms of
ointment will only contain 375 μg of deprodone pro- scar maturation. Thus, deprodone propionate plaster is
pionate. This is one-quarter of the amount of one tape better for adults, while fludroxycortide tape is sufficient
a b c
.. Fig. 56.2 Effect of fludroxycortide tape on a scapular keloid of a 9-year-old boy. a Before treatment commenced. b Sixteen months after
starting treatment. c Twenty-six months after starting treatment
494 R. Ogawa
.. Fig. 56.3 Effect of depro-

a b
done propionate plaster on an
upper arm keloid of a 25-year-
old female patient. a Before
treatment commenced. b Twelve
months after starting treatment
56
a b
.. Fig. 56.4 Effect of deprodone propionate plaster on an anterior chest wall keloid of a 68-year-old male patient. a Before treatment com-
menced. b Twelve months after starting treatment
for pediatric patients (. Figs. 56.3, 56.4, and 56.5). 1 month after surgery appears to suppress recurrence.
The side effects in our study consisted of contact der- Further research is needed to test this hypothesis. It
matitis in three adults. None of the children exhibited should be noted that we currently routinely use depro-
any side effects. done propionate tape combined with radiotherapy as a
Steroid tapes/plasters can also be used to prevent postoperative adjunct in surgically treated keloid cases
recurrence after keloid and hypertrophic scar resection to reduce the recurrence rate. In our experience, this
(. Fig. 56.6). My empirical experience is that start- combination reduces the postoperative keloid recur-
ing 24 hr/day deprodone propionate plaster treatment rence rate to less than 10% [6].
Effectiveness of Corticosteroid Tapes and Plasters for Keloids and Hypertrophic Scars
495 56
a b
.. Fig. 56.5 Effect of deprodone propionate plaster on a shoulder keloid of a 49-year-old female patient. a Before treatment commenced.
b Thirty-six months after starting treatment
a b c
d e
.. Fig. 56.6 Effect of surgery and postoperative deprodone propio- diately after surgery. d Twenty months after surgery. e Thirty-six
nate plaster treatment on a shoulder keloid of a 9-year-old boy. a months after surgery
Before treatment commenced. b Intraoperative view. c View imme-
56.6 ide Effects of Steroid Tapes

S tice. Thus, deprodone propionate plaster associates
and Plasters with a lower incidence of contact dermatitis. There are
two types of contact dermatitis, namely, irritant con-
Contact dermatitis is the most common problem associ- tact dermatitis and allergic contact dermatitis. One can
ated with the use of steroid tapes/plasters. According to reduce the possibility of the former by decreasing the
the product sheets, the frequencies of contact dermatitis frequency with which the tape/plaster is replaced and
during fludroxycortide tape and deprodone propionate by reducing the duration of application. Thus, the risk
plaster treatment are 16.7% and 0.55%, respectively. of irritant contact dermatitis may be decreased by vari-
This is consistent with our impression in clinical prac- ous strategies, including replacing the tape/plaster every
496 R. Ogawa
24–48 hours, only wearing the tape/plaster overnight, or References

applying the tape/plaster for 1 day and then using oint-
ment on the next day. In the case of deprodone propio- 1. Nurse DS. Letter: Haelan tape. Australasian J Dermatol.
nate plaster, we have the impression that mild contact 1974;15(3):152.
2. Kestel JL Jr. Hypopigmentation following the use of Cordran
dermatitis is suppressed by the effect of steroid itself. If,
tape. Arch Dermatol. 1971;103(4):460.
however, allergic contact dermatitis develops, it often 3. Ogawa R, Akashi S. Effectiveness of corticosteroid tape/plas-
arises 1–3 months after the start of use. Since it can pro- ter for keloids and hypertrophic scars-comparative study of
duce strong pruritus and reddens the skin, it can hamper fludroxycortide and deprodone tape/plasters. Scar Manag.
the continuous use of the tape. 2016;10:55–60. (Japanese).
4. Sukhumthammarat W, Putthapiban P, Sriphrapradang C. Local
injection of triamcinolone acetonide: a forgotten aetiology of
Take Home Messages Cushing’s syndrome. J Clin Diagn Res. 2017;11(6):OR01–2.
55 In Japan, corticosteroid tapes and plasters have 5. Ogawa R, Akaishi S, Akita S, Okabe K, Shimizu T, Sunaga A,
Tosa Y, Nagao M, Yamawaki S. JSW Scar Scale Working Group.
long served as a first-line therapy for keloids and
Japan Scar Workshop (JSW) Scar Scale 2015. Available online
hypertrophic scars. at: http://www.scar-keloid.com/en/index.html
55 Pediatric patients are particularly responsive to 6. Ogawa R, Akaishi S, Kuribayashi S, Miyashita T. Keloids and
this type of treatment, because children have thin- hypertrophic scars can now be cured completely: recent progress
ner skin than adults and the steroids are therefore in our understanding of the pathogenesis of keloids and hyper-
trophic scars and the most promising current therapeutic strat-
more easily absorbed.
egy. J Nippon Med Sch. 2016;83(2):46–53.
55 The postoperative application of corticosteroid
tapes/plasters also significantly prevents the develop-
ment of keloids and hypertrophic scars after surgery.
55 Deprodone propionate tape is the most effective
56 tape for the treatment and prevention of keloids.
497 57
Suture Edge Tension Control

Technologies for Scar
Improvement
Contents
57.2 Introduction/Objectives – 498

57.3 escription of the State of the Art, Historical Evolution,
D
and Recent Data – 498
57.3.1 S ilicone Devices – 498
57.3.2 Reinforced Suture Materials – 498
57.3.3 Adjustable Tensors – 499
57.3.4 Closed Incision Negative Pressure Therapy – 500
References – 501

498 L. Téot et al.
57.1 Background 57.3 escription of the State of the Art,

D
Historical Evolution, and Recent Data
Suture management after closure has been considered as
highly important in the prevention of enlargement and Applying materials over the suture after surgery is a
infection. The rupture of skin integrity, the surgical dissec- longtime practice.
tion, and subsequent trauma of the underlying structures In the 2000, the first international consensus [7] on
may cause local inflammation, edema, dehiscence, and scar management emphasized the positive role of sili-
infection. In this context, new technologies were devel- cone but did not pay too much attention to the adhesive
oped and recently validated. The aim of this chapter is tapes, the first cheap device supposed to limit tension on
to highlight the role of mechanotherapy in prevention of the suture edges.
postoperative complications on the suture line. This chap-
ter is designed for surgeons facing surgical procedures at
risk of infection or dehiscence or willing to reduce the 57.3.1 Silicone Devices
scar enlargement after surgery on a visible area.
Silicone gels and tapes have been used since 1986 in
prevention and treatment of hypertrophic scars and
57.2 Introduction/Objectives keloids. Although there have been multiple randomized
controlled trials evaluating the efficacy of silicone gels
The tension exerted on the edges after cutaneous excision [8], the overall quality of evidence is limited [9].
surgery has been demonstrated as a source of inflam- Silicone gels remain the most reported technique in
mation and potential complications, like local infection, the successive guidelines published since 2002. Silicone
scar enlargement when skin edges are, even minimally, is not per se exerting any tension on the skin edges but
separated [1, 2]. Keloid generation as well as hypertro- may contribute to skin moisture.
phic scarring has been related to mechanical forces in
57 experimental and clinical studies confirming the impor-
tance of mechanical control in the prevention of path- 57.3.2 Reinforced Suture Materials
ological scars especially in Asia [3]. Several techniques
have recently been described on the basis of the principle During recent years a resorbable barb suture was
of immobilizing the suture edges after surgery [1]. developed, aiming at distribution of tension along the
Globally a better understanding of scar mechan- wound, providing a stronger wound edge approxima-
ics has been under way for several years [2]. This has tion. The device was made of slowly resorbable material
made it possible to multiply the compression strat- acting as a barber suture, due to obliquely distributed
egies offered by compression garments or Orlen® regular cuttings in the core of the device, preventing lon-
(Professional Plastics, Fullerton, CA) plates, particu- gitudinal movements on the suture line. The system was
larly in burn scars [4]. Translational research has been proposed as a drastic change in the suturing methods
stimulated and the optimization of mechanical devices with a single-layer closure facilitated versus a 2-layer
exploiting mechanical forces has been developed, espe- closure. Scar revision including large resection, preven-
cially in the field of wound healing [5]. tion of shearing forces consequence on flap edges, and
A recent study [6] on cadavers measured the forces of situations where the suture line may be exposed to mild
tension exerted on the edges of sutured skin and the under- to moderate tension were indications for the device [10].
lying aponeurosis. These measurements can be considered Adhesive sutures. Used since decades long term, these
as a basis for measuring the reapproximation forces of the paper tapes are placed over the skin edges to maintain a
edges in human clinical practice. A three-dimensional sim- minimal pressure. Forces exerted on the suture are low,
ulation model allowed for reproducing the in vivo tension the adherence of the paper embedded with glue being
experienced by the skin, the phenotype of fibroblasts from solubilized or detached either by the exudation liquids or
keloid scars, their matrix synthesis capacity under tension, by the movements. Reiffel could demonstrate some supe-
and in vivo skin tension measured on volunteers. It has riority when adhesive sutures were placed longitudinally
been demonstrated that the induction of tension modifies on the edges instead of transversally as a scale [11].
the expression of the genes linked to the mechanical ten- Self-adherent smart silicone has been proposed as a
sion of the fibroblasts. This mechanical regulation makes solution offering a permanent pressure exerted on the
it possible to understand that an increased synthesis of skin edges by a smart technology using adherent silicone
collagen occurs in the scar via the fibroblasts when tension covering the suture, isolating the suture from any external
is exerted strongly on the edges. The therapeutic interest contamination. A mechanomodulating polymer device
of this hypothesis serves as a basis for the development of was utilized to manipulate the mechanical environment
medical devices opposing edge tension. of closed cutaneous wounds in red Duroc swine, by
Suture Edge Tension Control Technologies for Scar Improvement
499 57
applying tension to the edges through physical means local needs and the wishes of the surgeons. The system
(silicone with pretensioning of axial fibers inserted in the can be positioned immediately after surgery and main-
layer) [12]. (EMBRACE®). During a surgical procedure, tained in situ during subsequent weeks (. Fig. 57.3).
surgeons strive to make incisions that follow the relaxed The tension adjustment makes it possible to avoid
tension lines on the body, so-called Langer lines. This even minimal edge spacing, which is a source of bac-
strategy is used because tension is well known to increase terial penetration and secondary infection. Moreover,
scarring. The Embrace® device (Neodyne Biosciences, the separation movements exerted longitudinally by the
Newark, CA) is designed to shield the healing incision natural movements of the body are blocked, and this
from the natural tension that is inherent in any break limitation serves as a transverse but also longitudinal
in skin that must be pulled together to close a wound. immobilization. This is an essential factor in wound
Previous preclinical and first-in-human data initially healing, limiting local inflammatory phenomena. Once
demonstrated that this mechanism of action was effec- the tension is stabilized, the loops are cut at their base.
tive in scar mitigation in both pigs and humans. In the author series of 21 clinical cases of skin excision
A prospective RCT in scar appearance was con- [14], Zipline® was used after tumor resections, scar revi-
ducted on 36 healthy subjects during the post-operative sion, or flaps. The tension exerted on the edges was variable
period after abdominiplasty. Embrace® device was used and Zipline® was able to maintain the suture line outside
fon the left part of the scar, and control (surgeon’s opti- of the transverse and longitudinal mechanical stresses.
mal methods) on the right part. Result was significant The results obtained in this series showed a maintenance
on the scar appearance at 12 months after 5 weeks of of the linear scar measuring less than 0.5 cm permanently
application (Visual analog scale (VAS) p = 0.027, Patient after 2 months of application. No local inflammation or
and observer scar assessment scale (POSAS) subject secondary enlargement was observed after 2 months.
p = 0.02, and surgeon p < 0.001) [13]. The anatomical sites were multiple and dependent on
the necessities of the surgery. Most areas were located
on the shoulders and back, regions known for their
57.3.3 Adjustable Tensors dermal fragility and problematic scarring. Maintaining
a linear scar on these regions is difficult, especially in
Another system to reduce skin tension across an incision young women, after nevus resection. The skin’s natural
line is the Zipline® system (ZiplineMedical-Stryker). The mobility, its thickness, and the forces exerted produce
originality of the system is its ability to bring the two edges areas of known risk.
together and set the skin tension. This technique has been All patients underwent cutaneous resection during
used since years in suturing the final epidermal layer as surgery, with skin loss between 4 cm × 3 cm and 8 cm
well as in restraining the suture edges movements dur- × 14 cm. The postoperative scars were either straight or
ing the postoperative period, results being linked to the slightly curvilinear, and the maximum effect seemed to
compliance of the patient to wear an hydrocolloid based be obtained when the system was applied to rectilinear
adhesive, covering the adjustable tensors, with a potential scars (. Figs. 57.1, 57.2, 57.3, and 57.4). . Table 57.1
risk of allergy. The system may be used as an alternative summarizes the population studied and the amounts of
to superficial sutures. skin resected during surgery. The system was applied for
The medical device (Zipline®) has been developed an average of 42 days, with three changes on average.
and is used clinically as a wound closure technique as an The evaluation of the scar was performed by three
alternative to sutures in many surgical procedures. independent evaluators. The average follow-up was 6 ±3
The medical device is made up of two adhesive car-
boxymethylcellulose strips, which have a central reinforc-
ing core made up of polyurethane fibers, placed on the
suture edges. These strips are interconnected by tensors
formed of a polyurethane thread made up of nodes that
are regularly distributed along the wire and finished by
collars allowing easy grasping for tensioning. The entire
set resembles a ladder with an adjustable length of bars.
This tensor is firmly fixed and connected to the central
core of polyurethane fibers of one of the two strips and
placed transversely to bridge the scar zone. The tensor
passes from the opposite side into a collar, and the nod-
ules serve as blockers to maintain the desired tension.
The distance between the two strips at rest is 1.5 cm and
can be reduced to 0.5 cm. This movement is reversible, .. Fig. 57.1 Right arm presenting excessive fat volume (postbar-
allowing for a true adaptation of the tension based on iatric surgery)
500 L. Téot et al.
months. The results were considered positive when the

scar remained linear without secondary enlargement
after 6 months.
Zipline® could be proposed as a skin closure system
and as an alternative to epidermal suturing. However, it
has not yet been used as a tool to maintain mechanical
tension after suturing during cutaneous resection.
The distraction forces exerted on a suture line are
caused by the patient’s movements. The Zipline® sys-
tem creates an immobilization of the micromovement-
generating forces on the suture edges, which are sources
of disunion and scar enlargement. Thanks to the poly-
urethane core and its staggered arrangement on the
.. Fig. 57.2 Left arm presenting excessive fat volume
adhesive strips, any type of movement can be prevented
because it opposes both transverse and longitudinal
forces. This compression can be considered dynamic,
and it prevents the widening of the suture, regardless of
the movement to which it is subjected.
Several clinical trials reporting the effects of Zipline®
have recently been published [15–19]. These trials report
the product’s good capacity to be used in the final clo-
sure of wounds. In our series, it appears that mainte-
nance in place for several weeks on the skin serves to
limit postoperative mechanical tension and to minimize
scars, even in areas in tension and after keloid excision.
57 Zipline® has been proposed in multiple disciplines like
.. Fig. 57.3 Right arm 2 months after fat reduction and suture edge orthopedic surgery in mobile areas like knee or shoulders
control and in plastic surgery after cutaneous excision for scar
revision, cutaneous tumor excision, and loss of cutaneous
substances due to chronic wounds such as pressure sores.
57.3.4 losed Incision Negative Pressure

C
Therapy
Several recent studies demonstrate the value of isolating
the wound from any source of external contamination
and of keeping it under slight tension.
In recent years, the indication for negative pressure
wound therapy (NPWT) has been extended to include
treatment of closed surgical incisions (incisional NPWT,
.. Fig. 57.4 Left arm 2 months after fat reduction and suture edge iNPWT). Some of the first studies were case series
control and observational studies [20] using one of the exist-
.. Table 57.1 Closed incision NPWT clinical indications
CiNPWT clinical indications Thoracic surgery Caesarian section Orthopedic surgery Postskin grafting Pilonidal sinus
PICO® x x x x x
Avelle® x x x
Prevena® x x x x x
Nanova® x x x
Suture Edge Tension Control Technologies for Scar Improvement
501 57
ing NPWT devices (VAC®; KCI, San Antonio, Texas, of the surgical disciplines (plastic surgery, thoracic and
USA) [21, 22] designed for open wounds. Two simplified cardiac surgeries, and colorectal surgery) [27, 28]. The
NPWT devices became commercially available in 2010 system has also demonstrated efficiency in stabilizing
(Prevena™; KCI) and 2011 (PICO™; Smith & Nephew, skin grafting.
Hull, UK). These NPWT devices consist of a single-
use battery-powered negative-pressure therapy device,
an easy-to-place dressing, and either a very small and 57.4 Conclusion
easily portable canister, or no canister at all. In the lat-
ter case, the liquid is removed by evaporation through a The recent development of technologies proposing
semipermeable dressing. The mechanisms of action of a mechanical restriction of micromovements on the
this closed incision management have been supported by suture line, with or without negative pressure, tends to
biomechanical studies: demonstrate some evidenced benefits. These techniques
Biomechanical testing could experimentally dem- are presently used in several surgical disciplines and
onstrate that a pressure of 80 mmHg applied over a proposed for at-risk situations in long and difficult pro-
suture was enough to prevent 55% of tissue deforma- cedures and also for minimizing the scar visibility and
tions compared to a situation when no NPWT dressing preventing enlargement as well as volume changes.
is applied [23]. Other authors suggested increased blood
flow, decreased lateral and shear stress at the suture lines
with decreased risk of wound dehiscence, and increased
lymph clearance with reduced formation of hematoma/ Take Home Message
seroma [24]. This chapter expoes the interest of mechanotherapy
A recent meta-analysis was conducted by Strugala during the post operative period in prevention of
et al. [25] on the impact of prophylactic use of a specific pathological scarring and in prevention of postop
design of NPWT device on surgical site complications. dehiscence and infection. Several techniques, from
Articles were identified in which the specific single-use adhesive sutures to sophisticated machines applying
NPWT device (PICO⋄, Smith & Nephew) was compared on the suture edges a negative pressure, have already
with standard care for surgical site infection (SSI), dehis- demosntrated an interest in decreasing the surgical
cence, or length of stay (LOS). Risk ratio (RR) ±95% site infection rates. These techniques are exposed and
confidence interval (CI) (SSI; dehiscence) or mean differ- detailed.
ence in LOS ±95% CI was calculated using RevMan v5.3. Postop mechanotherapy seems adapted in patients
Combining all 16 studies, there was a significant at risk of developing local co:plications.
reduction in SSI of 58% from 12.5% to 5.2% with
NPWT (RR 0.43, [95% CI 0.32–0.57], p < 0.0001).
Similar effects were seen irrespective of the kind of sur-
gery (orthopedic, abdominal, colorectal, or cesarean sec-
tion), although the numbers needed to treat (NNT) were References
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9. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1532-950X.2014.12201.x. Epub 2014 hematoma/seroma and involvement of the lymphatic system.
Jun 24. Wound Repair Regen. 2011;19:588–96.
12. Gurtner GC, Dauskardt RH, Wong VW, et al. Improving cutane- 23. Torbrand C, Anesäter E, Borgquist O, Malmsjö M. Mechani-
ous scar formation by controlling the mechanical environment: cal effects of negative pressure wound therapy on abdominal
large animal and phase I studies. Ann Surg. 2011;254:217–25. wounds – effects of different pressures and wound fillers. Int
13. Longaker MT, Rohrich RJ, Greenberg L, Furnas H, Wald R, Wound J. 2018;15(1):24–8. https://doi.org/10.1111/iwj.12810.
Bansal V, et al. A randomized controlled trial of the embrace Epub 2017 Nov 23.
advanced scar therapy device to reduce incisional scar forma- 24. Hyldig N, Birke-Sorensen H, Kruse M, Vinter C, Joergensen JS,
tion. Plast Reconstr Surg. 2014;134(3):536–46. https://doi. Sorensen JA, Mogensen O, Lamont RF, Bille C. Meta-analysis
org/10.1097/PRS.0000000000000417. of negative-pressure wound therapy for closed surgical incisions.
14. Téot L, Boissière F, Bekara F, Herlin C, Fluieraru S. Contrôle Br J Surg. 2016;103(5):477–86.
de la tension des berges cicatricielles après résection cutanée : un 25. Strugala V, Martin R. Meta-analysis of comparative trials evalu-
57 nouveau dispositif médical adhésif réglable. [Control of the skin

edge tension after resection: a new adjustable, adhesive medical
ating a prophylactic single-use negative pressure wound therapy
system for the prevention of surgical site complications. Surg
device.]. Revue Francophone de Cicatrisation. 2017;1(1):46–50. Infect. 2017;18(7):810–9. https://doi.org/10.1089/sur.2017.156.
15. Carli AV, Spiro S, Barlow BT, Haas SB. Using a non-invasive Epub 2017 Sep 8.
secure skin closure following total knee arthroplasty leads to 26. Miyahara HS, Serzedello FR, Ejnisman L, Lima Allm Vicente
fewer wound complications and no patient home care visits com- JRN, Helito CP. Incisional negative-pressure wound ther-
pared to surgical staples. Knee. 2017;24(5):1221–5. apy in revision total hip arthroplasty due to infection. Acta
16. Ko JH, Yang IH, Ko MS, Kamolhuja E, Park KK. Do zip-type Ortop Bras. 2018;26(5):300–4. https://doi.org/10.1590/1413-
skin-closing devices show better wound status compared to con- 785220182605196038.
ventional staple devices in total knee arthroplasty? Int Wound J. 27. Conde-Green A, Chung TL, Holton LH III, et al. Incisional
2017;14(1):250–4. https://doi.org/10.1111/iwj.12596. Negative-Pressure Wound Therapy versus conventional dress-
17. Tanaka Y, Miyamoto T, Naito Y, Yoshitake S, Sasahara A, ings following abdominal wall reconstruction. A comparative
Miyaji K. Randomized study of a new noninvasive skin clo- study. Ann Plast Surg. 2013;71(4):394–7.
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racsur.2016.03.072. Epub 2016 Jun 1. PubMed PMID: 27261084. tures. J Orthop Trauma. 2012;26(1):37–42.
503 XIV
Scars from a Clinical

Perspective: Commented
Clinical Cases
Contents
Chapter 58 Hyperpigmented Scar – 505

Chapter 59 Clinical Case Reports: Scar Prevention by Laser

Treatment in Mastopexy With Implant – 509
Vincent Hunsinger, Martin Lhuaire, Ibrahim Dagher,
and Laurent Lantieri
Chapter 60 Burn Hypertrophic Scar in Pediatric Patients:

Clinical Case – 517
Chapter 61 Clinical Case: Earlobe Keloid – 523

Luc Téot
Chapter 62 Scars After Breast Reconstruction – 527

Chapter 63 Atrophic Scars: Reinforcing the Flap Mattress

Using Adipocyte Transfer in Paraplegic Patients
at Risk of Pressure Ulcer Recurrence – 531
Luc Téot
Chapter 64 Secondary Lip Correction in a Cleft Lip Patient – 535

505 58
Hyperpigmented Scar
Contents
58.1 Medical History – 506
References – 507

58.1 Medical History
A 23-year-old healthy Caucasian patient suffered from

a deep dermal burn (IIb) 2 years ago due to contact
with an open fire. Despite initial professional burn care
and aftercare using silicone-based products, the patient
developed an elevated hypertrophic scar in an area of
18 × 12 cm with an approximate height of 1 cm on her
left lower leg. Repetitive treatments with cryotherapy
and intralesional injections with triamcinolone aceton-
ide at the local university hospital did not result in sig-
nificant improvements; however, as a side effect of the
treatment, brownish hyperpigmentations appeared in
the treated area. At initial presentation in our clinic, the
patient did not complain about any pain except some .. Fig. 58.2 Presentation 8 weeks after initial Q-ruby laser treatment
tension and pruritus but was severely disturbed by the
appearance of the scar (. Fig. 58.1).
??Questions to Medical History

55 What is the rationale for the formation of postin-
flammatory hyperpigmentations after the initial
therapy?
55 Which therapeutic alternatives exist?
55 Are there any medical precautions that should be
considered for initiating any additional therapy?
zz Intervention 1
58 One pass using a Q-switched ruby 4 mm/4 J (Asclepion)
under local anesthesia cream. Aftercare with fusidic
acid and a class III steroid containing cream.
.. Fig. 58.3 Presentation 12 weeks after last laser treatment
zz Interventions 2–6
Eight weeks later significant improvement of hyper- 50 mg/cc for drug delivery on the scar surface. Wound
pigmentation and some minor flattening (. Fig. 58.2), dressings with gauze, fusidic acid, and a class III steroid
five additional sessions with fractional CO2 (Lumenis, containing cream. Repetitive treatments approximately
UltraPulse, SCAAR FX 60–90 mJ, 1–3%, 300 Hz) under every 4–6 weeks apart.
local anesthesia cream, additional 5-fluorouracil (5-FU)
??Questions Interventions
55 Why use the Q-ruby first before initiating therapy
with fractional CO2?
55 What is the rationale for the time intervals in
between laser sessions?
55 Potential risk of laser therapy?
55 Why combination with 5-FU?
zz Intervention 7
Another pass using a Q-switched ruby 4 mm/4 J
(Asclepion) under local anesthesia cream. Aftercare with
fusidic acid and a class III steroid containing cream. Final
results 12 weeks after last treatment shown in . Fig. 58.3.
zz Discussion
Hyperpigmented scars are relatively common; however,
.. Fig. 58.1 Baseline situation: elevated hypertrophic scar in an area
of 18×12 cm with an approximate height of 1 cm on the left lower leg
most frequently scar therapy is directed toward reduc-
at initial presentation. Surrounding erythema due to mild reaction to ing possible symptoms like pruritus, pain or tension,
the local anesthesia cream applied prior to the laser therapy and reduction of excess scar tissue through various
Hyperpigmented Scar
507 58
approaches. Nevertheless, using nanosecond or picosec- Take-Home Message
ond lasers with wave lengths of 532, 694, 755, or 1064 nm 55 Different scar types do benefit from combina-
known from laser tattoo removal or treatment of benign tional therapies. Interestingly, hyperpigmentations
pigmentated skin lesions do have potential to improve of scar do respond relatively well to QS-ruby or
appearance of hyperpigmented scars. In our case, treat- picosecond lasers.
ment using a q-switched Ruby laser has been chosen as
initial therapy simply due to the fact that the hyperpig-
mentation was the main concern of our patient. The
hyperpigmentation was most probably a response to pre- References
vious cryotherapy sessions; however, in darker-skinned
patients, hyperpigmentations of scars are frequently seen 1. Imhof L, Dummer R, Dreier J, Kolm I, Barysch MJ. A prospec-
tive trial comparing q-switched ruby laser and a triple combina-
without any previous therapy. Alternatively, a hydrochi-
tion skin-lightening cream in the treatment of solar lentigines.
none-containing cream may be used, but they are often Dermatol Surg. 2016;42(7):853–7.
less effective compared to respective laser treatments [1]. 2. Blome-Eberwein S, Gogal C, Weiss MJ, Boorse D, Pagella
Caution should be paid to possible melanocytic lesions, P. Prospective evaluation of fractional CO2 laser treatment of
which can easily be ruled out through dermatoscopy and mature burn scars. J Burn Care Res. 2016;37(6):379–87.
3. Cervelli V, Gentile P, Spallone D, Nicoli F, Verardi S, Petrocelli
should be excluded from laser therapy.
M, et al. Ultrapulsed fractional CO2 laser for the treatment
The use of fractional CO2 lasers for the improve- of post-traumatic and pathological scars. J Drugs Dermatol.
ment of hypertrophic scars has been demonstrated in 2010;9(11):1328–31.
numerous studies. Combining deep fractional ablation 4. Poetschke J, Dornseifer U, Clementoni MT, Reinholz M,
with high fluences and a low density to stimulate der- Schwaiger H, Steckmeier S, et al. Ultrapulsed fractional abla-
tive carbon dioxide laser treatment of hypertrophic burn scars:
mal matrix remodeling with superficial smoothening of
evaluation of an in-patient controlled, standardized treatment
the scar through ablation of individual scar strands, fol- approach. Lasers Med Sci. 2017;32(5):1031–40.
lowed by extensive fractional surface ablation, has been 5. Paasch U, Sonja G, Haedersdal M. Synergistic skin heat shock
shown to greatly improve widespread hypertrophic scar- protein expression in response to combined laser treatment
ring [2–4]. On a molecular basis, the heat radiated into the with a diode laser and ablative fractional lasers. Int J Hyperth.
2014;30(4):245–9.
treated tissue results in the activation of heat-shock pro-
6. Qu L, Liu A, Zhou L, He C, Grossman PH, Moy RL, et al.
teins, predominantly from the HSP-70 family, as well as Clinical and molecular effects on mature burn scars after treat-
the alteration of remodeling factors like matrix-metallo- ment with a fractional CO(2) laser. Lasers Surg Med. 2012;44(7):
proteases and antifibrotic isotypes from the transform- 517–24.
ing-growth factor beta family (TGF-β) [5, 6]. Although 7. Orringer JS, Kang S, Johnson TM, Karimipour DJ, Hamilton T,
Hammerberg C, et al. Connective tissue remodeling induced by
these processes have not yet been fully elucidated, clinical
carbon dioxide laser resurfacing of photodamaged human skin.
studies have shown a normalization of the dermal matrix Arch Dermatol. 2004;140(11):1326–32.
architecture following fractional CO2-laser treatment [7, 8. Ozog DM, Liu A, Chaffins ML, Ormsby AH, Fincher EF,
8]. Its combination with triamcinolone acetonide or 5-FU Chipps LK, et al. Evaluation of clinical results, histological
appears to further improve results and, in our experience, architecture, and collagen expression following treatment of
mature burn scars with a fractional carbon dioxide laser. JAMA
seems to minimize the total number of sessions necessary
Dermatol. 2013;149(1):50–7.
to achieve satisfying results [9, 10]. We usually allow the 9. Sabry HH, Abdel Rahman SH, Hussein MS, Sanad RR, Abd El
scar tissue to settle in between laser sessions for 4–8 weeks Azez TA. The efficacy of combining fractional carbon dioxide
as scar tissue needs time for remodeling. While hypertro- laser with verapamil hydrochloride or 5-fluorouracil in the treat-
phic scars usually respond very well to fractional lasers, ment of hypertrophic scars and keloids: a clinical and immuno-
histochemical study. Dermatol Surg. 2019;45(4):536–46.
some caution should be paid when treating keloids as
10. Waibel JS, Wulkan AJ, Shumaker PR. Treatment of hypertro-
here, activation of the keloid with further enlargement is phic scars using laser and laser assisted corticosteroid delivery.
relatively frequently seen. Lasers Surg Med. 2013;45(3):135–40.
509 59
Clinical Case Reports: Scar

Prevention by Laser Treatment
in Mastopexy With Implant
Vincent Hunsinger, Martin Lhuaire, Ibrahim Dagher, and Laurent Lantieri
Contents
59.2 Case Report Number 1 – 511

59.3 Case Report Number 2 – 513
59.4 Discussion – 513
References – 515

510 V. Hunsinger et al.
59.1 Introduction shot induces a controlled elevation of skin temperature,

which activates the overexpression of chaperone pro-
Breast ptosis is one of the most common conditions teins (Heat Shock Protein 70) [9, 10]. These proteins then
treated by plastic surgeons with more than 100,000 activate tissue regeneration by shortening the inflam-
operations each year just in the USA. While its causes matory stage of the wound healing process and hasten
are not clearly defined, age, history of significant weight scar maturation [9]. This technique, performed during
loss, higher body mass index (BMI), larger bra cup the earliest stage of the healing process for a maximum
size, the number of pregnancies, and smoking history impact, gave promising results. In 2016, a new laser sys-
are known to be significant risk factors [1]. Treatment tem was marketed on the basis of this LASH technique.
consists generally in mastopexy and/or breast augmen- The 1210-nm laser diode (UrgoTouch®, Laboratoires
tation with implant fitting. The mastopexy procedure Urgo Medical, Chenove, France) was an automated,
is generally considered a reliable aesthetic procedure portable laser providing a controlled elevation of skin
with less than 2% of unsatisfactory breast shape [2]. In temperature, due to its scar control system technology.
addition to operative risks related to any surgery per- The wavelength of the system allows its use on patients
formed under anesthesia, some complications specific with all skin phototypes, including Fitzpatrick scale pho-
to breast plasty and breast implant may occur such totypes V and VI. The performance and safety of this
as hematoma, infection, wound healing delay, wound new device were assessed in a 1-year follow-up double-
dehiscence, necrosis of the areola, necrosis of the skin, blinded randomized controlled trial (RCT), undertaken
disruption of the implant and silicon leakage, rare case on patients undergoing breast reduction: The “SLASH”
of anaplastic large cell lymphoma, and poor quality of study [11]. This high-quality-level study was conducted
the scars, including hypertrophic scar or keloid [1]. The in France and coordinated by Pr Casanova at the
overall complication rate of mastopexy reaches 10% University Hospital of Marseille. A total of 40 women
and the most represented complications are scar related, (with phototypes II to VI) undergoing bilateral breast
with 3% of hypertrophic or unaesthetic appearance [2]. reduction were enrolled by the five surgeons involved in
The patients’ perspective is also essential when evaluat- the study and treated with the portable 1210-nm laser
ing scar cosmetic appearance as it might differ from the on one randomly assigned breast, while the controlat-
ones of the surgeon [3, 4]. In particular, their expecta- eral one was used as the study control. The unique laser-
tions at short term (inflammatory stage) and long term treatment session was performed on the suture incisions,
(1 year) are of equal importance as they usually wish in the operating room, while the patient was still under
59 to regain a normal appearance skin as soon as possible the general anesthesia. According to the results of this
and desire sustainable results [3, 4]. To minimize the aes- clinical study, based on both subjective assessments
thetic impact of surgical scars, many different strategies (with the validated modified Observer Scar Assessment
have been identified, such as compressing devices, sun Scale (mOSAS) score) and objective measurements (with
protection, silicone dressing, or laser treatment [5, 6]. software analysis of three-dimensional [3D] pictures of
According to the recent guidelines, prevention of abnor- the scars) the 1210-nm automated laser system provided
mal scar formation should always be a first priority [5–7]. significant improvements of the cosmetic aspect of the
Preventive measures adapted to the patients’ risks and scars at short term (6 weeks), medium term (6 months),
needs (possibly including combined therapies) and early and long term (12 months) (. Fig. 59.1). These aesthetic
intervention are well recognized for their positive out- improvements, notably in terms of volume, surface, and
comes [5–7]. In particular, laser therapy seems to gain roughness, were strengthened with the blind expression
each year broader and broader application in this field of patients’ preference for their laser-treated scars. Of
[8]. Ten years ago, a new approach based on a preventive note, in the subgroup of dark skin-type patients (photo-
treatment of scars called Laser-Assisted Skin Healing types V–VI), the results also favored the laser treatment,
(LASH) was developed by Pr Mordon (INSERM U703; with 53% and 16% mean reductions of the scar volume
University of Lille Nord, France), and clinically evalu- and surface, compared to the control scars.
ated by the teams of Pr Magalon (Department of Plastic I have personally used this laser treatment
and Reconstructive Surgery, APHM, Marseille, France) (. Fig. 59.2) in many different indications in my cur-
and Dr. Capon (Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery rent practice and I propose to report here two cases of
Department of Pr Martinot and Pellerin, CHRU, Lille, breast hypotrophy and ptosis treated by mastopexy with
France) [9]. Performed immediately after surgery, a laser implants associated with the laser treatment.
Clinical Case Reports: Scar Prevention by Laser Treatment in Mastopexy With Implant
511 59
Control Laser-treated
Control Laser-treated
.. Fig. 59.1 On the left, a two-dimensional (2D) photograph of breast was used as a control. On the right, 3D photographs of inter-
the inframammary scars of a patient, 6 months after her breast- nal or external extremities of the scars treated or not with the laser in
reduction procedure. The horizontal scar of one breast was ran- two different patients, 12 months after the procedure. (Reproduced
domly assigned to receive in the operating theatre, the day of the from the double-blind RCT “SLASH” with the courtesy of Pr. Casa-
surgery, the laser treatment while the other scar of the controlateral nova, coordinator of the clinical trial)
59.2 Case Report Number 1

kDescription
A 37-year-old woman with bilateral breast hypotrophy
and ptosis was seen in consultation seeking for breast
lift. Physical examination revealed 85C-sized breasts
with grade 2 ptosis based on the Regnault classifica-
tion (Nipple areola complex [NAC] 2 cm below the sub-
mammary fold) and asymmetry (with a left breast more
voluminous and ptosic than the controlateral one). The
patient (1.70 m, 58 kg, BMI 20) had recently lost 15 kg
and reported a previous 95C breast size. She had three
children and no prolonged breastfeeding period. The
patient had no history of surgery, allergy, or medica-
tions, but was a current smoker.
.. Fig. 59.2 The 1210-nm laser diode laser system UrgoTouch® A bilateral breast lift with retropectoral implants and
procedure. The laser treatment (only one pass over the incision) is laser treatment was proposed to the patient. The ben-
performed in the operating theatre, when patients are still under gen- efits and risks related to the procedure were explained,
eral anesthesia. The target cutaneous zone is secured by the applica- together with the necessity to quit smoking, before the
tion of safety strips containing high-technology microchips. These
microchips enable the laser shots and prevent any overdose. The ster-
patient gave her written consent.
ile strips are positioned along the sutures just before the laser shot.
The laser shot duration is determined and controlled by the laser kMethods
software itself, based on the patient’s skin temperature detected by The surgery was performed in November 2017, under
the embedded pyrometer of the device. This technology ensures the general anesthesia and orotracheal intubation. The
automatic discontinuation of the shot when the target skin tempera-
ture (53 ± 3°C) is reached, ensuring both patient safety and repro-
patient had received antibioprophylaxy and periopera-
ducibility of the shots. Neither preliminary parameter settings nor tive compression stockings and she underwent preop-
adjustments are required for laser shots. A training to the laser is erative marking. A similar procedure was followed for
received before its first use both breast. Infiltration of local anesthetics (narope-
ine 7.5 mg/mL + xylocaine/adrenaline 1%) was done embedded pyrometer of the device. The laser treatment
in the targeted zone. The incision on each breast was procedure was rapid and went unremarkable. After the
made under the future nipple-areola complex flap, with laser treatment, the sutured incisions were secured with
a glandular transection, until it reached the pectoralis 2-octyl cyanoacrylate adhesive (Dermabond®, Ethicon)
muscle. The retropectoral area was dissected to develop and covered by a dry dressing, before adding the postop-
the submuscular pocket at the implant size and a sizer erative compressive bra.
was used for the mastopexy. The breast was lifted using Postoperative care recommendations included
inverted-T scar and a superior NAC pedicle technique. daily shower and dressing change after cleaning of the
The round micro-textured breast implants prefilled with sutured incisions with an antiseptic solution. The patient
silicone gel were then placed in its pocket (LSM RM was asked to wear postoperative compression bra for
345, Sebbin) and the satisfying shape and volume of 4 weeks after the surgery and received a prescription
the breast were checked. Surgical incisions were sutured for analgesics. Sport activity resumption was allowed
according to local standard procedures, using common 3 months after the surgery.
surgical sutures (Monocryl™ 3/0 and 4/0 and Vicryl™
rapide 4/0, Ethicon) compatible with the laser use, kResults
according to the laser manufacturer’s instructions. No complication was reported during the procedure
The safety strips of the laser were positioned along and the early postoperative course. One month after the
the sutured incisions. The laser shot duration was surgery and the laser treatment, the cosmetic aspects
determined and controlled by the laser software itself, of the scars were already satisfying and the patient was
based on the patient’s skin temperature detected by the pleased with this short-term outcome (. Fig. 59.3).
59
Pre-operative ptosis 1 month 18 months
.. Fig. 59.3 Eighteen months’ follow-up of the patient: anterolateral, lateral, and anterior views of the preoperative ptosis and of the
breasts 1 month and 18 months after the surgery and the laser treatment
513 59
.. Fig. 59.4 Enlarged photographs of periareolar and vertical scars of each breast, 18 months post-surgery
At the 18-month postoperative visit, the horizontal, ver- cal sutures and laser treatment were performed as previ-
tical, and periareolar scars became very discreet and the ously described. After the laser treatment, the sutured
patient expressed her complete satisfaction for her new incisions were secured with steri-strips and covered by a
breasts (. Figs. 59.3 and 59.4). dry dressing, before adding the postoperative compres-
sive bra. The global procedure (including surgery and
laser treatment) lasted 2 hours. The drains were removed
59.3 Case Report Number 2 the day after the surgery. Postoperative care recommen-
dations were similar to the ones given in Case 1.
kDescription
The second case report relates to a 26-year-old woman kResults
(1.64 m, 60 kg, BMI 22) seen in consultation for breast No complication was reported during the procedure and
lifting after weight loss. The patient presented a bilat- the postoperative course. Two months after the surgery,
eral breast hypotrophy and grade 2 ptosis (NAC 1 cm the interest of an early laser treatment on the inflam-
below the submammary fold). The breasts were asym- matory stage of the wound healing process was notice-
metric (more voluminous and ptosic left breast). The able. At the 12-month postoperative visit, the scars were
patient currently had B-cup breasts and wanted a breast barely detectable. The cosmetic aspects of the scars
augmentation to reach plain C-cups. The review of the were very satisfying and the patient was pleased with
medical and surgical history of the patient revealed a the results of the procedure, at both the short-term and
sleeve-gastrectomy in March 2013, no allergy, no par- long-term visits (. Figs. 59.5 and 59.6).
ticular familial medical history, and no current medica-
tions, but she was a current smoker. A bilateral breast
lift with retropectoral implants and laser treatment was 59.4 Discussion
proposed to the patient. She was informed that she had
to quit smoking and the benefits and risks related to the To my knowledge, this is the first time the use of the auto-
procedure were explained to her. The surgery was sched- mated 1210-nm laser diode UrgoTouch® is reported in
uled in January 2018, once the written consent of the mastopexy associated with retropectoral implant. The
patient was obtained. short- and long-term cosmetic results reached after a
unique session, realized in the operating theater the day
kMethods of the surgery, were very satisfying from both the sur-
The surgery was performed under general anesthesia geon’ and the patient’s point of view, and consistent with
and laryngeal mask. The procedure was globally similar the results reported in the “SLASH” RCT conducted in
to the one reported in Case 1. The glandular transection the breast-reduction indication.
reached the pectoral muscle plan. The submuscular area I first tried this laser treatment in October 2016 in a
was dissected to develop the implant pocket. Inverted-T revision of breast and abdominoplasty in a patient of
incision and superior NAC pedicle technique was used dark phototype skin presenting at my consultation with
and the round micro-textured breast implants prefilled very wide scars. The aesthetic outcomes of the scars at
with silicone gel were positioned in their pocket (LSM 10 months were very satisfactory and the patient said that
RS 270, Sebbin, for the right breast, and LSC 72330, she was happy with the result obtained. Subsequently,
Sebbin, for the left breast). The shape and volume of the I have treated the scars of more than two hundreds of
breasts were checked and judged satisfying. The surgi- patients in different indications: secondarily to breast
59
Pre-operative ptosis 2 months 12 months
.. Fig. 59.5 Twelve months’ follow-up of the patient: anterolateral, lateral, and anterior views of the preoperative ptosis and of the breasts
2 months and 12 months after the surgery and the laser treatment
.. Fig. 59.6 Enlarged photographs of periareolar and vertical scars, 12 months post-surgery
515 59
augmentation operations [12], breast plasty, ptosis cure, References
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elet M. Treatment with 815-nm diode laser induces long-lasting
55 What is the position of laser procedure in your expression of 72-kDa heat shock protein in normal rat skin. Br J
scar prevention strategies? Dermatol. 2001;144(2):260–6.
55 How long does a laser treatment take? What for- 11. Casanova D, Alliez A, Baptista C, Gonelli D, Lemdjadi Z, Boh-
mation is required for laser use? bot S. A 1-year follow-up of post-operative scars after the use of
a 1210-nm laser-assisted skin healing (LASH) technology: a ran-
domized controlled trial. Aesthet Plast Surg. 2017;41(4):938–48.
Take-Home Messages 12. Hunsinger V, et al. Minimally invasive inframammary breast
55 Different strategies have been identified to mini- augmentation (MINIBA). Accepted for publication in the 2019
December issue in Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery.
mize the aesthetic impact of surgical scars and pre-
vention of abnormal scar formation should always
be a first priority.
55 The performance and safety of the automated,
portable, 1210-nm laser diode UrgoTouch® treat-
ment reported in real-life practice are consistent
with the ones established in the randomised con-
trolled trial SLASH.
55 An early and unique laser-treatment session with
UrgoTouch® significantly improves the cosmetic
aspect of the surgical scars.
55 Patients treated with the laser procedure expressed
their satisfaction both at short-term and long-term
follow-up visits.
59
517 60
Burn Hypertrophic Scar

in Pediatric Patients:
Clinical Case
Contents

60.1.1 I ncidence of Hypertrophic Scars – 518
60.1.2 Prevention – 518
60.1.3 Burn Depth – 518
60.1.4 Chapter Objectives – 518
References – 521

518 R. Vinaik et al.
60.1 Background 60.1.4 Chapter Objectives
60.1.1 Incidence of Hypertrophic Scars In this chapter, we discuss management options for
pediatric hypertrophic scars. In addition, we provide a
Hypertrophic scarring has a greater incidence in darker palmar hypertrophic scar case with a 5-year follow-up
skinned individuals and predominately occurs in and list the interventions, which consist of laser therapy
American Indian/Alaskan Natives, followed by African in combination with serial casting, grafts, and local flaps
Americans and Asians [1]. The highest risk of pruritus for treatment of scar tension. Objectives of this chap-
occurs in the latter population. Additional risk fac- ter include understanding risk factors for hypertrophic
tors include young age, female gender, and those with scar development, therapeutic options available, and
wounds in particular anatomic locations such as shoul- rationale for particular treatment options in pediatric
ders, anterior chest, neck, upper arms, and cheeks. In patients.
the total patient population, hypertrophic scarring
occurs in between 30% and 90% of burn patients, with
a majority of these cases occurring in children [1]. The
Clinical Case
incidence rate of burn hypertrophic scars increases pro-
A 3-year-old Filipino male initially presented to the
portionally with the time to healing, with a recent study
clinic with a palm burn from a fireplace contact injury.
demonstrating that scarring risk is multiplied by 1.138
The care of this wound consisted of once weekly dress-
for every additional day needed for wound healing in
ings with a closed dressing technique to minimize pain
pediatric patients, highlighting the need for rapid heal-
and allow for undisturbed wound healing. The child
ing in scar prevention [2].
remained as an outpatient for the entire course of
acute care. The deep wound took a full 3 weeks to heal
and the patient developed a right palmar contracted
60.1.2 Prevention hypertrophic scar (. Fig. 60.1). The patient presented
with a raised, pruritic scar that remained confined
Patients have a higher risk of development of hypertro- within the boundaries of the wound area, as indicated
phic scars in wounds that take longer than 3 weeks to in . Fig. 60.1.
heal. A study of 500 pediatric scald burns demonstrated
that time to healing is a strong predictor of scarring,
with similar results seen in a retrospective review of 59
pediatric patients and 41 adults [3]. Therefore, acute
60 wound care is critical in ensuring rapid healing. Care for
burn wounds includes early tangential excision and cov-
erage with a split-thickness autografts, skin substitutes,
or temporary xenografts or allografts. Since delayed
healing may result from infection, topical application
of antimicrobials may help prevent wound colonization.
While time to healing is a strong predictor of scarring,
patients can still develop hypertrophic scars despite heal-
ing earlier [2]. This highlights the importance of improv-
ing therapeutic strategies in addition to prevention.
.. Fig. 60.1 Right palmar hypertrophic scar

60.1.3 Burn Depth
One of the ways to accurately treat burn scars is to reli-

ably treat them in a timely fashion and determine burn ??Questions to the Medical History
depth accurately. Many modes of burn depth assess- 55 What are the primary risk factors for hypertrophic
ment have been used, including biopsy, thermography, scarring in this patient?
and vital dyes, among other examples. The most widely 55 Is ethnicity a primary predetermining factor for
used method for scald burns is the laser Doppler scan- development of hypertrophic scars?
ner, which was shown to improve prediction of the level 55 What are the features indicating that this is a
of burns that will or will not heal by reepithelialization hypertrophic scar as opposed to a keloid?
at 3 weeks. 55 Is this scar likely to progress over time?
Burn Hypertrophic Scar in Pediatric Patients: Clinical Case
519 60
Immediate Postintervention Situation

The patient presented with a scar contracture, which
is one of the major detrimental effects of hypertrophic
scars. Contractures of nonmatured scars can result in
significant functional and developmental impairment
and are frequently seen with scar hypertrophy. Conser-
vative approaches guided by physical or occupational
therapists have proven to be beneficial in these patients.
Initially, scar massage in conjunction with moisturiz-
ers is commonly employed [3]. This may decrease pain,
pruritus, scar thickness, and erythema, and moistur-
izers themselves decrease transepidermal water loss.
Currently, scar massage and moisturizing with water-
based lotions are the mainstay treatment for burn
hypertrophic scars in children. Another approach is
serial casting, which is used in burn patients to increase
range of motion and prevent patient interference with
the wound, an important concern in pediatric patients.
With these considerations in mind, the patient was
treated with conservative measures, including serial
casting and scar massage three times a day. This treat-
ment commenced immediately after the skin had
healed in a verified burn center with rehabilitation spe-
cialists trained to treat this condition.
Contractures particularly in pediatric patients are
challenging to treat. Distraction techniques and train-
ing of parents are challenges, along with the fact that .. Fig. 60.2 Surgical revision and grafting of the scar
the treatments are repeated multiple times daily, making
this a difficult task for the children and their caregivers.
cases. So, intralesional injections are usually reserved
In addition to treatment by serial casting/splinting to
for small areas that are slow to settle after the majority
maintain the position, surgical correction may be indi-
of the burn hypertrophic scars have been treated.
cated to restore function, especially if the patient has
At this point of treatment, the patient’s palmar
a persistent hypertrophic scar (>1 year). Techniques
contracture had stabilized. However, therapists were
include scar-lengthening flaps and skin grafts, which
noting difficulty with grasping objects in the affected
are often delayed until the scar has matured unless the
hand and significantly reduced palmar measurements
contracture interferes with the normal development of
compared with the other hand. As a result, the patient’s
the child (use of the hand).
scar was treated by surgical revision and grafting after
Intralesional corticosteroids such as triamcinolone
the initial conservative measures (. Fig. 60.2).
acetonide are an option for treatment of hypertrophic
scars and keloids [1, 3]. Corticosteroids can reduce pru-
ritus and are effective in combination with cryotherapy
in older hypertrophic scars and large keloids. In general, ??Questions for Intervention
the corticosteroid is injected into the papillary dermis 55 What is the advantage of serial casting in this
every 2–4 weeks until the scar is flattened. Although patient?
intralesional steroids are a common treatment for 55 Are there any alternative conservative rehabilita-
hypertrophic scars, they are rarely used for pediatric tive strategies?
burn hypertrophic scars. They have limited utility due 55 Are these conservative strategies effective?
to the small dose that can be administered. In addition, 55 In addition to the points mentioned earlier, what
the child needs to be sedated for the procedure in many are other potential detrimental effects of intral-
esional injections?
520 R. Vinaik et al.
Late Postintervention Situation

Surgical revision is necessary in such refractory cases,
and correction of linear hypertrophic scars can be
done by tension-releasing techniques. Typical surgical
techniques for hypertrophic scar contractures include
Z- and W-plasties. Z-plasties are a scar-lengthening
technique that can relieve tension and mitigate con-
tracture, improving range of motion, while W-plasties
can minimize the appearance of prominent linear scars
[4]. Several rounds of surgical releases, especially when
combined with other techniques such as laser therapy,
can facilitate successful rehabilitation of scars without
excision. Lasers initiate an inflammatory response and
induce moderate damage to local vasculature, resulting .. Fig. 60.3 Treatment with Z-plasties and laser therapy
in local hypoxia and remodeling [3, 4]. This, in turn,
results in reduced scar erythema, pruritus, pain, and
scar texture and stiffness [5]. Lasers can be further
subdivided into ablative or nonablative types. Abla- ??Questions for Intervention
tive lasers reach their dermal targets by ablating the 55 Why was this surgical management of this patient
epidermis, which increases the risk of further scarring delayed?
and other complications. As a result, traditional abla- 55 What are the reasons for a surgical intervention at
tive lasers are no longer used. However, an exception this point in treatment?
is the fractional carbon dioxide (fCO2) laser, which is 55 What is the purpose of Z-plasties?
regarded as an ablative laser but can be considered as 55 What are the potential consequences of laser
an alternative to the conventional ablative CO2 laser treatment in this patient?
[5]. Alternatively, nonablative lasers can target dermal
chromophores while preserving the epidermis, mini- vvAnswers
mizing complications. There are several types of lasers The primary risk factors for burn hypertrophic scars
that are used in the treatment of hypertrophic scars. determined from the patient’s clinical history are young
These include pulsed dye laser (PDL), alexandrite and age and increased time to wound healing (>3 weeks).
diode lasers, intense pulsed light (IPL), erbium:glass While there is a higher incidence in Asians compared
60 (er:glass), infrared neodymium:yttrium aluminum gar- to Caucasians, hypertrophic scarring in general primar-
net (Nd:YAG), and nonablative fractional lasers 1550 ily occurs in darker skinned individuals and American
or 1565 nm (NAFL). However, these nonablative lasers Indian/Alaskan Natives [1]. Although hypertrophic
have a relatively shallow penetration depth, limiting scars and keloids have similar underlying mechanisms,
their use to certain anatomical locations or shallow they can be distinguished by certain clinical features.
scars in the case of Nd:YAG and NAFL. Decision for Hypertrophic scars are erythematous, pruritic, raised
which type of laser to use is dependent on scar char- lesions that remain confined within the boundaries of
acteristics, pain, and scar texture and stiffness [5]. The the wound area, as indicated in . Fig. 60.1. In addi-
procedure itself is short and requires minimal addition, the scar did not progress, unlike keloids, which
tional rehabilitation, an advantage over surgical inter- continue to evolve over time.
ventions, especially in younger patients. The patient has limited range of motion and use of
A year after the initial surgical revision and graft- his hand due to scar contracture. Initial management
ing, the patient had laser treatments combined with with serial casting is beneficial in improving range of
Z-plasties (. Fig. 60.3). This was followed by addi- motion and softening the scar due to pressure. Casting
tional Z-plasties 5 years later. Several rounds of sur- provides pressure and stretch for an entire week giving
gical releases combined with laser therapy facilitated caregivers a break, after which the cast is split and mas-
successful rehabilitation of the patient’s scar. sage and stretching are resumed. The hand is placed
back in the splint in between stretches, and the therapy
Burn Hypertrophic Scar in Pediatric Patients: Clinical Case
521 60
is stopped after 2 or 3 weeks. Alternate options like com- Take-Home Message
pression therapy are used to reduce scarring by decreas- 55 Burn hypertrophic scars in children are challeng-
ing blood flow and collagen remodeling at the site of ing, with multiple modalities of treatment. Chil-
injury, and few studies have shown that it can possibly dren pose special considerations and, in addition
increase scar pliability and thickness. However, there is to the scars, developmental stages and growth
minimal evidence regarding effectiveness of these strate- often dictate the treatments.
gies [3]. In addition, they may be difficult to attain due to
the poor patient compliance. Techniques such as intral-
esional injections are avoided in these patients due to the
need for repeated painful injections and side effects such
References
as lipoatrophy, altered pigmentation, and blistering.
1. Gauglitz GG. Management of keloids and hypertrophic scars:
Surgical management was necessary to allow for current and emerging options. Clin Cosmet Investig Dermatol.
normal developmental use of the hand. This was dic- 2013;6:103–14.
tated by review with a skilled rehabilitation team that 2. Chipp E, Charles L, Thomas C, Whitnig K, Moieman N, Wil-
followed the child’s developmental needs. Surgery is son Y. A prospective study of time to healing and hypertrophic
scarring in paediatric burns: every day counts. Burns Trauma.
typically delayed until the scar has matured since early
2017;5(3)
intervention is associated with high recurrence rates 3. Finnerty CC, Jeschke MG, Branski LK, Barret JP, Dziewulski P,
and morbidity [4]. Here, rounds of Z-plasties combined Herndon DN. Hypertrophic scarring: the greatest unmet chal-
with other treatment modalities (e.g., lasers) help relieve lenge following burn injury. Lancet. 2016;388(10052):1427–36.
tension and improve range of motion. Potential conse- 4. Krakowski AC, Totri CR, Donelan MB, Shumaker PR. Scar
Management in the Pediatric and Adolescent Population. Pedi-
quences of laser therapy in this patient are hyperpig-
atrics. 2016;137(2):e20142065.
mentation and discomfort, the latter can be managed 5. Zuccaro J, Muser I, Singh M, Yu J, Kelly C, Fish J. Laser therapy
with topical anesthetics, oral or intravenous sedation, for pediatric scars: focusing on a combined treatment approach.
or nerve blocks to improve treatment tolerance [4]. J Burn Care Res. 2018;39(3)
523 61
Clinical Case: Earlobe Keloid

Luc Téot
Contents
Further Readings – 526

524 L. Téot
61.1 Medical History ??Questions to Medical History

55 Is Asian origin a predetermining factor for ear-
A 23-year-old Asian-origin young male came after lobe keloid?
a long period of keloid of the left ear, secondary to 55 Is keloid growing permanently or does it stop with
a minor trauma during childhood. The patient was age?
treated by three sequential surgical excisions followed by 55 Is there any guideline for surgical management of
a recurrence, the last one being followed by YAG laser. keloid?
The patient abandoned the possibility to be ade-
quately treated by any therapy during 7 years and was kIntervention 1
examined at the clinic (. Figs. 61.1 and 61.2). A series of 10 5-FU injections (5 mL) at a dosage of
50 mg/mL was administered at 3 weeks of interval.
The procedure was standardized as follows:
55 EMLA cream application 2 hours before injection
55 MEOPA (hilarant gas able to disconnect the patient
from pain) administration during injection
55 Hypnose adjuvant therapy during injection (hyp-
nose works to deviate the attention of the patient
and present a growing interest particularly on
patients submitted repeatedly to painful stimulation)
(. Figs. 61.3 and 61.4)
??Questions: Procedure 1
55 Why 5-FU injections instead of corticosteroid
injection?
55 What is the rationale of the dose (50 mg/mL)?
55 How painful is the procedure?
.. Fig. 61.1 Earlobe keloid at presentation (anterior view)
61
.. Fig. 61.2 Earlobe keloid at presentation (posterior view) .. Fig. 61.3 Inflammatory aspect during 5-FU injections (anterior view)
Clinical Case: Earlobe Keloid
525 61
.. Fig. 61.5 Aspect of the ear 3 months postopertion, and some

inflammation is still present
.. Fig. 61.4 Inflammatory aspect during 5-FU injections (posterior

view)
kIntervention 2
A surgical excision was administered with reconstruc-
tion of the earlobe with a combined approach anteriorly
and posteriorly to the earlobe. A compression was made
at fashion to ensure the mechanical situation during the
12 months postoperative period. The results were good
with no recurrence. The scar presented redness after 3
months postoperation and then this inflammation was
resolutive with time (. Figs. 61.5 and 61.6).
??Late Postintervention Questions

55 Why to choose not to apply any postoperative
therapy?
55 What about the loss of substance of the ear?
55 Is there a need for complementary surgery?
55 Is further surgery contraindicated? .. Fig. 61.6 Aspect at 14 months postoperation: the scar is stable
and no recurrence occurred
vvAnswers
The prevalence of earlobe keloid is higher in the Asian Guidelines of surgical scar management mention
skin than in the Caucasian skin even if the global the need for a combination of techniques, and most
risk of keloid is higher in the black-skin population. of them are being proposed after surgery (radiother-
Keloids are, contrary to hypertrophic scars, growing apy, cryotherapy, laser). Cryotherapy has also been
permanently, reaching enormous sizes when left apart proposed as an alternative to surgery. In this case the
without adapted treatment. preoperative management using antimitotic agents
526 L. Téot
was proposed to limit the fibroblast postoperative pro- Further Readings

liferation 5-FU is used at a high dose (50 mg/mL) as
suggested by several authors without systemic compli- Ragoowansi R, Cornes PG, Glees JP, Powell BW, Moss AL. Ear-
cations and the rhythm of injections (every 3 weeks) lobe keloids: treatment by a protocol of surgical excision and
limits the risk of local skin necrosis. immediate postoperative adjuvant radiotherapy. Br J Plast Surg.
2001;54(6):504–8.
This strategy limits the risk of recurrence after sur-
Park TH, Cho HJ, Lee JW, Kim CW, Chong Y, Chang CH, Park
gery and is proposed as a new option, in combination KS. Could −79°C spray-type cryotherapy be an effective mono-
with preoperative injections and a close checkup of the therapy for the treatment of keloid? Int J Mol Sci. 2017;18(12).
local situation during 1 year. pii: E2536. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms18122536.
The major inconvenience is pain induced by the in- Carvalhaes SM, Petroianu A, Ferreira MA, de Barros VM, Lopes
RV. Assessment of the treatment of earlobe keloids with triam-
jection, and pain management needs combined thera-
cinolone injections, surgical resection, and local pressure. Rev
pies (EMLA, MEOPA, Hypnose). During the surgical Col Bras Cir. 2015;42(1):9–13. https://doi.org/10.1590/0100-
procedure the loss of substance of the earlobe had to 69912015001003.
be treated by reapproximation of the edges, a source Waibel JS, Wulkan AJ, Rudnick A, Daoud A. Treatment of hyper-
of limited cosmetic difference compared to the contra- trophic scars using laser-assisted corticosteroid versus laser-
assisted 5-fluorouracil delivery. Dermatol Surg. 2018; https://doi.
lateral side, but the patient refused to be reoperated,
org/10.1097/DSS.0000000000001678.
considering the high risk of worsening of the scar and Kumar K, Kapoor BS, Rai P, Shukla HS. In-situ irradiation of
of recurrence of the keloid. keloid scars with Nd:YAG laser. J Wound Care. 2000;9(5):213–5.
Take Home Message

This clinical case reports the interest of a combined
strategy using sequential intralesional chemotherapy
before surgery in order to limit the rebund effect in
highly proliferative ear keloids.
61
527 62
Scars After Breast

Reconstruction
Contents
References – 530

528 W. B. van der Sluis
kMedical History ??Questions (4 max)

A 47-year-old woman visited the outpatient clinic because 55 Q1. Which anatomic areas need to be examined as
of a scar on the right breast. She previously underwent well during outpatient clinic consultation?
deep inferior epigastric perforator (DIEP) flap breast 55 Q2. Define the problems in terms of anatomy.
62 reconstruction after nonskin, non-nipple-sparing mastec- 55 Q3. What could be a (non-)surgical approach of
tomy, chemo- and radiotherapy, because of breast cancer. the problem?
She had attended her oncological regular check-ups with- 55 Q4. What should always be checked in postonco-
out problems. She now complained of a painful scar on logical patients before surgery?
the right breast, which she also found unaesthetic.
Scars After Breast Reconstruction
529 62
zz Immediate Postintervention Situation of fat at the region of the abdominal scar. The same fat
In one surgical session, a donor-site dogear correction, was used for lipofilling of the upper pole of the right
scar lipofilling, and contralateral breast reduction were breast and the right breast scar. Nipple tattooing was
performed. Liposuction was used to correct the excess performed at the outpatient clinic.
530 W. B. van der Sluis
With 24 months of clinical follow-up, the patient was or pedicled flap reconstructions [1–4]. Different tech-
fully satisfied with the end result. niques leave different scars on the breast. Nonsurgical
Argumented answers and explanation according to approaches for breast scarring after reconstruction are
the five references (cited later): 20 lines silicone application and/or corticosteroid injections.
55 Q1. Which anatomic areas need to be examined as Physical examination should always include examina-
well during outpatient clinic consultation? tion of the contralateral breast, the donor-site scar, and
55 A1. The contralateral breast, the donor-site scar, and possible donor sites for reconstructive purposes. There
possible donor sites for future fat harvesting. is a great role for autologous fat grafting in these recon-
structive procedures. Other (minor) corrections can be
55 Q2. Define the problem in terms of anatomy. performed simultaneously.
55 A2. There is volume asymmetry between the left and
right breasts. Right breast: lack of nipple, irregulari- Take-Home Message
ties, and volume deficit of upper pole. Donor site: 55 Scar problems after various types of breast recon-
dogears, scar irregularities, and scar hypertrophy. struction are common. Many different corrections
can be combined in one or multiple sessions.
55 Q3. What could be a nonsurgical approach of the
problem?
55 A3. Silicone application on all hypertrophic scars.
References
55 Q4. What could be a surgical approach of the problem?
55 A4. Donor-site dogear correction, nipple plasty or 1. Ho PJ, Hartman M, Young-Afat DA, Gernaat SAM, Lee SC,
Verkooijen HM. Determinants of satisfaction with cosmetic
tattooing, scar lipofilling, contralateral breast reduc-
outcome in breast cancer survivors: a cross-sectional study.
tion, or a combination of these strategies. PLoS One. 2018;13:e0193099.
2. Jaspers ME, Brouwer KM, van Trier AJ, Groot ML, Middel-
55 Q5. What should always be checked in postoncologi- koop E, van Zuijlen PP. Effectiveness of autologous fat graft-
cal patients before surgery? ing in adherent scars: results obtained by a comprehensive scar
evaluation protocol. Plast Reconstr Surg. 2017;139:212–9.
55 A5. If they have attended routine oncological checkups.
3. Mureau MAM, Breast Reconstruction Guideline Working
Group. Dutch breast reconstruction guideline. J Plast Reconstr
Aesthet Surg. 2018;71:290–304.
62.1 Conclusion 4. van Turnhout AA, Fuchs S, Lisabeth-Broné K, Vriens-
Nieuwenhuis EJC, van der Sluis WB. Surgical outcome and
cosmetic results of autologous fat grafting after breast conserv-
There are different surgical options for breast reconstruc- ing surgery and radiotherapy for breast cancer: a retrospective
tion: immediate or delayed prosthesis-based reconstruc- cohort study of 222 fat grafting sessions in 109 patients. Aesthet
tion, oncoplastic reconstruction, fat grafting, and free Plast Surg. 2017;41:1334–41.
62
531 63
Atrophic Scars: Reinforcing

the Flap Mattress Using
Adipocyte Transfer
in Paraplegic Patients at Risk
of Pressure Ulcer Recurrence
Luc Téot
Contents
References – 533

532 L. Téot
63.1 Medical History
A 28-year-old man became paraplegic after a car acci-

dent 10 years ago. He presented repetitive pressure
ulcers on the sacrum and the ischions, with successive
surgical procedures (flaps, negative pressure, and skin
grafting) on both sides.
He was successfully treated on the left side using a
rotation flap for an ischiatic pressure ulcer, allowing to
restart verticalization. The seated position was allowed
after 2 months, progressively allowing a 12-hour-a-day
seated position. The flap was followed every month and
a progressive crushing of the fat under the ischial tuber-
osity was noted for a long time, with transient signs of
redness appearing 1 year after surgery (. Fig. 63.1) A
Coleman technique using 300 cc of fat was proposed.
.. Fig. 63.2 Fat injection 300 cc, under the flap skin in the most
??Questions to Medical History exposed area when the patient is seated
55 What is the rationale of using fat transfer in a
patient who seems not to respect the postopera-
tive restrictions?
55 How to calculate the volume of fat to inject?
kIntervention 1:
One year later, a Coleman technique was proposed and
administered, using 300 cc of fat obtained from the abdo-
men by liposuction. The fat was centrifugated 3000 t/min
during 3 min, and then the substratum was extracted and
used as a filler (. Fig. 63.2). The patient was authorized
to remain seated 1 hour a day after 2 weeks and then pro-
gressively 1 hour more each month, till 12 hours a day.
.. Fig. 63.3 A second 450 fat injection was administered 1 year later
??Question Intervention 1
55 Is there a risk to inject a large fat volume under a
suffering skin?
55 Which postoperative protocol is given to the
63 patient in order to prevent the recurrence?
kIntervention 2:
The patient was followed regularly, and a second injec-
tion was done 1 year after the first one (. Fig. 63.3),
in order to compensate a recurrent diminished fat vol-
ume. The injected fat volume was increased to 450 cc.
The patient was informed to limit his seated position
to a maximum of 6 hours a day and to check every
day the ischial area, the cushion was reanalyzed and
.. Fig. 63.1 Paraplegic patient operated 1 year before using a rota-
changed.
tion ischial flap on the left side. The fat mattress under the flap skin The patient did not present any recurrence after
begins to crush, exposing the patient to the risk of recurrence 2 years of follow-up.
Atrophic Scars: Reinforcing the Flap Mattress Using Adipocyte Transfer in Paraplegic Patients…
533 63
??Question Intervention 2 Take Home Message
55 Has the patient been informed about the risk of Adipocyte stem cells have provided some evi-
recurrence? dence in scar improvement. This chapter intro-
55 How to adapt the behavior of the patient during duces the use of adipocyte derived fillers in scars
the postoperative period in order to prevent the presenting adherence to the underlying struc-
recurrence? tures or depressions compared to adjacent areas.
The use of fat grafting prepared with simple
vvAnswers techniques is now considered as a useful adjunc-
Fat transfer has been proposed since a long period tive technique in resurfacing pathological scars.
of time as a filler [1], and used alone or in combina-
tion with PRP [2]. However, the literature suggests
that transplanted adipocyte stem cells bring some References
mechanical properties [3] and help to regenerate the
subcutaneous tissues [4], a reason why injections 1. Moseley TA, Zhu M, Hedrick MH. Adipose-derived stem and
can be a dministered even under a lightly suffering progenitor cells as fillers in plastic and reconstructive surgery.
skin. In this case the postoperative pressure applied Plast Reconstr Surg. 2006;118(3 Suppl):121S–8S.
2. Alser OH, Goutos I. The evidence behind the use of platelet-
over the flap and then over the fat injected area was
rich plasma (PRP) in scar management: a literature review.
too high and the patient was not correctly following Scars Burn Heal. 2018;4:2059513118808773. https://doi.
the protocol. A second chance was given after some org/10.1177/2059513118808773. eCollection 2018 Jan–Dec.
alarming signs of suffering on the ischial area had 3. Atashroo D, Raphel J, Chung MT, Paik KJ, Parisi-Amon A,
appeared. The volume of injected fat was increased McArdle A, Senarath-Yapa K, Zielins ER, Tevlin R, Duldulao
C, Walmsley GG, Hu MS, Momeni A, Domecus B, Rimsa JR,
and the therapeutic education provided to the pa-
Greenberg L, Gurtner GC, Longaker MT, Wan DC. Studies in
tient was enhanced. The patient was particularly en- fat grafting: Part II. Effects of injection mechanics on material
couraged to limit the daily seating, which he finally properties of fat. Plast Reconstr Surg. 2014;134(1):29–38.
accepted, a crucial point to prevent another recur- 4. Scioli MG, Bielli A, Gentile P, Mazzaglia D, Cervelli V, Orlandi
rence. A. The biomolecular basis of adipogenic differentiation of
adipose-derived stem cells. Int J Mol Sci. 2014;15(4):6517–26.
https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms15046517. Review.
535 64
Secondary Lip Correction

in a Cleft Lip Patient
Contents
Suggested Reading – 537

536 W. B. van der Sluis and J. P. W. Don Griot
kMedical History functional complaints in the domains of speech, eating,

A 11-year-old male visited the outpatient clinic with his and/or drinking.
parents because of unpleasing esthetic result after surgi-
cal correction of unilateral cleft lip and palate in China. ??Questions (4 max)
There are no additional operative data available. The 55 Q1. Define the problem in terms of anatomy
cleft palate and lip were not part of a genetic syndrome. 55 Q2. What is the Rose–Thompson effect?
There were no other comorbidities. 55 Q3. What would be the surgical approach to this
He stated that he was not pleased with the aesthetic problem?
result of the cleft surgery and that the main problem for 55 Q4. What (non)surgical methods can be chosen to
him was asymmetry of the perioral area. There were no optimize postoperative scarring?
64 Immediate postintervention situation: Correction of same session. The subcutaneous plane was closed using
these deformities in children is best performed under gen- resorbable sutures. The skin was closed using skin glue.
eral anesthesia. Intubation is performed using an RAE Argumented answers and explanation according to the
(Ring-Adair-Elwyn) tube, which is a prebent tube that five references (cited later): 20 lines
facilitates adequate reach of the operative area. The oper- 55 Q1. Define the problem in terms of anatomy.
ative area is marked using skin marker that does not wash 55 A1. Postoperative scar contracture of philtral scar
away or fade out during sterile exposition and surgery. with subsequent effect on nose and lip esthetics.
The operative region is infiltrated with a mix of lidocaine Also, misalignment of lip mucosa was observed.
and adrenalin.
The scar was excised using a concave excision pattern, 55 Q2. What is the Rose–Thomson effect?
making use of the Rose–Thompson effect. With one addi- 55 A2. The effect of scar lengthening by using concave
tional Z-plasty, adequate scar length was achieved. Recon- excisions of the scar, which is subsequently closed in
figuration of misaligned lip mucosa was achieved in the a straight line
Secondary Lip Correction in a Cleft Lip Patient
537 64
55 Q3. What would be the surgical approach to this Suggested Reading
problem?
55 A3. Use of the Rose–Thompson effect in combina- 1. Deshmukh M, Vaidya S, Deshpande G, Galinde J, Natarajan
tion with one or multiple Z-plasties or a combination S. Comparative evaluation of esthetic outcomes in unilateral
cleft lip repair between the Mohler and fisher repair techniques:
of these strategies. An alternative approach might be
a prospective, randomized, observer-blind study. J Oral Maxil-
using fat grafting of the scar; however, this probably lofac Surg. 2019;77(1):182.e1–8.
provides a less predictable result. 2. Farmand M. Secondary lip correction in unilateral clefts. Facial
Plast Surg. 2002;18(3):187–95.
55 Q4. What (non)surgical methods can be chosen to 3. Mulliken JB, Zhu DR, Sullivan SR. Outcomes of cleft lip repair
for internationally adopted children. Plast Reconstr Surg.
optimize postoperative scarring?
2015;135(5):1439–47.
55 A4. Injecting the orbicularis oris with botulinum toxin, 4. Stal S, Hollier L. Correction of secondary cleft lip deformities.
silicon application in the postoperative phase, using Plast Reconstr Surg. 2002;109(5):1672–81.
glue instead of sutures for tissue approximation.
Take-Home Messages
55 Cleft lip scars influence lip, philtrum, and nose
aesthetics.
55 In secondary lip correction, cleft surgeons typi-
cally make use of the Rose–Thompson effect, one
or multiple Z-plasties, or a combination of these
strategies.
539
Supplementary
Information
Index – 541
© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s) 2020

L. Téot et al. (eds.), Textbook on Scar Management, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-44766-3
541 A–B
Index
–– fat injection 532

A –– isotretinoin treatment 356
–– management of 354
Abdomen hypertrophic scar 274
–– medical history 532
Ablative fractional laser (AFL) 358, 444–448
–– resurfacing and tightening techniques
Ablative lasers system 444
–– chemical peels and microneedling 355
ACC, see Anterior cingulate cortex
–– microdermabrasion 354
Acne inversa 407
–– rotation ischial flap 532
Acne keloidalis nuchae (AKN) 30
–– state of art and combinatorial approaches 356, 357
Adhesive sutures 498
–– fractional radiofrequency 356, 357
Adipose-derived stem cells (ADSCs) 334, 339, 341
–– high-pressure dermal filler deposition 357, 358
Adjustable tensors 499, 500
–– laser 358, 359
Adjuvant radiation therapy 344
–– striae albae 358–360
Adjuvant therapy 375
–– vascular laser 361
Advanced therapy medicinal products (ATMPs) 322
–– volume-imparting techniques
Aesthetic Plastic Surgery (ASAPS) 334
–– dermal and fat autografting 356
Aesthetic surgery, see Cosmetic surgery
–– filling techniques 356
Affymetrix-based microarray analysis 70
Auto-erotic/self-inflicted genital injuries 408
AFL, see Ablative fractional laser
Autologous fat graft 334
Alexandrite and diode lasers 520
–– for facial rejuvenation 334
Allantoin 211, 212
Alloderm® 320
Allogeneic cell therapy 452, 454
–– cellular dermal substitutes 452, 453
B
–– embryonic(-like) stem cells therapy 454 Bacteriostatic normal saline (BNS) 223
–– human allogeneic epidermal sheets 452 Balanced diet 388
–– human dermal fibroblasts therapy 452, 453 Balanitis xerotica obliterans, see Lichen sclerosus et
–– human skin equivalent 453 atrophicus (LSC)
–– mesenchymal stromal cells for skin regeneration 453, 454 Basic fibroblast growth factor (bFGF) 104
–– in scar management field 452 Behçet’s disease 408, 418
–– skin bioprinting of skin 453 Biaxial stretch testing 174
Allogeneic fibroblasts and keratinocytes 454 Bilateral cleft lip 52, 53
Alopecia 369 Bilateral cleft palate 52
Alpha–smooth muscle actin (α-SMA) 21–23, 477 Bilateral gracilis muscle flaps 421
American Societies of Plastic Surgeons (ASPS) 334 Biological effective dose (BED) 346
Amiloride 205 Blast effect 357
Aminolevulinic acid photodynamic therapy (ALA-PDT) 354 Bleomycin 373, 376, 402
Amniotic fluid 398 Bock Quality of Life Scale 126
Androgen receptor (AR) expression in genital skin 415 Body dysmorphic disorder (BDD) 389
Angiogenesis 5, 20, 105 Botulinum toxin 537
Angiogenesis dilation 104 Botulinum toxin A (BoNTA) 390, 392
Antera 3D 171 –– demand for 220
Anterior chest wall keloid 275 –– effects on immature scars 221
Anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) 88 –– neuronal mechanism of action of 220, 221
Antibacterial prophylaxis 390 –– non-neuronal mechanism of action of 221
Anti-neoplastic substances 402 –– fibroblasts 222
Aphthous stomatitis 418 –– inflammatory cascade 221, 222
Apligraf® 321, 453 –– keratinocytes 222, 223
Apolipoprotein1 (APOL1) 387 –– on vascular endothelium 223
Aquaporins (AQPs) 160 –– structure 220
Aromatase activity 413–415 –– treatment
Artery perforator flap (aOAP) 420 –– dosage 224
Asher-McDade (AMD) system 55 –– keloid and hypertrophic scars 224
Atrophic acne vulgaris scarring 354 –– practical guidelines for application 224, 225
Atrophic scars 46, 354, 533 –– preparations 223
–– atrophic acne vulgaris scarring 354 –– reconstitution 223, 224
–– burn atrophic scars 360, 361 –– timing 223
–– common principles 354 –– usefulness 223
–– dermal lift techniques Brachytherapy 344, 345, 347
–– punch excision 355 Brain derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) 340
–– subcutaneous incision 355 Breast cancer 528
542 Index
Breast ptosis 510 Cleft Aesthetic Rating Scale (CARS) 55

Breast reconstruction, scar after Cleft lip 52
–– anatomic areas examination 530 –– aesthetic outcome, evaluation of 55
–– immediate post-intervention situation 529 –– reconstruction, surgical techniques 52
–– non-surgical approach of problem 530 –– secondary lip correction in 536, 537
–– problem in anatomy 530 –– surgery, objectives of 52
–– surgical approach of problem 530 –– treatment protocol 52
Brisbane burn scar impact profile (BSSIP) 126–127 Cleft palate 52, 55
Broad thumb-hallux syndrome 32 Clinimetrics 150, 151
Burn atrophic scars 360, 361 Closed chamber method 163
Burn injury 430, 462 Closed incision negative pressure therapy 500, 501
–– factors impacting adjustment Closed system 335, 336
–– appearance,importance of 432 Clostridium Botulinum bacteria 220
–– burn severity and scarring 431, 432 CNS, see central nervous system
–– concealed scars 432 Coagulation phase 186
–– facial involvement 432 Cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) 433
–– gender 432 Coherent anti-stokes Raman spectroscopy (CARS) 175
–– genital wounds and scars , treatment of 420–422 Coleman technique 532
–– interference of psychological problems with 432, 433 Collagen 398, 477, 479
–– management 433 –– bioscaffolds 461
–– psychological and social impact of living with scars –– breakdown 82
–– body-esteem and self-esteem concerns 431 –– synthesis 82, 105
–– social self-consciousness of appearance 431 –– type I 5
–– psychological problems after 430, 431 –– type III 20
Burn scars 146 Colles 410
–– burn injuries and treatment 38 Colling rate 236
–– acute phase 38, 39 Commissuroplasty 364
–– burn care 38 Complex decongestive physiotherapy (CDP) 423
–– incidence 38 Confocal microscopy 172, 173
–– clinical relevance 42 Confocal Raman Spectroscopy 164, 165
–– factors predicting scar outcome Congenital and acquired genital lymphedema and
–– injury and treatment characteristics 41, 42 tissue fibrosis 418, 420
–– patient characteristics 41 Conservative therapeutic strategies
–– patient, injury and treatment characteristics combined 42 –– exercising and mobilizations 230, 231
–– prevalence and their consequences –– massage therapy 230
–– contractures 40 –– moisturizers and lotions 230
–– hypertrophic scarring 39 –– positioning and splinting 230
–– maturation pattern 40, 41 –– pressure therapy 229
–– reconstructive surgery 40 –– silicone gel sheets or gels 229, 230
–– scar quality assessment 40 Construct validity 150
Burnt patient healing 47 Contact cryosurgery 236, 237, 239, 240
Contact dermatitis 495
Content validity 150
C Contracture scars 46
cAMP response element binding protein (CREB)-binding protein 246 –– anatomical sites of 120
Cannulas 336 –– axillar contractures 119
Capillary dilation 104 –– dermal substitute 121
Capsaicin 120 –– flaps 121
Cell-based expansion process 314 –– general features 118
Cell-based therapies 314 –– hand contractures 119
Cellular dermal substitutes 321, 452, 453 –– neck skin 118
Cellular mechanosensors 12 –– prevalence 40, 118
Central nervous system 88 –– rehabilitation programs 120
Cheiloplasty 55 –– skin grafts 121
Cheiloraphy 52 –– surgical strategies 121
Chemical peels 313 –– Z plasty 121
Chemical reconstruction of skin scars (CROSS) 355 Contratubex 390
Chroma Meter (CR-221) 151 Conventional wound therapy (CWT) 488
Chroma Meter CR-400 151 Corneometer CM825® 163, 164
Chronic genital skin diseases 423 Corticosteroid 373, 392, 444, 447
Chronic inflammatory stimulation 104 –– effects 246
Chronic pain 24 –– intralesional injection
Chronic ulcers 452 –– administration 247, 248
Chronic wounds 23, 452 –– complications 248, 249
Cicatricial alopecia 364 –– enhancing effect of 249
Ci NPWT 501 –– side-effects 248
Index
543 B–E
–– pharmacology and mechanism of action 246 Dermagraft® 321, 453
–– in scar treatment 247 DermaLab® 152, 162
–– tapes/plasters DermaLab elasticity probe 155
–– and corticosteroid injections 492 Dermal and fat autografting 356
–– Japan, available in 492 Dermal atrophy 459
–– side effects of 495, 496 Dermal hydration 161
–– therapeutic effect and usage of 493, 494 Dermal lift techniques
–– typical usage of 492, 493 –– punch excision 355
–– topical steroids 247 –– subcutaneous incision 355
Cosmetic needling 290 Dermal (myo) fibroblasts 20
Cosmetic surgery 386 Dermal remodeling 294
–– patient selection for 386 Dermal scaffolds 320, 321
–– constitutional and genetic risks, assessment of 387, 388 Dermal substitute 121
–– evaluating medical risks 386, 387 Dermal tension 186, 187
–– lifestyle modification 388 Dermal thickness and erythema 295
–– psychological assessment and expectations management 389 Dermal water content measurement
–– Scar Risk and Acceptance Matrix 387 –– Confocal Raman Spectroscopy 164, 165
–– prophylactic measures in, reduce excessive scarring 389 –– near-infrared spectroscopy 165
–– choice of surgical techniques 390 Dermascan C 171
–– control better healing, methods to 390, 391 Dermaspect device 175
–– treatment of scars 391 Dermatix™ 470
–– long term management of patients 392, 393 Dermatology Life Quality Index (DLQI) 146
–– non-surgical 392 Dermatoporosis 381
–– surgical 391, 392 Diep inferior epigastric perforator (DIEP) flap 528
Criterion validity 151 Digital capacitance probes 164
Cryogun 236 Digital light processing (DLP)-based printing—dynamic optical
Cryoskin® 452 projection stereolithography (DOPsL) 453
Cryosurgery 375, 376 DNA methylation 72
Cryotherapy 392, 402, 525 DSM III ColorMeter 152
Cushing syndrome 402 Dubowitz syndrome 32
Cushing’s disease 492 Dupuytren’s disease 458
Cutaneous scar 458, 462 Dynamic filler 340
Cutaneous scarring 46, 410, 458 Dynamic optical projection stereolithography (DOPsL) 453
–– cellular and tissue responses to mechanical forces 12–14
–– pathological scar animal model, mechanotransduction 16
–– pathological scars, development of 13–15 E
–– role of 12 Ear lobe keloid 526
–– scar prevention and treatment –– EMLA cream application 524
–– stabilization materials 16 –– 5-FU injections 524, 525
–– suture 16, 17 –– hypnose adjuvant therapy 524
–– Z-plasty, skin grafting, and local flaps 17 –– inflammation 525
Cutaneous wound healing 186, 458 –– medical history 524
Cutometer 153, 155 –– MEOPA 524
–– clinimetric properties 155 –– no recurrence 525
–– measuring principle of 153 –– prevalence of 525
–– R-parameters 153, 154 –– surgical scar management 525
–– U-parameters 154 ECM, see Extracellular matrix
ED-A fibronectin 21
Ehlers-Danlos syndrome 32
D Ehlers-Danlos syndrome type IV 32
Dartos fasica 410 Elastic tricot garments 229
Dartos muscle 408 Elasticity 153, 479
Defective/dysgracious scars 403 –– cutometer 153, 155
Dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) 415 –– clinimetric properties 155
Delay steroid injection 402 –– measuring principle of 153
Deltopectoral flaps 326 –– R-parameters 153, 154
DenovoSkin™ 321 –– U-parameters 154
Dental alginate 206 –– DermaLab elasticity probe 155
Depression 430 –– Tonometry 155
Depressomassage, Vacuum massage see Elastin 5, 20
Deprodone propionate Electrical stimulation (ES) 374, 375
–– ointment 493 Embrace® device 24, 499
–– plaster 492–495 Embryonic(-like) stem cells therapy 454
–– tape 492 Emerging devices 448
Dermabrasion 313 Emotional scar 180
544 Index
Endermologie®, see Vacuum massage –– external volume expansion 341

End temperature 236 –– plasma rich platelet 340, 341
Energy flux density (EFD) 487 Female external genitalia 408, 411, 412
En face’ scans 172 Female genital mutilation (FGM) 406
Epidermal melanin unit 110 Fetal wound healing
Epidermal thickness 105 –– angiogenesis 5
Epigenetics, DNA methylation 72 –– extracellular matrix 5, 6
Erbium glass (Er:Glass) laser 199, 200, 520 –– fibroblasts 7
Erythema 151, 152 –– inflammation 4, 5
Erythema index 152 –– keratinocytes 6, 7
Estrogen receptor expression in genital skin 415 –– mechanical forces 7, 8
Ethical considerations of scar management –– remodeling 8
–– causes of scars 180 –– skin appendix formation 8
–– clinician management Fibroblasts 7, 347, 453
–– categories of 181 –– BoNTA 222
–– challenges 181 –– proliferation 105
–– disappointment and distress of patient 180 Fibrocytes 22
–– surgical ethics origin 181 Fibronectin 210
–– emotional scar 180 Fibrosis 339, 340, 458, 460–462
–– self-inflicted scars 180 –– causes for 406, 407
–– voluntarily induced scar 180 –– control in Dupuytren’s disease 337
Ethnicity 373, 376 Filling techniques 356
European Medicines Agency (EMA) 322 Fisher lip closure 53
Evidence-based medicine 126 –– direct postoperative result 54
Excessive scarring 20, 22, 25 –– postoperative scar pattern 54
–– choice of surgical techniques 390 –– preoperative planning 53, 54
–– control better healing, methods to 390, 391 Fitzpatrick scale phototypes V and VI 510
–– prophylactic measures in cosmetic surgery to reduce 389 Fludroxycortide tape 492, 493
Exercising 230 5 Fluorouracil (5FU) 249, 369, 376, 392, 402, 447, 448, 468, 506,
Extended scar 46 524, 525
External beam radiation therapy (EBRT) 344 Focal adhesion kinase (FAK) 458, 460, 461
External corticosteroid, classification 492 Foetal healing 398
External genitalia, development of 409 Fournier gangrene 407, 416
External volume expansion (EVE) 341 Fractional ablative carbon dioxide (CO2) laser 195, 199, 356, 358,
Extracellular matrix (ECM) 4–8, 20, 22–25, 372, 417, 477, 486 507, 520
Extractum cepae, see Onion extract Fractional laser 369
–– cautions and contra-indications 281, 282
–– complications 282, 283
–– Er:YAG in keloid scars 281
F –– expected outcomes 282
Facial allotransplantations 328–331 –– fractional non-ablative laser 281
Facial scarring 364, 366 –– fractioned CO2 laser
Facial scars reconstruction –– indications and timing 280, 281
–– advantages and limits 328 –– LADD 283
–– facial allotransplantations –– settings 281
–– advantages and limits of the homologous transplantation 330 –– importance 280
–– critical analysis of literature 330 –– method of action 280
–– historical aspects 328–330 –– picosecond fractioned 1064 lasers 281
–– pedicled expanded deltopectoral flaps 326 –– post-operative preparation 282
–– prefabrication 326, 327 –– pre-operative preparation 282
–– skin resurfacing 326 Fractional laser-assisted drug delivery 444
–– super-thin flap 328 Fractional microplasma radiofrequency technology (FMRT) 466, 467
FAK, see Focal adhesion kinase –– clinical protocol for
Familial keloid scarring 62 –– microplasma treatment 467
Fasciocutaneous flaps 366 –– post-therapy wound care 467, 468
Fat grafting 334 –– pre-therapy preparation 467
Fat injections 532 –– early wound intervention to prevent scar formation 470–472
–– adipose-derived stem cells, biological properties 334 –– for existing linear scar 472
–– free fat grafting and scars 336 –– for post-scar revision skin 468–470
–– applications 340 Fractional photothermolysis (FP) 444
–– fibrosis 339, 340 Fractional radiofrequency (FRF) 356, 357
–– pain, analgesic effect 340 Fractioned picosecond modality laser 361
–– skin texture, thickness and pliability 339 Free fasciocutaneous flaps 121
–– volume and contour 338, 340 Free fat grafting 336, 341
–– guidelines 334–336 –– applications 340, 341
–– procedure 335, 336 –– fibrosis 339, 340
–– survival of adipose cells, ancillary procedures –– pain, analgesic effect 340
Index
545 E–I
–– skin texture, thickness and pliability 339 High-dose-rate (HDR) brachytherapy 346, 347
–– volume and contour 338, 340 High molecular weight (HMW) HA 5
Free flaps 121 High-pressure dermal filler deposition 357, 358
Frenulum 416 Hold time 236
Full-skin substitutes 321 HTS formation 462
Full-thickness excision 355 Human allogeneic epidermal sheets 452
Full-thickness skin grafts (FTSG) 17 Human dermal fibroblasts therapy 452, 453
Human leukocyte antigens (HLA) immunogenetics 62, 63
Human skin equivalent 453
G Hyaluronic acid (HA) 5
Hydrochinone containing cream 507
GAF techniques 230 Hydrophilic or semi-lipophilic molecules 446
Gamma-glutamyl transferase (GTT) 388 6-Hydroxydopamine-induced sympathectomy 25
Gender reassignment surgery 421, 422 Hyper- and hypopigmentation 392
General effects 477 Hyperkeratosis 368, 382
Generalised anxiety disorder (GAD) 431 Hyperpigmenated scar
General practitioner (GP) 389 –– 5-fluorouracil 506
Genital lymphedema 408 –– fractional CO2 lasers 507
Genital scars –– last laser treatment 506
–– acute wound repair of genital skin 415–417 –– medical history 506
–– causes for 406, 407 –– Q-switched ruby laser 506, 507
–– chronic inflammatory diseases 416 Hypertrophic scar (HTS) 12, 15, 22, 23, 32, 39, 40, 46, 105, 150, 156,
–– Behçet’s disease 418 186, 187, 204–207, 341, 344, 347, 365, 372, 392, 399, 430,
–– congenital and acquired genital lymphedema and tissue 447, 458, 506, 507
fibrosis 418, 420 –– after breast reduction surgery 348
–– due to foreign body reaction 418, 419 –– after caesarean section 348
–– Lichen sclerosus et atrophicus 416–418 –– corticosteroid tapes/plasters (see Corticosteroid tapes/plasters)
–– epidemiology and etiology of 406 –– elderly, scars in 382
–– genital skin anatomy –– epidemiology 46
–– genital organs and homology between sexes 408 –– incidence of 372
–– genital skin differs from other regions 408 –– JSS 134, 136
–– male and female genitalia, anatomy of 408, 411, 412 –– pathogenesis of 372
–– genital wound healing and lymphedema, pathophysiology –– in pediatric patients 518
of 410, 414 –– burn death 518
–– hormonal influences 413–416 –– clinical case 518
–– moist environment and bacterial colonialization 412, 413 –– compression therapy 521
–– skin architecture and biomechanics 410, 412 –– immediate post-intervention situation 519
–– microstructure, genital skin 408, 410, 412, 413 –– incidence of 518
–– postoperative management for prevention 423 –– late post-intervention situation 520
–– treatment –– prevention 518
–– acute wounds and tissue defects 420 –– primary risk factors 520
–– chronic genital skin diseases 423 –– surgical management 521
–– gender reassignment surgery 421, 422 –– prevalence of 39
–– genital wounds and scars after burn injury 420–422 –– risk factors 47
–– lymphedema 423 –– on shoulder with apparent vascular involvement 348
Genitourinary trauma 407 –– silicone sheet 401
Genome-wide association study (GWAS) 372 Hypnose adjuvant therapy 524
Global Aesthetic Improvement Scale 212 Hypopigmentation 459
Glucocorticoids 392 HypoThermosol®-FRS 453
Glyaderm® 320 Hypoxia-induced factor 1 (HIF-1) 104
Glycosaminoglycans (GAGs) 5, 161
Goeminne syndrome 32
Goodman and Baron classification 354 I
Granulation tissue 186
Imiquimod 373
Granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor
Immature hypertrophic burn scar 206
(GMCSF) 22, 246
Immature scar 12
Immature scars
–– BoNTA (see Botulinum toxin A (BoNTA))
H –– fractional ablative carbon dioxide laser 199
Hair transplantation 55, 366 –– inflammation stage 216
Hansen’s disease 32 –– manual massages
Harmonic generation microscopy (HHG) 173 –– efficacy 217
Healing process, phases of 21 –– indications 216
Heat shock proteins (HSPs) 446 –– morice orthodermic stretching 216
Heavy scar 12, 14–16 –– palpate-rolling 217
Heparin 211 –– punctual crushing 216
Hidradenitis suppurativa 407 –– statics folds 216
546 Index
Immature scars (cont.) –– scar resurfacing (see Resurfacing)

–– nonablative erbium, glass laser 199, 200 –– skin substitutes (see Skin substitutes)
–– onion extract 197, 198 Iontophoresis 444
–– pressure therapy 195, 196 iPLEX assay 64
–– pulsed dye laser 198 Island flap 302
–– silicone gel (see Silicone gel) Isotretinoin treatment 356
–– silicone-based products 197
Immediate physiotherapy 364
Incidence/prevalence of pain and itch in scars 92 J
Incision wounds 4
Incisional negative pressure wound therapy (iNPWT) 500 Japan Scar Workshop (JSW) scar scale (JSS) 134
Induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSC) 454 –– classification table 134
Induction of percutaneous collagen (IPC) 105 –– clinical suitability and usefulness of 136, 140
Inflammation 4, 5, 186 –– evaluation table 134, 136
Inflammatory soup 24 jet volumetric remodeling (JVR) technology 357
Inframammary scars 511 JSW scar scale (JSS) 134
Infrared neodymium 520 Justiva 460
Inguinal hypertrophic scarring 407 Juvidex 460, 461
Inguinal scar 407 Juvista 461
Integra® 320, 367, 368 JVR 358, 360
Integrin mechanotransduction pathway 460
Integrins 7
Intense pulsed light (IPL) 520
K
Interferons 402 Kaempferol 210
Interleukin-10 (IL-10) 458, 460 Kelo-cote™ 470
Interleukins (IL) 460 Keloidal collagen 134
International scar classification Keloid dermal fibroblasts (KDF) 65
–– atrophic scar 82 Keloid disease (KD) 62
–– hypertrophic broad scar 83 Keloid fibroblasts (KFs) 69, 70
–– immature scar 80, 81 Keloidogenesis 33
–– keloid Keloids 12–17, 187, 190, 373
–– major keloid 84 –– distribution of mechanical forces 16
–– minor keloid 83, 84 –– epidemiology of 30
–– linear hypertrophic scar 82 –– chest and shoulder keloid, Asians, Africans, and
–– mature scar 80, 81 Caucasians 31
–– widespread hypertrophic scar 83 –– demographic risk factors 30–32
International Society of Aesthetic Plastic Surgery –– environmental risk factors 32, 34
(ISAPS) 386 –– genetic risk factors 32, 33
Intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC) 152 –– incidences of 30
Intracrine estrogen 413, 414 –– in world 31
Intradermal polydioxanone (PDS) 369 –– nerve fiber density 24
Intralesional corticosteroids 458, 519 –– on specific regions of body 15
Intralesional cryoneedle (CryoshapeTM) 237, 375 –– symptoms, pain/itch 83
Intralesional cryosurgery 375 Keloid scarring 22, 46, 62, 105, 372, 392, 399, 462
–– combined treatment 239 –– characterized by 458
–– contact cryosurgery 236 –– corticosteroid tapes/plasters (see Corticosteroid tapes/plasters)
–– vs. contact method 237 –– elderly, scars in 382
–– CryoShape 236, 237 –– epidemiology 47
–– flattening of scar 240 –– genetics of
–– phases 236 –– epigenetics 72
–– sessions 239 –– gene expression 66–68
–– steps 239 –– genetic elements with 63
–– usage 237 –– genetic susceptibility 62
Intralesional excision 402 –– HLA immunogenetics 62, 63
Intralesional injection 373 –– large scale population single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) 65
–– corticosteroid –– linkage 64
–– administration 247, 248 –– microarray analysis 71
–– complications 248 –– MicroRNAs 65, 69
–– enhancing effect of 249 –– small interfering RNA (siRNA) 69, 70
–– side-effects 248 –– JSS 134, 136
–– of steroids 402 –– risk factors 47
Intralesional triamcinoloneacetonide 369 Keratinocytes 6, 7, 222
Intrusions 430 Kikuhime pressure sensor 229
Invasive techniques in scar management Kirschner wire transfixation 368
–– Local flaps (see Local flaps) Knee joint scar revision 189
Index
547 I–M
L –– for keloids and hypertrophic scars 272
–– limitations 272, 273
Lagophthalmos 364 –– lower lip hypertrophic scar 274
Langer lines 8, 210, 499 –– scapular keloid 276, 277
Large scale population single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) 65 –– shoulder keloid 276
Laser 358, 359, 368 –– treatment settings 273, 274
Laser assisted delivery of therapeutic agents 444 –– upper lip hypertrophic scar 273
–– ablative fractional laser-assisted drug delivery 445, 446 Low dose 5-Fluorouracil
–– carbon dioxide (CO2) laser 445 –– chemotherapy 253
–– drugs and bioactive molecules 446 –– HTS 253
–– corticosteroid 447 –– keloid treatment
–– 5-fluorouracil (5-FU) 447, 448 –– anti-indications and steroid 257
–– emerging devices 448 –– application 253, 254
–– erbium 445 –– chemo-radiotherapy, post-surgical reoccurrence 261
–– laser systems used for 444 –– drug concentrations adjustment and injectional
–– limitations 448 interval 255
–– MTZ –– drug preparation 254
–– density and coverage 446 –– drug pressure 256
–– density and depth 446 –– injection procedure 254
–– depth and energy 446 –– intralesional injection for large sized keloid 259
–– technique and parameters, MTZ density and depth 446 –– post-surgical monitoring and preventive injection
Laser assisted drug delivery (LADD) 280 of 5-FU 257
–– clinical consensus 283 –– preventing keloid from reoccurrence after surgical
–– fractioned CO2 laser 283 excision 260
Laser-assisted skin healing (LASH) 510 –– remodeling of keloid into normal-looking skin 257, 258
Laser Doppler flowmetry (LDF) 156 –– reoccurrence prevention 256
Laser Doppler imaging (LDI) 104, 156 –– sufficient therapy 259, 260
Laser speckle imaging (LSI) 156, 157 –– surgical procedure for keloid excision 256, 257
Laser speckle perfusion imaging (LSPI) 156 –– steroids 253
Laser therapy 367, 402, 510 Low-dose-rate (LDR) brachytherapy 346
Leprosy 32 Lower lip hypertrophic scar 274
Lichen sclerosus et atrophicus (LSC) 416–418 Lowe syndrome 32
LifeViz 3D 171 Low-molecular-weight (LMW) HA 5
LifeViz Micro 171 Lymphedema 418, 423
LifeViz3D camera 170 Lysyl oxidase (LOX) 5
Light induced optical breakdown (LIOB) 358
Linear hypertrophic scarring 368
Linkage 64
Linkage disequilibrium (LD) 64 M
Lipofilling 337, 341 Macrophages 398
–– Dupuytren’s disease 340 Makeup, definition of 436
Lipotransfer 356 Male genitalia
Liquid nitrogen 236, 240 –– anatomy of 408, 411, 412
Local flaps 17, 366 –– scar formation 417
–– classification 302 Manchester scar scale 126
–– island flap 302 Manual massages 216
–– propeller flap 305, 307 –– efficacy 217
–– scar contracture reconstruction –– indications 216
–– abdomen 304 –– morice orthodermic stretching 216
–– anterior chest wall 308 –– palpate-rolling 217
–– anterior neck 305 –– punctual crushing 216
–– behind knee 304 –– statics folds 216
–– cubital fossa 303, 307 Marjolin’s ulcer 382
–– digital web 306 Massage dermo-épidermique 230
–– on axilla 306 Massage therapy 230
–– selection 302, 303 Mastopexy 510, 513, 515
–– skin-pedicled flap 302 –– case reports 511–514
–– square flap method 304, 305 –– overall complication rate 510
–– transposition flap 303, 304 Matriderm® 320, 368
Long-pulsed 1064 nm Nd:YAG laser Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) 8, 20, 22, 24, 222–223, 446
–– abdomen hypertrophic scar 274 Matrix-metalloprotease 1 (MMP1) 195
–– anterior chest wall keloid 275 Matrix remodeling 486
–– follow-up of keloids and hypertrophic scars 274, 275 Mature scar treatment 199
–– genetic factors 272 MAVIS III 170
–– indications 272 Measurement devices 126
548 Index
Measurement error 131 Mexameter MX 18 152

Measurement techniques Microarray analysis 71
–– objective measurement instruments 112 Microdermabrasion 354
–– scar assessment scales 112 Microneedling 444
Mechanical effects 479 MicroRNAs (miRNAs) 22, 65, 69
Mechanical forces 7–8 Microscopic epidermal necrotic debris (MEND). 361
Mechanical stretching 25 Microscopic thermal damage zones (MTZs) 360
Mechanobiology of cutaneous scarring 12 Microstomia 339, 364, 365
–– cellular and tissue responses to mechanical forces 12, 13 Microthermal zones (MTZs) 444
–– pathological scar animal model, mechanotransduction 16 –– density and coverage 446
–– pathological scars, development of 13–15 –– density and depth 446
–– role of 12 –– depth and energy 446
–– scar prevention and treatment Microwave Amplification by Stimulated Emission of
–– stabilization materials 16 Radiation-device (MASER) 264
–– sutures 16, 17 Millard lip closure 53
–– Z-plasty, skin grafting, and local flaps 17 –– postoperative scar pattern 54
Mechanomodulatory agent 461 –– pre-operative planning 53
Mechanosensors 12 Millard-Mulliken technique 53
Mechanotherapy 498 Minimal clinically important difference (MCID) 162, 163
Mechanotransduction 7, 16, 458, 477, 486 Minimal-invasive technologies for treatment of HTS and keloids
Mechanotransduction pathway inhibitors 460, 461 –– corticosteroids (see Corticosteroids)
Mederma Skin Care gel 390 –– cryosurgery (see Intralesional cryosurgery)
Medical makeup 436 –– long pulsed Nd
–– benefits of –– YAG Laser (see Long-pulsed 1064 nm Nd:YAG laser)
–– psychological impact 436 –– low dose 5-FU (see Low dose 5-Fluorouracil)
–– social impact 436 –– medical needling (see Medical Needling)
–– characteristics of 436 –– PDL (see Pulsed-dye laser (PDL))
–– classes 440 Minimally important change (MIC) 150
–– color correction 437 Mitomycin C 402
–– compact foundation creams 438, 439 MMPs, see Matrix metalloproteinases
–– complementary colors 437 Mobilizations 231
–– corrective foundations 438 Modified Vancouver Scare Scale 39
–– corrector pencils Moisturizers and lotions 230
–– eyebrows 439 MoorFLPI-2 blood flow imager 156
–– lips 440 MoorLDI Imaging System 156
–– definition of 436 MoorVMS-LDF 156
–– ensure make-up lasts longer 440 Morice orthodermic stretching 216
–– evaluation of needs 436 Multiphoton excited autofluorescence (MEA) 173
–– fluid foundation correctors 439 Myofibroblast 20, 23, 25, 46
–– makeup base 436 –– cellular origins of 21, 22
–– male-up removal 440 –– in pathological scarring and fibrosis 22, 23
–– powder 439 –– phenotype, morphological and biochemical
–– value of colors 437, 438 characteristics of 21
Medical needling 290, 291, 366 –– phenotype, regulation of 22, 23
–– ablative methods 289
–– benefits 289
–– cosmetic needling 290 N
–– dermal remodeling 294 Narrow-band reflectance spectrophotometry 105
–– dermal thickness and erythema 295 Narrow-band spectrophotometry 152
–– dermatological approach 288 Nasoalveolar molding (NAM) 53
–– effects 290 Natural moisturizing factors (NMF) 161
–– improved perfusion 294, 295 Near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) 165
–– maximal outcome and minimal risk 288 Necrotic zone 334
–– medical needling 290, 291 Negative alterations in cognitions and mood 430
–– moisture 296 Negative pressure wound therapy (NPWT) 398, 500, 501
–– needling techniques 290 Neuregulin-1 (NRG1) 70
–– postinterventional treatment Neurofibromatosis type I (NF-I) 32
–– complications 291, 292 Neurophysiological processes 88
–– post-needling wound healing cascade 292, 293 Neutrophils 292
–– postoperative wound management 291 Nociceptive pain 88
–– procedure 289 Non-ablative fractional lasers (NAFL) 358, 448
–– scarless wound healing 293 Nonablative fractional resurfacing (NAFR) 360
–– surgical needling 291 Non pharmacological adjuncts 93
Melanin 174 Nonfatal burns 38
Mesenchymal stem cells (MSC) therapy 22, 452 Non-nociceptive pain 88
–– for skin regeneration 453, 454 Nonpharmacological adjuncts 93–94
Metalloproteinases 381 Noonan syndome 32
Index
549 M–P
Normal wound therapy 211 –– foetal healing 398
Novomaix® 321 –– paediatric peculiarities in healing 398
Nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) 70 –– wound healing management 398, 399
Nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) 246 –– pathological scars 399
–– clinical and histological aspects 399, 400
–– easing factors 400, 401
O –– prevention of 401
Objective assessment tools 150 –– treatment of 401, 402
–– clinimetrics 150, 151 –– scars and growth 403
–– colour Pain 382
–– erythema and pigmentation 151 –– acute 88
–– reflectance spectroscopy 151 –– analgesic effect 340
–– narrow-band spectrophotometry 152 –– chronic 88
–– tristimulus colorimetry 151, 152 Pain pathway
–– elasticity 153 –– ascending pathway 88
–– cutometer 153–155 –– central sensitization 90
–– DermaLab elasticity probe 155 –– descending pathway 88–89
–– tonometry 155 –– peripheral receptor activation 88
–– perfusion 156 –– peripheral sensitization 89
–– laser Doppler imaging 156 Pain symptoms, subtypes
–– laser speckle imaging (LSI) 156, 157 –– nociceptive 88
–– spectrophotometric analysis 152 –– non-nociceptive 88
Objective scar assessment Palatal scarring
–– choosing the tools 144 –– maxillary growth 56
–– dermal water content measurement –– palatal closure 55, 56
–– confocal Raman Spectroscopy 164, 165 –– palatal closure, timing of 56
–– near-infrared spectroscopy 165 –– speech development 56
–– interpreting therapeutic success with Palatoplasty 56
–– clinically important difference 146 Palatoraphy 56
–– data assessment and evaluation 146 Palpate-rolling 217
–– optimizing measurement process Pathological scars 12, 104, 150, 341, 392, 399
–– configuring and calibrating assessment tools 145 –– animal model, mechanotransduction 16
–– patient preparation 145 –– clinical and histological aspects 399, 400
–– performing measurements 145, 146 –– development of 13–15
–– preparing the surroundings 144 –– easing factors 400, 401
–– physical parameters 160 –– prevention of 401
–– physiological parameters 160 –– treatment of 401, 402
–– skin hydration 160 Patient and observer scar assessment scale (POSAS) 39–41, 55, 105,
–– dermal water content 161 126, 134, 206, 212, 347
–– in epidermis 160, 161 Patient Scar Assessment Questionnaire 126
–– measurement 161–164 Patient-Reported Impact of Scars Measure (PSAQ) 126
–– tactile sensitivity 165 Paxilin (Pax) 7
–– transcutaneous oxygen tension 165 Pedicled expanded deltopectoral flaps 326
Occlusive dressing technique (ODT) 493 Pedicled/free flaps 421
Occupational therapy 364 Penile lymphedema 420
Oculocerebrorenal syndrome of Lowe [OCRL] 32 Penile skin necrosis 419
Office of Cellular, Tissue and Gene Therapies (OCTGT) 322 Percutaneous collagen induction (PCI), see Medical Needling
Onion extract 194, 197, 198 Perforator flaps 121
–– allantoin 211, 212 Perforator-pedicled propeller (PPP) flap 305, 307
–– fractional CO2 210, 211 Perfusion 294, 295
–– heparin 211 Perfusion units (PU) 156
–– keloid fibroblasts 210 PeriCam PSI 156
–– quercetin 210 PeriFlux 5000 156
–– scar creams 210 Peri-operative botulinum toxin 53
–– tattoos 212 Peripheral nervous system 88
–– topical gels 210 Permacol® 321
Open chamber method 162, 163 Permaderm® 321
Optical biopsy 170, 175 Permanent wound coverage
Optical coherence tomography 172 –– cellular dermal substitutes 321
OrCel® 321, 453 –– dermal substitutes
Orlen® plates 498 –– dermal scaffolds 320, 321
–– tissues 320
–– epidermal cells/cultured epidermal autografts CEA 318, 319
P Perry Romberg syndrome 340
Paediatric patients, scars in 399, 400 Pharmacological adjuncts 94–97
–– defective/dysgracious scars 403 Phaseshift Rapid in Vivo Measurement of the Skin
–– healing specificities in children (PRIMOS) 170
550 Index
Photodynamic therapy (PDT) 373, 374 R

Physical effects 479, 480
Physiological effects 479, 481 Radial extracorporeal shockwave therapy 488
Physiological scars 104 Radiation therapy
Picosecond fractioned 1064 lasers 281 –– biomechanisms of in keloid treatment 347
Picosecond laser 358 –– complications 346, 347
Pigmentation disorders 110 –– excision and 345, 346
Pigmented skin 373, 375, 376 –– recurrence 346
Pixel RF microplasma therapy 468 –– safety concerns 347
PixelRF 466 –– types of
Plastic-reconstructive surgery 421 –– brachytherapy 344, 345
Platelet rich plasma (PRP) 340, 341, 355, 391, 533 –– EBRT 344
Platelets 4, 292 Radiation Therapy Oncology Group (RTOG) 346
Polarization sensitive OCT (PS-OCT) 172 Radiofrequency (RF) 448
Polarization Sensitive SHG (PS-SHG) probes 174 Radiofrequency with microneedles (RFM) 357
Polydeoxyribonucleotide (PDRN) 448 Radiotherapy 340, 344, 392
Poly-L-lactic acid (PLLA) 447 –– skin color, scar management 374
Polymethylmethacrylat (PMMA) microspheres 418 RAE tube 536
Positron emission tomography 88 Raman spectroscopy 164
Post traumatic nerve entrapement 339 Random skin flaps 121
Postacne AFL Protocol 359 Recalcitrant scars 392
Post-acne scarring 355, 357 ReCellTM 314, 319
Postinflammatory erythema (PIE) 104 Receptor tyrosine-protein kinase erbB-2 (ErbB2) 70
Postinflammatory hyperpigmentation 110 Recombinant human IL-10 (rhIL-10) 460
Postoperative laser therapy 55 Reconstructive surgery, prevalence of 40
Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) 430 Reepithelialization 6
Powernet structure garments 229 Reflectance confocal microscopy (RCM) 172
Pressure garment therapy 194–196 Reflectance spectroscopy
Pressure therapy 229, 402 –– narrow-band spectrophotometry 152
Pressure-therapy 401 –– tristimulus colorimetry 151, 152
PRIMOS system 145 Regenerative non-scarring wound healing 180
Proliferation phase 186 Rehabilitation programs 120
Propeller flap 305, 307 Reinforced suture materials 498
Proteoglycans 5 Reliability, definition of 131, 150
Proto-myofibroblasts 21, 23 Remodeling phase 186
Pruritus 382 Remodeling, fetal wound healing 8
–– neurogenic 90 Renovo superficial scars 80
–– neuropathic 90 Reparative’ wound healing 180
–– pruritogenic 90 Re-pigmentation 314, 316
–– psychogenic 90 Resurfacing
Prutitic pathway –– clinical pathway of healing 312, 313
–– peripheral nerve fibers 91 –– definition 312
–– peripheral receptor activation 90–91 –– initial skin injury mechanism 312
–– spinal cord/itch specific neurons 91 –– intervention timing 313
–– thalamocortical level 91–93 –– interventions 312
–– thalamo-cortical level 91 –– natural history of scarring 316
Pulsed-dye laser (PDL) 194, 198, 361, 392, 520 –– post intervention scar management 315
–– application on hypertrophic scars –– preparing scar wound bed for
and keloids 266, 267 –– chemical peels 313
–– clinical relevance 268 –– dermabrasion 313
–– clinical studies and evidence 267, 268 –– sharp dissection tools 313, 314
–– historical development 264 –– timing and technique 312
–– laser light vs. regular light 265 –– wound repair techniques 314
–– mode of action 265 Retracted scars 48
–– selective photothermolysis 266 Retrograde fat distribution 335
–– tissue interaction of laser 265, 266 Right palmar hypertrophic scar 518
Punch excision 355 Rose-Thompson effect 536, 537
Punctual crushing 216 Rotation flap 532
Rotation ischial flap 532
Rubinstein-Taybi syndrome (RSTS) 32
Q
Q-switched ruby laser 506, 507
Quadrantectomy 341 S
Quadrige effect 119 Sandwich technique 376
Qualitative global grading system 355 Scapular keloid 276, 277
Quercetin 210 Scar assessment scales 126–131
Index
551 P–S
–– domains 126 Scar thickness 104, 105
–– Manchester scar scale 126 Scar tissues hyperproliferation 104
–– measurement properties/clinimetrics 127, 131 Seattle and Hamilton scale 126
–– POSAS 126 Second harmonic generation (SHG) microscopy 174, 175
–– Scar Q 127 Secondary cleft lip reconstruction 55
–– Seattle and Hamilton scale 126 Selective photothermolysis 266
–– VSS 126 Self adherent smart silicone 498, 499
Scarbase Duo™ 162 Self-inflicted scars 180
Scar colour 151 Semi-open chamber method 162, 163
Scar erythema 104, 105 Semmes-Weinstein Aesthesiometer 165
–– clinical treatments Sensory nervous system 24
–– laser treatments 106 Sex hormone receptor 415
–– medical needling 106 Shock wave therapy (SWT)
–– mechanisms –– dose effect relationship 487
–– allergies 104 –– for electro-hydraulic devices 487
–– inflammation 104 –– in scar management 486
–– mechanical stimulation 104 –– to skin defects 486, 487
–– other chemical agents 104 –– in soft tissue defects
–– radiation 104 –– in scar management 488
Scar formation 4, 462 –– in wound healing 487, 488
–– general mechanisms of 20, 21 SIAscope 153
–– innervation in skin healing 24, 25 Silicone application 55
–– mechanical tension 23, 24 Silicone based products 194, 197
–– myofibroblast Silicone gel 341
–– cellular origins of 21, 22 –– epithelium
–– in pathological scarring and fibrosis 22, 23 –– clinical studies 206, 207
–– phenotype, regulation of 22, 23 –– delay in epithelization 204–206
–– myofibroblast phenotype, morphological and biochemical –– sheets versus creams 207, 208
characteristics of 21 –– history 204
–– therapeutic options 25 –– and sheets 194, 197, 200, 229, 230, 373, 374, 390
Scarless wound healing 4, 5, 293 –– and tapes 498
Scar Q 127 Single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) 372
Scar quality 40, 112 Skicon instruments 163, 164
Scarred hypertrophy in burned patients 48 Skin appendix formation 8
Scar redness, clinical measurement Skin bioprinting of skin 453
–– compression therapy 106 Skin capacity 118
–– Doppler ultrasound technique 105 Skin-colorimeter CL 400 151
–– 3D scanner 106 Skin color, scar management 373
–– ultrasound and nuclear magnetic resonance 106 –– in Asian skin 376
Scar Risk and Acceptance Matrix 386, 387 –– non-surgical
Scars –– electrical stimulation 374, 375
–– definition of 39 –– intra-lesional steroid injections 373
–– in elderly 382 –– photodynamic therapy 374
–– epidemiology 380 –– radiotherapy 374
–– frailty, factors of 380 –– silicone gel/sheet 373, 374
–– frequent cormobidities altering wound healing 381 –– scars evolve differently in 372, 373
–– hyperkeratosis 382 –– surgical 375
–– hypertrophic or keloid scars 382 –– cryosurgery 375, 376
–– Marjolin’s ulcer 382 –– recurrence rate 376
–– in medicine 380 –– response rates and side effects 376
–– post irradiation scars 382 –– surgical excision and adjuvant therapy 375
–– skin aging to dermatoporosis 381 –– treatment modalities for 374
–– wound healing, consequences of age 381 Skin grafts 17, 121
–– impact of 48 Skin homeostasis 22
–– treatment for anatomical localizations Skin hydration 160
–– face 364–366 –– definition of 160
–– feet 368 –– dermal water content 161
–– hair 366 –– in epidermis 160, 161
–– hands 367, 368 –– measurement 161
–– joints 368, 369 –– closed chamber method 163
Scar symptoms –– Corneometer CM825® 163, 164
–– pain 88 –– open chamber method 162, 163
–– pathophysiology and epidemiology –– recommendations for 164
–– hyperpigmentation 110 –– semi-open chamber method 162, 163
–– hypopigmentation 110 –– Skicon 200EX 164
–– maturation 111 –– stratum corneum hydration level 163
–– pruritus 90 –– trans-epidermal water loss 161
552 Index
Skin-pedicled flap 17, 302 T

Skin regeneration 4, 8
Skin resurfacing 326 Tactile sensitivity 165
Skin substitutes Tattoos 212
–– full skin substitutes 321 Tewameter® TM300 162
–– permanent wound coverage (see Permanent wound TGF-β 5, 7
coverage) TGF-β1 22, 25
–– regulatory/safety issues 322 Thawing rate 236
–– role 318 Therapies
–– subcutaneous fat 321, 322 –– hyperpigmentation
Skin using a split-thickness skin graft (STSG) 318 –– chemical peels 114
SMAD intercellular transduction protein 390 –– laser therapy 114
Small interfering RNA (siRNA) 69, 70 –– non-surgical treatment
Sonophoresis 444 –– topical treatments 114
Spectrophotometric analysis (SIA) 152 –– surgical treatment
Splinting 230 –– dermabrasion 115
Split-thickness autografts 518 –– excision 115
Split-thickness skin grafts (STSG) 17 –– hypopigmentation
Spontaneous keloids 356 –– camouflage therapy 113
Spray-painting technique 358 –– dermatography 113
Square flap method 304, 305 –– laser therapy 112
Standard error of measurement (SEM) values 151 –– surgical techniques
Statics folds 216, 217 –– cell therapy 113
Stereophotogrammetry device 170 –– dermabrasion 113
Steroid tape 274, 492 –– excision 114
Stony Brooks Scar Evaluation Scale 126 –– microneedling 114
Stratum corneum (SC) 160, 161, 163 –– non-surgical techniques
Stratum granulosum (SG) 160 –– skin grafting 113
Striae Albae 358–360 Thermal history 236
Striae atrophicae 358 Thermal therapy 486
Stromal vascular fraction (SVF) 334 Thick hypertrophic scar 107
Structural assessment of scars Third harmonic generation (THG) microscopy 175
–– clinical follow up 170 1210-nm automated laser system 510
–– confocal microscopy 172, 173 1210-nm laser diode UrgoTouch® 511, 513, 515
–– future aspects 175 Three-dimensional (3D) bioprinting 453
–– non-linear optical microscopy Tissue engineering 318, 322
–– coherent anti-stokes Raman spectroscopy 175 Tissue expansion techniques 314
–– HHG 173 Tissue hardness 153
–– MEA 173 Tissue inhibitors of metalloproteinases (TIMPs) 8, 20, 446
–– second harmonic generation microscopy 174, 175 Tissue regeneration 80
–– third harmonic generation microscopy 175 TissueTech Autograft System™ 321
–– two-photon excited autofluorescence 173, 174 TNF-alpha stimulated protein 6 (TSG-6) 454
–– optical coherence tomography 172 Tonometry 155
–– scar thickness 171 Topical flavonoids 390
–– surface topology 170, 171 Topical steroids, corticosteroid 247
–– volumetric analyses 170 Total body surface area burned (TBSA) 38, 41
Subcutaneous fat 321, 322 Total hip arthroplasty (THA) 501
Subcutaneous incision 355 Touch perception threshold (TPT) 165
Superficial radiation therapy (SRT) 344 Trans epidermal water loss (TEWL) 204, 205, 208
Super-thin flap 327, 328 Transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation (TENS) 94
Surgical needling 291 Transcutaneous oxygen tension 165
Surviving zone 334 TransCyte® 321, 453
Suture edge tension control technologies 498–500 Transdermal patches 444
–– adhesive sutures 498 Transepidermal water loss (TEWL) 161, 197, 479
–– adjustable tensors 499, 500 Transforming growth factor β (TGF-β) 210, 372, 390, 459, 460
–– closed incision negative pressure therapy 500, 501 Transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β1) 21, 210
–– reinforced suture materials 498 Transforming growth factor beta 3 (TGF-β3) 199
–– self adherent smart silicone 498, 499 Transposition flap 303
–– silicone gels and tapes 498 Triamcinolone 244, 246–249, 392
Sutureless skin closure 53 Triamcinolone acetonide 210, 247, 447, 507
SymNose 55 Triamcinolone diacetate 247
Symptoms management 92 Trident flap plasty 367
Tristimulus colorimetry 151, 152
Index
553 S–Z
Tristimulus reflectance colorimetry 105 Visioscan VC 98 (Visioscan VC 98) 171
Trofolastin 359 Visual analog (VAS) scales 55
Tumescent technique lipoaspiration 335 Vivascope 172
Tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) 246 Volar flexion contractures 367
Tunica dartos 408, 410 Volume-imparting techniques
Two-photon excited autofluorescence (2PEF) 173, 174 –– dermal and fat autografting 356
–– filling techniques 356
Voluntarily induced scar 180
U Von Recklinghausen's disease 32
Unilateral cleft lip 52

–– Fisher lip closure 53 W
–– direct postoperative result 54
–– postoperative scar pattern 54 Weinstein Enhanced Sensory Test (WEST) 165
–– preoperative planning 54 Wound closure
–– pre-operative planning 53 –– cutaneous wound healing 186
–– Millard lip closure 53 –– dermal tension 186
–– postoperative scar pattern 54 –– granulation tissue 186
–– pre-operative planning 53 –– Z-plasty 187
Unilateral cleft palate 52 Wound healing 12, 16, 22
Upper lip hypertrophic scar 273 –– children, management in 398, 399
Urogenital and anal orifices 408 –– consequences of age 381
–– definition of 4
–– frequent cormobidities altering 381
–– last phase in 4
V –– process 105
Vacuotherapy, see Vacuum massage –– shock wave therapy in 487, 488
Vacuum massage 476, 478 W-plasty 375, 391, 468, 520
–– general effects 477
–– mechanical effects 479
–– physical effects 479, 480 X
–– physiological effects 479, 481 X-linked syndrome 32
–– working-mechanism of 477
Vacuum therapy 230
Validity, definition of 150 Y
Vancouver Scar Scale (VSS) 39, 126, 206
VapoMeter 163 YPFaceIt 433
Vapor pressure (VP) gradient 161
Vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), ) 70, 104
Vascular laser 361 Z
Vectra 3D 170 Z plasty 121
Veramapril 373 Zipline® system 499, 500
Vesicle–associated membrane protein (VAMP) 221 Z-plasties 17, 55, 187, 367, 368, 375, 391, 421, 520, 521, 536, 537

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Textbook On Scar Management

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Luc Téot

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I Biology and Scar Formation

2 Mechanobiology of Cutaneous Scarring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

3 Scar Formation: Cellular Mechanisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

II Epidemiology of Scars and Their Consequences

5 Epidemiology of Scars and Their Consequences: Burn Scars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

5.1 Burn Injuries and Their Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

6 Scar Epidemiology and Consequences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

6.1 Introduction and Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46

7  ther Scar Types: Optimal Functional and Aesthetic

III Hypertrophic and Keloid Scar: Genetics

8.13 FISH (Fluorescence In Situ Hybridization) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72

IV International Scar Classifications

9.1 Immature Scar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80

10.1 Pain: Definition and Subtypes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88

11 Scar Symptom: Erythema and Thickness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103

11.1 Mechanisms of Erythema in Scar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104

12 Scar Symptoms: Pigmentation Disorders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109

12.1 Pathophysiology and Epidemiology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110

13 Scar Contractures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117

13.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118

VI Scar Assessment Scales

14.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126

15.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134

VII Objective Assessment Technologies (Cutometer, Laser

16.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144

17 Objective Assessment Tools: Physical Parameters in Scar Assessment . . . . . 149

17.1 Clinimetrics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150

18  bjective Assessment Techniques: Physiological Parameters

18.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160

19 Structural Assessment of Scars Using Optical Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169

19.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170

20 Ethical Considerations: Scar Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179

VIII Treatment of Immature Scars: Evidence-Based Considerations

21.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186

22  reatment of Immature Scars: Evidence-Based Techniques

23 Silicone Gel for Scar Prevention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203

23.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204

24 Onion Extract . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209

24.2 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212

25 Treatment of Immature Scars: Manual Massages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215

25.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216

26 Treatment of Immature Scars with Botulinum Toxin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219

26.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220

27  ompression Therapy and Conservative Strategies

27.1 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231

IX Minimal-Invasive Technologies for Treatment of HTS

28.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236

29  inimal-Invasive Technologies for Treatment of HTS and Keloids:

29.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244

30  inimally Invasive Technologies for Treatment of HTS and Keloids:

30.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253

31  inimally Invasive Technologies for Treatment of HTS

31.1 Historical Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264

32  ong-Pulsed 1064 nm Nd:YAG Laser Treatment for Keloids

32.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272

33  inimally Invasive Technologies for Treatment of HTS

33.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280

2 Mechanobiology of Cutaneous Scarring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

3 Scar Formation: Cellular Mechanisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

5 Epidemiology of Scars and Their Consequences: Burn Scars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

5.1 Burn Injuries and Their Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

6 Scar Epidemiology and Consequences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

6.1 Introduction and Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46

7 ther Scar Types: Optimal Functional and Aesthetic

8.13 FISH (Fluorescence In Situ Hybridization) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72

9.1 Immature Scar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80

10.1 Pain: Definition and Subtypes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88

11 Scar Symptom: Erythema and Thickness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103

11.1 Mechanisms of Erythema in Scar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104

12 Scar Symptoms: Pigmentation Disorders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109

12.1 Pathophysiology and Epidemiology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110

13 Scar Contractures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117

13.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118

14.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126

15.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134

16.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144

17 Objective Assessment Tools: Physical Parameters in Scar Assessment . . . . . 149

17.1 Clinimetrics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150

18 bjective Assessment Techniques: Physiological Parameters

18.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160

19 Structural Assessment of Scars Using Optical Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169

19.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170

20 Ethical Considerations: Scar Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179

21.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186

22 reatment of Immature Scars: Evidence-Based Techniques

23 Silicone Gel for Scar Prevention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203

23.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204

24 Onion Extract . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209

24.2 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212

25 Treatment of Immature Scars: Manual Massages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215

25.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216

26 Treatment of Immature Scars with Botulinum Toxin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219

26.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220

27 ompression Therapy and Conservative Strategies

27.1 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231

28.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236

29 inimal-Invasive Technologies for Treatment of HTS and Keloids:

29.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244

30 inimally Invasive Technologies for Treatment of HTS and Keloids:

30.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253

31 inimally Invasive Technologies for Treatment of HTS

31.1 Historical Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264

32 ong-Pulsed 1064 nm Nd:YAG Laser Treatment for Keloids

32.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272

33 inimally Invasive Technologies for Treatment of HTS

33.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280

33.11 Expected Outcomes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282

34 inimal Invasive Technologies for Treatment of HTS

34.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288

35.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302

36 Scar Resurfacing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311

36.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312

37 Invasive Techniques in Scar Management: Skin Substitutes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317

37.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318

37.4 Subcutaneous Fat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321

38 Facial Scars Reconstruction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325

38.1 Objectives of the Chapter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326

39 Invasive Techniques in Scar Management: Fat Injections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333

39.1 Adipose-Derived Stem Cells: Their Biological Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334

40 Additional Invasive Techniques in Scar Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343

40.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344

42 pecific Attention Areas in Scar Management: Specific

42.1 Scar Treatment Options for Different Anatomical Localizations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 364

42.2 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369

43 Management of Scars in Skin of Color . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371

43.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372

44 Scar and Scarring in the Elderly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379

44.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380

45 Management of Scarring Following Aesthetic Surgery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385

45.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 386

46 Scars in Pediatric Patients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397

46.1 Introduction/Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 398

47 Genital Scars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 405

47.1 Epidemiology and Etiology of Genital Wounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406

48.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 430

49 Makeup Therapy for Scars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 435

49.1 Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 436