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Contents
UNIT ONE The Philippines Before
the Arrival of Spain 2
Chapter 1 Th* Importance of Primary Sources
in !'iistory 4
PRIMARY SOURCE:
Letter of Andres Bonifacio to Emilio Jacinto
Chapter 2 Spiritual Beliefs of the Early Filipinos 12

PRIMARY SOURCES:
Relation of the Worship of the Tagalogs, their Gods,
and their Burials and Superstitions
Sucesos de las lslas Filipinas by Antonio Morga
Relacicn de las lslas Filipinas by Miguel de Loarca
Relacion de las lslas Filipinas by Padre Chirino
"The Creation of the World," a Bicol Origin Myth
Chapter 3 ffiarly Pitilippine Society and Culture 24

PRl|,4ARY SOURCES:
Labor Evangelica: Of the Government and Political Customs of these Ct
Peoples, by Francisco Colin, S.J,
Relacion de las lslas Filipinas by Miguel de Loarca
Philippine Chronicles by Juan Francisco de San Antonio
Boxer Codex
Sucesos de las lslas Filipinas by Antonio de Morga
UNIT TWO Spanish Colonization

of the Philippines 36
Chapter 4 Th* Ph*l*ppir:es Becomes A Spanish Colony 38
PRIMARY SOUBCES:
First Voyage Round the World by Antonio Pigafetta
lnstruction to Miguel Lopez de Legazpi
from the Royal Audiencia of New Spain
Relation of the Conquest of the lsland of Luzon
U
Chapter 5 Intr*duetlom cf Cslonial lnstitutions 48
PRIMARY SOURCES:
Decree Regulating Services of Filipinos
Encomiendas Assigned by Legazpi
Letter of Bishop Domingo de Salazar on the Abuses
Commltted by Spaniards
CCiT-iiNTS
Order lssued by the Governor for Collection of the Tributes
Opinion of Fray Martin de Rada on Tribute from the lndians
Decree Regulating Services of Fillpinos
Early FiliPino HevcEts 68

Chapter 6
PRIMARY SOURCES:
Account of Bancao's Revolt
Account of SumuroY Revolt
Usurpation of lndian lands by Friars
3hapter 7 The Propaganda Movement BO
PRIMARY SOURCES:
La Solidaridad
"The PhilipPines in Distress"
"The Causes of the Distress of the Philippines"
Monastic Supremacy in the Philippines
"On the lndolence of the Filipinos"
The 1896 PhiliPPine fiev*lutfi*m 96

Chapter 8
PRIMARY SOURCES:
"Decalogue" bY Andres Bonifacio
"Kartilya" by Emilio Jacinto
Association of the Sons of the People
Declaration about the Teieros Convention by Artemio Ricarte
Bonifacio's Letter to Emilio Jacinto April 16, 1897
The Malolos Constitution
President Emilio Aguinaldo's Declaration o{ War
on the United States
President Emilio Aguinaldo's Appeal to the Filipinos to Fight the
American lnvaders for Freedom's Sake
Apolinario Mabini's reply to the Proclamation
of the First Philippine Commission
UNIT THREE The Quest for Sovereignty 126

American Occupation #f the FhiEipplnes 128
Chapter 9
PRIMARY SOURCES:
Treaty of Paris
The Benevolent Assimilation Proclamation
Address Adopted by the Anti-lmperialist League
Primary Sources on the Philippine-American War
tx
",.
Chapter '10 T*"r* $a,eBpresEmm *f F**!pire* Nati*ma!*sm
amd t*te FiHfrpEmlxmtE*at *f the G*vernmextt 146
PRIMARY SOURCES:
Act No 277 orfhe Libel Law of 1901
El Renacimienfo's "Aves de raPifla"
Act No. dSZ or fhe Sedition Law of 1901
Act No. 1696 or The Flag Law of 1907 and Act No. 518 or The
Brigandage Law of 1902
Philippine Organic Act of 1902 or Cooper Act
The Philippine Autonomy Act of 1916 or Jones Law
Philippine lndependence Act of 1934 or Tydings-Mcduffie Act
1 935 Philippine Constitution
Chapter 11 Japar:*se #ccuPatEmn 190

PRIMARY SOURCES:
Breaking the Silence by Lourdes Montinola
Bataan Has Fallen
Address to the People of the Philippines by
Lieutenant Gen. Masaharu Homma
lnaugural Address of Jose P Laurel
Letter of Claro M. Recto to Director General of the Japanese Military
Administration
Proclamation of General MacArthur
Chapter 12 *md*p*xtdsffi*e *cld ttrT€ Establlshreterrt

ffif e N*w ffi*puhEilm 2OB
PRIMARY SOURCES:
Treaty of General Relations and Protocol of 1946 or Treaty of Manila
Philippine Trade Act of 1946
1947 Military Bases Agreement
Proclamation No. 51 of President Manuel Roxas
UNIT FOUR The Challenges Faced

by the Filipino Nation 226
Chapter 13 &grar"**m ffiefmnm: 228
PRIN/ARY SOURCES:
Message of President Roxas on Agrarian Reforms
Born of the People bY Luis Taruc
Republic Act No. 3844 or Agricultural Land Reform Code
Presidential Decree No 27
Republic Act No 6657 or
Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Law of 1988
Chapter 14 H**n*cH ie F€*ti*et** Esmt 242

PRIMARY SOURCES:
Excerpt f rom the 1935 Constitution
rloir iL:|..j is
Economic Nationalist Through the Retail Trade Nationalization Law
Pres. Carlos P Garcia'a Third State of the Nation Address
Claro M, Becto's Economic lndependence
Chapter 15 An lndependeftt For*ign Folicy 252

PRIMARY SOURCES:
Foreign Service Act of 1952 embodied
in the Republic Act No. 708
Foreign Service Act of 1991
Claro M. Recto's Our Mendicant Foreign Policy
Lorenzo Tanada's "Folklore of Colonialism"
Excerpts from the 1935 1973, 1987 Constitutions
Chapter 16 Naticr*a! ftSim*rltfi** 264

PRIMARY SOURCES:
Manifesto of Muslim lndependence Movement
1976 Tripoli Agreement
Draft of Bangsamoro Basic Law (BBL)
Privilege Speech on the Commemoration of the 1968 Jabidah
Massacre by Bep Sitti Djalia A. Turabin-Hataman
Chapter 17 M*rtial Laqr€; *ltafilemge tc ffermocraey 282

PRIMARY SOURCES:
Judy Taguiwalo's recollection of the Diliman Commune of 1971
Proclamation 889-4, amended and issued by President Marcos
Proclamation 1081 :
Proclaiming a State of Martial Law in the Philippines

General Order No. l
General Order No. 5
Bonifacio P llagan's Narrative
Presidential Decree No 1033
Chapter 18 lSgB People Fower ffievslution 308

PRIMARY SOURCES:
Report of the Fact-Finding Board Created Under PD 1887
Galman, et. al VS Sandiganbayan, et. al.
Reports on the 1986 Snap Elections by lnternational Observers
Report to the President of the United States of America on the
February 7, 1986 Presidential Elections by the US
Observer Delegation and Center for Demorcary
Post-Election Statemenf of CBCP
Extract of the Transcript of Press Conference by
Defense Minister Juan Ponce Enrile
and Deputy Chief of Staff Fidel V Ramos
Radio Address of Archbishop Jaime Cardinal Sin
"Ang Bayan Ko"
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ilflru8T *rruffi
The Philippines Before

the Arrival of Spain
ffihis unir introduces the idea of primary sources in history. It defines primary
ffi sources as historical sources that are contemporaneous to the period under study.
ffi Secondary sources, on the other hand, are historical sources which utilize primary
sources ,o p.o,rid. an interpretation of the past. Reading primary sources enables us to
give our own interpretation of the past and not rely on the interpretation of others.
In this unir, we get a glimpse of the religion of the early Filipinos using primary
sources penned by the religious such as Fray Juan de Plasencia s Las costumbres de los
Thgalos en Filipinas (Custlms of the Tagalogl and Father Pedro Chirino's Relacion de
las Islas Filipinas (An account of the Philippine Islands). Nonreligious accounts such as
those written by Antonio de Morga, judge of the Real Audiencia in his Sucesos de las
Islas Filipinas (Historical Euents of the Philippine Islands); and by Miguel de Loarca, an
encomedero in his Relacion de las Islas Filipinas, (An account of the Philippine klands,
1552) yield enormous information on the early religion and culture of the Filipinos.
Excerpts from these primary sources are found in this unit.
Opposite page. Reading a prtmary source, for instance, a
letter or a poem in rts orrgrnal versron. gives readers a chance
to come into dtrect contact with the past, experience it, and
make their own interpretations. This photo shows Jose Rizal's
baptismal certificate tssued by Father Leoncio Lopez, then
parish priest of Calamba.
Phcla caLrles| oi ly'itirnealra aL--:: a :
*N.q=E-re E
The lmportance of Primary

Sources in History
A letter especiallywritten by a person during the period one is studying, e.g., the Philippine
Revolution is an example of a primary source document. This letter of Andres Bonifacio
addressed to Emilio ]acinto sent at the height of the revolution is a good of example of a
primary source.
Primary Source
*pn*du*t$*r: *f Amdres ffi*atEfa***'s
ffi
L*tter t* ffi sx*!fr * .$acimt*
News was also received here last month that you had been killed by the Carabineers because, it was
said, you had given a bad order; but as this news came from lmus, I did not believe it and I treated it as
one of the usual duplicities of these people.
As to the collection of money, I believe we need not beg, but should solicit or take it from whoever is
wealthy. Brother Don Nakpil wrote me, asking whether the money collected by him, almost four hundred
pesos or so, should be given to Mamerto Natividad. Do not allow this to happen, because that man is
not sincere in his friendship with us, and he is very close to the Magdalo peopie.
A piece of sickening news I can tell you is the treachery committed by the chiefs of the Magdalo
Council who have applied for pardon or gone over to the Spaniards. These are Danrei Tirona, Minister
of War; Jos6 del Rosario, Minister of the lnterior; Jose Cailles, Lieutenant-General, and nearly all the
Tanza people, even the parish priest there, the whole lot of them henchmen or partisans of Capitan
Emilio, For this reason, many people strongly suspect that they strive so hard to get control of the
Government in order to surrender the whole Revolution. Last week I ordered our soldiers to tie up another
of the N,4inisters of Capitan Emilio because he was caught as he was about to escape with two Spanish
prisoners and a lady. One of these Spaniards told the truth, that they were going to escape. He
[the
Ministerl was tried by a Council of War, but the outcome, as usually happens here, was that everybody
covered up for each other, or favoritism, However, the record of the case against the minister mentioned,
Don Cayetano Topacio, remains in my possession, as does that against the Spaniards. This is one of the
reasons why we desire to leave here, because our life is in danger not only from the Spanish enemy, but
still more so from the leaders here, most of whom have wicked intentions.
we have taken away everything: the printing press, the necessary books, the big map, and the
tools lor making cartridges.
The spoons you sent for the brother and sisters of Dimas could not be given to them because they
have already left in the direction of Silangan (Laguna). We have sent for your mother, who is now in
Maragondon, and we are still waiting for her.
Receive the close embrace that I send you from here.
Limbon, April 24, 1897
The President of the Sovereign Nation

And.: Bonifacio
Maypagasa
Source: Translat on by Jim Richardson, Katipunan: Documents and Studies
FOCUS *UHSfiCITS
Why are primary sources
important in history?
LEARNING
StrJECTIVES
At the end of the chapter, students
should be able tol
. differentiate between a primary
source and a secondary
SOUTCE;
. appreciate the value of using
primary sources; and
. read a primary source.
STUDY AIP
q
History is not spared from forgeries or fake documents. ln 1912. Jose E Marco was lhe
.orr"" of some fake documents which became part of the collection of the Philippine ({
Library and Museum which was then headed by' James Robertson, one of the aulhors of qd
tf'l. *rfti-uof rn e work. Ihe Phitippine lslantds;.
..f,ft,CodeotXatantlawryure$:m work:,t'als tigiuas
leyendas de la lsla de'NeEros
.b}.Fi,Jose Mar,ia-P'aVon,.who,w:aeasrq, edin Mafiafiiay.lan:ls:lalin Negps Occi.lental :
::.-.-r,R'bber:tson de'Clar the Code as rare, authentjc aEd-vafuab]e'according to Scott., , '{f,j
Robertson translated the Code of Kalantiaw in English and was published in the H. Morse il{
huBnen anO-hterbertG, Eohon's. Ihe..Pa.eilrc'Ocean:,ir] History in 1917 ,
,.i-...]fi Williamftrlry Scott decided ,o *or1 on llie.piehi$Dahrc $g, ces,forlhesfu y f,
ln. r(
.o@lLrppi.netii+o.ryr.as-.his1opic for a doctoral degree at-1heU'niv-ersltlt.o{.Sant-oTomas.
his doctoral dissertation defense held on June 16, 1968, Scott demonstrated that the Code
:
was a forgery committed by a Jose E. Marco of Pontevedra Negros Occidental. Scott's

panbt W:as compo.sedde@enl,h,istOfians.of e,Pe odi,Teo.dot AgonOiilo, l'loracio de la
d
0n
.O,Q L.M;rce]ino-Folo1 Nicolas Zafla and Gregorio Zai.d .,.r' .: ':1:.- ,:r ',,
i,''- ft't prbtl"neq, 6ffiirnoinge-inhis$oorkiPrehrsp.a4rbJ.aalce Mate{ia}s'fai nu[
the Study of Philippine History Scott observed that the handwriting used
fY
Fr. Pavon was ,il
simlf.to:trerp:]gIjqd whrerej.beibtg$.lre;,slrleenth centqry SnaniSJi,,SpaniSh scholar;' uU
Lourdes Diaz Trechuelo stated the letters present features strange and uncommon
;in documents 6llSs,period This comment was shared:b'y hisl
nrNieolasCushner- ,. -, ,
.whoafter oniu,lting a,book Agustrn MilJares.C,a,rloenjitlret ,Alb.tlry ;Sg'P4leog1afia' d

'ispana? qicana;det SiElaXVI9laled thai.there.!,vag-no,semblanc.e-of,itto theSpanishr ,
'ill
script of the 16th century. Moreover Scott observed that there was the presence of the
,ffi
hyphenwhichwastotal|yabsentinthesixteenthcentUry.
.'..'..in ition, S.Coit'ob. p.qflishments'rnel.e
,the
l ersuch .r,,
,!s.bei p,u d:eath:by..dr:.own!l .ueing,-e..!11.J p1 es1q!.l totl1i,91,q1odile,,being, rM
exposed to the ants and beaten to death were un-Filipino. Checking with olher primary r[f
Sources, Scott asserted that the usual punishments meted out to crimes committed were
*aimen[ofthe$h,e-conrirx!.1.q1 ant:o{.th.e.6ggr.i y.,,:, t'.,'i:', .'. .::
m
.Eo.ur.ees-.q4gy inrtirne b.e diseoy,e, d,tb be'hottx,an'd tha!,thele ar.epeople who malz e1,91q!9.:
thernforsornegain+rnonetrarltorpolitical., . -.],: i. .,: itr

It is therefore important that primary sources be subjected to the historical method
iU.i*lo.-cl qeq.checking ,authenlic11\l of lhe.doournent.(internat ctiticisrn) and:checking'
,dhe iability oi.th-sdoer.rmeni{e-rteltnal cri,tic. is. )r.-r.. !f,
CE OF PRIMARY SOURCES IN HISTORY

Do you consider the letter ofAndres Bonifacio an eyewitness account or a firsthand
acco\\nt of the Phi\ippine Revo\ution? Explain your a$s\{er.
Compare the letter with this excerpt from Teodoro Agoncillo's History of the Filipino
People.
Secondary Source
Bonifacio and Jacinto were like brothers who never separated from each other if either one could help
it. Separation came late in December 1896 when Bonifacio went to Cavite to mediate between two rival
ft
Emilio Aguinaldo was elected as
President of the Revolutionary
factions of the Katipunan in that province and Jacinto, appointed commander-in-chief of the revolutionary
Government in Tejeros. He
forces in Laguna, went to this province to direct the movements of the revolutionists. Nevertheless, they belonged to the Magdalo faction
communicated with each other when time and circumstances permitted. Bonifacio died two years earlier based in Kawit, Cavite:
than Jacinto, who while directing a campaign against the Spaniards in Mahayhay, Laguna, contracted
Andres Bonifacio was the Supremo
fever and died on April 16, 1899.1
of the Katipunan;
How different is this excerpt from the letter of Andres Bonifacio? \7hich of the two and Emilio Jacinto was named the
"Brains of the Katipunan" when
(the letter of Bonifacio and the excerpt from History of the Filipino People) gives you a
he penned the "Kartilya of the
direct link to the past? Katipunan" and took charge of the
Reading primary sources gives us the opportunity to come into direct contact with the Katipunan newspaper, Kalayaan.
past and experience it. Reading textbook accounts of the past, however, deprives us of this
opportunity and make us dependent on the interpretation of the past by textbook authors.
Kinds af HistCIrieal Smurmms

There are two meanings of history. One meaning is that it is the sum total of what
happened in the past-every event, every action, and every thought that a human being
has done. Another meaning of history is the act of analyzing and writing about the past.
In short history is not only the past but is also the study of the past.
In studying the past, there must be evidences to reconstruct the past. For historians,
these evidences are classified into two: primary sources and secondary sources. A
primary source is defined "as a piece of evidence written or created during the period
under investigation."2 It is a record left by a person who witnessed the event one is
studying. In other words, a primary source can be an eyewitness account or a firsthand
account of a particular event. source can come in the form of written
A primary
sources such as documents, archival materials, letters (e.g., letters of Rizal to his fellow
reformists), goyernment records (Hojas de seruicios de maestras or Service Records of
Teachers), newspapers (HeraWo de la reuolucion, Muling Pagsilang), parish records
(Libro de bautismo, Libro de matrimonio), court transcripts, and business ledgers.
Primary sources can also be non-written. They can come in the form of artifacts
such as the Manunggul Jar; edifices like colonial churches; clothes, jewelry, farming
implements, and paintings.
An individualt firsthand account of a particular event such as the memoirs of the
Japanese occupation in the Philippines can be a primary source.
Of recent date, photographs, films, and recordings (both audio and video) are also
considered primary sources.
On the other hand, secondary sources in history are works produced after the event
has taken place. Secondary sources are usually an assessment or a commentary of events,
people, or institutions of the past. Secondary sources often use primary sources for the
aforementioned purpose. The books History of the Filipino People byTeodoro Agoncillo
and Tlte Past Reuisited by Renato Constantino are examples of secondary sources.
Secondary sources may also come in many forms. They come in the form of books
A paleographer is one who studies which can be popular or scholarly. Usually, textbooks are considered as secondary sources.
ancient writings. Secondary sources come in the form of monographs. Monographs are specialized works
A philologist is one who studies the which are narrow in scope, but are based on primary sources. Monographs provide
development of language. new historical interpretations and can be vehicles for historical revisionism. Essays or
Numismat;cs is the study of coir-s.
chapters in a book based on primary or secondary sources are considered secondary
paper money, and medals. sources. Articles published in
scholarly journals are likewise considered secondary
sources. They should not be ignored by students as they provide new findings or
Epigraphy is the study of
deciphering and rnterpreting interpretations useful for research. Articles published in popular magazines are also
ancient inscript ons. secondary sources. Dissertations which offer original analysis and adds to the body
of knowledge of a particular historical topic would be another example of a secondary
source. Lastly, papers read in conferences are considered secondary sources. Conference
papers ger their initial scrutiny in conferences but once revised, may be submitted to a
scholarly journal.
Frfrmmry S*urc*s mr:d the

h*Estmr$mm* &rTeth*d
Primary sources, in whatever form, have to be subjected to what is called the historical
method. There are rwo components in the historical method. The first is called external
criticism which aims at checking the authenticity of the primary source. External
criticism aims ro check whether the source is real or fake. For example, validating the
authenticiry of a document requires checking if the paper and ink of the document
belong to the period being studied. in addition, one checks whether the handwriting
in the document belongs to the handwriting of the period one is researching on. The
historian in this instance somewhat becomes of a paleographer. In other cases, the
historian is constrained to study the sryle and language of the text in a document. In
this case, the historian becomes a philollgist. If the primary source would be coins and
medals, the historian should have some knowledge of numismatics and if inscriptions in
monuments are being studied, epigra?b.
Once the source is considered authentic, then primary source goes through internal
criticism which checks on the reliabiliry of the source. Not just because the source is
primary should one accept its contents completely. There should be some skepticism in
accepting the source. The following are some questions that one may pose to check on
the reliabiliry of the source:
1. How close was the author to the event being studied?

This question refers to the physical location of the author of the document. Did
heishe wirness the event personally or did he/she rely on somebodyt report? How
reliable is his accounr? An example of this is Antonio Pigafetta's account of the
Battle of Mactan, which claimed the life of Ferdinand Magellan. Pigafetta was
the chronicler of the Magellan expedition. He witnessed the Battle of Mactan
and wrote about it in his work Primo uiagio intorno al globo terracqueo written
in Italian and later translated in Spanish as Primer uiaje alrededor del mundo.
By virtue of Pigafetta being a chronicler of the Magellant voyage, his account
is reliable.
a.-_:-:: . --: ,.,:,:-- .1: l. rr,,,!BYSOUBCES N HISTORY

rrit{ -qirl;f
STUDY Aiffi
+rl
jtt
i
fl'J]::.l";.ffi ;xr;xr;;:H:lqii*ri*ru:ffi Dominicans have the Dominican

i'ff L:ffi '
called religious archives
titil*0i"""'the
ilffi
't"in"
ffi ;::'"i:;i::"Jf""ti:J:l;Hy"t
il*1'.,'.:#;T#*i.;x;lf
p'iu'i]""toi[-
ht
ou:':-"^t:-t-o*oanies or families
also
the Philippines. so*" g^l"r;:J[,
primary sources '*t i*po'[nt for two reasons
,"
Archives wrricn nouses "'" mat<ins it easier ror a rest
O"
tvtL*'ti".,.n3-tl^tt
*"n,i. ",n".;;;;";;;; isit the
" arctlves n"'o *itn tn"it work by producing
his work. Another importance "tt"Ji"'"t
collecllon
to their
research aids or f inding tools
"-- is one of them. The
have n3]ion1t alcfrives The philippines
No*adays, countries usually
ffi,?:llt,:l1x#*t'1::r ittiffi",;",:","I- ;-:,

,."lzlx"n ru::m,: *:,I1fli';',.U.!?H il ;ru ;;''ln
ori""
"
n p L' o u n o
" "'
unou' the Executive
puuriclisiruction' and in 1915;t;;;t';n
the Departrnent ot Library. At preseni the
Branch. rn 1e28, *" ,*o lllfii#il;;;. ;";",i0" i,"",""J
;ffiilT:"iliix*rHffi l*HI::l:#%1"J**::1ff 3Jffi :17
'*J:ilffi
o""Tn"JLi,o,nss spanish t":'o^ t:'],'^"]:n-comPosed
are divided inlo tY:
"ll'i?tl"ii^
ru"ro t'o'n 1552 to uno t'" o'""t:i:î:o Republic
of documents ,no pr"nt iliiig 'ioo f r3.m gwernment
present, composed of documents
period coltection o"ting f;l; iJo*o ,n"
and Japanese war crime Fecords
H:: "T::;ii;ffi]:#;il;;;";iu
2. When was the account made? being studied'

or contemPorary to-the 'Ptltod
A primary source should be closest in 1864 is an example
work (Jrbana at Felisaby Modesto d; .as;. published
The of a woman in the
of a primary f;'-;ht 't"dy of tht norms'of conduct
";t
nineteenthcentury.Sincetheworkwasp"uron.ainthenineteenthcentury(the
of Modestro de Castro on
year l|364utlo"gJto the
nineteenth tt'rury)' this work
source'
behave is a reliable primary
how a Christian woman should
'Who
3. was the recipient of the account?
The election results of a goberruadorcillo of the town of Muntinlupa during the
Spanish period is an example of a primary source. The recipient of the election
result is the provincial governor who makes the final appointment. Hence, the
document labeled as Elecciones de Gobenadorcillo would be a reliable primary
qLB source.
4. Is there bias to be accounted for?
Santiago Alvarez was the son The Te.ieros Convention, which ended the existence of the Katipunan and its
of Mariano Alvarez who headed replacement by a revolutionary government, is covered in the work of Santiago
the Magdrwang faction based in
Noveleta, Cavite.
Nvarez entitled Si Andres Bonifacio, Ang Katipunan dt Himagsihan; in the memoir
of Artemio Ricarte; in Aguinaldo's Mga Gunita ng Himagsiban; in the work of
Artemio Ricarte was elected as
Carlos Ronquillo entitled lkng Thlata Tungkol sa Paghihimagsih nang 1896-1897;
General-in-Chief rn the Teleros
Convention. and in the Letter of Andra Bonifacio to Emilio Jacinto. Each of the aforementioned
authors would have a bias in narrating what transpired in that particular event.
Carlos Bonquillo was the private
secretary of Emilio Aguinaldo. All of the abovementioned primary sources have a bias. Thus, it is important
that as a reader, one should be conscious of the bias of the work. The bias will be
coming from the author of the primary source. People generally write their memoirs
in order to explain or justi$, their actions during a particular event.
). Does informed common sense make the account probable?
The key words here are probable and informed clmmzn sense. One cannot get
absolutely conclusive answers in history. The test whether a given testimony is
believable or not, is when there is an inherent probability of it being true and is
supported by appropriate evidence.
For instance, abuses committed by encomenderos toward the native Filipinos
in the collection of tribute may be probable as evidenced by Bishop Domingo de
Salazaq writing the King of Spain about encomenderos collecting tribute without
giving the natives proper governance, religious instruction, and defense against
their enemies. Bishop Salazar was a defender of native rights and was critical of the
ir$!5:&i,
,l injustices received by the Filipinos in the hands of the encomenderos.
6. Is the account corroborated by other accounts?
A gobernadorcillo is the head of a A primary source cannot stand by itself, There should be corroboration from other
town during the Spanish period.
sources as well.
Having established the authenticiry and reliabiliry of the primary source, bear
An encomendero is a holder of an -rl {
encomienda or an estate land. in mind the following: a
. \{/hen was the document or artifact created? ;

. 'il{hat rype of primary source is it? a :
. \X{ho created the document or artifact?
. lWhy was it written or produced? :
. For whom was the text or image intended?
. V{hat is the main point the author is trying to make? :
. Is there any unintentional evidence given by the text?
. Does the text provide an author's point of view bias, or opinion? a-
. How does the source stand in relation to other primary sources of the 1i
period?
CI.JAPTE|]
-i THE IMPOBTANCE OF PRIMARY SOURCES IN HISTORY
I
I
Chapter ffimmrxxmry
' For historians to understand the past, they need evidences about the past.
o These evidences are of two kinds: primary sources and secondary sources.
o A primary source is any document or artifact from the period under study
while a secondary
source is any document or artifact that was created after the period under study.
. One must know how to read a primary source.
&mmmmsrffiffiffig
Below are sources about the peoples of the Cordlllera. Answer if the source cited is primary
a
source or a secondary source.
1. Francisco, Antolin. Notices of the Pagan lgorots in the lnterior of the tsland of Manip
in
1789.Translated by William Henry Scott. Manila: University of Santo Tomas press,
l9gg.
2. Campa, Buenaventura. "Una visita a las rancherias de llongotes." ln Correo Sino-Anamita.
Manila: lmprenta de Santo Tomas, 1g9i.
3. Kessing,Felix.The Ethnohistoryof Northern Luzon.Kenlucky: Stanford Universitypress,
1g62.
4. Rosaldo, Renato. llongot Headhunting, 1893-1974: A Study in Society and History.
California: Stanford University press, 1ggO.
5. villaverde, Juan. "lnforme sobre la reduccion de los infieles de Luzon.,, ln correo
Sino-Anamita. Manila: lmprenta de Santo Tomas, 1g79.
Below are sources about the city of Manila. Answer lf the source cited is a primary
source or
a secondary source.
1. Buzeta, Manuel et Felipe Bravo. Diccionario geografico, estadistico-historico
de la lslas
Filipinas. Madrid: i850.
2. Gatbonton;'Esperanza. lntrarmaros: A Histarjcat Gujde. Manila: lA, 1gg0. . :.
3;.,eava.da-M-!,!.!!z,.de,vigo, Agustln.-Flistorico, geografico, georogica y estadistica,de

Fr{ipinas. Mani\a Ramkez y Gsaud\er, 1816.
4 Salt, Alexander. "The Street Names of Manila and Their Origins. " in Focus on Otd Manila.
Manila; Philippine Historical Association, l9Zl.
5 Torre VisitaCion de la. Landmarks of Manila, 1571 1gtg0. Quezon City: paragon print
Suggested ffi*md*mgm
Hlstory;; Curtenf: Practices and principles. New york:
Historical Research
with
in the ,of
History. Oxfordshire:
Culture and
,j
Scott,
t: tui
Study of lli
.]:J
r+
ljiilr
1:.J r
i:il
,ri::'!i
Opposite page. Before the arrival of the Spaniards, early
Fitipinos worshipped various deities or gods and practiced
rituals. The illustration shows a typical lgorot funeral ritual.
Phato courtesy af Paul de la Gianterelvikimedia Commans
#h{AffiTffire I*
Spiritual Beliefs
of the Early Filipinos
s the first chapter that discuss the Philippines and its early history, it is
will
important to introduce the terms Philippines and Filipino, since these will
be used widely in the book. The name Philippines came from the navigator
Ruy Lopez de Villalobos when he named the archipelago Las Islas Filipinast in 1542,
after the heir of the Spanish throne Prince Phillip II. After almost three decades, the
archipelago would then become part of the vast Spanish Empire as one of its colonies.
\7hat about the term Filipino? Before the term was widely used to refer the people of
the Philippines, Filipino was used to refer to Spaniards born in the colony. However,
according to the historian \Tilliam Henry Scott, Filipino was also used in some friar
accounrs of early seventeenth century to refer to the natives before they became indios.
The term was also used by some Spaniards to call the natives in the eighteenth century
and by fuzal in the late nineteenth century. It may seem confusing but for consistency,
Filipino would oe used in this book to refer to any native born in the archipelago and
those who spoke its languages even before the dawn of Spanish colonization.2
_______-f
3l
s*s**45** EsH 8S?*7?S BSg

The Austronesian migralions reached the Philippines. The Manunggul Jar was used as a secondary burial jar in Palawan
" +rril$lH
I
t
I
_ __--i. irs neighbors, the Philippines did not have any thriving and powerful
5 "- ::c,:ns or vast *plr., before rhe advent of Islam and its sultanates in the fifteenth
I -..rrrry and Spanish colonization in the late sixteenth century. The archipelago was
r
:.rm came from the word balangay an Austronesian sea-going vessel. These barangays
e i-!-ere not just small political entities but they could also be seen as economic, social'
i. :.rltural, and spiritual institutions. The spiritual life in the barangay was led by the
,f -cca1 spiritual leader called. babaylan inYisayas and catalonan
inLuzon, particularly in
Tagalog areas. This position was usually obtained by a female but a male could
also serve
r
r :i one; however he must act and dress as a female. The position could be passed from
l. rne generation ro the next, bu: being a child or a relative of the babaylan is not enough
i', :c become the next spiritual leader, since one must also acquire all the skills and abilities
I. :eeded to fulfill the position. The babaylan led the barangay in all rituals, particularly
--:rose involving sacrifices for the local deities and spirits to gain favors-as she was
d
__,-___-*_ii!iii!_ _-_-"^____*_#-
'i ?*$-1ss$
300-1 00s 8S**X50G
ln The Golden Tara, a statue of a Hindu goddess' was
- -:,,Buddhist influences arrived in the philipplnes Golden death masks were used in ancient burial rites
made by a goldsmith from l\'4indanao
-: - Southeast Asia. Visayas and Mindanao
13
- -,;3CT{Rnl
v uu r lvtE believed to have the power to transcend to rhe spiritual realm. Accounrs vary in
the use
',::='. = a-f,spractice of the terms for these deities due to linguistic and geographical differences. Visayans
: - ' ,= ::
='s before called them diwata while the Thgalogs used anito. These deities were manifested
- - r :' J^.ist anity and by the
forces of nature but they can also be represented through wooden carvings
and other
inanimate objects.
_- --- \ll\b This chapter focuses on the early Filipino beliefs that would give light on how they
isi€*TFvtrs worshipped their deities-from the Visayan archipelago to the islands of Luzon and
-: :-= :rd of the chapter, students Mindanao. It would also prove that this counrry already had irs own belief systems and
.---:beableto:
. world views before the coming of Islam and Christianiry. To have better understanding
Crscuss the similarities and
I fferences between the early of these different but related forms of early religious manifestation, it is important
De iefs of the Tagalog and to discuss and analyze the primary sources coming from religious .ro.r-r.ligio,r,
Visayan societies;
. accounts presented in this chapter. "rrd
explain the perspectives
that would emanate from the
HfuS*# $r.mm ffisd*Sr*rs *f S&e W*rstusp *f $$;e Fmgm$*gs,

primary sources particularly
the author's views and biases
in d scusstng early Fillpino ?"$p*sr#*#su mry# F$;esr sssrsmfs ffiffi# seepers$rfs*n& my*-'
.
spiritual belief; Frmy #sxmr* d* F$ms*ffi#ge
ana yze lhe role of women n
The first document for this chapter is written by FrayJuan de Plasencia, one of the
eading the spiritual life of the first
barangayi and Franciscan missionaries in the Philippines. He was responsible for the foundation
) demonstrate the importance of
of
various towns in Luzon particularly in Laguna and Thyabas areas and the conversion
epics and myths as source of
identity to early Filipino culture. of their inhabitants to Catholicism. He was also the author of numerous religious
books such as the Doctrina Christiana, the first book printed in the Philippines; and
other works that would eventually preserve early Filipino cultural traditions such as Las
costumbres de los Tagalos en Filipinas and Vocabulario de la lengua Thgala. Considered
a zealous missionary, Plasencia denied himself of hxuries and was known to be the
defender of the natives from the Spanish officials which resulted in the Manila Synod
of
1582' Plasencia was al.so instrumental in the resettlement of the natives he suggested
as
the reduccion policy in the synod. He died in Liliw, Laguna in 1590.
, I\4anung$ul,Jar. iS.:a Neolithid:j4 ,.',',

found in Manunggul Cave, Lipuun
9_rrJ?Ycls_ ,ftni, Palawan.,ih,lh,e.early.;1,960s,:,r-,.
Th!s, isan.,exarnple of ,a,rseeondary,.
burial wherein the bones of the
' se,irepla 11isidei,T5jt ..:
poriron of the jar contains scroll
designs and a boat with two human
rgrrr.ep one. g uldingr the boa! while., .,
.f ;,
the other is going to the aflerlife. The
Manunggul Jar is one of the rnost
rmpor:tant haeolOgiial.artifacts :,,
in the Philippines as it signifies not
:qnly prehistolie indigenous.b:uri€1,,
practices but also the belief in a soul
and life after death of early Filipinos.
Photo oul t*y at R;rget +A,\;nedia CMn@s.
.:].J.ii]I i:ii :] SPIBITUAL BELIEFS OF THE EARLY FILIPINOS

-Ihe
Rektion of the worship of the Tagahgs, Their God;, and Their Burials and
s
tuPerstitions is the second part of his Costumbres de los Tagalos (1589) which was a report
:o a Spanish noble after receiving His Lordship's letter requesting information about the
r ::atives. -Ihe Costumbres is Plasenciat account of the traditions, sociery marriage, laws,
:rrvries, and spiritual beliefs of the tgalogs.
I =' "nary Source

l - i ihe villages, or in other
qLB
parts of the Filipinas lslands, there are no temples consecrated to the
: ::-:'ming of sacrif ices, the adoration of their idols, or the general practice of idolatry. lt is true that they Doctrina Christiana is the first book
printed in the Philippines. li was
T
-:,= :ê name simbahan, which means a temple or place of adoration; but this is because, formerly, wrltten in 1593 by Fray Juan de
Plasencia. The Doctrina was used
a
-.-*=.. 'vishedtocelebrateafestival,whichtheycalledpandot,or"worship,"theycelebrateditin
,,
by the Spaniards to aid them in the
*i :'Je house of a chief. There they constructed, for the purpose of sheltering the assembled people, Chr'st;6n ru,,o" of the Phil;pp,nes.
: ::-oorary shed on each side of the house, with a roof, called sibi, to protect the people from the
:: ,tnen it rained. They so constructed the house that it might contain many people-dividing it, after
-: 'ashion of ships, into three compartments. On the posts of the house they set small lamps, called
-
-'--- ,e: in the center of the house they placed one large lamp, adorned with leaves of the white palm,
t .---ght into many designs, They also brought together many drums, large and small, which they beat
f -'-::essively while the feast lasted, which was usually four days. During this time the whole barangay, or
I "r- y united and joined in the worship which they call nagaanitos, The house, for the above-mentioned
::'od of time, was called a temple.
Among their many idols there was one called Badhala, whom they especially worshiped, The title
:eems to signify "all powerful," or "maker of all things." They also worshiped the sun, which, on account
:' its beauty, is almost universally respected and honored by heathens. They worshiped, too, the moon,
l :specially when it was new, at which time they held great rejoicings, adoring it and bidding it welcome.
a
Some of them also adored the stars, although they did not know them by therr names, as the Spaniards
I
and other nations know the planets-with the one exception of the morning star, which they called Tala.
They knew, too, the "seven little goats" lthe Pleiades]-as we call them-and, consequently, the change
rf seasons, which they call Mapolon; and Balatic, which is our Greater Bear. They possessed many idols
called lic-ha, which were images with different shapes; and at times they worshiped any litile trifle, in
which they adored, as did the Romans, some particular dead man who was brave ln war and endowed
with special faculties, to whom they commended themselves for protection in their tribulations. They had
another idol called Dian Masalanta, who was the patron of lovers and of generation. The idols called
Lacapati and ldianale were the patrons of the cultivated lands and of husbandry. They paid reverence to
water-lizards called by them buaya, or crocodiles, from fear of being harmed by them. They were even
in the habit of offering these animals a portion of what they carried in their boats, by throwing it into
the
water, or placing it upon the bank.
Their manner of offering sacrifice was to proclaim a feast, and offer to the devil what they had
to eat, This was done in front of the idol, which they anoint with fragrant perfumes,,such as musk and
ct
Lacapati is lhe deity of fertility and
agriculture among the early Tagalogs.
civet, or gum of the storax-tree and other odoriferous woods, and praise it in poetic songs sung by A hermaphrodite, Lacapati represents
life and regeneration through sexual
the officiating priest, male or female, who is called catolonan. The participants made responses to the union.
song, beseeching the idol to favor them with those things of which they were in need, and generally, by Batha la (Batala ot Bad h al a) is the
offering repeated healths, they all became intoxicated, ln some of their idolatries they were accustomed most powerful deity of the early
Tagalog pantheon.
to place a good piece of cloth, doubled, over the idol, and over the cloth a chain or large, gold ring, thus He is considered to be the
supreme being and the creator of
worshiping the devil without having sight of him. The devil was sometimes Iiable to enter into the body of universe. The name Bathala came
from the Sanskrit tetm bhattarawhich
the catolonan, and, assuming her shape and appearance, filled her with so great arrogance-he being means noble lord.
the cause of it-that she seemed to shoot flames from her eyes; her hair stood on end, a fearful sight to
15
I
GUIDE ffiUHST$ffiT*S those beholding, and she uttered words of arrogance and superiority. ln some districts, especially in the
. What was the role of the mountains, when in those idolatries the devil incarnated himself and took on the form of his minister, the
catalonan in the spiritual life of
latter had to be tied to a tree by his companions, to prevent the devil in his infernal fury from destroying
the community?
. As a friar, how did Juan him. This, however, happened but rarely. The objects of sacrifice were goats, fowls, and swine, which
de Plasencia describe the were f layed, decapitated, and laid before the idol. They performed another ceremony by cooking a jar of
religious beliefs of the early
rice until the water was evaporated, after which they broke the jar, and the rice was left as an intact mass
Filipinos?
which was set before the idol; and all about it, at intervals, were placed a few buyos-which is a small
fruit wrapped in a leaf with some lime, a food generally eaten in these regions-as well as fried food and
fruits. All the above-mentioned articles were eaten by the guests at the feast; the heads fof the animals],
after being "offered," as they expressed it, were cooked and eaten also.
The reasons for offering this sacrifice and adoration were, in addition to whatever personal matters
there might be, the recovery of a sick person, the prosperous voyage of those embarking on the sea, a
good harvest in the sowed lands, a propitious result in wars, a successful delivery in childbirth, and a
happy outcome in married life. lf this took place among people of rank, the festivities lasted thirty days.
Source: The Philippine lslands, Vol. Vll.
ffix**rpt Ss*sesps de fas $sfas trffirmes

frmem
hy &mt*xr$m de F#*rga
Antonio de Morga was a Spanish high-ranking official in the Philippines from 1593
to 1503. A lawyer by profession, Morga held the position of oidor or judge of the
Real Audiencia when he first came to the colony. \7ith little experience in military
combat, Morga led the Spanish feet in its Pyrrhic victory against the Dutch in 1600.
Howeve! Morga was best known as the author of Sucesos de lcu Ishs Filipinds (Euents
in the Philippine Islands), one the most comprehensive accounrs of sixteenth cenrury
Spanish colonization of the archipelago.
Sucesos, as it is called by todays students of history was published in 1609 when E
Morga was already in Mexico City. The book covers the political, economic, social,
and cultural life of the Filipinos and Spaniards from 1493 to 1603. This encompassing -:
work was based on documentary research as well as Morgat personal involvement and
observation. This was possible due to his position in the colonial government. The work
became more popular when Jose Rizal annotated and critiqued the book in 1890. In
the excerpt of the Sucesos below, Morga talks about the "ignorance" and "stubbornness"
of the non-Christian Filipinos. i,
Primary Source
ln matters of religion, the natives proceeded more barbarously and with greater blindness than in all the
rest. For besides being pagans, without any knowledge of the true God, they neither strove to discover
Him by way of reason, nor had any fixed belief. The devil usually deceived them with a thousand errors
and blindnesses. He appeared to them in various horrible and frightful forms, and as fierce animals, so
that they feared him and trembled before him. They generally worshiped him, and made images of him
in the said forms. These they kept in caves and private houses, where they offered them perfumes and
odors, and food and fruit, calling them anitos.
Others worshiped the sun and the moon, and made feasts and drunken revels at the conjunction
of those bodies. Some worshiped a yellow-colored bird that dwells in their woods, called batala. They
generally worship and adore the crocodiles when they see them, by kneeling down and clasping their
Ci-'iAFT=R 2 SPIRITUAL BELIEFS OF THE EARLY FILIPINOS

hands, because of the harm that they receive from those reptiles; they believe that by so doing the
crocodiles will become appeased and Ieave them. Their oaths, execrations, and promises are all as
above mentioned, namely, May buhayan eat thee, if thou dost not speak truth, or fulfil what thou hast
promised, and similar things.
There were no temples throughout those islands, nor houses generally used for the worship of idols; GUIDE &T3ffi$TBffiruS
but each person possessed and made in his house his own anitos, without any fixed rite or ceremony. . As a Spaniard and Christian,
how did the biases or
They had no priests or religious to attend to religious affairs, except certain old men and women called
prejudices of Antonio de Morga
catalonas. These were experienced witches and sorcerers, who kept the other people deceived. The manifest rn the document?
Latter communicated to these sorcerers their desires and needs, and the catalonas told them innumerable . How dld Morqa describe the
religious bel efs of the early
extravagancies and lies. The catalonas uttered prayers and performed other ceremonies to the idols for Filipinos?
the sick; and they believed in omens and superstitions, with which the devil inspired them, whereby they
declared whether the patient would recover or die. Such were their cures and methods, and they used
various kinds of divinations for all things. All this was with so little aid, apparatus, or foundationwhich God
permitted, so that the preaching of the holy gospel should find those of that region better prepared for it,
and so that those natives would confess the truth more easily, and it would be less difficult to withdraw
them from their darkness, and the errors in which the devil kept them for so many years. They never
sacrificed human beings as is done in other kingdoms. They believed that there was a future life where
those who had been brave and performed valiant feats would be rewarded; while those who had done
evil would be punished. But they did not know how or where this would be.
They buried their dead in their own houses, and kept their bodies and bones for a long time in
chests. They venerated the skulls of the dead as if they were living and present. Their funeral rites did
not consist of pomp or assemblages, beyond those of their own housewhere, after bewailing the dead,
all was changed into feasting and drunken revelry among all the relatives and friends.
Source: Ihe Philippine /s/ands, Vol. XVI
ffixcerpB from ffiefa*s*sr de fes IsJ*s Fsffisnas

hy &&$grx*E #e tmmrcm qLB
As one of the first Spanish conquistadores to arrive in the archipelago, Miguel de Loarca
observed the natiye cultural traditions before theywere fully acculturated to Christianity. P/nfados was the term used by the
Spaniards to refer to the lattooed
In 157 5 , Loarca, along with two friars, traveled to China and witnessed grandeur of the settlers of the Visayan region. The
tattoos could symbolize bravery and
"great kingdom." He was also the first Spaniard to conduct the colonyt earliest census. experience in war among men.
As a loyal Spanish military officer, Loarca also became one of the earliest encomenderos Phota courtesy af Wikimedta Cammons.
in the country.
Inhis Relacion de las Islas Filipinas (1582), Loarca documented the customs and
traditions of early Filipinos. His work discussing the natives is significant since it was
one of the earliest Spanish accounts coming from a layman. Unlike friar accounts,
Loarcat Relacion is a layman's point of view of the affairs of the natives in the early
colonial era. This excerpr from his Relacion talks about the beliefs of the people from
Panay or the so-called Pintados.
Primary Source
Also, during their revelries, the singers who have good voices recite the exploits of olden times; thus they
always possess a knowledge of past events. The people of the coast, who are called the Yligueynes,
believe that heaven and earth had no beginning, and that there were two gods, one called Captan and
the other Maguayen. They believe that the land breeze and the sea breeze were married; and that the
17
I
ffi land breeze brought forth a reed, which was planted by the god Captan. When the reed grew, it broke
into two sections, which became a man and a woman. To the man they gave the name of
Sicalac, and
Pitarillas is an earthen jar used to slore that is the reason why men from that time on have been called talac;Ihewoman they called Sicavay, and
food lor consumption. However, it
was also used by the early Visayans thenceforth women have been called babayes. One day the man asked the woman to marry him, for
as sacrificial vessels during rituals
officiated by the babaylan. there were no other people in the world; but she refused, saying that they were brother and sister,
born
of the same reed, with only one knot between them; and that she would not marry him, since he was her
brother. Finally they agreed to ask advice from the tunnies of the sea, and from the doves of the air; they
also went to the earthquake, who said that it was necessary for them to marry, so that the world might
be peopled. They married, and called their first son Sibo; then a daughter was born to them, and they
gave her the name of Samar. This brother and sister also had a daughter, called Lupluban. She married
Pandaguan, a son of the first pair, and had a son called Anoranor. Pandaguan was the first to jnvent
a net for fishing at sea; and, the first time when he used it, he caught a shark and brought it on shore,
thinking that it would not die, But the shark died when brought ashore; and Pandaguan, when he saw
this, began to mourn and weep over it-complaining against the gods for having allowed the shark to
die, when no one had died before that time. lt is said that the god Captan, on hearing this, sent the flies
to ascertain who the dead one was; but, as the flies did not dare to go, Captan sent the weevil, who
brought back the news of the shark's death. The god Captan was displeased at these obsequies to a
fish. He and Maguayen made a thunderbolt, with which they killed pandaguan; he remained thirty days
in the infernal regions, at the end of which time the gods took pity upon him, brought him back
to life,
and returned him to the world. While Pandaguan was dead, his wife Lubluban became the concubine
of a man called Maracoyrun; and these people say that at that time concubinage began in the world.
When Pandaguan returned, he did not f ind his wife at home, because she had been rnvited by her friend
to feast upon a pig that he had stolen; and the natives say that this was the first theft committed in the
world. Pandaguan sent his son for Lubluban, but she refused to go home, saying that the dead do not
return to the world. At this answer Pandaguan became angry, and returned to the infernal regions.
The
people believe that, if his wife had obeyed his summons, and he had not gone back at
that time, all the
dead would return to life.
t.l
GUIDE QUESTIONS Baylanas. The natives of these islands have neither trme nor place set apart for the offering of Er
o How did Loarca describe prayers and sacrifices to their gods. lt is only in case of sickness, and in times 3!'
of seed-sowing or of
the religious beliefs of the
war, that sacrifices are offered. These sacrifices are called baylanes, and the priestesses,
Pintados? or the men
. How similar or difierent was who perform this office, are also called baytanes, The priestesses dress very gaily, with garlands
on
Loarca s description of the their heads, and are resplendent with gold. They bring to the place of sacrifice some pltarnTlas (a
baylanas lrom the accounts of
kind
Plasencia and Morga? of earthen jar) full of rice-wine, besides a live hog and a quantity of prepared food. Then the priestess
chants her songs and invokes the demon, who appears to her all glistening in gold. Then he enters her
body and hurls her to the ground, foaming at the mouth as one possessed. ln this state she declares
whether the sick person is to recover or not. ln regard to other matters, she foretells the future. All
this
takes place to the sound of bells and kettle-drums. Then she rises and taking a spear, she pierces the
heart of the hog, They dress it and prepare a dish for the demons, Upon an altar erected there,
they
place the dressed hog, rice, bananas, wine, and all the other articles of food that
they have brought.
All this is done in behalf of sick persons, or to redeem those who are confined in the infernal
regions.
When they go to war or on a plundering expedition, they offer prayers to Varangao, who
is the rainbow,
and to their gods, Ynaguinid and Macanduc. For the redemption of souls detained in the inferno above
mentioned, they invoke also their ancestors, and the dead, claiming to see them and receive answers
to their questions.
Source: Ihe Philippine /s/ands, Vol. V
CiiAPl i:fi ? SPIRITUAL BELIEFS OF THE EARLy FlLtptNOS

STUDY AID
G id,'DealhMask Ot Ot4r(t,30p.:.140 .C.E) is..d,eq1h.mask yras diqc-oveqed.by ,:,.r:....,..,, .,,.

archaeologists Alfredo Evangelista and F. Landa Jocano in Ot,on, lloilo in 1960s. Consisted
oi.gqld,ey.e-maskrAndl1ose-disk,thedeatfrn.last *as@la*6..d.i",re.$e@-eBiiiis,fi9r]1i=
entering the body The practice of putting death mask was adopted from the Chinese which
alsoislgnifies,culturaland:economic relation$ wtth then!i.ThE.d.ea{h:,rnas-&].s :!eq,tq!Ient1o,...
a rich burial tradition of early Filipinos and their belief in the afterlife. Aside from its religious
importance, the death mask is a manifestatron of early Filipino goldsmiths as a profession in
the precolonial socrety.
Ss**rp€ €rmxm ffi*$m*s*ss #* $es $sf*s Ssfrpsse*s

+=*s: F*#fl* #h*rBm*
.\s one of the most well-known and devoted Jesuit missionaries of the early colonial
period, Pedro Chirino certainly has a place in Philippine history as founder of various Baybayin is the ancient Philippine
iorvns and parishes across the archipelago; as well as his crucial role in recording the script used by early Filipinos. The
script was well-documented by the
ancient tgalog script baybayin to Latin alphabet. His position in early Philippine {riars and it was even used in the
historiography is also settled for his numerous works such as the Relacion de las Islas Doctr i na C h ri stian a. Presenlly, there
are calls to use baybayin translation
Filipinas (1604) which was later transformed into a massive two-volume History of the i1 all business and government
Philippine Prouince of the Society ofJesus. The latter discusses not just the Jesuit missions logos.
but also the Catholic conversion of the Filipinos in general. He was also responsible for
rhe elevation of the Jesuit mission in the Philippines as a vice-province, thereby becoming hT%fLrll ;tn
:ndependent from the Mexican mission. Chirino died in Manila on September 16,
r635. l.a3tt nrDa8 hi
The following document is from Chirinot Relacion, an important chronicle of the
early colonization period, focusing on the spiritual transformation of the colony based
on his experiences in the laborious evangelical missions of the Jesuits. The reading is an
Lr-ulD=tf I
ll
excerpt from chapter 2 1 of this S2-chapter book which narrates the "false religion of the
pagans" and superstitions of the Filipino.
DrnDro- 1-
19
such an occurrence would be an evil omen. They had no places set aside for worship, or public days
':r genera festivities. Not until we went to Taitai did I learn that in many of the houses there was another
:-e but smaller, made of cane, as it were a little tower, fashioned somewhat curiously, to whlch they
:..sed f rom the main house by a short bridge, also made of cane. ln these were kept their needlework
.-r cther sorts of handicraft, by means of which they concealed the mystery of the little house. From
-'r'mation that I received from some of the faithful, it was in reality dedicated to the anlto, although
-:. :fJered no sacrifice in it, nor did it serve for other use than as it was dedicated to him-perhaps
-a: he might rest there when on a journey, as Elias said to the other priests. I had all these houses
::rrolished, so that not one remained. I also lound in some little hamlets of the Plntados a small house at
:^= entrance of the village with only the roof and ground floor, which served as a place where sacrifices
=-: oerformed. But, after all, it was not the general practice to have any common place of worship, as did
'-= anc ent Pagans, or to come together to any one place for solemn rites, or to have public and general
.a:. frces offered in the name of the community. lndividuals, however, made offerings, each one for his
r,', 1 ntention or need, and in his own house or other private place; but they chose jointly their own priest,
-.zre or female (of whom there were many), according to their own devotion and taste. In Mindanao, I
:1,'i many houses furnished on the outside with small platforms made not unskillfully, of cane, and on
:-:se stood some little wooden idols very poorly carved; and in front of the idols was an earthen pot
::-ta ning some hot coals and a little of some disagreeable aromatic, which must have been a sacrifice
: .he idols,
But although those people had no temples, they had, in the second place, priests and priestesses, GUIDE *Uffi$H#ru$
,,-:m the Tagalogs call Catolonan, and the Bisayans Babailan. They vied with each who could best . How similar or dif{erent were
the descriptions of Chirino from
-,^rrLve with the Devil (who deceived them) to take advantage of the blindness of the people, to
P asencia's account of early
:::eive them by a thousand frauds and artifices, These priests practice many deceptions upon those Filiplno religious beliets?
: ^ded infidels-especially in cases of sickness with which the latter are afflicted, which so oppress o Was Chrrino's observation ot
the early F lipinos' religion
-.rr that they seek at once a remedy, and whomsoever gives or promises it to them they revere and
influenced by his being a iriar?
.',:'sh p, and grve him their all. lndeed there are some of these priests who have a special compact
, :- the Devil, who lends them signal aid and assistance, Almighty God permitting this for his own
- Sden purposes, The Devil communicates with them through their idols ot anitos, playing the role
-i the dead man whom they are adoring; and often he enters into the person of the priest himself,
':r the short space of the sacrifice, and makes him say and do things which overwhelm and terrlfy
:ne onlookers.
Source: Ihe Philippine /s/ands, Vol. Xll.
='Eh# #remtE*r: *f the Worldo" a Bicol Origin Myth

As an oral tradition, the last reading of the chapter is different from the first four Why are oral traditions considered
as primary sources? What are
because it is a myth from the natives themselves. As stated by Damiana Eugenio in the other e) anp es o' these so r.ces in
first book of the voluminous Philippine Folh Literature Seriu (l99l), "myths are the Phiiippine history?
prose narratives which, in the society which they are told, are considered to be truthful
accounts ofwhat happened in the remote past." She added that these myths are the story
of mankind and other creatures and their relationship with nature and the deities. Thus,
it is significant to include such literature in this textbook to grasp other forms of sources
as well as points of view
The following account is the creation myth of the Bicolanos as told by Rosario
Bonto, documented in the book Ethnography of the Bicol People.
21
Primary Source
Thousands and thousands of years ago, there was a time when the space occupied by the universe
was vacant. The moon, the sun, the stars, and the earth were conspicuous by their absence. Only the
vast expanse of water and the sky above it could be seen. The kingdom of the sky was under the rule
of the great god Languit, while the water was under the sovereignty of the god Tubigan. Languit had a
daughter called Dagat, the sea, who became the wife of Paros, the wind, who was the son of Tubigan.
Four children were born to Dagat and Paros, three of whom were boys called Daga, Aldao, and Bulan,
and one girl called Bitoon. Daga, a strong man, possessed a body of rock; Aldao, a jolly fellow, had
a body of gold; Bulan, a copper-made man, was a weakling; while the beautrful Bitoon was made of
pure silver. After the death of their father Paros, Daga, being the eldest son, succeeded in control of
the winds. Soon after, Dagat, the mother died, leaving her children under the care of the grandparents
Languit and Tubigan.
After assuming control of the winds, Daga became arrogant and ambitious, desiring to gain more
power, so he induced his younger brothers to attack the kingdom of Languit. At first they refused; at
Daga's anger, Bulan and Aldao were constralned to join him in his plot. Preparations were made and
when everythrng was ready, they set out on their expedition and began to attack the gates of the sky.
Failing to open the gates, Daga let loose the winds in all directions so that the gate was destroyed and
the brothers succeeded in gaining entrance. But they were met by the enraged Languit who set out three
bolts of lightning after them, All of them were struck by lightning, The copper body of Bulan melted into
a ball; so also was the golden body of Aldao. Daga's body fell into the sea and became what is now the
earth.
Their sister Bitoon, on discovering the absence of her brothers, went out to look for them. But upon
meeting the enraged god Languit, Bitoon was also struck by another bolt of lightning which broke her body
into many pieces. Then Languit descended from the sky and called Tubigan and accused him of helping
their grandsons in their attack on his kingdom. But Tubigan defended himself saying he had no knowledge
about the attack for he was asleep far down into the sea. Tubigan succeeded in pacifying Languit and the
two regretted and wept over the loss of their grandchildren. Since they could not revive them, they gave each
body a light.
GUIDE GUESH*ri!$ Tubigan then planted a seed which grew into a bamboo tree. From one of its branches came a man
. How different were the and a woman, who became the first parents of the human race. Three children were born to them. One
descriptions in this narrative called Maisog invented a fish trap. One day he caught such a very big and grotesque looking whale that
from the Spaniards' accounts of
ear y Filipino religious beliefs? he thought it was a god, so he ordered his people to worship it. The people gathered around and began
. What is the significance of a to pray; but no sooner they had begun, when gods from the sky appeared and commanded Maisog to
crealion or origin myth to a
throw the whale to the water and worship no one but the gods. But Maisog was noi afraid and def ied the
community?
gods. Languit, the king of the sky, struck Maisog with lightning and stunned him. Then he scattered the
people over the earth as a punishment. ln this way the earth was peopled.
Maisog's body was blackened by the lightning and all his descendants are black. But Maisog's son
was carried to the north and became the parent of the white people. His other children were brought
to the south where the sun was hot and it scorched their bodies so that all their people were of brown
color. The other people were carried to the east where they had to feed on clay due to scarcity of food.
Because of this diet, their descendants were of yellow color. ln this way the earth came into being.
Source Ethnography of the Bicol People,Yol. ll
arra!ri i 2 SPIRITUAL BELIEFS OF THE EARLY FILIPINOS

Chapter $ummary
Contrary to colonial perception, early Filipinos already had their own rich and complex
spiritual traditions before the Spanish colonization in the late sixteenth century. These
spiritual traditions and forms of worship varied throughout the archipelago due to
cultural, social, economic, geographical, and linguistic differences.
ln the precolonial period, women were empowered members of the community. These
were manifested in the existence of highly revered positions held by women as the local
priestesses of the barangay. They were called catalonan in Luzon and babaylan in the
Visayas.
Different accounts demonstrate contrasting perspectives. The religious (e.9., friars) may
portray early Filipinos' beliefs as pagan and devilish while laymen such as Loarca and
Morga can be more objective in their observations. Meanwhile, myths of the natives
(e.9., Bicolanos) can be seen as a reflection of their society, identity, and worldview.
Assessrnent
Compare and Contrast. Through an essay, explain the similarities and differences of the
following sets:
1. Early Filipino beliefs and forms of worship in Luzon and Visayas
2. Perspectives of the Spanish religious (e.9., Chirino and Plasencia), and laymen (e.9.,
Loarca and Morga) on the early Filipino spiritual traditions
3. Spanish primary sources and native traditions (e.g., Bicol creation story)
Suggested ffieadfrn'rgs
a Chirino, Pedro. History of the Philippine Province of the Society of Jesus. Vol. 1 .
o Corpuz, Onofre. "Chapter 1: Barangay, Crescent, Cross" inThe Rootsof the FilipinoNation,
vol. l. Hawaii: University of Hawaii Press, 2007.
Eugenio, Damiana. "lntroduction" in Philippine Folk Literature: An Anthology. Manila: UP
Press, 2007.
o "Chapter 7: Vessels of the Afterlife" in KASAYSAYAN: The Story of the Filipino People,
vol. 2. Manila: Reader's Digest Association, 1998.
Scott, William Henry. "Chapter 4: Beligion" in Barangay: Sixteenth-century Phitippine
Culture and Society. Manila: Ateneo University Press, 1994.
Scott, William Henry. "Chapter 1: Archaeology" in Prehispanic Source Materials for the
Study of Philippine History. Quezon City: New Day Publishers, 1984.
rirililra :i i, j:]i+: :1,

':*lir.illilri:#
i*,$iiiitffi
i.
g"
Opposite page. Before Spanish colonization, the barangay is

the pimary political, economic, and sociocultural rnstitution
in the Philippines. As a form of community, the barangay is
composed of three socioeconomic classes: the ruling class
or nobility, commoners or freemen, and slaves. The datu, a
member of the nobility, leads the barangay.
*HATTffirc $E$
Early Philippine
Society and Culture
efore the advent of Spanish colonization, the barangay was the primary political,
economic, and sociocultural institution in the Philippines. Among other factors,
the archipelagic nature of our country allowed these localized, independent, and
decentralized communities to exist. A barangay can be composed of 30-100 families
living in a not well-defined, but customarily agreed territory. A barangay can also form
an alliance with other barangays to become powerful and prosperous. This can be
achieved through marriage and blood compact. Meanwhile, the baranganic society can
be divided into three socioeconomic classes. First is the ruling class or nobility. They
are known as maginoo in Thgalog and hadatoaz in Visayan. Second are the commoners
or freemen. They formed the majority of the people in the barangay. They are known
as maharlika in tgalog and timaua in Visayan. Last are the slaves. 'l1re slavery system
in the Philippines was different from other societies since "slaves" were not considered
properry but a person becomes one through debt bondage, raids and wars, and
5SilS$$ B** t2*s

?' =.'-': at,cns with Tang dynasty of Polltical and socioeconomic cond tions A Chinese otficial from Fukien province
are manifested in the Laguna named Chao Ju-Kua, wrote Chu
copperplate nscrlplion. Fan-Chi, an account describing the
condition of the Philippines and its
people.
punishmenr for a crime. While there are distinctions and differences in these social
classes, social mobiliry was possible in this kind of society. Members of the barangay,
particularly the commoners, can even transfer to other barangay if they are against rule
of the datu, the highest official of the barangay. As the most powerful person in the
barungay, the datu must be from the ruling class because wealth, power, and influence
were needed to maintain such position. Vith help of the elders and other lesser officials,
the datu governs the barangay as its primary maker, executot and adjudicator of laws.
He was also responsible in providing protection for the barangay in times of raids and
wars as the leader of the bagani, the warriors of the communiry.
\7hile the previous chapter talks about early Filipino beliefs, this chapter would
focus on culture and society of these Filipinos to familiarize students of history to
different cultural and social patterns such as social stratification, marriage customs,
slavery, clothing and ornaments, and even food and dainties of the barangay. This
IATE T&TI{ *HT.ITUfrY L,qrff 1 STF$*€A*LY xTTi{ Cffi tiCTuRif$

The Boxer Codex, one of the most important accounts describing M ssionaries document pre-Hispanic traditions of early Filip nos
the early Filipino cu ture and society, was published.
25
:
4
r
FOCUS AUESTIONS chapter would also dispel the colonial idea of 'uncivilized' Filipinos. Through the
How was early Filipino society discussion and analysis of primary sources coming from the religious and the laity,
and culture like before the the students will discover the rich, complex, and unique traditions and customs of
Spanish colonization?
early Filipinos.
LEARNING
SBJECTIVES Excerpt from Labor Evangeliea; #f ffte G*vsret*eersf
At the end of the chapter the and Political Custom$ of f$ese Peaples, hy Frmnsfrsss
student should be able tor
. Explain the significance of
Solin, $.J.
the barangay as a political, The first document of this chapter is written by Francisco Colin (1592'1660), one of
economic, and socio-cultural the most prominent Jesuit missionary and historian of the early colonial period. In his
institution
. posthumously-published work Labor Euangelica (1653), Colin discusses the customs
Discuss the similarities and
differences of the early social and traditions of the natives of the Philippines as well as people from other parts of
stratification of Tagalog and Southeast Asia such as Sumarra and Moluccas. He also studied the local languages
Visayan societies
o Differentiate the slavery system which was insrrumental in the understanding of early Filipino culture and society.
of Early Filipino societies from Colint Labor Euangelica was considered an attempt to expand Chirinot Relacion
other societies in history
. thereby becoming Jesuitt "official" account in their mission in the Philippines. Colin
Explain lhe biases of the
primary soLrrces in discussing was a contemporary of other prominent Jesuit writers such as Francisco Combes (1620-
early Philippine cultural 1665) and Francisco Ignacio Alcina (1610-1674).
tradition
. Give a specific example of lnhis Labor Euangelica, the most studied groups are the Thgalogs and the Visayans
early Filipino social and cultural wherein Colin discussed at length their physical appearance, clothing, marriage, eating
practice which persist up to the
present.
patterns, songs and dances, and even their bathing habits. However, the excerpt below
would focus on the social structure, government and political customs of these two
groups of early Filipinos.
Primary Source
There were no kings or rulers worthy of mention, throughout this archipelago; but there were many chiefs
Despite the defined social who dominated others less powerful. As there were many without much power, there was no security
hierarchy, the baranganic society from the continual wars that were waged between them, Manila had two chiefs, uncle and nephew,
allowed social mobility. Debt
bondage, slave raiding, war,
who had equal power and authority. They were at war with another chief, who was chief alone; and he
and changing socio-economic was so near that they were separated from one another by nothing more than a not very wide river. The
conditions can affect one's social
same conditions ruled in all the rest of the island, and of even the whole archipelago, until the entrance
standing.
of the faith, when they were given peace-which they now esteem much more than all that they then
obtained from those petty wars and their depredations. They were divided into barangays, as Roma into
districts, and our cities into parishes or collations. They are called barangays, which is the name of a
boat, preserving the name from the boat in whlch they came to settle these islands. Since they came
subject to one leader in their barangay, who acted as their captain or pilot-who was accompanied by
his children, relatives, friends, and comrades-after landing, they kept in company under that leader,
who is the dato. Seizing the lands, they began to cultivate them and to make use of them. They seized
as much of the sea and near-by rivers as they could preserve and defend from any other barangay, or
from many barangays, according as they had settled near or far from others. Although on all occasions
some barangays aided and protected others, yet the slave or even the timaua or freemen could not
pass from one barangay to another, especially a married man or a married woman, without paying a
certain quantity of gold, and giving a public feast to his whole barangay; where this was not done, it
was an occasion for war between the two barangays. lf a man of one barangay happened to marry
a woman of another, the children had to be divided between the barangays, in the same manner as
the slaves.
CliAP.i[:F 3 EARLY PHILIPPINE SOCIETY AND CULIURE

Their laws and policy, which were not very barbarous for barbarians, consisted wholly of traditions +ffi
"r*iiH
and customs, observed with so great exactness that it was not considered possible to break them in any
circumstance. One was the respect of parents and elders, carried to so great a degree that not even the The Datu was the political ruler of
name of one's father could pass the lips, in the same way as the Hebrews [regarded] the name of God.
the barangay. As lhe rain warrior.
he was responsible for the safety
The individuals, even the children, must follow the general [custom], There were other laws also. For the of the barangay. He also had
determination of their suits, both civil and criminal, there was no other judge than the said chief , with the shares in the tributes paid by the
people called buhis.lhe datu was
assistance of some old men of the same barangay. With them the suit was determined in the following usually the wealthiest person in
form. They had the opponents summoned, and endeavored to have them come to an agreement. the barangay. Notably, wealth is a
requirement to become a datu.
But if they would not agree, then an oath was administered to each one, to the effect that he would
abide by what was determined and done. Then they called for witnesses, and examined summarily. As the arbiter of the law. the datu
lf the proof was equal [on both sides], the difference was split but, if it were unequal, the sentence acted as judge ol the barangay. In
determining the guilt or innocence
was given in favor of the one who conquered. lf the one who was defeated resisted, the judge made of a violator, the datu was assisted
himself a party to the cause, and all of them at once attacked with the armed hand the one defeated, by the elders ol the barangay.
and execution to the required amount was levied upon him. The judge received the larger share of
fde timawaswere the commoners
this amount, and some was paid to the witnesses of the one who won the suit, while the poor litigant or freemen in the early Tagalog
received the least. society. Their Visayan counterparts
were the maharlikas.
In criminal causes there were wide distinctions made because of the rank of the murderer and the
slain; and if the latter were a chief all his kinsmen went to hunt for the murderer and his relatives, and both
sides engaged in war, until mediators undertook to declare the quantity of gold due for that murder, in
accordance with the appraisals which the old men said ought to be paid according to their custom. One
half of that amount belonged to the chiefs, and the other half was divided among the wife, children, and
relatives of the deceased. The penalty of death was never imposed by process of law, except when the
murderer and his victim were common men and had no gold to satisfy the murder. In such a case, if the
man's dato or maginoo (for these are one and the same) did not kill him, the other chiefs did, spearing
him after lashing him to a stake.
There are three kinds and classes of people: the chiefs, whom the Visayans call dato and the GUIDE *UHSTI*FJS
Tagdlogs maginoo; the timauas, who are the ordinary common people, called maharlicd among the . What was the role of the
barangay in the political and
Tag6logs; and the slaves, called oripuenby lheY isayans and alipinby the Tag6logs. The last are divided
social life o{ the natives?
into several kinds, as we shall relate soon. The chiefs attain that position generally through their blood; . How did early Filiplnos classify
or, if not that, because of their energy and strength. For even though one may be of low extraction, the people in the barangay?
. How was justice served in the
if he is seen to be careful, and if he gains some wealth by his industry and schemes-whether by
barangay?
farming and stock-raising, or by trading; or by any of the trades among them, such as smith, jeweler, or
carpenter; or by robbery and tyranny, which was the most usual method-in that way he gains authority
and reputation, and increases it the more he practices tyranny and violence. With these beginnings,
he takes the name of dato; and others, whether his relatives or not, come to him, and add credit and
esteem to him, and make him a leader. Thus there is no superior who gives him authority or title, beyond
his own efforts and power. Consequently, might was proclaimed as right, and he who robbed most and
tyrannized most was the most powerful. lf his children continued those tyrannies, they conserved that
grandeur. lf on the contrary, they were men of little ability, who allowed themselves to be sublugated,
or were reduced either by misfortunes and disastrous happenings, or by sicknesses and losses, they
lost their grandeur with their possessions, as is customary throughout the world; and the fact that they
had honored parents or relatives was of no avail to them, or is of no avail to them now. In this way it has
happened that the father might be a chief, and the son or brother a slave-and worse, even a slave to
his own brother.
Source: Ihe Philippine /s/ands, Vol. XL
27
ffixc*rpt frsm ffefseson de {as lslas Filipinas
hy &#iguefl *e Learea
As discussed in the previous chapter, Miguel de Loarcawas one of the first conquistadores
Fanega was a unit in Spanish to arrive in the Philippines wherein he observed the traditions of the narives before they
measurement. lt was used in
were converted to Catholic faith. As a loyal Spanish military ofHcer, Loarca also became
agricultural products such rice and
other grains. lt is roughly equivalent one of the earliest encomenderos in the country when Miguel Lopez de Legazpi granted
to 55.5 liters. him lands in Panay Island particularly in Oton. During his stay in the Visayas, Loarca
widely observed and studied the Visayan customs, traditions, and languages. Thus, it is
not surprising when Governor-General Ronquillo requested him to write en account
of the colony to be sent to King Philip II. This led to the birth of Rekcion de las klat
Filipinas (1582).
In his Relacion, Loarca documented the native cultural traditions of the early
The slavery system in early Filipinos. As one of the earliest accounts of the islands, Relacion became the foundation
Philippines is quite different from and basis of some succeeding accounts in the early colonial period. His work might
transatlantic slavery of yesteryears.
The most common way to become be similar to other accounts of the late 16th century but the advantage of this
a slave was through debt bondage pioneering narrative is its non-religious perspective which was quite different from its
contemporaries. This excerpt from Relaciont ninth chapter would talk about the 'laws
of slavery' in the Visayas.
Primary Source
Laws of slavery: No lndian in this country is made a slave or is put to death for any crime which he
commits, even if it be theft, adultery, or murder-except that for each crime there is an established
fine, which they have to pay in jewels or gold, and if the culprit is unable to pay the fine he will
borrow the money, and pledge himself to the man from whom he borrows. As a result he becomes
a save, until he shall repay what was lent to him; after that, he is free again. Therefore, according
to the crime committed, they are slaves; and there are three classes of slaves in these islands.
The first, and the most thoroughly enslaved, is the bondman of him who is served in his own
dwelling; such a slave they call ayuey. These slaves work three days for the master, and one
for themselves.
Another class of slaves are those called tumaranpoc. They live in their own houses, and are obliged
to go to work for their master one day out of four, having the three days for themselves. lf they fail to work
for their master, in order to cultivate their own fields, they give the master each year ten qhicubites of rice,
each qhicubite being equal Io one fandga.
There are other slaves, whom these people hold in most respect, who are called tomatabans; these
work in the house of the master only when there is some banquet or revel. On such occasions they bring
small gifts, and share in the drinking. But when one of these slaves dies, the property left by the slave
is shared with his children by the master. During their lifetime, these slaves are bound to work for their
master five days in a month; or, if they do not work, they annually give the master five qhicubites
ol rice.
Value of the slave: The ayueys are worth among these people two gold taes of Labin sian, the
equivalent of twelve pesos. The tumaranpoques are worth the same sum. The tumatabans are worth
one tae, or six pesos.
The ayuey women, like their husbands, work in the houses of chiefs. The tumaranpoque women, if
they have children, serve half of the month in spinning and weaving cotton, which their masters supply;
and during the other half of the month they work for themselves. The tumataban women spin only one
hank of cotton each month for their masters, who furnish to them the cotton in the boll. Only the ayueys
receive food and clothing from their masters; to the others the masters give nothing. When these slaves
CHAP'IIP 3 E,TILY PHILIPPINE SOCIETY AND CULTURE

die, the masters take away all their property, except from the tomatabans, as we have said above. Those
whom these natives have sold as slaves to the Spaniards are mostly the ayueys.
The rules which they observe for punishing any one so severely as to enslave him are as follows:
for murder, adultery, and theft; and for insulting any woman of rank, or taking away her robe in public
and leaving her naked, or causing her to flee or defend herself so that it falls off, which is considered a
7''at oflense.
I rhieves: lf a thief commits a great robbery, he and all his relatives (or at least his nearest kin) are GUIDE GUffi$TiGI\IS
) 're: ll they are unable to pay the fine, they are made slaves. This law applies to all classes, and even . How did Loarca describe
the system of slavery oi the
I :r the chiefs themselves; accordingly, if a chief commit any crime, even against one of his own slaves or
Pintados?
(
:'nauas, he is fined in the same manner. But they are not reduced to slavery for lack of means to pay the . How simiiar or different was
f ine; as, if they were not chiefs, they would be slaves. ln case of a small theft, the punishment falls upon Loarca's description of the
slaves in the early Filipino
f the thief alone, and not on his relatives.
society from other slave
I ln time of famine: When there is a famine, the poor who have not the means of sustenance, in order societies in history?
t not to perish, go to the rich-and almost always they seek their relatives and surrender themselves to
s them as slaves-in order to be fed.
s Source: Ihe Philippine /s/ands, Volume V
s
Excerpts from Cronicas
by Juan Francisco de San Antsnis
Juan Francisco de San Antonio is a missionary of the Franciscan order. Coming from the
€ order of zealous and infuential missionaries such Juan de Plasencia and Pedro de San
d Buenaventura, San Antoniot account of early Filipino customs is deserving of its place
iil in the Franciscan's (1738-44) rich contributions to early Filipino historiography. His
}S Cronicas or Philippine Cltronicles is a comprehensive study of the early Filipinos as well
€ as the Chinese and the Japanese in the Philippines during the early colonial period. He
also discusses some parts of Mindanao and even other parts of Southeast Asia. He gives
rn a detailed discussion of early Filipino beliefs like his predecessors but San Antonio gives
)€ a more detailed account on superstitious beliefs and omens. San Antonio also speculates
on the origins of the early Filipino people but none of those were well-founded. The
)d nadve languages, clothing, ornaments, and physical features of the Filipinos were also
rk thoroughly tackled in Cronicas.
€. However, the focus of this excerpt is the Visayans marriage custom. In the account
below, San Antonio thoroughly discussed, not just the marriage rituals and ceremonies
s€ of the Visayans, but also their dowry sysrem.
rg
ve Primary Source
eir It was not usual for them to have more than one own wife, and one own husband; but those who were
)e. chiefs and wealthy were allowed to have some slaves as concubines, especially if their own wives did
he not prove fruitful. Only among the Visayans did the first religious ministers of the gospel f ind established
rth the custom of one man having many legitimate wives, and that of large dowries, which was no small
obstruction to the planting of the gospel. The general rule was for each man to have one legitimate
Lif wife; and they tried to obtain one who was of their own family, and even very closely related to them,
fy; barring out the first degree, for that was always a direct impediment to their marriage. Their marriages
ne were not indissoluble, as are those of Christians. For if the consorts returned the dowry, one to the
,ys other, the one at fault to the one without blame, that was sufficient for repudiation; and they could marry
res others, unless the couple had children, in which case all the dowry was given to these. lf profits had
29
I .,.,
4..
been made with the lapse of time, while they had lived together, those profits
them both, if the gains were in common but if they were the secret gains
were divided between
of one of them, then that one
,][a
v
kept them.
The dowry, which is called bigaycdya, was always given by the man (and
it is even yet given),
The dowry ot bigaycayawas gtven the parents of the girl determining the sum beforehand, at the time when they
discussed the marriage.
by the groom to the bride's parents.
The parents of the bride received that dowry, and neither the bride nor her parents
The practice of dowry varied contributed
depending on the socioeconomic any fund. The dowry was set according to the rank of the contracting parties;
and if, perchance,
status of the couple. the parents of the bride asked more than the ordinary sum, they were under obligations
to bestow
some gift to the married couple to suit the occasion as, for instance, a couple
of slaves, some small
gold jewel, or a bit of cleared land-for cultivation, as I have seen practiced
even yet, and which
they called pasondr' ln this bigaycaya was included what they called panhimiyat,
which was the
sum that had to be paid to the mother of the bride in return for her care and
labor in the rearing
and education of her daughter. In it was also included the pasdso, or the sum that was
to be pald
b lne chichiva, or nurse, who had reared her. At present, if perhaps there is no bigaycaya in any
marriage, for any reason, they never fail to collect these revenues from the groom,
upon which there is
generally a suit.
This dowry or bigaycaya was and is given before the marriage with all the
solemnity that they can
muster up, amid a great concourse of maguinoos, relatives, and friends of
the lovers. The latter are given
the crosses on the money to kiss, which is counted and exhibited in public, in confirmation
of the pact;
and then the marriage is immediately celebrated with feastlng and rejoicing. The
employment of this
bigaycaya is not the same in all the villages. ln some it is all converted into the property
of the parents
of the bride, by way of trade, they selling their daughter (as do those of Mesopotamia)
for a reasonable
price lf the men do not possess the wherewrthal with which to buy them prompily,
innumerable sins
follow and the two live in improper relations, even to the knowledge of the parents
themselves-the
young man serving as a servant rn the houses of the latter to do
their will, but in the capacity of a son,
as far as familiarity and permission for evil are concerned. Many efforts
are employed to extirpate this
diabolical abuse, but it still costs great toil. Under the title ot catipado.s (thus
they call those who are
engaged for marriage) are some concubinages legitimate for all time, for
which the bigayceya is not
necessary. Having given up the bigayceya, the poor couple is left
destitute, for the parents of the bride
take charge of everything,
That money is better used in some villages; for it serves to provide
all kinds of clothes for the bride,
and for one-half the expenses of the wedding (which are generally very great),
and the parochial fees
of the marriage, so that scarcely any is left for the parents of the couple.
This is the practice that I have
seen observed where I have been. These and other ogalis (which
are customs)
can only have their origin
in the past, and come from father to son, and even there is variety
in them, according to their distinct
origrns,
t.l
The dowry was never returned to the one who gave tt, unless the
son-in-law were so obedient to his
parents-in-law that he should win their affection, in which
case they returned him the dowry, at the death
of any one; but this was rather a matter of charity than of obligation,
as all confess, If the woman who was
to be married was aione, and had neither parents nor grandparents, she
herself and no other received
the dowry At present, the greed of the lndians must be greater; for
this poor lone woman is never without
either the chichiva who gave her the breast, who will not be left without
her payment, or uncle, aunt, or
other relative in whose care she has been because of the loss of her legitimate parents.
And since the
above consider themselves as her parents in this matter (lhe pinaca
ama, asthe lndtans call it) they take
upon themselves the place of her parents, and get all the money, just
as if they were the true parents.
Ci.JAFI ER 3 EARLY PHILIPPINE SOCIETY AND CULTURE

Alltherelativesandfriendswhogotoweddingswerealsowonttotakeeachsomelittlepresent,
ThesegiftsWeresetdownVerycarefullyandaccurately,inanaccount,notingWhatevereachone
gave.ForifPedroSo.and.SogavetworealsatthisWedding,tworealswerealsogiventohimithe
the is due for
nad another wedding in his house. All
this money iS Spent, either in paying, if anything
wedding,oraSanaidintheexpenses.oriftheparentsofboththeyoungcoupleareniggardly,theyhouse
furnishing of the
generous, they use it in the pamamuhay, or
divide it and keep it. lf they are
cfthecouple.Consequently,thereisnoregularCustominthis.Thenearestrelativesgivethecouple
ajewelasamarkofaffection,butdonotgivemoney.Theselewelsbelongtothebride,andtono
cne else.
Threedaysbeforetheweddinga|ltherelativesofbothpartiesassembleatthehouseWhereitisto
cecelebrated,tomakellrepehpeh'whichisasorto{bower,bywhichtheymakethehouselargerso
tnatallthegUestsmaybeaccommodatedeasily.Theyspendthreedaysinmakingthis.Thenextthree
caysarethosecustomarytotheweddinganditsfeast'Consequently,therearesixdaysofexpense,
c{racket,ofreveling,ofdancingandsinging,untiItheyfallasleepwithfatigueandrepletion,allhelter-
gets his little harvest--now
from this perverse river the devil in turn
skelter without any distinction. often
lnquarrelsandmlshapswhichhavehappened,andnowinothermorecommonsins;thegreatest
vgilanceofthefatherministersisinsufficienttostopthesewrongs,andtherearenohumanforces
talthough there ought to be)
which can banish these pernicious ogalls
GUIDE AUESTIONS
lntheoldendaystheyemployedcertainridiculousceremonies,whichhadbutlittledecency o How did Juan Francisco de
attendlngtheintercourseofthecoup|eUponthenightofthewedding,customswhichhavenowbeen San Antonio describe the
Visayan marriage tradition?
:otallyuprooted'Theleastindecentwasthecomingofthecatalonaorbabaylantocelebratethe . How did the VisaYan dowrY
espousa|s'Theybroughtahogforthispurpose,andWithitandonitperformedtheirritesaSinother
women system work?
old
on their bridal bed' in the laps of certain .
sacrifices. The young couple seated themselves Has this dowry system
persisted uP to now? ExPlain
whoplayedthepartofgodmothersoftheespousal'Thesewomenfedtheyoungcouplewiththeirown your answer'
nandsfromonedish,andtheybothdrankfromonevessel.Thegroomsaidthathelovedthebride'and
Shethatshe|ovedthegroom'Thereupontheshoutsofjoybrokeout,andcries,andtherewassinging
anddancinganddrinking.Thenthecatalonaarosewithgreatgravity,andsomanyWeretheblessings
thatSheshowereddownUpontheyoungcouplethat,accordingtosomethatlhaveheardamongthese
natives,theywouldexceedwithoutanydoubttheflatteriesofourgypsymenandwomen,Whentheytell
the fortune of one who has given them
a large reward
Source: rhe Philippinels/ands' vol xL'
ExcerPt fr*m: the El*xe r Cadex

account of the Philippines and other parts of
7he Boxer cod.ex \s a comprehensive
Prominently acquired by the British lcholar
fuia-pacific in the late sixteenth cenrury. Artist
was then translated by the National
Charles R. Boxer in 1947,the manuscript
Garcia and Mauro Garcia' Anonymously-
carlos Quirino, and scholars Ma. Luisa
aurhored, this work is a significant source
of early Filipino belief systems' customs'
and colored illustrations found in this
and tradition. fUo.. i*porl.rtly, the detailed
contemporary accounts which makes it
manuscript ser this .od.* "p".i from other
philippine historiography. The original of the Boxer
highly important to -manuscript
in their Lilly Library' one of the largest
:-l codex is presently housed by Indiana Universiry
book and manuscript libraries in the United
States'
^l rare
Theexcerptb.lo*isfromthefourthchapterofthecodextitled..Customs,
CeremoniallJsages,andRitesoftheBisaya,,s,,whe.einthefocusisonthetattooingand
clothing traditions of the Visayans'
31
tB Primary Source
The Bisayans are accustomed to paint their bodies with some very elegant tattoos. They do this with
Morga's Sucesos de las lslas iron or brass rods, the points of which are heated on a fire. They have artisans who are adept at this.
Fil ipinas was promrnently They do this with such order, symmetry, and coordination that they elicit admiration from those who see
annotated by Dr Jose B zal n
1890. His annotation g ves light
them. These are done in the manner of illuminations, painting all parts of the body, such as the chest,
to the precolonia conditions of the stomach, legs, arms, shoulders, hands, muscles, and among some, the posteriors. The women paint
the Philippines as well during
only the hands very elegantly. To the men, these paintings serve as clothing, and thus they look alright
the Spanish co on zation. Rizal
commented, if not corrected, although they usually go around naked, and wear nothing on the body except a cotton cloth two fathoms
many of Morga's observations on long or a bit longer, and threeJourths of a fathom wrde, which with a few poltshed turns, they wrap
precolonial Philippines.
around the waist and between the legs so as to cover their private parts and posteriors, leaving the rest
Phata coutlesy af Wikimedta Cammons
of the body naked This cloth they call in their longue bahaque, and with this and the paintings on their
bodies, they look well as if they were dressed very elegantly. They have another type of clothing, which
consists of cotton blankets that they make into morning wear. These are closed at the front. The men
carry on their heads some very fine multi-colored head-scarfs which they wear as some sort of Turkish
turban. They call these in their language purones, and they certainly are nice-looking and elegant. The
young men wear them very finely with many inserts of strips of gold.
The garments and dresses of Bisayan women consist of some blankets with diverse colored stripes
made of cotton, and others are made from a plant they have; some wear plain tafetta and damask that
come from China. These are made as follows: a blanket is sewn in such a way it becomes like a big
sack of wheat with two openings; the head is placed through one of opening, folding it down to the
waist with both openings of the blanket falling below; a slipknot with the same blanket is made above
the waist by grasping it since it is very wide to be able to make the knot; it then hugs the body, with
the knot to one side, very elegantly done, and now it appears as if they were wearing a dress with two
skirts. One side is longer than the other because of the fold they make, and they appear in this fashion
I have described With this they wear a pezuelo, a chemise with half sleeves that reach the elbows,
although some wear them with full sleeves. They are close fitting, without collars, and are low-necked
or low-cut and are fastened at the front with braids or cords of silk. Many wear a lot of gold jewelry that
they use as fasteners and small golden chains, which they use as best as they can. They do not wear
any kind of blouse, nor have they become used to it, because all they wear is next to the skin; the waist
and the stomach, together with the egs, are uncovered to palm length. When they go out, they bring a
GUIDE ffiUffiSTEffihES shawl-like wrap made of white cotton, some of colored tafetta. When the women leave their homes to
. How d d the author describe visit others, they walk very slowly, making a thousand movements with their body, with one sleeved arm
the tattooing and clothing upraised, because they consider it fashionable to do so. The men likewise do so, and if belonging to the
customs of the Visayans?
. What ls the slgnificance of
principalia, the women wear crowns and garlands on their heads made of tinsel imported from China,
tattoo and body ornaments to and sometimes when they do not have these, they wear garlands made of roses and flowers from the
the Visayans?
f ields.
Source: Boxer Codex
ffix**rpt fr*m S*s*es*s #e dms $sd*s Fr$rprr*as

hy Amt*r:** de tuTmngm
Antonio de Morgat massive Sucesos dr las Ishs Filipinas (1609) was one of the most
important account of the Philippines in the early colonial period. This account was
made possible because of Morgas access to government documents as a member of
the Royal Audiencia. Thus, it is not surprising that numerous aspects of the cultural
traditions of early Filipinos were documented in the Sucesos. However, as stated in
the last chapter, some of Morga's statements were prominently annotated by fuzal in
CI-IAPIIB ]J EARLY PHILIPPINE SOCIETY AND CULTURE

STUDY AE*
:fagbuk,and siXri;,ially Eilipin'o.an+uqrc 56rr1h t&ian"sopieti6had,a:cultur'al an+ "

sexual practice that shocked the spaniards such as Pigafetta Loarca, and Morga due to
its peculiarity. It was the ,rrg" of tugbuk or penis pin and sakra or penis ring by men in
place
the community ihey must be used simultaneously because the pin holds the rinq in
eocO,@tO,itudies,, ugnuk,andqakrawasusedlo.qi woneen.s+xu.afBlea'9"'
is hig,hfy Ootic esentation$heegAli.tari rn€nd:autalromy en in
Southeast Asian communities.
1889. Some of the annotarions focused on the early Filipino warring traditions and
advancement in weaponqr, native boatbuilding tradition, tattooing, adornments,
rveaving, and gastronomy. One of the more famous of fuzalt annotation was regarding
the eating of bagoong or fish paste by the Filipinos. Morga stated in Sucesos that Filipinos
rvere fond of eating decayed frsh. Rizal, however, correctly argued that when it comes to
food, people are easily repulsed with what they are not used to eat especially if it comes
from foreign counrries. fuzal added that this kind of prejudice is common among all
nations even in Europe.
The excerpt below is quite related from the example above because it would also
discuss an old-age delicacy. V&ile the account of Morga in the second chapter talks
T about the pagan religion of the early Filipinos, this account would discuss a seemingly
i irrelevant and outdated parcel of our gastronomic culture; the nganga or betel chew.
i Presently, the people from the Cordillera and other parts of Mindanao are just some of
I the few groups in the Philippines who chose to still chew nganga but as one might infer
1 from the excerpt, the dying tradition was very much alive and important in the lives of
l the people in the pre-colonial and colonial periods.
33
rt
Betel chew or buyo was a staple
Primary Source
The ordiriary dainty throughout these islands, and in many klngdoms of the mainland of those regions, is
buyolbelel). This is made from a tree, whose leaf is shaped like that of the mulberry. The fruit resembles
of every household in precolonial an oak acorn, and is white inside. This fruit, which is called bonga, is cut lengthwise in strips, and each
and Spanish Philippines. Due
to its popularity, the betel was strip is put into an envelope or covering made from the leaf. With the bongais thrown in a powder of
monopolized by the Spanish quick lime. This compound is placed in the mouth and chewed. lt is so strong a mixture, and burns so
government to generate revenues
much, that it rnduces sleep and intoxication. lt burns the mouths of those not used to it, and causes
for the colony. Today, betel chewing
is still practiced in the Cordillera them to smart. The saliva and all the mouth are made as red as blood. lt does not taste bad. After having
and parts of Mindanao. been chewed for a considerable time it is spit out, when it no longer has any juice, which is called gapa
[sap5]. They consider very beneficial that quantity of the juice which has gone into the stomach, for
strengthening it, and for various diseases. lt strengthens and preserves the teeth and gums from all
inflammations, decay, and aches. They tell other wonderful effects of it. What has been seen is that the
natives and Spaniards-laymen and religious, men and women-use it so commonly and generally that
mornings and afternoons, at parties and visits, and even alone in their houses, all their refreshments
and luxuries consist of buyos served on heavily-gilded and handsomely adorned plates and trays like
chocolate in Nueva Espafra. ln these poison has been often administered from which the persons eating
them have died, and that quite commonly.
GUIDE GUfrSTIONS The natives (especially the chiefs) take whenever they leave their houses, for show and
. What are the ingredients in entertainment, their boxes of buyos-which they call buccetas-ready to use, and the leat, bonga, and
preparing betel chew? quick lime, separately. With these handsome boxes, which are made of metal and of other materials,
o How widespread is the
'consumption' of this delicacy? they carry the scissors and other tools for making the buyo with cleanliness and neatness. Wherever
. What is the importance of they may stop, they make and use their buyo. ln the pari6ns, or bazars, buyos are sold ready made, and
betel chew in the lives of early
the outfit for making them.
Filipinos?
Source: Ihe Philippine /s/ands, Vol. XVI
CHAP.I-Ei] J EARLY PHILIPPINE SOCIEry AND CULTURE

Chapter SumxmmrY
As opposed to colonial perception, early Filipinos already had their own rich and complex
traditions and customs before the coming of the Spaniards in late sixteenth century.
These cultural patterns varied throughout the archipelago due to social, geographic,
and linguistic dif{erences.
The barangay was the primary political, economic, and sociocultural institutlon in the
philippines before Spanish colonization. The baranganic society can be divided into
three socioeconomic classes namely: Ruling class (maginoo in Tagalog and kadatoanin
Visayas), Commoners (maharlika in Tagalog and timawa in Visayas), and Slaves (a/ptn
in Tagalog and oilpun in VisaYas).
The system of slavery in the Philippines was different from other societies since the
slaves are not properties. One can become a slave through unpaid debts, punishment,
and raids. Another characteristic of this kind of slavery is that there was a high possibility
of becoming a freeman.
Early Filipinos had a highly complex marriage customs as well as tattooing tradition
just
and body ornamentation. Meanwhile, the betel chew as a staple dainty was not
consumed by the Filipinos but also by the Chinese and the Spaniards'
Various accounts demonstrate different perspectives as exemplified by the excerpts
of this chapter. The religious (e g., friars) may portray early Filipino customs as pagan
and barbaric while laymen such as Morga and Loarca can be more objective in their
accounts. Nonetheless, one must always be aware of the biases of the accounts'
Ass*gmEmsrfrt
=ssay: ln five to ten sentences, discuss and elaborate the following topics:
The slavery system: customary laws that governed slavery in the Philippines
The Visayan dowry system: The role of resources in Visayan marriage
Perspectives of the Spanish religious, and laymen on the early Filipino customs
The centrality of barangay in the lives of early Filipinos
Suggested ffiemdEmg*
. Chirino, Pedro. History of the Philippine Province of the Society of Jesus, Vol. 1 .
. Corpuz, Onofre. "Chapter 1 : Barangay, Crescent, Cross" in The Roots of the FilipinoNation,
vol. l. Hawaii: University of Hawaii Press, 2007.
. "Chapter 18: Austronesian Connection" in KASAYSAYAN: The Story of the Filipino
People. vol 2. Manila; Reader's Digest Association, 1998. .it
. Scott, William Henry "Chapter 12: Tagalog Society and Religion" in Barangay: Sixteenth
l ::l,lir:::+
.ii:.fi
'-'.
century Philippine culture and society. Manila: Ateneo University Press, 1994 ,
. Scott, William Henry. Archaeology" in Prehispanic Sol)rce Materials for the Study of
l Ii*E toryQuezor,rctv'Newib'a$iFildf Grier,sr'ii
.i!.fi
D[r}1niga.M atnez, a| Historica1 view of tne rntiipptnet:liiin ita,ffiS'
j.+i
tl
i,+
$
n;4'l:rr
King Philip ll of Spain ordered the colonizatian of the Philippines to further expand the Spanish empie, acquie
Chrlstianity' The phota abave shows the blaad campact between Miguel Lopez de Legazpi, the commander of
Sikatuna, ane af the leaders af Bohol, on March 16, 1565.
the wealth and rcsources of the archipelago, and spread
the spanish torces sent ta colanize the country, and Datu
I
:'-.-
Phota caurtesy of Qaalvinryikimedia Commans. ,:-
UNIT TW*
Spanish Colonization
of the Philippines
his unit covers the Spanish colonization of the Philippines, a period that spanned
for more than 300 years. One reads the hospitality extended by the early Filipinos
to Magellant expedition, aswell as a description of the Battle of Mactan written
:r- Antonio Pigafetta, chronicler of the Magellan Expedition. Instructions given by the
ing of Spain to Miguel Lopez de Legazpi to establish a Spanish settlement are also
:resented.
Furthermore, this unit includes excerpts from primary sources documenting the
rnrroduction of Spanish colonial institutions such as the reduccion (settlement of the
:ilipinos in newly created towns), the payment of tribute, and forced labor.
Three responses of Filipinos to Spanish colonization are discussed in this unit. These
:re the early revolts, the campaign for reforms, and the revolution against Spain.
Opposite page. The Battle of Mactan. Lapu-Lapu, one of the
chieftains of Mactan, refused to honor Spanish sovereignty in
the archipelago. ln turn, Ferdinand Magellan decided to help
Lapu-Lapu's rival, Zulua, in fighting Lapu-Lapu On the ensuing
battle of April 27, 1521, Ferdinand Magellan was killed and his
forces were defeated by the natives.
f,\tJ J\ ffiTTr}
u"rrFqr t mffi
E\ F
EV
The Philippines Becomes

A Spanish Colony
uring the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, Europe saw an age ofexploration
and expansion brought about by various factors. First, there was the economic
motive of finding a direct access to the profitable Oriental trade of luxury
goods such as silk and spices. After the fall of Constantinople to the Ottoman Turks in
1453, commercial routes to the East fell under the control of Muslim traders who, along
with the Italian ciry-state of Venice, monopolized the supply of highly prized Oriental
products to Europe. Attempts were made by European monarchs and merchants to
break the monopoly by sending voyages of exploration to discover alternative routes
to the East. Second, scientific and technological progress specifically in shipbuilding,
cartographl,, and navigational instruments significantly contributed to the success of
the exploratory expeditions. This trend was exemplified by the efforts of the Portuguese
Prince Henry who established a navigational school that gathered together scholars and
sailors from all over the Mediterranean. Third, the quest to explore unknown and distant
:65iE
"i
4*E :4SS t $11
Constant nop e fell lnto the hands Ltalian voyager Christopher Co umbus Vasco da Gama, a Portuguese sa lor, Portuguese forces captured the
of the Ottornan Turks, barring the reached the Americas. He called the reached lndia by sa ng through the l\,4uslim port of Malacca ln Southeast
Europeans from the tradlng routes to natives there "lndians" believing that Cape of Good Hope in the southern Asla
the East. ' ^ lar deo , lrct a, a ,aô :T the A5 a1 tip of Africa.
conllnent.
..tii .ti..-=: ,:.-_:
,!i: !tr:r::
!r{ ir-+a:
:ijr{ai:r.j
-ands also involved the religious mission of spreading the Christian faith. Spain and
Portugal maintained an anti-Muslim attitude emanating from the recent Reconquista
of the Iberian Peninsula against the Muslim Moors and a religious zeal to convert the
:eoples of Asia and Africa.
Portugal and Spain initially led the navigational race to the East. Portuguese sailors
=rplored the coast of the African continent and in 1498, Vasco da Gama successfully
:eached India by rounding the Cape of Good Hope and sailing to the Indian Ocean. The
:ort of Malacca, an important Southeast Asian entrep6t, was captured by the Portuguese
-r 151 1. Meanwhile, the Italian sailor Christopher Columbus was able to convince the
r Spanish crown that he can reach the East through a \Testern route. In this attempt, he
: unsuspectingly reached the enormous American continent. These expeditions inevitably
I led to the acquisition of colonial territories and the founding of new settlements. Spain
r rvas able to build a vast empire over the American continent after having defeated the
r*Aftctt 41, 15?1 t s4.5 1 SS$ 1S7'!

--. Magellan expedition, after The Villalobos expedition arrlved in King Philip ll decided to colonize l\,4anila was taken by Spanish and
::ss ng through the South American the archipelago and gave lt the name the country and sent N,4iguel Lopez Vlsayan forces under the leadership
: -ri nent and crossing the Pacific Las Phelipinas n honor of the then de Legazpi. The Legazpi expedition of l\,4artin de Goiti. Legazpi
- :.an. arrived in the central part of crown prince, Philip ll. sailed f rom Mexico and arrived in transferred from Panay island and
-: a.ch pelago. Cebu. made lvlani a the capital and base of
further expeditions
39
FOCUS G*ffiffiYESru native Aztecs and Mayas. In 1519, the Portuguese sailor by the name of Ferdinand
- r.. ,vaS the Philippines Magellan would ffy to fulfill Columbus' promise of reaching the East by sailing \7est.
:lnquered and colonized by He would anchor on Philippine shores on the other side of the globe fivo years later;
Spain?
thus, marking the beginning of Spanish presence and influence on the archipelago.
LEARNING The Philippines was part of the Spanish empire for more than three centuries.
*ffiJm#TEWffi$ During this long period, native societies (especially in Luzon and Visayas) underwent
At the end of the chapter, students a great transformation; the islands were named Las Phelipinas by Spanish voyagers; the
should be able to:
population was organized into pueblos or towns; pagan practices were suppressed and
. discuss the events and
circumstances leading to Catholic Christianity was introduced; and a central government was established in the
the Spanish discovery and colonial capital of Manila. This chapter goes back to the beginning of Spanish conquest
conquest of the Philipplnesl
. expla n the mot vations of and of the Philippine archipelago by presenting and analyzing primary
challenges faced by Span sh :*.::a"r"tion
co on zers and the initia natrve
response;
. analyze the role of mllitary ffix**rpts fr*m Frrs$ Hmymg* Sr**sr# $fue &ff*r"dd
and missionary etforts in hy &m€mmB* F$gmfettm
the pacification of the native
in habitants.
Ferdinand Magellan was a Portuguese sailor who defected to Spain after his services
to the Portuguese crown were not properly recognized. He had seen action in the far
East when he participated in the capture of Malacca by the Portuguese forces in 151 1.
Tirrning to Spain, he managed to persuade King Charles V to furnish him with men and
ships for an expedition that would discover a \Testern route to the East, a feat he would
#
Magellan observed that the ocean
successfully accomplish. This would pave the way for Spanish intrusion into East Asia
(primarily China) and the Pacific and the colonization of the archipelago.
The chronicle of the famed expedition was aptly entitled First Voyage Around the
World; its author was the Italian Antonio Pigafetta who took part in the said expedition.
was calm and tranquil, and called The ambitious expedition led by Magellan was composed of a fleet of five ships and
it Mar Pacifico; the name stuck in
Italian, Spanish, and Portuguese around 250 men who were mostly Castillians. They started offfrom San Lucar, Spain,
usage--giving the Pacific Ocean its navigated through a strait located at the tip of the South American continent, and
current name.
crossed the vast expanse of the Pacific Ocean. On March \6, 1521, after almost two
years of hardship at sea, they saw the island of Samar in the eastern part of the country.
They named the newly discovered territory Arcbipelago de San Lazaro because it was the
feast day ofthe saint.
Primary Source
At dawn on Saturday, March sixteen, 1 521 , we came upon a high land at a distance of three hundred
leagues from the islands of Ladroni-an island named Zamal li.e., Samarl... On Monday afternoon,
we saw a boat coming toward us with nine men in it. Therefore, the captain-general ordered that no
one should move or say a word without his permission. When those men reached the shore, their chief
went immediately to the captain-general, giving signs of joy because of our arrival, Five of the most
ornately adorned of them remained with us, while the rest went to get some others who were fishing,
and so they all came. The captain-general, seeing that they were reasonable men, ordered food to be
setforth beforethem, and gavethem red caps, mirrors, combs, bells, ivory, bocasine, and otherthings,
When they saw the captain's courtesy, they presented fish, a jar of palm wine which they call uracafi.e.,
arrackl, figs more than one palm long li.e., bananasl, and others which were smaller and more delicate,
and two cocoanuts. . . .
Those people became very familiar with us. They told us many things, their names and those
of some of the islands that could be seen from that place. Their own island was called Zuluan and it
i_ti-r: :: -_: -F,.: '.lF=S BECO|,,,1aS A SPAN SH COt_ONy

. - -i ,.-i large. We took great pleasure with them, for they were very pleasant and conversable. ln GUIDE *UH$YE#&I
':y-:: siow them greater honor, the captain-general took them to his ship and showed them all his What were the different responses
-;'--a-lise-cloves, of the nat ve people that Magellan
cinnamon, pepper, ginger, nutmeg, mace, gold and all things in the ship. He had
encountered?
.-. -.(ars fired for them, whereat they exhibited great fear, and tried to jump out of the shlp. They
-::. : j1s to us that the abovesaid articles grew in that place where we were going. . . The island where
: "=-i s called Humunu; (now Homonhon) but inasmuch as we found two springs there of the clearest
L
il=:- ,',3 called it Acquada da li buoni Segnialli [i.e., "the Watering-place of good Signs"], for there
,:: r3 first signs of gold which we found in those districts... There are many islands in that district,
r- : -.'3fore we called them the archipelago of San Lazaro, as they were discovered on the Sabbath of
\fagellan also met some local chiefs with whom he had a cordial relationship.
--.=:rrards, on Easter Sunday, the first recorded mass in Philippine history, was held in
i i::rali island called "Mazaua." Interpretations of Pigafettat account have differed as to
--- place of the first mass; whether it was the small island of Limasawa, south of Leyte
=
:- Butuan in northern Mindanao. However, scholars have presented evidences which
:.:.ided to favor Limasawa over Butuan.
)eces of gold, of the size of walnuts and eggs are found by sifting the earth in the island of that
. -;,r'hocametoourships,All thedishesof thatkingareof goldandalsosomeportionof hishouse,
:: ,1: were told by that king himself. According to their customs he was very grandly decked oullmolto
- -':ine), and the finest looking man that we saw among those people. His hair was exceedingly black,
:- r 1-rng to his shoulders. He had a covering of silk on his head, and wore two large golden earrings
-=.:ened in his ears. He wore a cotton cloth all embroidered with silk, which covered him from waist to
- -ees. At his side hung a dagger, the haft of which was somewhat long and all of gold, and its scabbard
:' oarved wood. He had three spots of gold on every tooth, and his teeth appeared as if bound with
;: C. He was perfumed with storax and benzoin. He was tawny and painted [i.e., tattooed] all over. That
: :nd of his was called Butuan and Calagan. When those kings wished to see one another, they both
r:rt to hunt in that island where we were. The name of the first king is Raia Colambu, and the second
ra;a Siaui.
Early on the morning of Sunday, the last of March and Easter-day, the captain-general sent the GUIDE &UffiST$*E*
:':est with some men to prepare the place where mass was to be said; together with the interpreter What were the general impressions
:r tell the king that we were not going to land in order to dine with him, but to say mass. Therefore of the chronicler Pigafetta about the
chiefs Colambu and Siaui? What
:-e king sent us two swine that he had killed. When the hour for mass arrived, we landed with about are the characteristics that he took
'-ty men, without body armor, but carrying our other arms, and dressed in our best clothes. Before note of?
,',e reached the shore with our boat, six pieces were discharged as a sign of peace. We landed; the
:ro kings embraced the captain-general, and placed him between them. We went in marching order
:o the place consecrated, which was not far from the shore. Before the commencement of mass,
:re captain sprinkled the entire bodies of the two kings with musk water. During the mass we made
our offerings. The kings went forward to kiss the cross as we did, but they did not offer thr sacrifice.
,Vhen the body of our Lord was elevated, they remained on their knees and worshipped Him with
siasped hands. The ships fired all their artillery at once when the body of Christ was elevated, the
signal having been given from the shore with muskets. After the conclusion of mass, some of our men
took communion.
41
The expedition then proceeded to the port of Cebu.l There they met Cebu's
ruler, Raja Humabon, whom Magellan was able to convince to become a vassal of
the King and a servant of Christ. Magellan, however, gets embroiled in a conflict
ELB between the two chiefs of Mactan, Zula and Lapu-lapu-which was eventually
During the sixteenth century, Cebu followed by a battle.
was a thriving commercial Port
ruled by a Fala (a Sanskrit term,
On Friday, April twenty-six , Zula, a chief of the island of Matan, sent one of his sons to present two
signifying outside influences) and
lvas part of the Asran trade network goats to the captain-general, and to say that he would send him all that he had promised, but that he
had not been able to send it to him because of the other chief, Cilapulapu, who refused to obey the
king of Spain. He requested the captain to send him only one boatload of men on the next night so that
they might help him fight against the other chief. The captain-general decided to go thither with three
boatloads. We begged him repeatedly not to go, but he, like a good shepherd, refused to abandon
his flock. At midnight, sixty of us set out armed with corselets and helmets, together with the Christian
king, the prince, some of the chief men, and twenty or thirty balanguais.2 We reached Matan three hours
before dawn. The captain did not wish to fight them, but sent a message to the natives by the Muslim
to the effect that if they would obey the king of Spagnia, recognize the Christian king as their sovereign,
and pay us our tribute, he would be their friend; but that if they wished otherwise, they should wait to
see how our lances wounded. They replied that if we had lances they had lances of bamboo and stakes
hardened with fire. fThey asked us] not to proceed to attack them at once, but to wait until morning, so
that they might have more men. They said that in order to induce us to go in search of themi for they had
dug certain pitholes between the houses in order that we might fall into them. When morning came, forty-
nine of us leaped into the water up to our thighs, and walked through water for more than two crossbow
flights before we could reach the shore. The boats could not approach nearer because of certain rocks
in the water. The other eleven men remained behind to guard the boats. When we reached land, those
men had formed in three divisions to the number of more than one thousand five hundred persons.
When they saw us, they charged down upon us with exceeding loud cries, two divisions on our flanks
and the other on our front. When the captain saw that, he formed us into two divisions, and thus did
we begin to fight. The musketeers and crossbowmen shot from a distance for about half an hour, but
uselessly; for the shots only passes through the shields which were made of thin wood, and the arms
fof the bearers]. The captaln cried to them, "Cease firingl Cease firing!" but his order was
not heeded
at all. When the natives saw that we were shooting our muskets to no purpose, crying out they [were]
determined to stand firrn, and redoubled their shouts. When our muskets were dlscharged, the natives
would never stand still, but leaped hither and thither, covering themselves with their shields. They shot
so many arrows at us and hurled so many bamboo spears (some of them tipped with iron) at the captain-
general, besides pointed stakes hardened with fire, stones, and mud, that we could scarcely defend
GUIDE ffiUffiSTItrNS ourselves. Seeing that, the captain-general sent some men to burn their houses in order to terrify them.
What procedures and precautions When they saw their houses burning, they were roused to greater fury. Two of our men were killed near
did the Spaniards consider in the houses, while we burned twenty or thirty houses. So many of them charged down upon us that they
deal ng with the natives they
interacted with? What things should shot the captain through the right leg with a poisoned arrow. On that account, he ordered us to retire
they always observe and take into slowly, but the men took to flight, except six or eight of us who remained with the captain. The natives
accou nt?
shot only at our legs, for the latter were bare; and so many were the spears and stones that they hurled at
us that we could offer no resistance. The mortars in the boats could not aid us as they were too far away.
So we continued to retire for more than a good crossbow flight from the shore, always fighting up to our
knees in the water. The natives continued to pursue us and picking up the same spear four or six tlmes,
hurled it at us again and again. Recognizing the captain, so many turned upon him that they knocked
his helmet off his head twice, but he always stood firm like a good knight, together with some others
Lriiirrr::-:r .l THE PHILIPPINES BECOMES A SPANISH COLONY

-i :=: d! rEndf
? ,- .--trfad de . .r
.Ai=Jes .i.:J" STUDY AID
:-,,..it jiirtl
- .,,r,l
The map shows the route taken by the Magellan expedition (1519-1522) in what is considered
ihe first circumnavigation of the world. The three-y€ar journey siarted in the soulhern port of
San Lucar, Spain in 15i9 wjth five ships commanded by Ferdinand Mageflan. They crossed
:ne Atlantic Ocean and followed the coast of South America in order to locate a passageway
through the continent, a narrow strait which was eventually named after Magellan. The
expedition then crossed the unexpectedly vast expanse of the Pacific Ocean and encountered
land first at Ladroni lsland and from there to Samar lsland in central Philippines. Magellan was
killed by the naiives in the Battle of Mactan near Cebu and so the expedition was continued
under the leadership of Sebastian del Cano who skillfully guided the party through the
Moluccas or Spice lslands, the lndian Ocean, the Cape of Good Hope at the tip of Africa, the
Atlantic Ocean and finally back to Spain in 1522.
nnr::iriLl]:+rrifiril:i:.i::i:+
-ûs did we fight for more than one hour, refusing to retire farther. An lndlan hurled a bamboo spear into
:ê captain's face, but the latter immediately killed him with his Iance, which he left in the lndian's body.
-ten, trying to lay hand on sword, he could draw it out but halfway, because he had been wounded in
:ê arm with a bamboo spear. When the natives saw that, they all hurled themselves upon him. One of
:aem wounded him on the left leg with a large cutlass, which resembled a scimitar, only being larger.
That caused the captain to fall face downward, when immediately they rushed upon him with iron and
camboo spears and with their cutlasses, until they killed our mirror, our light, our comfort, and our true
,-- le When they wounded him, he turned back many times to see wether we were all in the boats.
-:'.Jpon, beholding him dead, we, wounded, retreated, as best we could, to
the boats, which were
=-:ady pulling off.
Source: The Phitippine tstands j493-j898 Vol. XXXilI (j519-1S22)
After Magellan's demise, the remaining members of the expedition tried to make their
rvay back to Spain but only the little ship Victoria commanded by Sebastian del Cano
rvas able to rerurn safely. The eighteen survivors arrived in Seville in 1522, completing
the first continuous circumnavigation of the world. Several expeditions were sent by
Spain in the next four decades in order to establish their claims over the Moluccas and
each one of them made a stop in the Philippine islands. one expedition led by Ruy
de Villalobos gave the islands the name Las Phelipinas in honor of the Spanish crown
prince Philip II.
43
This is a r it of King Philr'fi
ll of Spain painted by the
STUDY AIffi Venetian artist Titian in 1550.
Philip li was the son of Holy
Roman Emperor Charles V
and he ruled over the Spanish
Empire from 1556 to 1598
during which it attained
the peak of its power. The
description, "the empire where
the sun never sets," was used
during his time as he ruled
territories from Madrid, the
imperial capital, to the other
side of the globe in Manila,
the colonial capital of the
Philippines'whieh was named l
in his honor.
Hxeenpt fr*m "lnstrueti*n to Miguel Lopez de Legazpi

frmm Eh* ffioyml &udi*nsifr ef Nerrv Spain"
King Philip II, one of the most powerful European monarchs of his time, decided to
relinquish his claims to the Moluccas to Portugal and colonize the Philippines instead.
An expedition under the leadership of Miguel Lopez de Legazpi was organized in
Mexico. It set sail on November 20,1564 from the port of Navidad with instructions
handed by the Royal Audiencia of Mexico. Eventually, the Philippines would be ruled
from Mexico, also known as New Spain, a viceroyalry of the Spanish empire. These
instructions are significant because they express the intentions of the Spaniards and
allows us to know the procedures and precautions followed by the Spanish voyagers.
The expedition reached Samar on February 14, 1565. Legazpi and his crew went
around the Visayas Islands in the central region of the archipelago and were met by
the natives with suspicion and indifference. Howeve! in the island of Bohol, Legazpi
performed the blood compact with chief Sikatuna which signified a friendly relationship.
Miguel Lopez de Legazpieventually became the first governor-general of the Philippines.
Primary Source
"lw]hat seems best for the service of God, our Lord,and ourselves, and with the least possible cost to
our estate; andtherefore I order you, by virtue of your commission to make the said discoveries by sea,
that you shall despatch two ships ,.. for the discovery of the western islands toward the Malucos. You
must order them to do this according to the instructions sent you, and you shall stipulate that they try to
bring some spice in order to make the essay of that traff ic; and that, after fulf illing your orders, they shall
return to that Nueva Espana, which they must do, so that it may be known whether the return voyage
s assured," These ships must not enter any rslands belonging to the king of Portugal, but they shall go
'to other nearby rslands, such as the Phelipinas and others, which lie outside the above agreement and
--E PI . PP NES 3-:]'.I=S j. SPAN]SH COLONY

within our demarcation, and are said likewise to contain spice," The necessary artillery, articles of barter,
etc., will be sent from the lndia House of Trade in Seville . . . The viceroy must issue rnstructions to the
vessels that they "must not delay in trading and bartering, but return immediate\y to Nueva Espana, for
the principal reason of this expedition is to ascertain the return voyage."
"[B]ut you shall enter other islands contiguous to them, as for instance the Filipinas, and others
cutside the said treaty, and within his majesty's demarcation, and which are reported also to contain spice.
"When you have arrived at the said Filipinas lslands, and other islands contiguous to them and the GUIDE QUE$TISN
Malucos, without however entering the latter, . . , you shall try to discover and examine their ports, and to What were the instructions of the
Royal Audiencia to Legazpi?
ascertain and learn minutely the settlements therein and their wealth; the nature and mode of life of the
natives; the trade and barter among them, and with what nations; the value and price of spices among
them, the different varieties of the same, and the equivalent for each in the merchandise and articles
for exchange that you take from this land; and what other things may be advantageous. You shall labor
diligently to make and establish sound friendship and peace with the natives, and you shall deliver to
their seigniors and chiefs, as may seem best to you, the letters from his majesty that you carry with you
for them. . . . You must represent to them his majesty's affection and love for them, giving them a few
presents . . . and treating them well. And you may exchange the articles of barter and the merchandise
rhat you carry for spice, drugs, gold, and other articles of value and esteem. . . . And if , in your judgment,
the land is so rich and of such quality that you should colonize therein, you shall establish a colony in
that part and district that appears suitable to you, and where the f irmest friendship shall have been made
with you; and you shall affirm and observe inviolably this friendship."
Source: Ihe Philippine lslands 1493 1803Vo1. ll (1521-1569)
Ix:gazpi arrived in the island of Cebu onApril 27,1565. He defeated the recalcitrant
Cebuanos and established his settlement there, calling it Nombre de Jesus after a wooden
image of the holy child was discovered by one of his men. Due to lack of food and basic
provisions, he transferred camp to the nearby island of Panay and from there, sent the
master-of-camp, Martin de Goiti to explore the northern region of Luzon.
Excerpt from "Relation of tlts #onqu*st

of the lsland of Luzcn"
De Goiti found the port and town of Maynilad located along the mouth of the Pasig
River. Peace was negotiated between the Spaniards and the natives of Maynilad led by
irs Muslim chief Raja Soliman but hostilities soon ensued and the town was sacked
by the Spaniards with the help of their Visayan allies. Legazpi himself transferred to
Maynilad in l57l and made it the capital of the new colony. This was followed by the
pacification of the surrounding lowland communities. They also encountered several
Chinese traders in the area which contributed to the decision to transfer to Manila.
The trade with China would prove economically crucial to the Spanish colony. Manila
would eventually develop into a city within walls or Intramuros where most of the
Spanish residents lived. It received the title Muy Insigne y Siempre Leal Ciudad (Eminent
and Ever Loyal Ciry) from Spain.
Primary Source
[T]he master-of-camp set sail for the island of Luz6n, or rather the port and village of Manilla, which
was said to be large and very strong. lt is but just to say that it is not more than one{enth as large and
as strong as in Nueva Espafra and in other places it is reported to be; and yet, in comparison with the
45
natives of this land, the inhabitants of Manilla were more powerful, for they had twelve pieces of small and
inferior artillery and a few culverins, with such other weapons as I have already mentioned. This village
of Manilla is situated on a tongue of land extending from east to west between the river and the sea, and
a fort had been built on the extreme western end of this peninsula at the entrance to the port. The sea
makes a very large harbor aboui thirty leagues in circumference; and bordering upon this harbor are
many villages, among which is that of Manilla. Manilla is now a Spanish city, founded in the name of his
Majesty by the governor Miguel L6pez de Legazpi. The captain-general and Captain Juan de Sauzedo
having arrived in view of this port of Manilla, entered in peace, and under the safe-conduct of two native
chiefs of the said village. One of these was called Laya, lately deceased, who died a Christian; the other
was called Baxa Solimdn. With these two chiefs were drawn up articles of peace, although Raxa Solimdn
was suspected to lack of goodJaith while Laya was always to be trusted, even until the day of his deaih.
While these peaceful negotiations were in progress between the masterof-camp and the two chiefs
above-mentioned, there collected a large number of natives of various classes; and yet there were not
so many as was reported in Nueva Espafra, where it was claimed that there were in all eighty thousand
Moros in this village of Manilla, when this event took place. lndeed one should subtract seventy-eight
thousand from the eighty thousand mentioned, in order to arrive at the two thousand which there might
have been from the said village of Manilla and those in its environs, including the women and children,
who were present in great numbers. Now, as I say, these negotiations being in progress, some of the
natives desired peace and others war; for indeed the lndians had some pride, and it seemed to them
that the Spaniards were very few and could be easily slain, even if only with clubs. Thus it was for that,
at the end of three days during which these friendly negotiations continued (because it was impossible
to come to an agreement, or conclude them), one day at ten o'clock, on the twenty-fourth day of the
month of May of the year above mentioned, the lndians, who were in the fort, began to discharge their
artillery at two of our ships, which were moored very near by. The master-of-camp was ashore with eighty
soldiers, close to this same fort, on a small piece of level ground. The fort was made of palm{ree logs
surmounting a very narrow mound, and the pieces of artillery protruded from immense gaps by which
soldiers could enter at will, as I have said above. Now when the Moros began to violate the articles of
peace and friendship which the master-of-camp had made with them, the latter was deeply concerned;
GUIDE QUESTION for he had for he had great fear, because the enemy were in force. Yet, when he saw that the battle
How did the inhabitants of Manila had broken out, he put on his helmet, and commenced to encourage his soldiers, telling them that they
receive Legazpi in 1571? How did
should acquit themselves as Spaniards, and as they had always done in critical times. Thereupon he
the chiefs react to him?
ordered them to attack the fort through the openings made for the artillery, and it pleased God that not
one of the gunners had the courage to fire his piece; and so great was the confusion, that they trembled
upon seeing the Spaniards enter with so great spirit, and, turning their backs, abandoned themselves to
flight, and slew one another in their mad rush for freedom. The master-of-camp, realizing that the village
was large and rich, and that the victory was his by the grace of God, for the soldiers were few, feared lest
our soldiers should, through greed, set to plundering the houses and become widely scattered; and that,
if the enemy should see them thus scattered, they would return and attack them when unable to reunite.
That he might avoid this danger he ordered the village to be set on fire, and the soldiers to collect upon
the promontory, which order was obeyed.
ln this manner, as related, it befell the master-of-camp, and the victory was obtained over those of
Manilla.
Source: The Philippine lslands 1 493-1 803Vol. 3 (1569-1576)
C|JATI [E N THE PHILIPPINES BECOMES A SPANISH COLONY

rnd lnpter Summary
i3e Bropean exploration and expansion was driven by the search for access to the
ird prdtable Oriental trade, the religious mission of spreading Christianity and was made
;ea presible by the technological advances in navigation.
1te The spaniards had three main aims in taking over the Philippine islands, namely, the
^S esQansion of trade, the conversion of the natives to Catholicism, and the extension of
,lo Eritories ruled by the King of Spain.
The subjugation of the native population mainly in the lowlands and coastal areas
-er d Luzon and Visayas was effected through a combination of local alliances, military
itusion, and religious persuasion.
h 1571, Manila became the center of Spanish colonial power in the Philippines.
Sdegically located in the heart of the economically productive and thickly populated
Tagalog and Kapampangan regions in Luzon, the city grew to become the paramount
GryoatE archipelago.
A ssessffteffit
: :- :::aV to answer the following:
- - : : Spain establish itself in the Philippines?
3'l : : : - the context in Europe which made Spain fit out or equip an expedition to the
t- -- ^^^
:, r r . the situation of the Philippines at the point of contact with Spain.
:-e
I -;gested ffiemSE$"BSs
':l - -s^ner, Njcolas ?. spain in the Philippines: From conquest to Revolution euezon city:
:;S tr::-eo de Manila Press, 1973,
:t : ::. J.H. lmperial Spain, 1469-1716. New York: The New American Library lnc., 1963.
;--f :": an. John Leddy. The Hispanization of the Philippines: spanish Aims and Fitipino
3l ::,.:cnses 1565-1700. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 195g.
::'ael, Vicente. contracting colonialism: Translation and christian conversion in
'.;atog Society under Early Spanish Rule.
Quezon City: Ateneo de Manila University
-3 :-:ss, 1988.
.:: '.,rn
:!
i:3
asi
::.
ilr
-al
ffi
i:"-'...iirtri#
ffi
ii*S..}$'".
t+
." : .-- ::
:
fltigiffi
'+:,1
Opposite page. The Manila Cathedral in lntramuros, Manila.
The Catholic Church played a powerful role in making Filipinos
bow down to the Spanish crown. ln 1582, the Synod of Manila
was convened and approved the reduccion, in which the
native population was resettled in new settlements near a
church. The reduccion was meant to indoctrinate Filipinos to
the Christian faith and make them obey Spanish rule.
*HAffiTffiffi V
lntroduction of
Colonial lnstitutions
ffi n 157I, Miguel Lopez de Legazpi andhis force decided to sail to Manila. Bythis
ffi time, he held the title adelantado (advanced officer). As Spaniards approached,
ffi the natives in Manila set their houses on fire and fled. On May 18, 1571, after
negotiations with Raja Matanda and Lakandula, the adelantado conquered Manila.
Three years later, on june 2l,1574,Manila was given the title La insigrue y siempre leal
ciudad ("Distinguished and ever loyal ciry'). That day started the 300-year Spanish rule
of the Philippines.
One of the first tasks of the Spanish colonizers was to unifi. the Philippines under
one faith and under one colonial government, with Manila as its center. In order to
facilitate the easy conversion and pacification ofthe natives, certain colonial institutions
were set up in the Philippines. Before the arrival of the Europeans, the natives were
settled in scattered communities with no central government. One of the solutions of the
colonial government was to resettle the natives. The friars were one of the stakeholders
157S rs# I
'.' : -: -:o.z de Legazpi gave the Establishment of encomienda system Domingo de Salazar was appointed Bishop Domingo de Salazar arrived
as bishop of Manila in l\,4anila
:,-:i will later on benefit from this. In 1582, the Synod of Manila was established under
---: Dominican Fr. Domingo de Salazar, the first bishop of Manila. A plan was presented
r :', the Franciscan Fr. Juan de Plasencia to the Synod of Manila and this was called the
-,:;.lttccion, and was approved unanimously by all the religious orders. \7ith the plan, the
-':aniards attempted to tame the reluctant Filipinos through Christian indoctrination in

. :'rite novel settlement pattern usingthe plaza complex.To the Spaniards, the reduccion
,,
- a civilizing device to make the Filipinos law-abiding citizens of the Spanish crown.
-. :s also worth mentioning that, as soon as Legazpi started colonizing the Philippines
1i65, the encomienda system was established. The word encomienda comes from the
-::rrish encomendar, meaning "to entrust"; it was a grant from the Spanish crown to a
-::itorious Spaniard to exercise control over a specific place, including its inhabitants.
..--. encomeienda was later abolished little by little. It was replaced by the alcadia, an
,::rution with more political functions than economic.
c ss& I SES 'f **4

: --lo'f l\,4anilawas Establishment of the Beai Compilation of the Laws of Legal abolition of the Cedula personal was
Audiencia ol Manila lnd es under King Charles ll encomlenda system instituted to replace the
trlbuto system
49
{
missionaries at work' different

FOCUS *UESTE*NS In order ro support the colonial government and the
What were the instltutions
and policies imposed bY the
colonial institutions that were economic in natufe were also instituted
Tiibutes were imposed to the natives through Royal Decrees. The payment
in the Philippines'
of annual il
g
il
Spanlsh colonizers in terms of by nineteenth
religious. social, and economic
tribute was seen as a form of vassalage to the King of Spain. Flowever,
Another colonial
aspects? What were the cenrury the payment of tribute was replaced by the cedula ?ersTndl.
institution was' po/o y serutctbs which re{erred to dta*ing
)'}'o"'" *ho were either
I
notives behind these Po/icies?
obligated to give a
Filipino or chinese rrrile mestizo,s aged 16 to 60 years. They were
service ro communiry projects such as the construction and
repair of
LEARNING +O-d^y personal
irfrrri.,r.t,rres (such as the church), building of galleons, or cutting logs in the
forests'
OBJE*YEVffi$
At the end of the chapter, studenls It was only in 1884 that labor was reduced to 15 days'
should be able to: This chapter provides different primary sources pertinent to the colonial
institutions
. identify the different colonial
institutions that were introduced
introduced to the Philippines during the early part of the conquest. The documents
provided in this .h"pt.. *[ provide a holistic view and assessment on
the establishment
by the colonizers to the
.
Philippines;
explain the different objectives
of these institutions. G
I
and functions of these
colonial institutions and their FkEBEppEm* V$E&mg*s ffie#u*ed hy €he Spmmiards
Th. y."r i 5BZ *", a landmark period because the Synod of Manila was called to convene
signi{icance; and
. discuss the changes that were
brought about bY these new in order to assess the Spanish methods of evangelization. Aside from the methods of
evangelization, a "civiliiing tool" called reduccion was also introduced and
colonial institutions. approved
the word reducir, meaning "to resettle"'
by th. Synod. The word ,rd.urrion comes from
and
Native population was resettled in new setdements where a church was constructed
(baio el sort de h campana) '
natives were within the hearing distance of the church bells
\7ith the plan, the spaniards ..i.d.o gain the confidence of skeptical Filipinos through
Christian indoctrination in a settlement pattern. The Spaniards saw the reduccion
as
Those who
a means to make the Filipinos law-abiding citizens of the Spanish crown.
went to the hills and were called as
rejected the Spaniard, ,nJ th. ieligion they brought
remorutados, cimdrrones, lad.rones monteses, malhechores, ot tulisanes
from the Spaniards'
point of view.
The first text below is a document published 1594 containing the list of the
in
narnes
Miguel L6pez de Legazpl was a villages resettled by the Spaniards. Together with the names of the villages are the
Basque royal of{icial n New SPain of the lead.rs. The list ,iso .hows the chiefs who allied themselves with the Spaniards
He was appointed to lead the
and accepted their sovereignry'
expedition to the PhiliPPines in
1 564. Atter successf urly captJring
Manila, he was given the title Primary Source

adelantado. chlefs who have made
List of the villages reduced to the service of his Majesty, and the names of the
peace, since Captain Ffernando de Berramontano went to those provinces as chief and leader of the
of these Philipinas
troops, at the order of Gomez Perez Dasmarinas, governor and captain-general
lslands.
Potol and its allies-chiefs, Atano, Anguilo, and Ffucao'
Adelantado was a title given bY the Village of Cataguram-chief , Manipas.

Spanish monarch to those who led Village and rlver of Tulaque-chief , Apavao'
or helped in conquering new lands.
Vrllage and river of Massi-chief, Seriban.
It means an advanced officer in the
military. Village of Gatara-chief, LiPagam.
Valley of Sinabanga-chief , Amangapa.
River of Bangal-chief, mother of Seriban,
River of Pata-chiefs, Amanbacay and Manipaz
Cij,J'i}T[F 5 INTRODUCTION OF COLONIAL lNSTITUTIONS

t
Lrlir.riii:ii,*
:.::;,]+*.r$s.
===++
$
H
The Ayuntamienta de l\4anila in

lntramuros, Manila. ln colanizing the
P h i li pp i nes, the Spani ard s co nve rted
places with large papulations and of
streteg i c, pal iti cal, an d camme rc i al
significance inta cities. These ctties have
a city government or ayuntamiento and
city council ar cabildo. Photo courtesy of
J u dgef loraryi ki me d i a Commons.
River of Cabrasinga-chiefs, Lumboy and Ffucman.

River of Maguin-chief, Seriban.
Estuary of Bacto -chief, Sivican.
Bulay-chief , Macapito.
Village of Magamon-chiefs, Higoran and Maramossi.
Village of Higuy-chief, Hivigan.
Village of Carlanga-chiefs, Maguigal and Agarrao.
Village of Linga-chief, Palatao.
Village of Lobo-chief, Dalapiao.
Village of Arangay-chief, Abugam.
Village of Pras-chief, Agarrao.
Village of Gumay chief, Saguin.
Village of Tarugo-chief, Valigot,
Village of Gadu-chief, Balagua.
Village of Taban-chief, Baloy.
Village of Catabagam-chief, Banagua.
Village of Tapayacan-chief , Vanga.
River and towns of Nabunga, belonging to his Majesty-chief, Tabuga
Village of Calabatan-chief, Bacu.
Village of Maguin-chief, Baligot.
Village of Malapil-chief, the same.
Village of Tuao-chief, the same.
Village of Canoran-chief, the same.
Village of Agat-chief, Lahizio.
Estuary of Malaguit and village of Sinagan-chief , Calaz.
Village of Doga-chief, the same.
Village of Cabicumga-chief, the same.
51
Village of Gabutan-chief, the same.
Village of Taramin-chief, the same.
Village of Lines-chief, the same.
Village of Massi-chief, the above.
Village of Nagugan-chief, the above.
Village of GumoY--chiei, the same.
Village of Talapa-chief , Qiroy Babalino.
Village of Pelitan-chief, SibaY.
Village of Lubutan-chief , Magalate.
Village of Batagua-chief , Ladaran.
Village of Tubigarao and its allies-chief , Lahinaman Darrey'
Village of Maguila-chief, Batoninam.
Village of Calabatan-chief , Matalo.
Village of Care-chief, Alu.
Village of Duli-chief, Duli.
Village of Bolo-chiefs, Manoto and Sino.

Village of Masepni-chief, Seriban.
Village of Guinoya-chief , Sinanagua.
Village of Balissi-chief, Matalaguan.
Village of Purrao-chief , Zuaduban.
Village of Bual-chief, Mamagua.
tt
Estuary of Nalaguan-chiefs, Tagabassi, Pasigan and Sima'
Village of Carrima-chief , Urragam.
Village of Taporagua-chief , Sidagay.
Alcaldia relerred to a Pacified Village of Cacaguayan--chief, Zalope.

administrative division of the Village of Talamas-chief , Marratan.
Spanish colonial government in the
Village of Alata-chief, Vaguigo.
Philippines. lt was comparable to
a present-day province. lts head Village of Tabagan-chief , Basugumi.
was called an alcalde maVor.
Village of Bugarro-chief, Pigol.
It succeeded the institution of
encomienda in many Parts of the Estuary and villages of Dumon.
Philippines. Durangua.
Tinapanga.
By 1884, cedula personal rePlaced
the infamous tributes of the Gabemta.
Spaniards. lt is comparable to a
Balogo-chief, Bengel.
personal identity paper and everY
Filipino or other nationalities aged Village of Camalayuga-chief, Litagua.
18 and above were required to Village of Daludu-chief , Jseamalaza.
secure one.
Village of Tocolana-chief , Mandarelac.
Province of Yugan, but lately conquered, with seven villages'
Villages of La Lamona and Mandaya, seven in all'
The chief river, named Tazo.
camalayuga, segovia, Tocolana, Pantao, camanao, Gotate, Tagay, River o1 Maguin, calimotar
Dumon, Durango, Tinaponga, Gabemta, Bolaryo, Balobo, Galitan, Dulaga, village of
Mapanga
Iullsanes was a term used bY the
Mangua
Span sh co onial government in Locon, Masepin, Estuary of Arolo, Pagaman, Amoran, Agopan, Estuary of Bacto, Yamaguam,
order to identify those who are
bandits or ladrones (thieves).
Bagan,Goran,Magano,Higuy,Batana,Cacomigan,Arrimanao,Cataessaman'
catadar, Estuary of Maguila, cacomigan, cabugao, Mapapala, Boboo' Estuary of Bagan-
Ungagu
Tubigarao, Abas, Louba, Nota, Botoan, Lulu, Lapugan, vical, Estuary of Malagui, Nalaguam,
C].iAPIi:i : INTRODUCTION OF COLONIAL INSTITUTIONS

:--:-a. Ymaniz, Quinoyo, Marranate, Batagua, Boluye, Lulutam, Estuary of Batagua, Amiguibay,
- -=--: Bonoay, Bugao, Bungal, Alu, Alagua, Bolabic, Togote.
--Ean, Alate, Hoge, Fugao, lnlet of Purrao, Bolo, Tingar, Pipin, Purrao, Dala, Bicum, Malata,
,.=". Bacuam, Baga, Upland of Lapazada, Nabotas, River of Qimbuey, Pelitam, Alata, River Atam,
=--.:-api, Luday, Lama, Babayugom, Malin, Casiyam, Agutane, Maguilo, Parbuam, Tabussi, Capay,
-=:a 3alaga, Malopi, Matudo, Loquillo, Beledeca, Cagavian, Bagu, Guto, Labu, Tongolan, Talogua,
. 1-'a
j--ltan, Lubutan, Ligon, Baporago, River of Baporago, Cabalaratan, Gamoy, Abazague, GUIDE *UffiSTIONS
::::':'/. Biao, Malay, Bulagua, Plains of Llobo, Madulango, Cari, Duli, Marafron, Tapie, Nabunge, . Why was resettlement an
important religious matter?
=-l: Ulagua, Tarugo, Gadu, Ylagua, Pras, Tarro, Taban, Carlanga, Yagam, Ramoron, Pagamal, . What was the importance of the
: --;: Rrver of Llobo, Tabagam, Pipi, Gumabi, Capayam, River of Palmarez ["palm-groves"]' Malabit, common area otherwise known
l
.-;:-, Lobor, Valley of Palmarez, Estuary of Gacare, Jataro, Talapo, Talapanze, Mandayo. as plaza in the pueblo?
. How did the reduccion help in
l
-a Lamona, Potol, Sinabange, Cabunuam, Jacatay, Tocol, Alibumga, Maperi, Manaco, the conversion of the natives?
River of Lulaque, Simayo,
='=ri*t, Duludu, Ladugo, Minalam, Batal, Batatas, Balissi, Estuary of Latupe,
..: - ,Biver Bangal, Bangal, Pata, Cabicumga.
Source: Ihe Phrjippine lslands 1493-1898
Encomiendfrs Assigned by Legazpi

::-:omiendas were set up colonizing the Philippines. The
as soon as Spaniards started
'" ;.,itenderos were tasked to defend their encomiendas and maintain peace and order.
- '- Svnod of Manila provided guidelines to the encomenderos pertinent to their
. r-rqations toward the Indios in particular and encomienda in general.
The first reading material that follows is a document enumerating the different
. : ;o miendas assigned by Governor- general Legazpi.
=' mary Source

- :-3 testimony given by the notary Fernando Riquel in the city of Manila, June 2, 1576, and which
=. ,aken from the government records, appears an attested relation of the encomiendas which
were
: . 'cuted among the original Spanish conquistadors of Filipinas. From this document especially
--.:,','orthy from the viewpoints of history, geography, and politics, it appears that the islands at the
'-= :f Sande's arrival, had been divided into encomiendas in the following manner. ln CebU, Legazpi
..- 3ned to his Majesty the port and the village as far as Canipata (January 16, 1571). In the rest of
'-= srand he apportioned (January 25, 1571) 3,000 lndians to Jer6nimo de Monz6n; 2,000 to Crist6bal
:.-:hez; and I,000 to Francisco Carrefro. ln Panay, he assigned to his Majesty (January 16, 1571) the
" ,:'and settlement of Panay from the coast to Catitlen. On October 31, he apportioned about 4,000
-: ans of Sogut (the mouth of the Araut River) and Malpa, with their tingues (mountains) and hills to
-: chief-constable Gabriel de Ribera; about 6,000 lndians on the Araut River near the coast from the
ages of Dayt, Pay6n, Pinabao, Tongo, Pand6n, Nonoc, Dumangal, Cararao, Baltg, Bantao, Mata,
-arun, Daripe, and the villages of the tributary that flows into the Bumey Hiver between Potocdn and
:-1ney with their tingues and hills, to Captain Luis de la Haya; to Lope Hodriguez and Diego Lopez
:= Valdepefras, 2,000 lndians apiece, in the villages of Cali and Sibucao up the rlver (at the entrance
:' ihe Araut River) past the village of Daripe and as far as Sicapurut. On November 2, he assigned
-,i0 lndians of the Pua River between Bago and Marianao, and the branch of Barbar6n, with their
-3ues and hills, to the soldiers Baltasar Bodriguez and Alonso S6nchez; 2,000 lndians apiece on the
'outary of the Sibalinte between Amfndan and Banga to the soldiers Francisco de Ribera and Diego
iarcia; the lndians of Maluhud and its creeks to the soldier Alvaro de Angulo; 2,000 lndians of the
53
="ama, Ymaniz, Quinoyo, Marranate, Batagua, Boluye, Lulutam, Estuary of Batagua, Amiguibay,
-1arro, Bonoay, Bugao, Bungal, Alu, Alagua, Bolabic, Togote.
Cugan, Alate, Roge, Fugao, lnlet of Purrao, Bolo, Tingar, Plpin, Purrao, Dala, Bicum, Malata,
-. -san, Bacuam, Baga, Upland of Lapazada, Nabotas, River of Qimbuey, Pelitam, Alata, River Atam,
.:-;'amapi, Luday, Lama, Babayugom, Malin, Casiyam, Agutane, Maguilo, Parbuam, Tabussi, Capay,
'-:3a, Balaga, Malopi, Matudo, Loquillo, Beledeca, Cagavian, Bagu, Guto, Labu, Tongolan, Talogua,
::lna.
Gumitan, Lubutan, Ligon, Baporago, River of Baporago, Cabalaratan, Gamoy, Abazague, GUIDE GIJf;SflONS
1:sacoy, Biao, Malay, Bulagua, Plains of Llobo, Madulango, Cari, Duli, Marafron, Tapie, Nabunge, . Why was resettlement an
important religious matter?
.^gal, Ulagua, Tarugo, Gadu, Ylagua, Pras, Tarro, Taban, Carlanga, Yagam, Ramoron, Pagamal,
. What was the importance of the
: -^ge, River of Llobo, Tabagam, Pipi, Gumabi, Capayam, River of Palmarez ["palm-groves"], Malabit, common area otherwise known
-.^gay, Lobor, Valley of Palmarez, Estuary of Gacare, Jataro, Talapo, Talapanze, Mandayo, as plaza in the pueblo?
. How did the reduccion help in
La Lamona, Potol, Sinabange, Cabunuam, Jacatay, Tocol, Alibumga, Maperi, Manaco,
the conversion of the natives?
:'a:arn, Duludu, Ladugo, Minalam, Batal, Batatas, Balissi, Estuary of Latupe, River of Lulaque, Simayo,
=ss n. River Bangal, Bangal, Pata, Cabicumga.

Source: The Philippine lslands 1493-1898
Encamiendes Assigned by Legazpi

::comiendas were set up as soon as Spaniards started colonizing the Philippines. The
,.--'cmenderos were tasked to defend their encomiendas and maintain peace and order.
-:. Synod of Manila provided guidelines to the encomenderos pertinent to their
::-:qations toward the Indios in particular and encomienda in general.
The first reading material that follows is a document enumerating the different
.,. ;omiendas assigned by Governor-general Legazp|
='-nary Source
- -3 testimony given by the notary Fernando Riquel in the city of Manila, June 2, 1576, and which
,:-. iaken from the government records, appears an attested relation of the encomiendas which were
- . 'cuted among the original Spanish conquistadors of Filipinas. From this document especially
-,::,!'orthy from the viewpoints of history, geography, and politics, it appears that the islands at the
'-= of Sande's arrival, had been divided into encomiendas in the following manner. In Ceb0, Legazpi
..: gned to his Majesty the port and the village as far as Canipata (January 16, 1571). In the rest of
'-= sland he apportioned (January 25, 1571) 3,000 lndians to Jer6nimo de Monz6n; 2,000 to Crist6bal
: =-:hez; and 1,000 to Francisco Carrefio. ln Panay, he assigned to his Majesty (January 1 6, 1 571 ) the
- .:'and settlement of Panay from the coast to Catitl6n. On October 31, he apportioned about 4,000
-: ans of Sogut (the mouth of the Araut River) and Malpa, with their tingues (mountains) and hills to
-: chief-constable Gabriel de Ribera; about 6,000 lndians on the Araut River near the coast from the
. ages of Dayt, Payan, Pinabao, Tongo, Pand6n, Nonoc, Dumangal, Cararao, Balig, Bantao, Mata,
-:run, Daripe, and the villages of the tributary that flows into the Bumey River between Potoc6n and
-.; ney with their tingues and hills, to Captain Luis de la Haya; to Lope Rodriguez and Diego L6pez
::'y'adepeflas, 2,000 Indians apiece, in the villages of Cali and Sibucao up the rrver (at the entrance
,-:ê Araut River) past the village of Daripe and as far as Sicapurut. On November 2, he assigned
- --l Indians of the Pua River between Bago and Marianao, and the branch of Barbardn, with their
-;-es and hills, to the soldiers Baltasar Rodriguez and Alonso S6nchez; 2,000 lndians apiece on the
".-iaty of the Sibalinte between Amlndan and Banga to the soldiers Francisco de Ribera and Diego
;.-:1a; the Indians of Maluhud and its creeks to the soldier Alvaro de Angulo; 2,000 lndians of the
53
,7
Below is an image af lhe plaza in bay of Moguin, namely, the Indians of the creek of Bat6n, Aguisan, lnitantar6n, Capulanbaril, Dinao.
lntramuras. This is ane af the best
illustralions af lhe sa called plaza Moguin, and Manuc, with their tingues and hil s, to the soldier Gonza o Riquel; and 2,000 on the tributary
complex. ln the image. ane can see an
apen public space called the plaza
of the Mayo to the soldier Francisco Hey. On November 3, 2,000 Indians on the river of Daclan, and
Surrcunding the plaza are the important the villages of Amacatan and Tagaun, with their tingues and hills, to Antonio Flores; the indians of the
catonlal builc!ings like the Manila
Cathedral, Ayuntamiento (left), and the villages of Guimba, Caranga, Argahao, Marabagui, and Bugau, with their tingues and hil s to Hernando
Palacia del Gobernadar (rlght).
de Monroy; the Indians of the river of Arui, and the natives of Barugo, Uyungdn, Cuyuran, NaorguZrn.
Bangot, Tibao, Lonio, CabAyan, Lalac, and Tabangan, with their tingues and hills to Rodrigo de Vargas:
the lndians of Tibagu6n and Baguinguln, with their tingues and hills to Est6ban Rodriguez; and the
Indians of the river of Xaro and those of the villages of Calataca, Pasanhan, Cabuga, Alenguen, Samble
and Sunamburi, wlth their tingues and hills, to Francisco Dur6n. On April 5, 1572, the natives of Xaro
and the others whom Francisco Dur6rn had held to Luis P6rez. On April 15, the Indians of Dulungan.
Antique, Bunital, and Aslriman to Diego Xim6nez On June 1, the lndians of the villages of Ot6n with its
tingues and hills to Miguel de Loarca. In Cibabao and Paita, on January 25,1571, Legazpi assigned the
2,000 first Indians to Bartolom6 Cindila; 2,000 to Juan de Aguera; 2,000 to Diego de Quintanilla; 1,500
to Diego Godinez; 1,500 to Damidn GonzAlez, l,500 to Antonio Ginov6s; and the same number each to
Juan M6ndez, Francisco de Torres, Andrea de Luca, de la Xari, and Juan Pbrez, 1,000 on the river of
Panae of the said islands to Augustin Duerto. On above two islands in order to avoid disputes among
February 14, Legazpi united the encomiendas of the the encomenderos, giving the Indians of Limanca,
Vav6n, and Samal to Augustin Duerto and Bartolom6 Andrea; those of Paita to Juan Griego; those of
Caguaydn to Juan M6ndez; those of Buri to Felipe de la Xara; those of Tunaoyiran to Juan Perez; those
of Paranas to Andr6s de Luca; those of Calviga to Juan Guti6rrez; and those of Bond6 to Miguel Godinez
and Antonio Ginov6s.
ln the island of Mindanao, the chief river Vindanao, the point of Cauit, the port of Caldera, the
village of Zamboanga and ali the villages and coast where cinnamon is grown, were assigned by the
ade antado to his Majesty on January 16, 1571. On January 25, he assigned to Juan Griego the natives
of the vi lages of Cagayan, Gonpot, and Tagoloan(?), with their tingues and hills; to Pedro Brizeflo de
]NTRODUCTION OF COLONIAL iNSTITUTIONS

3seguera, regidor of the town of Santisimo Nombre de Jesris, the lndians of Dapitan, Si Cdyap, Siripolo
)ipolog) and Guind6yan (llaya), with their tingUes and hills; to Pedro Navarro and Garci Sierras Chac6n,
:'e rivers and villages of Surigao and Parasao, with their tingues and hills; and to Diego de Porras, the
. I ages of Layagu6n, Lucrilan, and Silamaylegue with their tingues and hills, The same adelantado
assigned, on January 25, 1571, to Luis de Santa Cruz the first two thousand lndians to be reduced; to
) ego L6pez Povedano, a like number; and the same to Mateo S6nchez, Domingo de Zuazo, Benito de
a Cerda, Francisco Rodrfguez, Sim6n Garcia, Andr6s de Villalobos, and Pedro lsardo; 1,500 to Alonso
Osorio, Martin L6pez, Bartolom6 Madrigal, Juan Guti6rrez, Crist6bal Nrifrez Pareja, Miguel Galvrin,
Gaspar Ruiz, and Martin de Campos. He did not assign the above any definite villages, but the tribute
ilas to be divided pro rata in proportion to the number conceded to each one. However, in order to
avoid disputes, on September 6 of that same year, Legazpi assigned to Francisco Rodriguez and Luis
le Santa Cruz the rivers of Tanac, Davi, and Monalongon, with their tingues and hills; to Francisco
tllez, Domingo Zuazo, Benito de la Cerda, Martfn L6pez, Sim6n Garcia, and Martin de Campos, the
- .'er and villages of llo and Malamio, with their tingues; to Andr6s de Villalobos, Diego Lopez Povedano,
'.'-reo S6nchez, and Pedro lsardo, the river and villages of lnabdngan and Adelinte, with their tingues;
': J:an Guti6rrez Cort6s, the river of Bago; to Gaspar Ruiz, that of Tigagudn, and to Crist6bal Nufiez
:a'eja, that of Caracol. ln the island of Leite, Legazpi assigned, on January 25, 1571, the two thousand
- dians f irst
:e Sep0veda, and
/
reduced to Juan Martin; 2,000 to Juan Vexarano , LAzaro Bruzo, Alonso de Henao, Francisco
Pedro Sederlo; 1,500 to Juan de Trujillo, Juan Fern6ndez de Le6n, Lorenzo de
llafafra, Gaspar de los Reyes, and Martin de Aguirre. September 5, 1571 , he assigned 2,000 lndians to
rll
In 1582, the Synod of Manila was
=rancisco de Quiros. On the sixth, he assigned to the abovesaid the villages and environs of Maracaya, convened by Bishop Domingo
de Salazar in order to tackle
3moc, Calbac6n, and the rivers of Barugo, Palos, Vito, Mayay, Vincay, lnunganga, Zuundaya, Cabalian, matters pertinent to the method of
\linaya, and de los M6rtires [i.e., of the martyrs], and the villages of Srigut, Canamoc6n, and Ilongos, evangelization in the Philippines.
Salazar belonged to the Order of
ln the island of Luz6n, January 16, 1571, he assigned to his Majestythe settlements of Manila, the
the Preachers (Dominicans). He
cort of Cavite, and the seacoast settlements lying between them. July 28, he conceded to Goiti 8,000 was a champion of the natives in
ndians of the lake and river of Bomb6n; November .14, to Juan GonzAlez de Pedraza, the villages lhe Philippines for he was heavily
influenced by Bartolome delas
:f Bondo, Butanguian, Tonacaten, Marabatau, Purusgu, Manilau, Mahauay, Naos, Camaur6n, Tarique,
Casas. On February 6, 1579, he
',lacabaras, Bigo, and Nuslan; to Fernando Biquel, the lndians of the principal branch of the river was selected by the King of Spain
and confirmed by Pope Gregory
',lacabur, and its creeks; to Andr6s de lbarra, from the point of the bay of Manila, to the terminus of
Xlll as the first bishop of Manila. He
3onbon; to Juan de la lsla, the lndians of Malinao, Banban, Tuxas, Palatnia, and others of the Pasig served as bishop of Maniia until his
iiver, island and hill, and the villages of Bayauan and Pasrin; to Captain Juan Maldonado, the lndians death on December 4, 1594.
:r the river of Mor6n of the lake of Bai, and eleven villages of the said lake; to sargento-mayor Juan
:e Moron, the lndians of the lslet of Calumpit; to Hernan Lopez, 19 villages of the province of Bat6n
êar the river of Lubao of the bay of Manila; to Marcos de Herrera, 8 villages of the creek of Malolos;
:l Gaspar Ramfrez, 16 villages, 14 of which are on the river of Calamba; to Francisco de Le6n, 12 Bartolome de las Casas was
. llages of the river of Lunb6n, belonging to the lake; to Francisco de Herrera, 4 other villages of the a sixteenth century Dominican
friar from Spain. He was present
ake; to Martin Guti6rrez, 5 villages of the same; to Alonso Ligero, 5 villages; to Pedro de Herrera, the
in the Spanish colonization of
adians of the river of Sinoluan and 6 villages of the lake; to Antonio Alvarez, 12 villages of the river of Latin America. He forwarded and
protected the rights of the natives
to Lope Garc[a de Herrera, 4 fvillages] of the lake. April 15, he assigned to Jer6nimo Tirado,
"'lanila; which made him earn the title
6 villages on the creek of Atlae; to Juan Mateo Obreg6n, 15 fvillages] of the lake; to Francisco Bafrol, "Protector of lndians."
3 [villages] of the same lake; to Benito Diaz, 7 fvillages] of the creek of Olimare, toward Pampanga; to One of his disciples was Domingo
de Salazar who became the lirst
Amador de Carrur6n, 15 villages, May 16, 1572, lhe adelantado assigned to his lvlajesty the village of
bishop of Manila.
lastilla,l (so that no other but his Majesty might be lord of the village that bears such a name), and
:he vlllages of Cabacite and Cabuyal, and likewise those of Ub6n, and Bililan, of the bay of lbal6n.
May 17, he assigned to Crist6bal S6nchez, 13 villages of the bay of lbal6n; and to Juan Lopez, 15
ivillagesl of the same bay. May 23, to Pedro de Arnedo, 1 village of the bay, and 7 on the coast opposite
55
irave tried to ascertain the reason for so great a change, and for the dearness
of food; and after
'-:ioughly informing myself through persons who know,
and through what I have seen wjth my own
:-.es, lfind the following reasons therefor. First: When Don Gonqalo Ronquillo came here as governor
-'Lal2O4) Pampanga, whence all this country used to be supplied with rice, wine, and fowls, a great
^-mber of lndians went to the mines of Ylocos, where they remained during the time when they ought
: nave sowed their grain. Many of them died there, and those who returned were so fatigued that they
-::ded rest more than work. As a result, in that year followed a very great scarcity of rice, and for lack
' : a great number of Indians in the said Pampanga died from hunger. ln Luvao alone, the encomienda
,' 3uido de la Vagares, the dead exceeded a thousand.
Second: in regard to the many occupations in which the Spaniards employ the lndians, such as
.::ng them to row in the galleys and fragatas despatched by the governor and of{icials on various
:-missions, which are never lacking. At times they go so far away that they are absent four or six
-:-ihs; and many of those who go die there. Others run away and hide in the mountains, to escape from
--: ioils imposed upon them. Others the Spaniards employ in cutting wood in the forests and conveying
- : this city, and other lndians in other labors, so that they do not permit them to rest or to attend to
*:' ields, Consequently, they sow little and reap less, and have no opportunity to attend religious
f
-.:'Jotion. lt sometimes happens that while these miserable creatures are being instructed for baptism
-= Spaniards force them to go to the tasks that I have mentioned; and when they return they have
':-l3tten what they knew; for this reason there are today many Indians to be baptized. ln some cases
-:n I have gone to a village to administer confirmation, I have returned without confirming any one,
:;.ause [205] the lndians were not in the place, but were occupied in labors ordered by the alcalde-
-?.ror', ood I could not collect them together. In proof of this, I send a mandate issued by a deputy of
-: - Jo. (l was present at the time, and all the people were away, occupied in the tasks assigned to them;
:- r the only lndians in the village were those who were being instructed for the reception of baptism.)
-- : ordinance commanded allthe lndians of the said village to cut wood, and those who were receiving
-::'Jctron to quit it.
Third: Before the governor Don Gonqalo Ronquillo came, there were not more than three or four
=:a des-mayor in all these islands; but now there are sixteen and most of them are men who came with
- - As they came poor, and as the salaries are small, they have taken away the Indians-as all affirm,
=1d it is common talk-at the time for harvesting rice; and they buy up all other provisions, and many
:rofit by selling them again. ln this way everything has become dear, because, as they have forbidden
::e Indians to trade and traffic, they sell at whatever price they wish, Formerly the lndians brought their
produce to the gates, and sold it at very low prices; for they are satisf ied with very little gain, which is not
true of the Spaniards. But, not to ascribe all the guilt to men, but to our sins, the cause of this dearness
has in part been that these years have not afforded as good weather as others. This is the state rn which
the country has thus far been up to the present.
lnjuries lnflicted upon the lndians

First: When a \ong exped\tion is to be made, the wrongs which they sutter are many. One is to despatch
for the Indians who are to row in a galley or fragata a sailor who has neither piety nor Christian feeling.
Moreover, it is notorious that, without inquiring whether an lndian is married or single, or whether his wife
is sick or his children without clothing, he takes them all away. lt has happened that when a husband
ti has led this deputy to his wife, who was great with child, and has asked with tears that he might be left
e behind as she had no one to care for her, the sailor has beaten her with cudgels in order to make her
go, and the poor husband also, despite his resisiance. ln other cases, their wives are abandoned when
dying, the husband being compelled to go away to row. The lndians are put into irons on the galleys,
57
pay that is given them is very small;
GUIDE OUE$TIONS and f,ogged as if they were galley-slaves or prisoners. Moreover, the
never
o What was the intention of the for they give each man only four reals a month-and this is so irregularly paid that most of them
pay among themselves,
author? see it. The lofficials of the] villages from which they take the rowers divide the
. Explore and discuss the thoroughly authenticated; for when
or give it to those whom they impress as oarsmen. This statement is
different obligations of the
the governor, Don Gonqalo Ronquillo, sent to the mines, in Vitis and Lobao alone they
divided three
encomendero to the land
entrusted to him.
thousand pesos belonging to the lndians themselves; and when he sent to Borney,
in Bonb6n they
. Explain the different obligations
pesos were taken'
of the encomendero loward divided more than two thousand, They say that in all Pampanga five or six thousand
the natives regarding sPiritual and similarly in all towns where they get recruits
matters. your Majesty,
Sometimes they do not go at harvest-time to collect the rice whjch they say belongs to
but only when it is very dear; and then they require it to be sold for the price which it was worth
when
past
they harvested. Sometimes the Indians buy back for f ive or six tostons what they sold for one. The
year, when the Indians ate shoots of palms and bananas because they had no rice, and many lndians
died from hunger, they made them sell the remaining rice at the prlce which it was worth at harvest-time,
grain to eat. One
Sometimes the entire quantity of his rice is taken from an lndian, without leaving him a
poor widow, seeing that they were carrying off all her rice without leaving her a grain to eat, took, as
best she could, two basketfuls to hide under the altar, and there saved them; but it is certain that if the
collector had known it, they would have been taken from that place'
Another injury that they do to this poor people, under pretense of its being for your Majesty, whereby
For access to primary sources your royal name is detested among them, is as follows. Formerly, when rice was plentiful, four hundred
and other documents o{ the Period gantas were worth one toston; your Majesty's off icials of La Pampanga furnished me with the price which
please see Project Gutenberg at
it was worth. Last year the governor ordered that twelve thousand fan6gas of rice be taken from La
www. guternberg.org
pampanga for your Majesty, and that the lndians should give three hundred gantas for one tost6n. lt was
then worth among them about a peso of gold, because it could not be had at any price Many lndians
died of hunger, The three hundred gantas which they took from them for one tost6n were worth about
six tost6ns, and a person who wished to buy it could not find it. This present year, when they have so
little grain and the famine is so great in La Pampanga, the Spaniards might have sent to other districts to
buy rice, where-although they must go farther-it is more plentiful, and could be taken without injuring
the lndians. Yet the Spaniards have chosen not to do this, but rather to order that it be taken from La
pampanga. And while the price among the lndians is fifty gantas for one tost6n, they require them to give
for your Malesty at the rate of two hundred and fifty gantas. At the season when this was collected, I was
visiting La pampanga, and I saw so much weeping and moaning on the part of the wretched lndians
from whom they took the rice, that it moved me to great pity-and all the more since I could see so little
means to provide a remedy; for although I wrote about it to the master-of-camp, who was at that time
lieutenant-governor, it profited me little.
As for the means of collecting this rice, the alcalde-mayor or his deputy divides among the chiefs
two, three, four, or more taels of gold (which is a certain weight worth five pesos), and orders that so
many gantas of rice be collected for one tost6n. Afterward they send, to collect this rice, men without
piety; who, with blows, torture, and imprrsonment enforce compliance with the rate of three hundred
and fifty gantas for a tost6n; and, in other years, one hundred of wine, and this year, sixty, lt is a fact
well established, for I have learned from the very persons who collect it that it often happens, that the
lndian, not having so much rice as is demanded, is obliged to go to buy at the rate of fifty gantas for
a tost6n, and fifteen gantas of wine; and from him, as is said, they take two hundred and fifty of rice
and seventy of wine for one tost6n. lf this occurred only with respect to rice, which is necessary for the
expense which your Majesty incurs in this city, it would be but half a wrong, although I do not know what
law permits them to invent one price for your Majesty and another for others. However this may be, I will
pass on. But the real evil is that the governor, master-of-camp, alcaldes-mayor, your Majesty's officials
CI]APIEB : INTHODUCTION OF COTON AI NST TUTIONS

:- I other persons to whom these wish to give it, all consume it at this same price, and they also collect
- l: this price for the hospitals of the city. Although the governor, in the orders which he gives for the
-:soitals and for other persons, such as alcaldes-mayor, does not name the number of gantas to be
: .:r for a tost6n, yet the rate is not higher than for your Majesty, He is at fault, in that-knowing that they
:: 3ct at this price-he neither causes what has thus been taken to be restored, nor punishes him who
''1^sgresses in this matter; thus many dare to take rice from them at these same prices, knowing
that
--=,, wiil not be punished. I know that many alcaldes-mayor, having orders from the governor to buy from
--= ndians of their districts three hundred fan6gas from each single man and five hundred from each
-="ed man, take it at the aforesaid price, and even much more than they are permitted to take, and
.= t again at the current price. I know that they also go to collect, at the price fixed for your Majesty,
.-- :aemselves and their friends, much more rice
than they have a right to take according to order. The
..-.e rs true in regard to cutting timber.
They compel the lndians to work at tasks in the service of your Majesty, paying them but little, and
-=: .regularly and late, and often not at all.
do not mention the injuries which the lndians received from the Spaniards during the conquest,
,' ":m what happened to them in other parts of the Yndias can be inferred what would happen here,
- :. was not less, but in many places much more. I speak of what has happened and now happens in
'- - :c lection of the tributes, so that your Majesty may see if it is right to overlook or tolerate things which
- .: far beyond all human justice.

As for the first, your Majesty may be assured that heretofore these Indians never have understood,
- -- -ave they been given to understand, that the Spaniards entered this country for any other purpose
-
=- :o subjugate them and compel them to pay tributes. As this is a thing which all peoples naturally
=--.:. it follows that where they have been able to resist they have always done so, and have gone to
.- ,'/hen they can do no more, they say that they will pay tribute. And these people the Spaniards call
-.- '=d, and say that they have submitted to your Majesty! And without telling them more of God and
,':-: benefits which it was intended to confer upon them, they demand tribute from them each year.
--=' lustom therein is as follows. As soon as the Spaniards have subjugated them, and they have
, - - sed to pay tribute (for rom us Christians they hear no other word than "Pay tribute"), they say to
f
-. - rirves, "You must give so much ayear." lf they are not allotted in encomiendas, the governor sends
--: lne to collect the tributes; but it is most usual to allot them at once in an encomienda to him who
":: -iarge of collecting the tributes. Although the decree relating 10 encomiendas says, "Provided that
: - ^siruct them in the matters of our most holy faith," the only care that they have for that is, that the
;- :-endero takes with him eight or ten soldiers with their arquebuses and weapons, orders the chiefs
- := oalled, and demands that they give him the tributes for all the lndians of their village. Here my
, .:-s f ail me, I lack the courage, and I can f ind no words, to express to your Malesty the misfortunes,
-
--:s. and vexations, the torments and miseries, which the Indians are made to suffer in the collection
- -: i:ibutes. The tribute at which all are commonly rated is the value of eight reals, paid in gold or in
: r -le which they gather from their lands; but this rate is observed like all other rules that are in favor
-= rdians-that is, it is never observed at all. Some they compel to pay it in gold, even when they do
' .- -f ,'e it. In regard to the gold likewise, there are great abuses, because as there are vast differences
-: : here, they always make the natives give the finest. The weight at which they receive the tribute
-a: he who collects it wishes, and he never selects the lightest. Others make them pay cloth or
- =.: But the evil is not here, but in the manner of collecting; for, if the chief does not give them as
- ,- - gold as they demand, or does not pay for as many lndians as they say there are, they crucify the
-'- 1-nate chief , or put his head in the stocks-for all the encomenderos, when they go to collect, have
-=' s:ocks, and there they lash and torment the chiefs until they give the entire sum demanded from
59
them.Sometimesthewifeordaughterofthechiefisseized,whenhehimselfdoesnotappear,Manyare
thechiefswhohavediedoitortureinthemannerwhichlhavestated.WhenlwasintheportofYbalon
one who was collecting
some chrefs came there to see me;
and the first thing they said to me was' that
indicated the manner in
a chief by torture, and the same Indians
the tributes in that set,ement had killed
whichhehadbeenkil|ed,whichwasbycrucifixion,andhanginghimbythearms.lsawthissoldierinthe
townofCaceres,intheprovinceofCamarines,andlearnedthatthejusticearrestedhimforitandfined
himfiftypesos-tobedividedequallybetweentheexchequerandtheexpensesofjustice-andthat
withthispunishmenthewasimmediatelySetfree,Likewisellearnedthatanencomendero-becausea for
silver nor cloth with which to pay the
tribute-exacted from him an lndian
chief had neither gold nor
ninepesos,inpaymentotnlnetributeswhichheowed;andthentookthislndiantotheshipandsold
remained in
I told this to the steward and asked
for the lndian' he
him for thirty-f ive pesos. And although
slavery.Theyco|lecttributefromchildren,oldmen,andslaves,andmanyremainunmarriedbecauseot
the tribute, while others kill their children' ' '
I can give your Maiesty from
here regarding the transgresslon
The foregoing is such information as
GUIDE OUESTIONS
. What abuses committed bY the
andobservanceoftheroyalcommands,laws,anddecrees;andolthepresentstateofthiscountry,the the
on account of the little time before
SPaniards are mentioned? in it, and what matters ought to be remedied
wrongs that occur
Majesty. lf this relation
. How have the natives reacted poIished aS to be fit to appear beiore your
ship departs, not all of thls letter is so
to these abuses? your Majesty and secure
is not in lack of truth or in desire to serve
is deficient (as it cannot tail to be) it
lf there is anythinE
of their sins and my own, l have in charge.
the wellare of these SoUIS Whom, because
whichtoyourMajestyappearsworthyofremedy,lhumblyaskforit;andiflhavesaidanythingabou:
whichitappearstoyourMalestyloughttohavebeensilent,lalsohumblybegthatlmaybepardonec
SinceyourMajestyknowsthatlamfivethousandleaguesdlstantfromyourcourt,andsurroundedby
Somanygriefsandatflictions,youwillnotbesurprisedatwhatlsay,butatwhatlleaveunsaid_anc
evenwhylmyselfdidnotgotobegfortheremedy;foritcertainlyisadifferentthingtoseeandendure
It here, than to hear it mentioned there
Fnrv Dot\'rwoo, bishop of the Filipinas
Vol V (1 582-1 583
Source: Ihe Phitippine tslands 493-1 803
1
#rder $*sued hY the verncr G*-

f*r ffi*E$emtEmn mt tfE* Trihutes officials in the Philippines to collect
Royal decrees also instructed the government
was used in order to defray
personal tax or tributo from the indior. The tributo
governmentexPenses.ItwasalsosaidthattheKingofspainhadinvestedalotof
of the Philippines, and hence, it was proper
money into the voyages and colonization
in cash or in kind'
for the ind'ios to ..p'i ftiU"'es may be paid
Thefollowirrg,."..o,,.,fromtheorderissuedbyGovernor.generalGomezPerez
of collecting tributes in every encomienda
Dasmarifias to monitor the different methods
The order also calls for the noncollection
of tributes from areas which were not yet
pacifiedatthetime.Asstatedintheorder,officerswouldonlybeallowedtocollect
tribute once an area is Pacified'
PrimarY Source
for the king our lorc
l, Gomez Perez Dasmariias, governor
and captain-general of these lslas Philipinas
lnasmuchaslamnotified,bythedecreesandinstructionsofhisMajesty,whereinhecommandsanc
prevalent in the collectio:
excesses and lawless acts which are
charges me to exert myself to check the
other encomenderos
to his Majesty, as well as those of the
of the tributes in the encomiendas belonging
CI-,IAP-|EJF 5 INTFODUCTION OF COLONIAL INSTITUTIONS

-:-: scked into this matter; and, with all the care and attention lcould give, I have consulted and
::--=--ed as to the best order and method that should be employed in the aforesaid collections, in
:.:Ei:-at God and the king, our lord, may be served. Therefore, in order that the lndians may not be
ri."*:.,e: :r aforesaid excesses-it is fitting that the procedure is not due them, to put an end to the evils
u. : .-:- js which have existed in this business, and to check the aforesaid excesses-it is fitting that
*r :-:,:3lJre which is to be hencelorth followed be understood and established. Accordingly, by this
- ?t'jr-: t3 order and command that in the collection of tributes, not only in the encomiendas of the king
'i* - I l:rers, the following rules and conditions shall be observed:
=-": in the encomiendas of his Majesty as well as in those of private persons, where they have
..-*i=- nstructionandtheadministrationof secularjusticeforthemaintenanceof lawandorder,the
t-*: -= : : Jte levied may be collected from the natives; and the encomendero is bound, with that
part of
** :-: -:e which falls to him, to aid in the support of the minister or ministers
of religion who belong to his
.ir- ::r- €-Ja. The said tribute shall be collected in its entirety in the aforesaid encomiendas where lustice
ii' : ? a,s instruction exist, and equally from all the lndians therein, whether believers or unbelievers.
.
all encomenderos who are or shall be appointed in the encomiendas, to provide with the
rs; :r:er
,r*:si:-rctuality and promptness, each in his own encomienda, that part of the tribute which is due
-::- -F-- .or the maintenance of religious teaching, churches, and all other purposes of religion, under
;q.a-, :, belng deprived of their encomiendas; and the collectors, under the penalties hereinafter
{fl:Er ,,,.ich will be most vigorously executed.
-:-: ln those encomiendas where justice is administered, but where, through lack of ministers,
**": : ^3 religious instruction, the tribute shall be collected, reserving that part which would be due to
** - - ::er, if they had one-namely, a fourth part of the tax, a little more or less, which part shall be left
r-: -- y surrendered to the lndians.
:=-n: ln those encomiendas which, on account of their remoteness, have neither justice nor religious
-E--:: on, no tribute shall be collected until such time as God shall order the affairs of these islands; and
-r: r,f,aeSy, informed of their condition, shall make other provisions, in order that he may be better served.
::î: The same is decreed for those encomiendas which are disaffected or have never been
;s:-E: No collection shall be made in this case except from those encomiendas which, having
:.-:: :3en pacified, and having rendered obedience to his Majesty, shall without any just cause rise
- =:: I cn. From those encomiendas may be taken such part of the tribute as can conveniently be
:: :::=1. for their preservation and by way of recognition; and whatever small portion his Maiesty may
-':E- "nd what the lord bishop cites, may be collected.
:.-C since, accordlng to the above, no tribute is to be levied where there is no justice, occasion is
:-e-=: for many parts of these islands-which, on account of their great distance, are beyond its reach-
.. :ecome turbulent and rebellious as soon as they realize that they are released from tribute which is
z -cw collected from them. Most pernicious consequences [would follow (?) ln MS.] and many
-illegible
L
::rer districts would be disloyal and rebellious; and it would be necessary, when they should have
t :jicient religious instruction, to go back and win them and lillegiblein MS.l anew. Assiduous efforts
l :-atl be made to provide, as quickly as possible, justice in the aforesaid encomiendas. Where it is now
a:<,ng, I charge the encomenderos to inform me of such districts and territories, with their topography
:-: iocation; also of the number ol those who pay tributes, so that I may appoint accordingly, in each
=-:cmienda, an alcalde-mayor, or a deputy, or others,
if necessary, who may be suitable persons
-:. such offices. They will have salaries sufficiently large to enable them to administer justice to the
C -.:: ies, protecting and defending them against anyone who would lnjure them, and maintaining such
r -:3.course and friendship with them as will incline them to receive religious instruction when they shall
-a.,e it. Thus in all the encomiendas which have this justice and preparation, as soon as it is known
61
what benef its are conferred upon the natives by those ministers of justice, in inf luencing and governing
them, as above stated, authority will be given to the encomenderos to collect the threejourths of the
tribute, as I have said. But in the meantime, none of it shall be imposed or levied; and as soon as justice
is established, efforts shall also be made, until religious ministers shall come, to employ a layman or
laymen of virtuous life and example, in order to lnstruct the natives, to the best of their ability, in the
things of our holy faith; and such persons shall receive some benef ice, in accordance with the royal right
of presentation.
The encomenderos shall fulfil and observe all the aforesaid orders, under penalty of being
deprived of their encomiendas. ln encomiendas belonging to his Majesty, and in those of other and
private persons when the encomenderos shall-by order, or through any other lawful impediment-
be prevented from making the collections personally, in case these collectors should exceed just
bounds they shall be fined five hundred pesos for his Majesty's treasury, and half the expenses of any
war thus caused. ln addition, they shall make good any losses caused by them to the said Indians,
and shall pay all costs. The aforesaid persons are likewise ordered to make the collections with all
posstble gentleness and equity, observing the other instructions of his Majesty concerning the manner
of collecting tributes. The lndians shall pay in kind, or in such articles as they prefer to give. I also order
that an authorized copy of this my decree be furnished to each and every one of the encomenderos
or collectors who shall engage in the aforesaid collections. This decree I order and command to be
observed, iulfilled, and executed, under the penalties above stated, for the present and until such time
as his Majesty, when well informed of the present state of affairs in this land, which has been mentioned
above, shall make suitable provisions in these and all other matters, according to his pleasure. Upon
the first occasion that offers itself there shall be sent on my part and that of the encomenderos of this
commonwealth, to his Majesty, a detailed and careful account of what is here decreed and ordered, as
well as what the lord bishop suggests and advises; so that his Majesty, having examined both sides of
this question, may make such provisions and so direct our course that God and his Majesty may be
best served, and all may have the same object. Done in Manila, on the twenty-eighth of February in
the year 1591.
Source: The Philippine lslands 1493,1898 Vol. Vlll (1591-i593)
*plmimn mf Frmy tutmrtirc #* ffi*d*

mn Tr$hut*s **mimg frorm Sstdimns
The following letter, an opinion piece of Fr. Martin de Rada, was wrirren in San
Pablo, Manila on June 27, 7574 for the king of Spain. The letter outlines the different
conditions under which the Indians in the Philippines paid tribute to the colonizers.
According to the letter, some of the colonizers asked tributes from the narives as soon
as the former established relationship with the latter. It is also in this letter that Fr.
Rada compares the situaiion in some of the Latin American possessions of the Spanish
kingdom. For instance, the natives in Latin America were not forced to provide tributes
to the colonizers; some of them provided the colonizers with goods such as food.
Primary Source
Most lllustrious Lord:
Your Lordship asks me to give, in writing, my opinion of affairs in this land; and to invent a remedy
which shall result more to the service of God, our Lord, and of his Majesty, and to the security of the
consciences of those who live in this land. I say the same that I said lately in conversation with your
Lordship, when your Lordship asked me in the autumn whether it would be right that the Indians should
L]|"IAPTIE } INTRODUCTION OF COLONIAL ]NSTITUTIONS

give tribute, I told your Lordship that I had determined to call an assembly of all the religious that were
in this land, so that all of us in common could discuss the affairs of the country. Until then, it did not seem
to me that any change should be made, except that the Spaniards should raise tribute by similar methods
to those employed farther down on the coast-namely, a small amount of rice, equivalent to seventy
gantas, and a piece of cloth, for each lndian giving tribute. Having assented to this-although some
religious, and that rightly, have found fault with the tribute, both in the pulpit and in the confessional, and
in other and private discussions-l waited until all should come here, and the conference should be
called as I desired, in order that everything might be better reasoned out, Seeing now the great delay of
some, and that we would have to leave this town-some alone, and others in company-have taken the
opinion of all the fathers who were to be found here. They unanimously affirm that none among all these
islands have come into the power of the Spaniards with just title. For, although there are many and just
causes for making war on some nations or towns, no governor or captain can do so without an express
mandate for it from his Malesty, excepting only that war which is waged in defense of their persons and
property, others being unlustly undertaken; since neither in the first instructions that we received, nor in
later ones, has his Majesty ordered us to make war on the natives of these islands. Rather did he order
the contrary, in a letter that Juan de la lsla brought from his Majesty, written from the Escorial to the
governor (who is now in glory), and which I saw. That letter declared that any conquest made in these
islands by force of arms, would be unjust, even if there were cause for doing so. All the more unjust are
these conquests that in none, or almost none, of them has there been any cause, For as your Lordship
knows, we have gone everywhere with the mailed hand; and we have required the people to be friends,
and then to give us tribute. At times war has been declared against them, because they did not give as
much as was demanded. And if they would not give tribute, but defended themselves, then they have
been attacked, and war has been carried on with f ire and sword; and even on some occasions, after the
people have been killed and destroyed, and their village taken, the Spaniards have sent men to summon
them to make peace. And when the lndians, in order not to be destroyed, came to say that they would
like to be friends, the Spaniards have immediately asked them for tribute, as they have done but recently
in all the villages of Los Camarines. And wherever the lndians, through fear of the Spaniards, have left
their houses and fled to the mountains, our people have burned the houses or inflicted other great
injuries. I omit mention of the villages that are robbed without awaiting peace, or those assaulted in the
night-time, Pretexts have been seized to subjugate all these villages, and levy tribute on them, to such
amount as can be secured. With what conscience has a future tribute been asked from them, before they
knew us, or before they have received any benefit from us? With what right have three extortions, of large
amounts of gold, been made on the Ylocos, without holding any other communication or intercourse with
them, beyond going there, and demanding gold of them, and then returning? And I say the same of Los
Camarines and of Acuyo, and the other villages that are somewhat separated from the Spanish
settlements. ln all this is it not clear that tribute is unjustly raised? Likewise he who sends them for it or
orders it, as also the captain in the first place, next the soldiers and those taking part in it, and those who
advise it; and those who, being able to, do not prevent it; and those who, being able to make restitution,
do not do so-all these together, and each person individually, are entirely responsible for all injury. And
it is the same in the villages in the neighborhood of the Spanish settlements; because, although they may
have some religious instruction, and under the shelter of the Spanish are safe from their enemies, and
some injuries which have been done them have been redressed, they do not tail to receive great
molestation and injury through the continual presence of the Spaniards, and never-ending embarcations.
Finally, they were free, and, to speak openly, not reduced to vassalage. And when base and foundation
fail, all that is built thereon is defective-all the more as the lndians are not protected from their enemies,
nor maintained in justice, as they should be. Many piracies go on as before, and those most thoroughly
63
I
subdued suffer the worst, because, being robbed by

others who are not so subject, they are given
neither any satisfaction nor allowed to secure it for
themselves. And there is not sufricient reason for his
Majesty to have ordered that the rand sha, be ailotted
and divided into encomiendas; because his
Majesty was ill informed, as appears by his own letter,
since he had been assured that, without any war,
they had of their own accord become his Majesty's vassals.
Therefore it seems to have been entirely
against his Maiesty's will, lf at any time we have been
of opinion that the land should be allotted, as
indeed it now seems to us, or likewise if the land is to be
maintained, it was and is to avoid greater injury
and robberies, which are committed wjthout any remedy,
when there are no repartrmientos, Therefore,
only one thing now works injury. we are trying to render
the land orderly, and not turbulent as it was
before' when no one knew anything about it. Even now some
of the spaniards treat the natives very ill.
More than all, the tribute which is now raised (three maez
[mace] for each lndian) is excessive, in our
opinion, considering what we saw from the beginning among
them and our intercourse with them, and
our knowledge of their labors, and of the tools with which they
cultivate the ground, and their great
difflcurty in supporting themserves-for they even rive a part
of the year on roots; and the common
people can scarcely obtain a robe with which to
clothe themselves. whence it happens that, at the time
of collecting the tribute. some of them demolish their houses-which
at the least would be worth as
much as the tribute itself , if they should be sold-and go into
hiding, in order not to pay the tribute. They
say that afterward they will return to build, with the labor
of a month or two, another house. From others
it is necessary to demand the tribute with arquebuses
and other weapons, and men, in order to make
them give it; and most of them it is necessary to imprison
to make them provide the tribute. Therefore
most of the owners of encomiendas maintain stocks, in
which they keep as prisoners the chiefs
or timaguasllreemenl who do not supply the amount of the
tribute from their slaves when they themselves
cannot obtain it from the latter. Thus, considering all this
and other inconveniences, that, jn order not to
go into greater details' I do not set down, it was the
opinion of the majority of the fathers, that-even if
the whole affair were iustified, and the lndians maintained peace, justice,
in and religious instruction-for
the present, and until the lndians have other opportunities,
and other and better tools to cultivate the
land' and until the land is more fertile, all that is taken
from each lndian, in general, above the value of
one maez, in food and raiment, is cruelty, and oppresses
them too heavily.
Your Lordship should consider that in Nueva Espana,
the lndians at first gave nothing but food
(then worth a great deal) and service. And all
times are not alike, for now they can give little, but
in
course of trme, the earth growing more fertile, they can give
more; so that what is collected of all this
that the lndians now, in strict justice, do not owe, and
that which until now has been raised, has been
unjustly raised, on account of the evil way in which
these lndians have been conquered, and because
his Majesty's orders regarding them have not been
obeyed,
GUIDE ftUE$?I*ruS And because your Lordship asks my opinion as to
what ought to be done, I say that, considering
. What was the intention of the that the land is already subjugated and divided into repartimientos-and
author? for many reasons which, in
. order not to be prolix, I omit-there is no reason to abandon
What were the replies made by it, since it is very necessary that those who
Synod of Manila pertinent to reside here should be supported. Your Lordship ought,
in the opinion of the majority of the captains, to
the Personal Services Bequired
send his Majesty a true, simple, and clear report, without
from the natives? dissimulations, of the methods that have been
. What was the dynamics adopted in all this conquest; and of its present condition,
and the methods adopted in collecting the
between the Church and the tributes, so that his Majesty, as a thorough christian,
may decree what is to be done in the matter. ln
Cotoniai Government shown in the
meanwhile' the least amount of tribute possible should
the text above? be taken for the support of all, considering that it
is not owed; and those who have repartimientos
should support those who have not. lt seems to me
that
if the tributes should be regulated to the one
maez of food and raiment for each lndian, which I
spoke of
above' there will be sufficient for both classes if our people
ard themselves with other prof its that may be
obtatned ln order that this may be collected with some tribute, your
Lordship should in every way try to
CI']API-[B 5 INTRODUCTION OF COLONIAL INSTITUTIONS

--':'.ect these natives, and to do them iust\ce; and to abo\ish abuses and punish p\rates, etc, We on our
:an\.s\a\\\sru\ru\rNq e,qs\s dr\\\qs jss\ruc\nrg\\esrnrsur\s\1\dr\\.Snrre\\rs'rsnr1 spnnsrl\Srgn

t with my name. Done at San Pablo of Manila, on the twenty-first of June, one thousand five hundred
and seventy{our.
FRev MeRrru oe Reo,q
Source: Source: The Philippine lslands 1493-1898Vo|. lll (1569-1576)
Deeree ffiegulatlffis Serv!*es #f FE$Ep*m*s

Aside from imposing tributes or personal tax to the natives, the Spanish colonial
government also instituted polo y servicios. It involved drafting Chinese or Filipino
male mestizos from 16 to 60 years old to render free and personal service to community
rrojects. There had been exemptions to the polo y servicios, namely, 1) the native-ruling
(purportedly from the Spanish word
=-:re and their sons; 2) those able to pay the falk
.';lta, meaning "absence"), an amount equal to I Yz real, every day for 40 days; and 3)
rersons with disabilities.
The following text is facsimile of the Royal Decree issued on May 26,1609 under
the reign of King Philip Ii. The decree regulates the different conditions under which
rhe repartimiento system can be imposed to the natives.
Primary Source
rVe order that, in the Filipinas lslands, no lndians be distributed in repartimiento, in any number, for tB
prvate or public means of gain; since for the cutting of wood, navigation of caracoas, and other works The repartimiento system allowed
of this sort, in which our royal treasury is interested, and for the public convenience, the Chinese and the masters in colonies to recruit
natives to work for public or
Japanese found on any desired occasion in the city of Manila must be (as they are) hired; and, as community projects. This system
s understood, there will be a sufficient number of workmen among them, who will engage in these was imposed not only in the
Philippines, but also in the Latin
-.ervices for the just price of their toil. From them shall be employed those who wish to hire themselves American colonies of Spain.
:-t. n order to avoid the concourse of lndians fat Manila]. ln case that the repartimiento cannot be
:rtrrely avoided, as will be provided, and if the Chinese and Japanese are either unwilling or unable
:c satisfy the actual need of those public works, the governor and captain-general shall take measures
. -- the lndians so that they may aid in the works freely and voluntarily, making use of the means
-:.:-em
ir
advisable to him to effect it. But, granted that there be a lack of voluntary workers, we
::rmit that some lndians be forced to work in these occupations, under the following conditions,
3'Jt in no other manner.
That this repartimiento shall be made only for necessary and unavoidable affairs; for in so odious
a matter, the greater benefit to our royal treasury, or the greater convenience of the community, cannot
suffice; and all that which is not necessary for their preservation, weighs less than the liberty of the lndians.
That the lndians in the repartimiento shall be lessened in number as the voluntary workers shall be
introduced, whether the latter be lndians or those of other nations.
That they shall not be taken from distant districts, and from climates notably different from that of
their own villages, The choice of all shall proceed without any partiality, and so that both the hardship of
listances, the burden of the occupations, and compensation for the other circumstances in which there
will be more or less grievance, shall be shared and distributed equally, so that all may share the greater
and less toilsome services, so that the benefit and alleviation shown to some may not be changed into
'rjury toward others,
That the governor assign the number of hours that they shall work each day, taking into consideration
:-e lack of strength and weak physical constitutions.
65
That they be given in full the wages that they earn for their work. And they shall be paid perso-
each day, or at the end of the week, as they may choose.
That the repartimientos be made at a time that does not embarrass or hinder the sowing ,
harvesting of land products, or the other occasions and periods upon which the lndians have to a:.
to the prof it and management of their property; for our intention is that they be not deprived of it, anc
they may be able to attend to everything. Therefore, we order the governor that, at the beginning c'
year, he shall take note of the building and other matters of our service in which the lndians have ::
employed; for if the time is chosen, it may be arranged in such a way that the lndians may receiv=
considerable injury to their property or persons.
That, granting the poor arrangement and plan of the caracoas, and that when remanded to :
many Indians generally perish, because of sailing without a deck, and exposed to the lnclemenc:.
storms, we order that these craft be lmproved and built in such a manner that the lndians may ma-
the oars without risk of health and life.
ln all the above, and in all that may touch their preservation and increase, we order the go!i
to proceed with the care and vigilance that we expect, and that he punish signally and rigorous.
ill{reatment received by the lndians from their caciques or from the Spaniards-especially shou :
latter be our officials, upon whom the penalties must be more rigorously executed. We reques: ,
charge both the secular prelates and the provincials of the orders to exercise the same attention -
punishment of offenses of this nature, committed by the ministers of instruction and other ecclesia::
persons. And we order that any omission of the governors, justices, and officials entrusted, in wh::
in part, with the observance and fulfilment of this law be made a matter of their residencia.
[Law passed in the reign of Felipe lll, and dated Aranjuez, May 26, 1609.]
Source: Source: Source: The Philippine lslands 1493-1898Vo1. XVll (1609--:
LIHAPi[P : INTBODUCTION OF COLONIAL INSTITUTIONS

r-
Chapter ffiwmrcmry
. The different colonial institutions that were established in the Philippines during the early
years of Spanish conquest brought abouttremendous changes in the political, economic,
and social aspects of the community. The barangays which were independently ruled
from each other had to be unified under the Spanish Colonial Government with the
Governador y Capitan-General as the head and the sole representative of the King.
. The scattered settlements had to be resettled in a community to easily monitor the
natives. lnitially, the colonial government awarded encomienda to meritorlous Spaniards
to easily pacify the natives. The missionaries on the other hand employed the
reduccion
system wherein the natives and important government institutions were established
and resettled near an open space called plaza. lt served as a civilizing tool to easily
monitor the movements of the new converts from their birth to death. The reduccion also
facilitated the collection of tribute.
. Different economic institutlons like polo y servicios and tributo (personal tax) were
also imposed on the native sin order to support the different colonial projects in the
was
archipelago. However, the unjust and excessive collection of these services and tax
questioned by the church and the friars.
&msmmmffiE#Eree
that
Using your knowledge on precolonial Philippines, discuss and explore the changes
were brought about by different colonial institutions in the Philippine society. Please
focus
your discussion on three different aspects:
.
'1
Economic Changes
2. Social and Religious Changes
3. Political Changes
Suggested ffimm#$ffiffis
. Arcilla, Jose S. An tntroduction to Philippine History 4th ed. Quezon City: Ateneo de
Manila UniversitY Press, 2003.
' Dela Costa, Horacio. Readings in Phitippine History: Selected Historical Texts Presented
with a Commentary. Makati: Bookmark, lnc., 1992.
. Cushner, Nicholas P Spain in the Philippines: From Conquest to Revolution. IPC
Monographs. Quezon City: Ateneo de Manila University Press, 1971'
. Zaide, Gregorio F. Phitippine Potitical and Cultural History Vol. 1. Manita: Philippine
Education Co , 1957.
r Dtacumentary Ssurces in Phitippine History. Vols. 1 and 2. Metro Manila: National
Book Store, 1990.
-.
l,1ili.
l,.li
.:
,n
67
Opposite page. Filipinos staged revolts against the Spanish
colonizers during the seventeenth and nineteenth centuries
because of the oppression and iniustices committed by
the Spanish gavernment and friars to the natives. These
oppressive acts can be summed up as the strict imposition
of the Catholic falth, poto or forced labor, and the usurpation
of land by retigious orders. The photo above shows native
Filipinos rendering forced labor for the galleon trade
CHAPTilffi VI
Early Filipino Revolts
he imposition of the Catholic faith, forced labor or polo, and the usurpation of
Iand by the religious orders triggered offreactions from the Filipinos which came
in the form of revolts.
These revolts happened during the early part of Spanish colonization particularly in
the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. Moreover, these revolts took place in different
parts of the Philippines.
't:
Attempts of preserving the old religion by Filipinos inspired the revolts led by
Thmblot of Bohol and Bancao of Leyte. Both revolts took place in 1627.
The demands of forced labor or polo took a toll on the Filipinos and were seen in
the revolts led by Sumuroy of Samar in 1649 and Maniago of Pampanga in 1660.
t' As religious orders usurped lands from the natives, agrarian uprisings became
rampanr in the provinces of Batangas, Bulacan, Cavite, Laguna, and Rizal in 17 45-17 46 '
This particular chapter takes a look at the primary sources which documented
these revolts as penned by members of the religious order particularly Fr. Pedro Murillo
:,**--il].:.ij*---*--irt+--*-*ji*ll---*-j$i--*--+lii!----_*:,*----,s---**l#-----*1I.+-----++------*^lrii:--"-*
j6g1 '16?1*22 1S21 16?5*2? 16?* ISSS 1645 '!6i1*-S*
1s74 tsE?*s8 r$gs is$1
Lakan-Dula,s Tondo Tamblot's Bankaw's/ Cagayan Caraga Cagayan Ladia Revolt
N4agalat's lgorot Bevolt Gaddang Sumuroy
(Northern Bevolt Revolt (Bohol) Bancao's Revolt Revolt Bevolt (Bulacan) Revolt
Revolt Conspiracy Revolt
(Tondo) (Tondo) (Cagayan) Luzon) (Cagayan) Revolt (Cagayan) (Caraga) (Cagavan)
(Leyte)
,llarde who wrote Historia dr la de prouincia Philipinas d.e la Compaiia de
Jesus: segunda
:-;"re (History of the Philippine province of the Society of Jesus) in \749 and by Fr.
.âsimiro Diaz who wrorc Conquista de las Islas Filipinas (Conquest of the Philippine
-slands) in 1890. Fr. Velarde was a Jesuit priest while Fr. Diaz was an Augustinian friar.
Ex**rpt *f e$n S**s*uret *f Bh* ffimmmm* ffi*v*EB

Below is an excerpt of a report on Bancaot revolr, as documenred by Fathers Velarde
and Diaz.
Primary Source
-r'he
natives of Carigara in the island of Leyte became impatient, and revolted without waiting for the
result in Bohol, incited thereto by Bancao, the ruling chief of Limasava-who in the year 1565 recerved
with friendly welcome Miguel Lopez de Legazpi and the Spaniards who came to his island, supplying
them with what they needed, tor whlch Philip ll sent hrm a royal decree, thanking him tor the kind
l$$S 1$6$*61 t$63 'ESS1*&3 't?"iil*lE*S't?45*46 ifs?*** i?$?-s4 ! ?+i*r I s*3 i s4*-*+:
Maniago's Malong's Tapar's Zambal Revolt Dagohoy Agrarian Uprisings (Lian Bevolt of palaris Revolt Cagayan Basi Revolt Apo nario
Revolt Rebellion Uprising (Zambales) Rebellion and Nasugbu in Batangas; Diego Silang (Pangasinan) Uprisings (locos) de aCtuz
(Panay)
(Pampanga) (Pangasinan) (Bohol) Binan in Laguna; lmus, (llocos) (Lucban,
Silang, and Kawit in Tayabas)
Cavite; San Mateo, Taguig,
Paralaque in P'ovin6i2 6g
Tondo; and in Hagonoy,
Bulacan
69
FOCUS *UHSTISN hospitality which he showed to those firsl Spaniards. He was baptised and, although a young man,
How did the Filipinos show their showed that he was loyal to the Christians; but, conquered by the enemy fof souls], he changed sides in
opposition to the imposition of his old age. This man lived in the island of Leyte, and with a son of his and another man, Pagali (whom
tribute, forced labor and friar
usurpation of their lands? he chose as priest of his idolatry), erected a sacred place to the divata, or devil; and they induced six
villages in the island to rebel. ln order to remove from them their fear of the Spaniards, these men told
LEARNING their followers that they could change the Spaniards into stones as soon as they saw them, by repeating
SSJfrCTIVES the word bafo, which signifies "stone;" and that a woman or a child could change them into clay by
At the end of the chapter, students flinging earih upon them. Father Melchor de Vera went to Zebu to give warning of this sedition and obtain
should be able to:
aid to check it. Captain Alcarazo equipped an armada of forty vessels, in which were embarked some
. identify the causes of the early
Filipino revolts; Spaniards and many friendly lndians, also the father rector of Zebu and Father Vera; these united with
. explain the Spanish point of the forces (both Spanish and lndian) that the alcalde of Leyte had. They offered peace to the rebels, but
view in the accounts of the
the latter spurned it with contempt. Our men, divided into three bodies, attacked them; and, when that
revoltst and
. explain the results of the early which Don Juan de Alcarazo commanded came in sight of the rebels, they f led to the hills. Our soldiers
revolts.
followed them, and on the way put to the sword or shot those whom they encountered; and, although
the compassion of the Spaniards spared the children and women, these could not escape the fury of
the lndians. Many of the rebels died, the enchantment not availing them by which they had thought
GUIDE SUHSTIOIUS to turn the Spaniards into stone or clay; the rest saved themselves by flight. The Spaniards came to
. Who was Bancao? Why was he a large building which the rebels had erected for their divata; they encamped in it ten days, and then
a recipient of a letter from King
burned it. Some one pierced wlth a lance Bancao, the chief instigator of the rebellion, not knowing who
Philip ll of Spain?
o Why did he lead a revolt? he was, whom two of his slaves were carrying on their shoulders and immediately his head was placed
. What actions did the Filipinos on a stake as a public warning. He and his children came to a wretched end, as a punishment for their
do during the revolt? How
infidelity and apostasy; for hrs second son was beheaded as a traitor, and a daughter of his was taken
were these actions reflective oJ
Filipino culture? captive. To inspire greater terror, the captain gave orders to shoot three or four rebels, and to burn one
. How did the Spaniards respond
priests
of their in order that, by the light of that fire, the blindness in which the divata had kept them
to the revolt and quell the
u prising? deluded might be removed. The Spaniards also cut off the head of an lndian who had robbed Father
e What evidences would reveal Vinancio Ii.e., Vilancio] and broken to pieces an image of the Virgin, and kicked a crucifix; and his head
that the account of Bancao's
was set up in the same place where he had committed those horrible sacrileges. There were many who,
revolt was written by a religious
missionary? in the midst of so furious a tempest, remained constant in their religious belief.
Source; Ihe Phitippine lslands, 1 493-1 B98Vol. XXXV|ll (1624-i683)
ffix*erp€ *f mn &***uam€ m$ the Surwmr*y ffiew*$t

Another cause of early Filipino revolts was forced labor or polo. Read below an accounr
of the 7649 Sumuroy Revolt in Samar. Just like the previous account, this was writen
by Fr. Casimiro Diaz.
The Sumuroy Revolt spread to Zamboanga, Northern Mindanao, Cebu, Masbate,
Camiguin, Albay, and Camarines.
Primary Source
There was an Indian named Sumoroy in the village of Palapag, who was regarded as one of the best,
although he was one of the very worst, and was as evil as his father-who, accredited with the same
hypocrisy, was a babayl6n and priest of the devil, and made the other lndians apostatize. He was greatly
addicted to drunkenness, and he had so promoted it [in others] that allthe village was contaminated with
this vice, as well as that of lust-vices so closely allied to idolatry, of which truth there are many examples
in Holy Writ. The inhabitants of Palapag were corrupted by those evil habits at the time when Governor
Don Diego Fajardo*with the intention of relieving the near-by provinces of Tagalogs and Pampanga
from the burden of working, at the harbor of Cavite, in the building of galleons and vessels necessary for
ill-lirPTlil 6 EARLY FILIPINO REVOLTS

the conservation and defense of these
islands-had ordered the alcaldes of Leite
and other provinces
to send men thence to cavite for that employment.
That was a difficult undertaking, because of the
distance of more than one hundred leguas, and rhe rroubles
and wrongs to the said lndians that would
result from their leaving their homes for so long a time.
The father ministers went to the alcaldes, and
the latter to Manlla, to represent those troubles and wrongs; but
the only thing that they obtained was a
more stringent order to execute the mandate without more
reply. Consequenily they could do nothing
else than obey the orders of the superior government, although
they feared what very soon occurred.
But what good end could so mistaken and pernicious a decision
have?
As soon as the inhabitants of Palapag saw that the alcaldes-mayor were
beginning to collect men
to send them to the harbor of cavite, they began to go oftener to
the meetings in the house of Sumoroy
and his fathel and to begin (when heated with wrne, the ordinary counselor
of the lndians) to organize
their insurrection. They quickly appointed leaders, of whom the chief was
Don Juan ponce, a very
influential man and a bad Christian, but married to a wife from a chief's family in the viilage
of Catubig;
she was very different from him in her morals, for she was very virtuous. The second
leader was
one
Don Pedro Caamug, and the third the above-named Sumoroy. Then they discussed
the murder of the
father minister, Miguel Ponce of the Society of Jesus, an Aragonese, at the suggestion
of that malignant
sorcerer and priest of the devil, the father of Sumoroy, who charged that undertaking
upon his son.
On Tuesday evening, the first of June, 1649, he went to the house of the father, who had just
eaten
his dinner, and was ascending a narrow ladder to his house. Sumoroy awaited him
at that place, and
hurling his lance, pierced his breast from side to side, and left him dead, without more time
than to say
"Jesus, Mary." They spared the life of Father Julio Aleni, a Roman,
saying that he was not their minister,
but was dedicated to China, whence is inferred their motive in killing the
[former] father. Next day they
despoiled the house and church of its furniture and holy ornaments; profaned the altars
and sacred
images; scattered the holy oils; and used the silver chrrsmatories for the ajonjoli
oil with which they anoint
their hair
It wasthe will of divine Providence to show forth the devout f idelity of the women amid
the inf idelity
and apostasy of the men; for, the day before that spoliation, Dofra Angelina Dinagungan,
wife of Don
Juan Ponce, accompanied by another good Christian woman, Dofra Maria Mal6n,
went to the church
and saved some holy images and ornaments, besides a chest belonging to the father,
with the little that
it contained, which they afterward surrendered to him. Among the images
that that devout
woman saved
from the sacrilegrous hands of the rebels was an image of our Lady of the
Conception, which was kept
with great propriety in the house of Dofra Maria Mal6n, and which was often seen
to sweat abundanily
and to shed tears, a miracle which spread throughout the village, When the perfidious
Sumoroy heard
of it, he said: "The Virgin Mary is weeping, Let us see if she will weep if we burn the
house;,, and he
went thither, with other men like himself, and set fire to it. But Divine Clemency
did not permit the fire to
catch in that house, although it was of bamboo and nipa like the others. The husband
of Dofra Maria
Mal6n, called Don Gabriel Hongp6n, was a head man[cabeza de
barangay]; and only he and a/l his
people remained taithtul to God and to their king. God gave
him courage to resist so many, who always
respected hjm as he was so influential a man in that viliage of palapag.
The insurgents incited the inhab/tants of Catubig, who also revolted. They killed
a Spaniard, and
rurned the church and house of the father minister, after having sacked it. The contagion having spread
:o other villages, the people did the same at pambohan, or Bayugo, catarman, and Bonan; and thence
passed to infect the provinces of lbal6n and Camarines, where they killed Franciscan
a religious, the
guardian of Sorsog6n. They killed Alf6rez Torres in Masbate. ln Caraga, the inhabitants of the village
of Tinao revolted and killed their minister, a discalced Augustinian, and a few Spanish soldiers of a
small presidio established there, the rest escaping the fury of the insurgents. In llig6n, the village of
71
Cagay6n, a mission of our discalced religious, revolted. ln the adjacent island of Camiguin, a missiot'
of the same religious, they bound their minister and set their feet on his neck. The Subanos mutinied in
the jurisdiction of Zamboanga, in the village called Siocon, where they killed Father Juan del Campc
of the Society of Jesus, The villages of the islands of Ceb0 and Bohol, who are warlike people, were
wavering in their loyalty. But Divine Clemency did not permit them to declare themselves. Thus with the
patience and tolerance of the father ministers, who suffered many hardships and found themselves ir
great danger, those fires-which could have consumed the loyalty of the provinces of these islands-
weTe soon extinguished. The first village to rebel in the island of Leite was Bacor, where the church anc
house of the father minister were burned, and the people joined the inhabitants of Palapag, leaving the
village deserted. The insurgents pretended that two Dutch ships were near, which were coming to aic
them as equals in their rebellion against the Church and the vassalage due to their lawful king; and tha:
pretense greatly aided them in their evil design:
As soon as the alcalde-mayor of Leite heard of the insurrection, he collected all the boats and mer
possible, but these were very fragile means to oppose to so vast a multitude of insurgent and desperate
men. Consequently, although they went to Palapag with the said alcalde-mayor, one Captain Don Juar
G6mez de tres Palacios y Estrado, they served no other purpose than to make the rebellion worse, anc
to encourage the enemy. The latter intrenched themselves on an impregnable hill called "the table o'
palapag;" and what is the greatest cause for surprise is that a Spaniard called Pedro Zapata, who hac
married an lndian woman in Palapag (who must have perverted him), went with them. But the insurgents
gave him his pay by killing him, in order to take away the woman, a worthy reward for his incredible
treason, They made trenches and strong stockades, with many sharp stakes and snares, and many
stone boulders suspended, which, by belng thrown upon the strongest army, would cause cruel injury'
To work greater harm, they gave command of their men to Don Pedro Caamug, who descended the hir
with two hundred insurgents and returned to the village of Palapag, where he killed the father minister
Vicente Dami6n, and two boys who were serving him, who in their fear were clinging to the father' Thet
again burned the church, a chamber of nipa and bamboo which Don Gabriel and his faithful followers
had erected for the celebration of mass, furnishing this additional bond to their apostasy and rebellior
They returned to their impregnable hill after this, which was in their eyes a great victory, and began tc
fortify themselves much more strongly than they were, as they feared the war that was expected fror
Manila.
Governor Don Diego Fajardo, seeing that the undertaking of the reduction of the inhabitants cr
Palapag was an affair requiring much care and consideration, because of the evil effects that woul:
result from any unfavorable event, after holding a council of war determined to entrust this undertaking
to the commander of the galleys, Andres L6pez de Asaldigui (already named on many occasions
as he had all the good qualities which can form a good soldier; for he was very brave and pruden:
fortunate in the enterprises that had been entrusted to him, and a prime favorite with the soldre'=
because of his great liberality, That commander left Manila with the best men whom he could enlist, bof
Spaniards and Pampangos, and went to Catbalogan, the capital of that province, where he mustere:
thirteen oared vessels and two champans. His first order was to send some vessels to Panay ane
lloilo for food. Well informed of the condition of the rebels of Palapag, he found that he needed mor=
war-supplies for that conquest; for the insurgents had extended their revolt to many villages of tix
island, and the other neighboring islands were apparently prepared to follow their bold acts, if the-.
were at all fortunate, Therefore Andr6s L6pez de Asaldegui sent to ask the governor for the galleys t-
his charge; but the latter did not send them, in order to avoid the expense that would be caused th=
royal treasury, which was very needy. But he sent order instead that the f leet of Zamboanga should be a
his disposal,
Ci"{irFTrfi 6 EARLY FILIPINO REVOLTS

[At this luncture, Asaldigui ts summoned by the governor to investigate
the loss of the galleon
'Encarnaci6n,"
and "entrusting the Palapag enterprise to captain
Gines de Rojas-a brave soldier, but
:ne who had little reputation and affection among the
soldiers, who regretted that order exceedingly,
and would have returned home had they been
able. To such an extent does the reputation of the leader
'-(her any enterprise.,,l
Don Gin6s de Rojas assembled the thirteen oared
vessels and the two champans, in the latter
-- he stowed the food. Likewise the fleet of Zamboanga
""hich came up with four caracoas and some
'::aniards' and four hundred Lutaos; these are lndians of that reglon who have been recently converted
': :t' holy faith trom the errors of
the cursed sect of Mahomet, by the efforts and toil
of there/igious
'- -e society Their commandant was their masterof-camp Don Francisco Ugbo,
a Lutao, and a
:-:'e man; and their sargento-mayor Don Alonso Macobo, of
the same nation. The chief commander
:' ::at fleet was captain Juan Mufroz, the admrral was Juan
de Ulloa, and the captain was su6rez,
-l were veteran soldiers ln addition to that succor
there came from ceb0 captain Don Francisco
:= Sandovar and Juan Ferndndez de Le6n, who
brought many men from siaro, caraga, and other
:':';jnces when all those forces were assembled in catbalogan,
Don Gin6s de Rojas dlvided them
-:l three divisions, two under command
of sandoval and Le6n, and the third in his own charge.
He
:'iered captain sandoval to go to his encomienda at catubig,
and thence, with all the men whom he
:culd assemble, to go to reduce the village of Palapag.
Captain Le6n was ordered to go with his men
ihrough rubig, sulat, Borong6n, and other viilages-first, however,
to go to Guigdn, to get as many
men there as possible Don Gines de Rojas chose the villages
of Catarman and Bobor where his
encomienda lay.
All things were ready to undertake the conquest
of the impregnable hill. Nothing worthy
of noie
happened to captain Don Francisco de Sandoval,
but the lndians of Bacor prepared an ambush
against
Juan Ferndndez de Le6n in a very dangerous pass.
Juan de Le6n de paranas had gone out, embarking
in the river of Nasdn, which is very rapid
because of its great current-and among
other dangerous
places is one more dangerous than
all, namely, a fall and cataract which is two
spear-lengths in height.
consequently' in order to proceed, one must
unlade the boats; and, after raising them
with great toil by
means of certain very thick and strong rattans,
must, after suspending or letting the boat
down thus,
again lade it rhere did the enemy set their
ambush for Juan de Le6n, but it was disclosed
by a friendly
lndian our men firing their muskets and arquebuses
at that side, the rndians fred with great ross;
and
our men proceeded to the bar of the river,
where they fortified themselves in a stout
stockade. Sandovar
did the same in catubig, as drd Don silvestre
de Rodas, whom Don Gin6s sent as a reinforcement
to Sandoval.
Those leaders' having arranged matters in this
manner, continued to invite and pacify
the many
lndians who presented themselves But
those who were entrenched on the hill, confident
in their fortress
and defense' persisted obstinately in their revolt,
and trjed to get the other villages not to declare
in
our favor' Don Gin6s fortified his post, and ordered
each captain to do the same with his, for he
had
resolved to blockade ancl capture the natives
on the hill by hunger. The natives learned from
their spies
that Don Gines had but few men in his quarters,
as the rest had gone to get provisions; and, having
determined to use so favorable an opportunity,
many of them went at night, by the river, near
the rand.
when they thought that our men were very careless
and sound asleep, they pulled some stakes out
of the fortification of Don Gin6s, and entered in
a disorderly mob, But the sentinels hearrng the
noise,
sounded the alarm. Don Gin6s, awaking, seized
his sword and buckler; and, accompanied by
those
who could follow him so hastily, confronted
the enemy, and drove them to fright with great loss-as
was
judged from the abundance of blood
that was seen in the camp in the morning. But
it was not without any
harm to our men, some of whom were wounded,
although no one died. one ball struck sumoroy
on the
73
shoulder, but only one dead man was left in the camp; for our opponents dragged the others away' a
threw them into the water. Don Gin6s did not care to pursue them, fearing some ambush, which wc
have been easy in that darkness.
The soldiers grumbled much at the great caution and prudence of Don Gin6s de Rojas, whc
thought only of strengthening his fortifications, to the great labor of those who now desired to bus'.
themselves with the enemy, and not the trees of the forest. That rose to such a pitch that the sargentc-
mayor of the Lutaos, Don Francisco Macombo, went to Don Gin6s impatiently, and told him that neithe'
he nor his men had come from Zamboanga to cut timber but to fight with the enemies of Palapag
Don Gin6s was not displeased to see the wliJingness of his soldiers to fight, and theretore, in orde'
to employ it, he had the men called to arms, and arranged the attack. He formed two divisions [fc'
attackl from the whole army, and left the third to guard the camp. The assault was made in tw:
parts-one by the open road, although it was better defended by the opponents; and the other by'-
precipitous path which was passable for the birds alone-for it was a huge steep rock, and so narro'tr
at the place where the camp of the insurgents was established that only a single man could enter a-
opening made by nature-a place called for that reason by the natives, in their own language, "tl:
eye of a needle." The men climbed up by that path, using feet and hands without carrying their arms
for these were carried by him who followed, and afterward given to him who was ahead; and so the.
did one with another. ln addition to that, the insurgents had posted a sentinel there to advise them :i
any new move, for which a few coming to his aid would be sufficient to prevent many from effectir^:
an entrance.
Don Gines entrusted that difficult undertaking to Captain Silvestre de Rodas, a native of Rota, and :
soldier of great renown in his time, of whom are recounted incredible exploits performed by him in Ternat:
He gave him command of the Lutao soldiers, with their commander Don Francisco Macombo; for himse-
Don Gin6s took the battalion of the soldiers who attacked the hill in front. The vanguard and rearguard wer:
placed in command of Captains Sandoval and Juan Fern6ndez de Le6n. The assault being planned in tha
iorm, Don Gin6s engaged the enemy with his men, with great valor, to the sound of drums and trumpei:
and went up the hill with great difficulty and danger, For the insurgents, cutting the rattans by which th=
stones and very large trunks of trees were fastened and kept back, would have been able by rolling the-
down to do great damage to our men, had not divine Providence directed these missiles to places wher:
they could do no damage. Our men went up most of the hill with this obstinacy, and the enemy went out !:
meet them with so great valor that it seemed rather desperation; and the damage inflicted upon them b.,
our arquebuses did not cool their obstinacy, for they tried to throw themselves on our spears and sworc:
in their anxiety to die while killing fothers]. The great advantage of the fortress of the hill increased the'
courage, as it could have caused great loss to our men to fight in the open and unsheltered. The figr-:
lasted many hours, the enemy often being relieved, for they had many brave and well-armed men on tl.€
hill. Don Gin6s de Rojas, seeing that the fury of the enemy was invincible (for they were f ighting more lik:
lions than like men), and that his men could not proceed with the undertaking, because they had no furthe'
strength and were tired, and had many wounded, yielded for the time being, and sounded the retrea--
leaving more vigorous experience for another day. The enemy also retired, satisfied at the resistance tha
they had shown, although much to their cost.
Very different was the success of the brave Silvestre de Rodas, with his Lutaos in charge of Dc-
Francisco Ugbo and Don Alonso Macombo, who on the second of July, 1650, made the assault in tl..
most difficult point-which was the eye of the needle in the rock, as we have stated above, through whic-
Silvestre de Rodas was the first to go. He chose the silence of the night, a time when they were leas
likely to be discovered. Climbing up one by one and without arms, with the labor that was necessar',
at the middle of the ascent an obstacle occurred that could have blocked so great an enterprise. Tha:
CiJ,3,!-ii-N 5 EARLY FILIPINO REVOLTS

a very heavy rain, which lasted a great part of the night, and which the men
"'as endured without the
: ghtest shelter, but with great vigilance and care that fire for their matches should not be lacking-
:;ailing themselves for that purpose of the shields of the Lutaos, which are called
carazas, and are
-ade of long narrow pieces of wood, with which they cover all the body at the side. The rain
ceased
a-d, although they were soaking, they all resumed the ascent of the hill; they reached
the entrance of
:ê rock at an opportune time, when the sentinel, quite unsuspicious of
such an assault, was absent,
:s he had gone to get some fire (without the company of which those lndians cannot live),
or indeed
-ave a smoke, for they think that that furnishes
them with fine company. On that account, Silvestre
l3 Rodas and some of the foremost, who were the most vigorous were enabled to enter. The sentinel
-::urned with a brand
in his hand, and when he was near perceived the bad effect of his carelessness,
ard believed that our camp was already upon hrm. He looked in astonishment, and
then, huniedly
::< ng flight, began to cry out and announce that our men had already entered
the hill by means of
::e rock. Not less was the confusion of all, who were quite free from the dread of so unexpected
an
lssault. Confused and lacking in counsel, a panic terror seized them and forced
them into disorganized
' ght, so that Silvestre de Rodas and the Lutaos were allowed to become masters of the field. Unfurling
:'e r victorious banners, they took possession of the lodgings, trenches, and food of the
enemy. Don
3ln6s de Rojas ascended the hill with his whole army, and destroyed the insurgent quarters
by setting
''e to them.Having published a general pardon, those who had been insurgents before, presented
:remselves in peace,
The chief leader Sumoroy and his sorcerer father refused to put in an appearance,
or to talk of GUIDE QUESTIONS
:eace But the very ones whom he had caused to rebel killed him, and carried his head to Don o How was Sumuroy introduced
Gin6s
:e Rojas, although they had been so loyal to him before that when the alcalde-mayor
of Leite went by Fr. Diaz?
ai the beginning to reduce them to peace, and asked them as the first . How were the other leaders
condition to deliver to him the
of the revolt like Don Juan
-ead of Sumoroy, they, making light of the request,
sent him the head of a swine. But afterward, as a Ponce and Don Pedro Caamug
:lken of their true obedience, they delivered the head, without any one asking for it. introduced?
Don Juan ponce
'emained in hiding in the island of Cebti for a long . Why did Sumuroy and his
time, but after having obtained pardon he returned lollowers decide to revolt?
:c Palapag; there he committed crimes that were so atrocious that the alcalde-mayor
seized him and o How did the "father ministers,,
sent him to Manila, where he paid for those crimes on the scaffold. He try to avert or avoid the revolt?
who had the best end was Don .
tredro Caamug; for What acts were committed
he was the first to present himself, and showed great loyalty in the reduction by the Filipinos who revolted?
of the
Ithers He continued all his life to be very quiet, and was governor of his village, where What acts were done by some
he was highly
women during the revolt?
:steemed; and it was proved that he was not the one who had killed Father
Vicente with his hands, . How did the Spanlards end the
a though he was captain of that band. Moreover, it was found uprising?
to be advisable to overlook much on that
cccasion, as the quiet of all the Pintados lslands, who were awaiting the . What became the fate of
end of the rebels of palapag,
Sumuroy and the other leaders
lepended on it.
of the uprising?
Source: The phitippine tstands, 1493-1898 Vot. XXXVil ( j67+1689).
Usurpation of lndian Lands by Friars

By the eighteenth century, many religious orders had acquired lands often
obtained
through usurPation of land or land grabbing. Not only were the natives
driven out
of the communal lands that they owned but were even forbidden ro
gather firewood,
pasture their work animals, and fish in the rivers. Agrarian uprising took
place in
rice-and-sugar producing provinces of cavite, Barangas, Laguna, Tondo,
and B,rla."r.
These provinces had haciendas owned by different refilious orders.
This matter
reached the King of Spain who and wrote a letter addressed to
the president and
auditors of the Royal Audiencia of the Philippines. The text of the lemer
follows on
the nexr page.
75
Primary Source
To the president and auditors of my royal Audiencia of the Filipinas lslands, resident in the city of
Manila: Don pedro Enriquez, an auditor of that same Audiencia, made a report, with sworn statements
of his proceedings; of what he had done under the commission which was conferred on him by the
government there for the pacification of the villages of Taguig, Hagonoy, ParaRaque, Bacoor, Cavite el
Viejo, and other places attached to them which lie near that capital, all which had revolted. [He reported
thatl they were pacif ied by merely the proclamation of a general pardon (except to the chief instigators
justice
of the revolt) which he published, and by the promise that their complaints should be heard and
done to them; but the village of San Mateo also revolted, and he proceeded to its
punishment and left it
with
in ruins, because the people had not surrendered their arms; it was, however, already [re]peopled,
inhabitants who were more numerous and of more peaceable disposition. A similar insurrection or revolt
occurred in most of the villages of the province of Bulacan, and these, like the former, by an agreement
which they had formed by a public writing with the village of Silang protested, as they afterward made
evident in their petitions, against the injuries which the lndians received from the managers of the estates
which are owned by the religious of St. Dominic and those of St. Augustine, both calced and discalced-
usurping the lands of the lndians, without leaving them the freedom of the rivers for their fishing, or
the
allowing them to cut wood for their necessary use, or even to collect the wild fruits; nor did they allow
natives to pasture on the hills near their villages the carabaos which they used for agriculture. Accordingly
[the said auditor] determined to free them from these oppressions,

and decided that they should not pay
various unjust taxes which the managers exacted from them. Having proved to be capable in the other
task assigned him, he received a commission as subdelegate iudge of the adjustment of land{itles,
in
consequence of which he demanded from the aforesaid religious orders the titles of ownership for the
lands which they possessed; and, notwithstanding the resistance that they made to him, repeatedly
refusing [to obey], he distributed to the villages the lands which the orders had usurped, and all which
they held without legitimate cause he declared to be crown lands frealengasl-as occurred with the
convent of San Pablo, belonging to the calced religious of St. Augustine, assigning to it U,e., the crownl
a farm for horned cattle and two caballerias of land which were supposed to belong to it, according
to
the testimony of the village of San Mateo. He also took other measures which seemed to him
proper for
the investigation of the fraudulent proceedings in the measurement of the lands in the estate of Biflan,
which is owned by the religious of St. Dominic-fraud which was committed in the year 1743 by the
court clerk of that Audiencia [of Manila] with notable fraud and trickery, in which participated the two
surveyors (appointed through ignorance or evil intent), to the grave injury of the village of Silang. This
had caused the disturbances, revolts, and losses which had been experienced in the above-mentioned
villages. The aforesaid proceedings [by the auditor] were considered and examined with the closest
attention in my Council of the lndias, with the decrees that were also sent by the Audiencla there in the
course of the proceedings in a second appeal interposed by the village of Silang-decrees obtained in
that suit by the natives of that village against the college of Santo Tomas de Aquino, ln regard to lands
usurped [from them] and annexed to the estate of Binan, which the religious own. On the subject of the
disturbance among the aforesaid lndians, Governor Don Gaspar de la Torre, his successor the bishop
of Nueva Segovia, and the provincials of the aforesaid religious orders set forth the allegations made
in the name of the orders by father Fray Miguel Vivas as their procurator-general at this court, and by
Father pedro Altamirano, who acts in that capacity for the Society of Jesus for its provinces of the lndias
(on the point that the province of San lgnacio in those islands had no share in the commotions in those
villages, as was shown by various testimonies), and the explanations made by my fiscal, who was
cognizant of the whole matter. lt has therefore appeared expedient to me to advise you of the receipt of
your letters of July 30, 1745, and July 17, 1746, and of the acts which accompany them; and to notify
C|IAPTITi 6 EARLY FILIPINO REVOLTS

W
I
l
'ii'
,l - - :ât by a despatch of this date I approve, and regard as just and proper, all that was performed
.ti
:i : -: aforesaid Don Pedro Calderon Enriquez in virtue of the

commission and appointment which was
! :: if erred upon him by Governor Don Gaspar de la
Torre by the advice of the Audiencia there, in order
:-at he might proceed to the pacification of the insurgent villages
in the jurisdictions of silang, lmus and
::ar Nicolas, cavite el viejo, and the other districts which united
on account of the controversy over the
: of the lands which the
religious-Dominicans, and both calced and discalced Augustinians-
"'nership
:'e endeavoring to keep. I also give him thanks for the judicious conduct
and measures which he
:-rployed for the aforesaid pacification; and I likewise approve
what he accomplished as subdelegate
-cge of the settlement of land{itles, in regard to the survey and boundaries of the estates
which, in
::cordance with their legitimate titles, belong to each of those orders,
in view of the more accurate
a-d reliable information [obtained] from the interpretations of the four
surveyors whom he appointed-
-3 latter bearing in mind, to this end, the measures put into execution by the auditor
ozaeta in the
':ar 1699, in accordance with the chart printed by the pilot Bueno, in his book entitled Navegaci,n
=sceculativa y practica li,e."'Navigation, theoretical and practical"l (which chart serves in those islands
is the standard for the surveys)-assigning to the aforesaid religious that which belongs to them by
. their
gall titles, which is the same that was ordained in
e
the executory decree despatched by the Audiencia
:-ere l also approve what he did in adjudging to my royal crown
the lands which the aforesaid religious
:'Jers had usurped, and in allotting lands to the lndians for the
sum of two thousand pesos, at times
a-d terms stjpulated with them.
From the aforesaid investigations charges resulted
against Don Juan Monroy, court clerk of that GUIDE SUESTIONS
'udlencia, who was engaged in the survey and adjustment of boundaries made in those same lands of . What places were mentioned
3irian in the year 1743-,in which, by the declaration of the two surveyors who as having revolted?
took part in it, is evident
:reir ignorance of such work, and of the rules and measures o What religtous orders were
[to be used]. Although [sc., after?] the mentioned by the letter of the
:rds had been measured and a chart of the estates had been drawn, the computations were made by King as having usurped the
::e said Monroy, and the surveyors signed it, supposing that it was correct; but it was acknowledged land of the natives?
. Apart from usurping the land
:-at in that same year, later, another survey and adjustment of boundaries was made by the
aforesaid of the natives, what other
:ourt clerk and one of the said surveyors on some lands over which there were lawsuits-some, prohibitions were imposed on
in
.articular, with the religious of St. Augustine-in which survey there was assigned the natives by these religious
to each cattle1arm orders?
?'024'574 square brazas of land, this being different from the previous survey, which o
was computed at What did Don Pedro Enriquez,
3 695,652 brazas. ln this was proved the fraud with which the said Monroy auditor of the audiencia,
acted, in giving to the said
demand of the religious orders?
'eligious more than half of the land which belonged to Silang. Accordingly, it has appeared to me proper Did the religious orders comply
to condemn him to two years' suspension from his office, and to lay upon him a fine with the demand?
of two thousand
pesos, applied to the fund of fines paid into the royal treasury; . When the religious order
and for this exaction there is issued, on
refused proof of ownership of
this same date, the proper despatch to the Marquds de Regalia, a minister
of the said my Council and the lands, what did Don Pedro
tribunal of the lndias, and exclusive judge of rents, settlement of land-titles, and collection Enriquez do?
of fines and
. What other land-related fraud
condemnations. By another despatch of the same date, the government of those islands rs
commanded were mentioned by the King?
to exercise hereafter the utmost vigilance in order that the lndians of the said villages may How were the religious guilty of
not be
molested by the religious, and that the latter shall be kept in check in the unjust acts which this particular fraud?
they may in . How did the king of Spain
future attempt against not only those lndians but other natives of those islands.
ln this, the government address agrarian uprisings in
must always bear in mind the reiterated commands given in the laws the Phjlippines? What concrete
[of the empire], and the frequent
measures did he mention?
royal decrees that have been issued, to the end that the lndians shall be well
treated and shall not suffer
oppresslon or extortion; and shall direct that my fiscal there shall appear as their representative
and in
their defense on every occasion which shall present itself in this regard. Considering
how important it is
that the lndians shall know of the recourse which they can have when they are
oppressed or ill{reated,
and in their controversies, it would be very expedient that the government grve them information
of thjs,
so that they may not be ignorant thereof , and that they may use these
means without going
[peaceable]
T7
to the extreme, as they did on this occasion, by employing armed force. For this time, my royal charity
and clemency overlooks their proceedings, considering their heedless disposition; but when they shall
have been advised of what they ought to do in such cases, and in others of a different nature, if they
fail to use those means they shall be chastised with the utmost severity. I have resolved to notify you ol
this, in order that you may be acquainted with this my royal decision, and in order that, so far as you are
concerned, you may make known my decree; and I command the most prompt and efiective measures,
to the end that it may be fully and duly carried into efiect; for such is my will. Dated at San Lorenzo, on
a
November 7, 1751.
l, rHr Krr'ro
I
F
Source:'Usurpation of lndian Lands by Friars'in The Philippine /s/ands, 1493-1898 Vol. XXXV|ll, edited by
Emma Blair and James Bobertson. Manila: Bank of the Philippines lslands, 2017
CHAPTER 6 EABLY FILIPINO REVOLTS

- âpter $urmmary
-=' ^ the colonization of the Philippines by Spain, Filipinos responded to the colonial
-.:':' .^-augh revofts.
: .- " : :s were caused by Filipinos wanilng to preserve their pre-Spanish religion,
"eedom from force rabor, and preservation of their communar rands.
' The Church and the State, on different occasions of the revolts,
took the side of the
Filipinos.
' The revolts were suppressed by pitting one Firipino ethnic group
against another.
' The revolts unintentionally provided information about early Filipino
culture.
Assessrffi*ffit
"'ie a five-page essay on other early revolts staged by Filipinos
touching
on the leader of
-^: uprising, the cause
of the uprising and the result of the uprising, Since accounts
of the
==rly revolts were written by religious orders, mention how this fact was reflected in their
=:counts. You may write on any of the following uprisings:
. The Revott of Tambtot (1621_1622)
. Maniago's Revolt (1660)
. Malong's Rebellion (1660_i66i)
. Dagohoy's Rebellion (1744_1829)
" -: Bevolt of Diego Silang (1762_1763)
* =,- aris Bevolt (1762-1764)
S -ggested ffi**dEsrgs
' - 3oncillo, Teodoro, History of the Fitipino People. Quezon City: GAROTECH publishing,
JYU,
' Scrpuz, Onofre D. The Roots of the Filipino Nation.Vol.l .

euezon Clty: Aklahi Foundation,
JUV,
Zaide, Gregorio. Phitippine poriticar and curtural History. vor. r. Manira: philippine
Education Company, 1 949.
t::,i.s., History through Setected Sources. euezon City: Atemar_
::trr, .Ph.ilipOine
I
ln the nineteenth century, positive socioeconomic conditions

allowed rich Filipinos and the middle class to study in
universities in Europe. These ilustrados who were studying in
Europe would use their new found knowledge and freedom to
demand reforms from the Spanish colonial government in the
Philippines. The photo above shows Filipino ilustrados, which
include Marcelo H. Del Pilar and Jose Rizal among others, in
Madrid, Spain.
Pnato (oLt,a<t al fut*neod aommols
#F{APTTru V{ f
The Propaganda Movement
fi n order to understand and appreciate the Propaganda Movement, it is important

S to consider the Philippine conditions in the nineteenth century. The opening of
E Philippine ports to world trade during the first halfofthe century had set into motion
significant political and socioeconomic changes. There was economic development
because of the export demand of certain crops like sugag tobacco, and abaca and the
entry of foreign capital which stimulated local agriculture. This, in turn, gave rise to the
land-estates or haciendas dedicated to the cultivation of cash crops such as sugar, rice,
and abaca. Many of these haciendas were owned by the friar orders who hired inquilinos
or tenants to manage their lands. The new system launched a wealthy class of Filipino
haciendero and inquilino families who were mostly Chinese mestizos and natives.
The educational reform of I863 opened institutions of higher learning in the colony
to all who can afford it.t This reform gave the rich mestizos and natives the opportuniry
to send their children to the schools and the colleges in Manila and, if possible, to
Europe. Their distinguished education and considerable wealth differentiated these
{srt 't 834. 1 8SS 1869 187?

The Manila-Acapulco The port of Manila was An educaiional decree The Suez Canal in The Cavite l\4utiny took place and was
or Galleon trade was officially opened to which provided for Egypt was opened. followed by state repression in which
abolished. internationa trade. the establishment This greatly shortened prominent Filipinos were arrested,
of primary schools the travel time imprisoned, exiled or executed
in each town was from Europe to the including the Gomburza priests.
proclaimed. Philippines and vice
versa.
#
'ii:ji iit i1'

f i::itii:ilriiii+ t,i1
rlustrados from the masses of indios. They would lead the criticism against the
colonial
government which was then known for its corruption and incompetence. They
would
exert efForrs ro propose political and economic reforms beneficial to the colony.
The Catholic Church and the friar orders in particular, which have lorrg.*...ir.d
grear
-nfluence over colonial affairs, would be another target of the liberal-minded Filipinos.
\\'ithin the church, however, there was also a movemenr for change led by Fr. pedro
Pelaez and later Fr. Jose Burgos demanding for equality of treatmenr berween Filipino
priests and Spanish regular clergy; and the rurnoyer of the administration oflocal
'ecular
:arishes to the hands of the Filipino priests. This became known as the secularization
-,sue. Unfortunately, the movements for liberal reform and secularization would be
:estroyed by state repression which followed the Cavite Mutiny of 1872. prominent
:ilipinos including lawyers, businessmen, and priests were implicated. as conspirators
:,i the revolt in Cavite. Many were imprisoned and exiled while some v,,61s sxs6u66d-
-ire fate that befell the Gomburza priests.
These evenrs would awaken the consciousness
1838 tE8? 1S8$ lSSe t*ss

The bilingual Jose Rizal's incendiary The bjmonthly Rizal returned to Janliaiy l+. Graciano Lopez Jaena died in Barcelona
-at onalistic novel No, me tangere Filipino newspaper, the Philippines ro Spain.
-e'Nspaper Diariong was published in La Solidaridad. lead La Liga Filipina July 4. lvlarcelo H. del pilar succumbed to tuberculosis in
Tagalogwas Berlin, Germany. was established in but after three days Barcelona, Spain.
established with Barcelona, Spain wjth was imprisoned and *eceilrtler 3$. Jose Rizal was executed by a firing squad
Marcelo H. del Pilar as Graciano Lopez Jaena exiled to Dapitan, in Bagumbayan, Manila.
editor. as editor Zamboanga
81
tragic fate of their teachers' families' and I
FOCUS QUE$TION of the younger generation who witnessed the

friends; *orrtd later bring the struggle for change to Spain'
What were the ideas and
.
"na
activities of the ProPaganda ThePropagandaMovementwasessendallyaFilipino.led,campaignforreform
Movement?
andassimilationwhichcanbedatedfromtheappearanceofthe*ftt:tt:?.tti"9Y']
Solidartdat
newspaper DiariongTagalogin 1882 to
the.demise of the publication La 1
LEARNING in Spain engaged in public i
OBJECTIVE$ in 1g95. Filipino *rrJlrr*'"rrd professionals then living

At the end of the chapter, students
speeches,politicallobbyingandpetitions,andpublicationofbool<s,pamphlets'and
should be able to: articles in order ro expose"the conditions
in the Philippines and advocate necessan-
o contributors to the movement were renowned
discuss the historical
reforms. Among the main organizers and
background' objectives and del Pilar, Mariano Ponce, Graciano Lopez
aspirations of the ProPaganda Filipino ilrrst."ios ,.r.h ", JoJ. fuzal, Marcelo
of young' wealthy' and
Movement;
Jaena, Jose Maria
Panga.tib"t', and Antonio Luna' Composed
. analyze the writings of Jose study or live in Spain, this.generation ot
Rizal, Marcelo H del Pilar and
brilliant mesrizos and natives who went to "creation ot
Schumacher was resPonsible for the
Graciano LoPez Jaena; and intellectuals, according to historian John
o explain how the movement
a Filipino .o.rr.io,.rr.rJrs,, which they
articulated in their writings and which infuenced
contributed to the develoPment would ultimatelv
of FiliPino nationalism' many minds in the Philippines. Their nationalist ideas and ideals
inrpir. and make possible the revolution of i896'2
basic rights and privileges such
In the end, the campaign proved to be a failure as
il
(the
as freedom of speech, the press, and
association and rePresentation to the cortes
highest lawmaking body in Spain) continued

to be denied to the Filipinos-despite
their Spanish sympathizers' Several
the tireless striving or rupirro propagandists and
failure. One is the political instability ir
The PhilipPines was opened to
important circumstanc.. .orr,.ittr..d to this
between the Liberals and Conservative
foreign commerce after the abolition Sp"i,, .".,,.d by the struggle for dominance
of the China-Manila-Acapulco trade
which resulted in within the ruling government' Mired in its own
or popularly known as the Galleon "brupt""changes
predicamentr, ,'h. Spr.rirh government paid
little attention to the concerns of
trade in 1813. lt was the colonY's internal
sole external trade during the last its overseas colonies and depended.[ott the
influence of the religious orders' In relation
Propagandists was to destroy the
to this, one of th. prim"ry obiectivis of the Filipino
two and a half centuries.
themselves were engaged in counte:

Foreign traders, primarily British power and prestige of th. friar class. The friars
and American, started PUtting uP
funding newspapers which answered the accusations
of the Filipinos
mercantile houses in Manila, such as propaganda,
Bussell, Sturgis and Company' which ranks of the Iilipino ilustrados-
facilitated export and import activities' Another factor was the personal rivalries among the
Rizal and Del Pilar' In 1891
the most unfortunare oiwhi.h was the break between
with the reform campaiE-
fuzal proceeded to return to the Philippines disillusioned
did succeed in igniting a Sense
i,, Spain. AII things considered, however, the movement
that would soon reach the
of national identiry and uniry among Filipinos in Spain
the revolution. By 1896, the principal figures of
the movemeni
motherland and spark
werealreadydead.LopezJaenaandDelPilardiedpoorandhungryinBarcelonawhile
and executed by a firing squad or
Rizal, after enduring years of exile, was convicted
December 30, 1896.
Excerpt fronr f,a So3idamds#

Established in 1889, the bimonthly newspaper
La Solidarldad was the officii
voice of the Filipinos in Spain' It
u-ar'
Gomburza Priests-Mariano Gomez, mouthpiece of the Propaganda Movement, the
its first editor followed by Marcel:
Jose Burgos and Jacinto Zamora
were leaders of the secularization
o.g".rir.d in Barcelonaiilh Gr".i"t o LopezJaena as
Spanish capital. Del Pilar_ar::
movement which called Ior equality H. del pilar when the publicatio., -o,r.i to Madrid, the
betlveen Filipino secular priests and newspaper as they struggled to kee;
Spanish regular friars. Mariano ponce were th. ,,o,ri.rg force behind the
propagandists fondly called it' publisher
the publication going. La Solidiridad ot Sol,as
and essays c':
..po.,, works about the Philippines' polemical articles
,.h"olrrly
"rrd
Crl::-=F 7 THE PROPAGANDA MOVEMENT

STUDY.&ID
Onercannoldiso,oun{ 16e:ro1. ofr€.du6 Oh,i0,th6lrise.o1,a lpitiplno',l|:lt ligent.]i4whdted .r

movement for reforms in the colony. The University of Santo Tomas established in 16l l by
the Dominicans, was the only institution for higher education. lt was initially named Colegro
de Nuestra Senora del Santisimo Rosano and later Colegio de Santo Tomas. lt was elevated
lo the staLus of a university by Pope lnnocent X in 1645. During the nineteenth century, it
increasingly accepted mestizo and indio as students, not just pure-blooded spaniards. It
ofJered eOur$es,in law;:rnediOrng,:and.priesthoad: ri , :,'...:,i,:,
European politics. Its role in the political campaign for reforms was invaluable because
it was through the Sal that the Filipinos publicized their cause and rallied support from
the Spanish public. Copies of the newspaper were also smuggled to rhe Philippines
through Hong Kong by Jose Ma. Basa. The writers of the newspaper either signed their
real names or adopted pen names such as Dimasalang and Laong Laan (Jose fuzal);
Plaridel (Marcelo H. del Pilar); Thga-Ilog (Antonio Luna); and Naning, Kalipulako,
and Tihbalang (Mariano Ponce) Another major contributor ro the newspaper was rhe
Austrian scholar Ferdinand Blumentritt. In 1895, the Salwas forced ro close up because
of insufficienry of funds.
83
€x?erpt.$rmm_'*"Fhs Ftrilippines in Dietrese,,
*y ffir**$ee"** Lepee Jeer:ei
Graciano Lopez Jaenawas born on Decembe r 29 rg56 in
, Jaro, Iloilo. He was educated
at the seminary of Jaro. At avery young age, h. wrote a saciricaf piece enricred *Fray
Botod" which depicted the abuses of the friars. He eventually left for Spain to study
nedicjne in 1880. He did nor finjsh his studies, however, and turned journalkn to
-.nd politics instead. A friend to the Filipinos in Spain and closely
associated with the
Spanish liberals, he gained fame as an orator delivering speeches ro various audiences
and writing numerous articles for progressive newspapers with Philippine problems
as one of his preferred subjects. He proved to be an astute critic of Spanish colonial
government and its policies. His command of the Spanish language impressed even the
Spaniards. He became the first editor of La Solidaridadin 1889 when it was established
in Barcelona. He died on January 20, 1896 in Barcelona, Spain.
The following text describes the Philippines under an economic crisis; it also
discusses what Lopez Jaena deemed as the cause of this "distress" suffered by the country.
Primary Source
n the face of the frightful economic crisis in the country is suffering, the forbearance of the Administration of
that country is astounding. This is the consequence of the lack of foresight, a characteristic of the colonial
government whose blunders and anomalies always lead countries like the Philippines today to ruin. . . .
rt
The writings of Lopez Jaena were
translated by Encarnacion Alzona
The ineptitude of the Government of the Philippines is the cause of this ruin that is dragging her
and collected in the volume
to the abyss. In proof of this the budget receipts increases from year to year and for some years past Graciano Lopez Jaena: Speeches,
Articles and Letters.
with deficit in the budget of expenses without any noticeable improvement in the whole Archipelago.
The General Office of Civil Administration neither administers nor promotes nor educates. lt sleeps
on its official documents and the Governor General who, as it is known by everybody, is always a
general of the army, spends his time reviewing troops and organizing the country on a military basis
rather than in governing and leading the country towards progress. Anyone who has visited the
Archipelago cannot but agree with us that the Philippines, even in a normal state of peace and order,
seems to be always in an exceptional condition, without constitutional guarantees, Any commotion
alarms the Government, lnterpreting it as a conspiracy and immediately the military courts begin to
function. The decline of a country thus governed cannot be expected, as rt is now happening to our
beautiful Archipelago.
Although at first glance, bureaucracy and intolerance are the reflected and remote causes
--f the decline of a country and consequently of the crisis in her commerce, industry, and
agrlculture, by examining them carefully they are, more than any other, the direct and organic
cause of the prostration of a people just as their opposite, freedom, is the origin of all the progress
of a nation.
"The Causes of the Distress of the Philippines" was f irst published in Espana en Filipinas (1887), ln
this article, Lopez Jaena mentions several other causes of the distress in the country, as a continuation
of the article he wrote previously, "The Philippines in Distress,"
After those mentioned in the preceding article, the most notable cause of the backwardness of the
Philippines is the normalous education given to the youth in schools. They learn to read correctly and
to write gracefully, but they do not learn useful things because they are not taught any. They are taught
how to pray but never to work.
ln all public schools Spanish grammar is conspicuous by its absence, because certain people
place obstacles to teaching the Indio Spanish, the elements of physics, chemistry, geography, and
85
GUIDE *S*ST:*NS agriculture, knowledge of which is certainly useful to the future of the individual and the progress of the
. What are the major faults nation; but, if all these subjects are conspicuous by their absence, on the other hand, never absent are
and problenrs of the co onral the rosary, trisagion, the thousand and one novenas of the saints, the Virgin and the martyrs with which
admin stration according to
Lopez Jaena? the tender minds of the children are nourished spiritually and viciously. . . .
. How does Lopez Jaena The continuous change of personnel in the government is another cause of the havoc and
descrlbe and critic ze the
disasters in the Philippines and in the colonies in general. Such a swift change is only comparable
educat onal system in the
Phi ippines? How does the to the locusts which, after devastating the fields, are replaced in swift and vertiginous succession.
education of the youth affect lf to this is added the incompetence of the majority of the government personnel, it becomes
society?
o Lopez Jaena wrote "freedom evident that from progression to progression, the country in a short time reaches the apogee
ls the orig n of all the progress of her ruin.
of a nation.' Do you agree with
The fatal omission of natives from the government positions of high or average importance is its
him? In what ways wrll greater
freedom (of speech, press, corollary: the lack of any improvement in the Philippines, the towns remaining stagnant and backward.
commerce, and mobility) lead Since some of those who give orders, who govern and administer are inept and insecure in their posts,
to soclal progress?
it matters little to them whether the country improves and advances or not.
We are not unaware that there exist royal decrees on the filling of the government positions with
natives, but the truth is these are not followed and the law and everything else about this maiter are a
deadletter....
The abolition of the existing differential duties, freedom of commerce, freedom of association,
freedom of the press through which the Filipino may study or learn about the progress of allthe branches
of industry, commerce and agriculture for their own benefit and for that of their country, as well as how
to convert China and Japan into markets for our products through the negotiation of commercial treaties
with them, are the supreme remedies to reactivate and restore to life the already comatose Philippine
commerce. . . .
llt is urgent to establish free ports for the benef it of the natives of the country, inasmuch as nature
has created these ports for the use of the people who live in them. To go against nature is to violate
natural law; it is to infringe on the very work of God. Human justice, policy, and government should act
in conformity with, never against the laws of nature.
Source Graciano Lopez Jaena: Speeches, Arttcles and Letters.
ffix*erp€ f n*rm &Essp*sf$# Sespr*ms*y

ssx $$:* ff&r$spprsr#s hy ffimrceEm ffi" #*$ ffi*$mr
The lawyer and propagandist par excellence, Marcelo H. del Pilar, famously known as
A partrait af Marcela H del Pilar, ane of
the editors af La Salidaridad. Plaridel, was born on August 30, 1850 in the barrio of Kupang in the town of Bulakan, {ll
Bulacan. He acquired his law degree from the University of Santo Tomas in 1880. m
Del Pilar concerned himself with igniting the patriotic sentiments of his countrymen :,'i
and attacking the abuses of the friars by going around the provinces and seizing every
chance to speak in public places. He also penned pamphlets such as "Caiigat kayo"
(Be as slippery as eel) which defended fuzal's Noli me t/lngere; and wrote Dasalan at
tocsoltan, a mock prayer book which criticized the friars. He was also instrumental in
the founding of Diariong tagalog in 1882, the first bilingual newspaper in Spanish and
Thgalog. in 1888, he escaped to Spain in order to prevent his arrest due to his subversive
activities. The followingyear, he published La soberania mondcltl en Filipinas Monastic
Supremacy in the Philippines and "La frailocracia Filipina," works which anallzed and
denounced friar influence over the colony. In Spain, Del Pilar organized the Filipinos
and led the Propaganda Movement. He exerted all his physical and intellectual energies ifrl
CtiAP.i::i] i THE PROPAGANDA MOVEMENT

and resorted to his political connections to ensure the success of the campaign. He
T'as, at one time, editor of the Sol, an officer of the Hispano-Filipino Association, and
: high-ranking mason. In 1896, he went to Barcelona to board a ship to return to his
-.eloved counrry but in a few months, his health collapsed. He died of tuberculosis on
-v1y
4,1896.
rrimary Source
-:e interference of the friars in the government of the Philippines is so ingrained that without difficulty the
'' ars control the status quo of the country in defiance of the nation and the institutions. A trisagion (Gteek for "thrice holy")
is a short hymn sung during the
ln charge of almost all the parishes, their parochial mission takes on the double character of a
penitentiai processions.
:rlitical organ and popular patronage,
This mission gives the curate great power in each locality; and this power, as it does not lose its
-onastic power, as it does not lose its monastic character, is at the command of the regular prelates
-nder whose guidance the parish priests think, preach, confess, and act with marvelous uniformity. . . .
To frighten the government with the rebelliousness of the country, and frighten the country with the
:espotism of the government-that is the system that the friars have so skillfully evolved in order to be
:cle to rule at the expense of every one.
They offer the government to suppress the country's rebelliousness and the government gives them
ail its autocratic support, going to the extreme if the friars so demand, while they portray the ruler as the
:ersonification of tyranny and despotism.
They offer the people to soften that tyranny and the people places its wealth in their hands so that
:1ey may defend them against official rapacity. . . .
Having scant resources, the government exposes its nakedness. Neither can it restore the
-esidence3 of the highest off icial of the lslands nor build bridges or schools, nor satisfy its most pressing
reeds; while the convents, for each curate of their corporation, in each locality with three thousand souls,
risplay luxurious palaces and all the manifestations of pomp.
The basis of monastic wealth is the lack of union between the people and the government and so it
s necessary to foster it by fanning and resentment of the first and the despotism of the second.
To achieve this, they count on the diversity of languages among the rulers and the ruled; and to
creserve that diversity to impede popular education, and to avoid at any cost that the people and the
:: . ernment come to understand each other, are the best way of keeping them in perpetual antagonism.
ln the performance of their duties, the municipal off icials depend on the parish priest.
To report on the conduct of a citizen the testimony of one hundred members of the principalia is not
:.,:.gh. The essential requirement is the curate's approval. The signature of the curate ls necessary to the
:---sus of residents in a municipality; to the conscription of eligible young men, to formalize accounts and
:..er off icial documents; to everything and for everything the curate's signature is an essential requisite. . . ,
The gobernadorcillo is the only official required to obtain the undispensable parish approval for his
lf the curate refuses to give it, the official is liable to be reprimandbd by his chiefs.
=::s.
Numerous are the duties of the municipal official in the Philippines. Besides his judicia/ functions,
-e performs administrative duties pertaining to finance, mail, and others. Considering his dependence
-
- ihe friar curate, it is not surprising that the curate should direct the official correspondence, retaining
^ fact the power of exequatur. . . .
Public education is one of the common aspirations of both the government and the Filipinos. The
lcvernment as well as the people dream of a common language in the lslands. The government wants
:: understand the people and to be understood by them. The people want the government to know and
emedy their needs without the mediation of other elements.
87
But monasticism is opposed to this, because it fears that the country may become Hispanized and
cease to be a monastic colonY.
There is a normal school in Manila where teachers are trained for the diffusion in the towns in
of primary education and the teaching of the Spanish language. Competent young men who have
graduated from it prove the zeal and the efforts of the government and of the Jesuit fathers towards the
realization of that ideal. But everything is shattered in the face of friar opposition.
The exception are the schools in the districts of Manila maintained by the municipal government of
Manila. All the schools in the Archipelago are under the exclusive control of the curates. Their approval
is an essential requisite for the teachers to get their salaries; their report on the teaching staff is final in
government circles; hence the absolute dependence of teachers on the curate who positively prohibits
the teaching of Spanish. . . .
ln accordance with the idea, law 5, title 3, book I of the Laws of the lndies and, article 93 of
.1768,
the Ordinance of Good Government of 26 February the Educational Decree of 20 December
1863, and numerous other orders prescribe practical measures for the diff usion of the off icial language,
declare those who obstruct it enemies of the mother country, and order repeatedly the use of textbooks
in Spanish and in general prohibit those in Philippine languages.
The Superior Decree of l2 September 1BB3 bearing on this matter provides the following:
Article 4 Textbooks shall be written in the official language, allowing the use of those in the
-
native dialects only in cases where they are absolutely necessary for the teaching of pupils who do not
understand it until they learn it. . . .
ln corroboration of this Fr. Miguel Lucio Bustamante, a Franciscan friar, published a short story in
Tagalog entitled Si Tandang Bacio Macunaf. ln this he attacked the study of Spanish and other subjects;
he dissuades the fathers of families from desiring education for their children, Iaying down the dogma
that the moment the lndio separated from his carabao, he becomes a traitor to God and to his king. . . .
For that reason, we don't believe we are mistaken in saying that the purpose of the government is
defeated by entrusting to the friars the promotion of education. . .
The personal security of the citizens is equally endangered by monastic power.

Law 7, title lV book lll, of the Laws of the lndies grants to the governor general the power to remove
from their domicile the citizens who disturb their provinces. With this power as a pretext, under the
governors who allowed themselves to be led by the friars, deportations without trial increased, and panic
spread among the people of the Philippines. . . .
To exile a citizen without previous hearing, without hearing his side, to reject a priori his defense,
without informing him of the reason for the imposition of so grave a penalty that upsets his way to life, to -:
tear him off from his home without explanations, to kill his happiness and that of his family condemning :-
them to indefinite nostalgia-these are measures which can be upheld only by one who ignores the
family institutions and bases his rule on a policy of terrorism.
Certainly this is preferred by the f riars in their eagerness to separate the people and the government. '_
When monasticism predominates in the council of the governor general, measures of this kind are
promulgated and circulars are sent to the regular curates similar to what we have read, as follows:
"The Governor General has recently decided that for greater social security, it is advisable to
remove from the towns persons whose behavior is not in accord with the same morality, principles,
.':
and institutions and who set a bad example to good and respectable citizens and incite the natives to
become enemies of the mother country, . .
.":
"No one but the reverend parish curates can assist the government to carry out such meritorious work.
"Their great knowledge of the citizens and the sacred character with which they are invested are
more than enough guarantee that the individuals whom they indicate as undesirable because of their
OHAP-i[il 7 THE PROPAGANDA MOVEMENT

: ac customs in their respective localities deserve the punishment of being expelled without making the
--cial who ordered it being called arbitrary.". , .
No one indeed is more suitable for such espionage as those who have means to discover the
--ermost secrets of private life.
The regular curates by accepting without blushing the duties that convert them into government
::,ricemen give clear and obvious proof of thelr readiness to debase their vows, their mission of peace
:"d of mercy, that they swore before God when they received holy orders.
ls the government sure of the sincerity of such assistants? Is it sure that they will not also debase
.êir commission?
We don't know. But of those who go on exile the majority are those who don't kiss the curate's hand,
ro cannot pay their debts to the friar, who are the fathers or husbands of unattainable beauties. .
,', .
The danger to national integrity is the friars' hobby of imposing their preponderance in the
rnrlippines. Does such a peril really exist? ls the Government sufficient to avert it? ls it kue that
the
Scanish Government would perish without friar support? . , .
But the matter of imperilled national integrity before us deserves thorough examination and it is
-nwise to leave it to the colleagues or successors of Fr. Gaspar de San Agustin for their exclusive
lcmment, lt is necessary to elucidate it with more prudence for on its correct appreciation depends in
arge measure the development of our colonial policy, which is not alien to international politics.
At the outset there is no serious proof that the Philippines intends to separate from Spain. Since GUIDE QUESTISfqS
'E37 she has been deprived of a most important right affecting her political vitality, and her resignation . Recall the Spanish conquest
'cr half a century was never altered by any kind of preterition. , . ,
of the archipelago, what was
the role of religion and the
Emancipation from Spain is against the growing progress of the Filipino people, As the archipelago
friars in particular in pacifying
:onsists of numerous islands, it needs a bond that will unite it to invigorate all the factors of its prosperity the natives and ensuflng their
loyalty to Spain?
and welfare. Without this bond its division is imminent; from division to internal strife and from internal
o According to Del Pilar, how do
strife to international strife, there is only one step. the friars influence the relations
The Filipinos do not ignore any of these realities. Surrounded by countries with whom they have not between the government and
the people? What are the
east common principles, exposed continually to foreign rapacity, whlch lies in wait.
negative consequences of this
Source'. Monastic Supremacy in the Philippines. Translated by Encarnacion state of affairs?
Excerpt {ront "Sn tlre Indalemce of the Filipin*s"

by."lCIs* Rinal
Jose Rizalwas born to awealthyinquilino family onJune 19, 1861 in Calamba, Laguna.
He was educated by the Jesuits at the Ateneo Municipal de Manila and eventually
enrolled at the University of Santo Tomas. In 1882, without the knowledge of his
Parents, he sailed for Spain where he continued and finished his medical studies. He
joined the reform movement as its celebrated intellectual leader and moral guide. He
published his first novel, Noli me tringere (Touch Me Not), in 1887. the Noli, which
exposes the social ills affiicting colonial Philippines, made Rizal a hero in the eyes of
liberal and progressive Filipinos and an archenemy of the friars who banned the work
in the country. He traveled across the European continent learning languages and
meeting European scholars studying the Philippines, among whom was rhe Austrian
Ferdinand Blumentritt. In 1889, as part of his efforts ro enlighten the Filipinos about
their past, he republished Antonio Morgat Sucesos de las klas Filipinas (Events in the
Philippine islands) with his annotations. He also contributed essays to La Solidaridad
such as "Sobre la indolencia de los Filipinos" ("On the indolence of the Filipinos")
and "Filipinas dentro de cien anos" ("The Philippines, a Century Hence"). After the
89
publication of his second novel, El Filibusterismo (Tlte Subuersiue), Rizal decided to
return to the Philippines to pur his ideas into realiq,. He organized a society exclusively
for Filipinos , La Liga Filipina (The Filipino League), on July 3, 7892. After three days
of the socieryt establishment, he was arrested and exiled to Dapitan, Zamboangawhich
lasted for four years. In 1896, he was permitted to serve as a military doctor to Cuba but
with the outbreak of the Katipunan uprising, he was arrested again and sent back to the
Philippines. He was tried in court and pronounced guilry of treason and sedition. Rizal
was executed on December 30,7896 in Bagumbayan, Manila.
qt Primary Source
The warm climate requires quiet and rest for the individual, just as cold incites him to work and to action.
Antonio de Morga was a Spanish For this reason the Spaniard is more indolent than the French, and the French more so than the German.
officlal in the Philippines during They very Europeans who accuse the peoples of the colonies of indolence (and I'm no longer referring
the early seventeenth century. His
to the Spaniards but also to the Germans and Englishmen), how do they live in the tropical countries?
work Sucesos de las lslas Filipinas.
was originally published in 1609. Surrounded by many servants, never walking but riding, needing servants not only to remove their shoes
Rizal found a copy of the book
but even to fan theml . . . Man can live under any climate if he will only adapt himself to its requirements
in London; he copied it by hand
and republished it in 1889 with his and conditions. What kills the European in the warm countries is the abuse of alcohol, the desire to live
annotations. as in his own country under another sky and another sun. We the inhabitants of tropical countries live
well in the torrid zone if they would only get rid of their prejudices.
The fact is that in the tropical countries severe work is not a good thing as in cold countries, for
there it is annihilation, it is death, it is destruction. Nature, as a just mother knowing this, has therefore
made the land more fertile, more productive, as a compensation. An hour's work under that burning sun
and in the midst of pernicious inf luences coming out of an active nature is equivalent to a day's work in a
temperate climate; it is proper then that the land yield a hundredfold! . . . Who is the indolent one in the :til
off ices in Manila? ls it the poor clerk who comes in at eight in the morning and leaves at one o'clock in the il
afternoon with only his parasol, and copies and writes and works by himself and for his chief, or is it his tl
chief who comes in a carriage at ten o'clock, leaves before twelve, reads his newspaper while smoking ril
with hls feet stretched out on a chair or a table, or speaking ill of everything with his friends? Who is the Ji[
indolent one, the lndio coadjutor, poorly paid and badly treated, who has to visit all the indigent sick ,#
living in the country, or the friar curate who gets fabulously rich, goes about in a carriage, eats and drinks
,]il
well, and does not trouble himself unless he can collect excessive fees? . , .
We find the tendency to indolence very natural and we have to admit it and bless it, because we i)
cannot alter natural laws, and because without it the race would have disappeared. Man is not a brute, lfllll
he is not a machine. His aim is not merely to produce despite the claim of some white Christians who riftl
wish to make of the colored Christian a kind of motive power somewhat more intelligent and less costly ilil
than steam. His purpose is to seek happiness for himself and his fellow men by following the road 'tffi
towards progress and perfection.

The evil is not that a more or less latent indolence exists, but that it is fostered and magnified.
Among men, as well as among nations, there exist not only aptitudes but also tendencies toward good lilill
and evil. To foster the good ones and aid them, as well as correct the bad ones and repress them would fili
be the duty of society or of governments, if less noble thoughts did not absorb their attention. The evil is rll
that indolence in the Philippines is a magnif ied indolence, a snow-ball indolence, if we may be permitted
the expression, an evil which increases in direct proportion to the square periods of time, an effect of rfil
,lltilll
misgovernment and backwardness, as we said and not a cause of them. . .
How strange it is that the Philippines should remain poor despite its very fertile soil when history tilU
rul
tells us that the most flourishing countries today date their development and well-being from the day
-= DBOPAGANDA MOVEN/ENT
:' 3erty and civil right? The most commercial and most industrious
countries have been the
-' :s
France, England, and the united states prove this. Hong
Kong, which is not worth the
- :ant island
-- of the Philippines, has more commercial activity than all our
islands put together
. - . "ee and well governed. . .
I
Tr- pernicious influence of the rulers,
.
that of surrounding themselves with servants and despising ffi

r manual labor as unworthy of the nobility and aristocratic pride of the heroes of so many
F- Jose Rizal and Ferdinand
those lordly manners that the Filipinos have translated into Tila ka Kastila (you,re
!-,* like a Blumentritt's correspondence
and the desire of the ruled to be the equal of the rulers, if not entirely, started in .1886. Rizal, who was in
!-neul; at least in manners-all Germany during this time, read
frna.rally produced aversion to activity and hatred or fear of work. the books of Ferdinand Blumentr;tt
keover, why work? Many Filipinos said
to themselves, The curate says that the rich man will not on the Philippines and sent him a
I E Eaven. letter and book about the Tagalog
The rich man on earth is exposed to all kinds of vexation, to all kinds
I3 of trouble: to be language to which the latter
Cabeza de Barangay (Head of the Barangay), to be deported if an uprising reciprocated with two books of his
I*"*a breaks out, to
own. Rizal later decided to visit
to lend money to the military chief of the town, who, in order to pay you favors
JEt'Eed received, will
Blumentritt in 1887. The two got
rc ltour workmen and farm animals to compel you to beg him for clemency and thus very easily pays
I along ve.y well witr each othe-
Il * ffty be rich? So that all officers of justice would keep a lynx eye on your actions; so that at the least because of their shared scholarly
rm<e thev would stir enemies against you and indict you and concoct a labyrinthine interests on the Philippines.
II and complicated Blumentritt also contributed articles
ry about you from which you can only get out, not by Ariadne's thread but by Dana,s shower of gold, to the Filipino newspaper La
' rn still be grateful if you are not afterwards set aside for some other case if need be. The lndio, whom Solidaridad. Their intellectual and
personal friendship lasted until
tEy pretend to regard as an imbecile, is not so much that he does not understand that it is ridiculous Rizal's death in 1896.
m ffik himself to death and live as he did. A saying of his is that swine is
cooked jn its own fat, and as
rrutg his bad qualities, he has the good one of applying to himself allthe reproaches
and censures that
t hears, he prefers to remain miserable and indolent to playing the role
of ihe wretched pachyderm. . . .
Along with gambling which breeds dislike for steady and difficult
work by its promise of easy money
ild its appeal to the emotions, with the lotteries, with the prodigality
and hospitatity of the Filipinos went
*o, to swell this train of
misfortunes, the religious functions-the large number of fiestas, the
lengthy
Masses at which women spent their whole mornings, the novenae,
their afternoons, and the processions
and rosaries, their nights. Consider that lack of capital, lack of means, paralyzes
all activity and you will
see why the lndio must perforce be indolent; for if any money
might remain to him from the trials, imposts,
exactions, he would have to give it to the curates for bulls,
scapularies, candles, novenae, etc. . .
The facility with which individual liberty is curtailed; the endless

worry of all .people knowing that
they are liable to a secret report, an administrative action,
and to be accused of being a f ilibustero (rebel)
or a suspect, an accusation which need not be proven or is
the presence of the accuse necessary to
produce the desired result; the lack of confidence
in the future; the uncertainty of reaping the fruit of
one's labol as in a city in the grip of an epidemic where every individual yields
to fate, shuts himself in
his house or goes about amusing himself trying to spend
the few days that remain of his life in the least
disagreeable way possible.
The apathy of the government itself toward everything pertaining
to commerce or agriculture
contributes not a little to foster indolence. There is no encouragement
at all either for,the manufacturer
or the farmer; the government gives no aid either when the
harvest is poor, when the locusts lay waste
on the fields, or when a typhoon destroys in its path the wealth
of the land; nor does it bother to seek a
market for the products of its colonies. . .
The education of the Filipino from

birth unt)l the grave is brutalizing,depressing, and anti-human (the
word inhuman is not expressive enough; whether
the Academy approves it or not, ret it go). t)ndoubtedty,
ihe government, some Jesuit priests and some
Domjnicans ljke Fr. Benavides, have done much
by
'cunding colteges' primary schoo/s, etc
But th,s is not enough; their effectturns
out to be useress. For
've or ten years the youth comes in contact with
books, chosen by the very same priests who boldly
91
declare that it is evil for the Filipinos to know Castilian, that the Filipino should not be separated from his
carabao, that he should not have any further ambition, etc. During these five or ten years the majority
of students have grasped nothing more than that no one understands what the books say, not even
perhaps the professors themselves. During these f ive or ten years the students have to contend with the
daily preaching that lowers human dignity, gradually or brutally killing their self-respect-that eternal,
tenacious, persistent effort to humble the native, to make him accept the yoke, to reduce him to the
level of a beast, an effort supported by some private individuals, writers or not. . . Deprive a man then
of his dignity, and you not only deprive him of his moral stamina but you also render him useless even
to those who want to make use of him. Every being in creation has his spur, his mainspring; man's is
his self-respect; take it away from him and he becomes a corpse; and he who demands activity from a
corpse will find only worms, . . .
Alasl The whole misfortune of the Filipinos of today is that they have become brutes only half-way.
The Filipino is convinced that to be happy it is necessary for him to lay aside his dignity as a rational
being, to hear Mass, to confess, obey the curate, believe whatever he is told, pay whatever is demanded
of him, pay and always pay; toil, suffer and keep silent, without aspiring to know, to understand not even
Castilian, without separating himself from his carabao, as the friars impudently say, without protesting
against an injustice, against an arbitrariness, against an assault, against an insult; that is, not to have a
heart, brain, or gall a creature with arms and a purse full of gold-that's the ideal lndiol . . .
In the preceding chapter we outlined the causes proceeding from the government which foster
and maintain the evil we are discussing. Now it behooves us to analyze those emanating from the
people. Peoples and governments are correlated and complementary. A stupid government is an
anomaly among a righteous people, just as a corrupt people cannot exist under rulers and wise laws.
Like people, like government, we will say, paraphrasing a popular adage.
All these causes can be reduced to two classes: Defects of education and lack of national
sentiment. . . .
fhe reasons arising from the absence of national sentiment are even more lamentable and more
transcendental.
Convinced through insinuation of his inferiority, his mind bewildered by his education-if the
brutalization we discussed above can be called education-with only his racial susceptibility and
poetical imagination remaining in him, the Filipino in the exchange of usages and ideas among the
difierent naiions, allows himself to be guided by his fancy and seltlove, lt is sufficient that a foreigner
praise to him the imported merchandise and find fault with the native product for him to shift hastily,
without ihinking that everything has its weak side and the most sensible custom appears ridiculous
to the eyes of those who do not follow it. They dazzled him with tinsel, with strings of multi-colored
glass beads, with noisy rattles, shining mirrors, and other trinkets, in exchange he gave his gold, his
conscience, even his liberty. He changed his religion for the rituals of another religion, the convictions
and usages dictated by his climate and by his necessities for other usages and other convictions which
have grown under another sky and under a different inspiration. His spirit, disposed to everything which
seemed to be good, then was transformed according to the taste of the nation that imposed upon him its
God and its laws; and as the trader with whom he dealt did not bring along the useful iron implements,
the hoes to till the fields, but stamped papers, crucifixes, bulls, and prayer-books; as he did not have for
an ideal and prototype the tanned and muscular laborer but the aristocratic lord, carried in a soft litter,
the result was that the imitative people became clerks, devout, prayer-loving, acquired ideas of luxurious
and ostentatious living without improving correspondingly their means of subslstence.
Moreover, the lack of national sentiment breeds another evil which is the scarcity of any opposition
to the measures that are prejudicial to the people and the absence of any initiative that will redound to
c ri ,::: - THE PROPAGANDA I\,4OVEMENT

STUDY AID
ffi
iii#
:ia:l
l+
i:j+
H
Bizal's f irst novel No/l me tangere (Touch Me A/ol) was published in Berlin, Germany in
1887 wlth the financial help of his friend. Maximo Viola. The work was written in the Spanish
language. ln line with the European tradition of literary reallsm, it portrays Philippine
society, the excesses of the Spanish regime and the vices of the indios with the hope ol
frnding a cure to the prevailing "social cancer,'; Arguably the most important book written
bya Filipino, it hassupplied@.mgte|{.alsroif , ,nal.iglrglistirnag!-t1.ation:and hasg-rqatly,,,, -
influenced our literature, music, dance. theater, and film.
their welfare. A man in the Philippines is only an individual; he is not a member of a nation. He is deprived
of the right of association and therefore he is weak and inert. The Philippines is an organism whose
cells must have no arterial system to water them, nor a nervous system to register their impressions;
nonetheless these cells must yield their product, get it where they can; if they perish, let them perish. In
the opinion of some persons. This is desirable so that a colony may remain a colony. Perhaps they are
right, but not that a colony may flourish. . . ,
ln addition to this, love of peace and horror many have of accepting the new few administrative
posts that fall to the lot of the Filipinos on account of the troubles and annoyances they bring them, Iead
93
GUIDE &TJHST!SF*$ to the appointment of the most stupjd and incompetent men to municipal posts-offrcials who submit
. ln his defense of Filipinos to everything, who endure all the caprices and exactions of the curates and thejr superjors. And with
agalnst accusations of
imbecility in the lower echelons, and ignorance and giddiness in the upper, wlth the frequent changes
nao ence, Fizal ays bare
the evils of colonialism which and endless apprenticeships, with great fear and numerous administrative obstacles, with a voiceless
according to him leads to the people that have neither initiative nor cohesion, with government employees, who nearly all strive
indolence of the indios. What
to
factors and circumstances amass a fortune and return to their country, with people who exist with great difficulty from birth, to create
does he identify and what are prosperity, to develop agriculture and industry, to establish enterprises and associations, which prosper
the general effects of these
in difficulty even in free and well-organized countries, cannot be expected to happen in the philippines.
causes on the people's attitude
and way of life? t.l
. How does Rizal describe the Without education and liberty-the soil and the sun of mankind-no reform is possible, no measure
krnd of education dispensed in
the country?
can give the desired result. This does not mean that we should f irst demand for the Filipino the education
. Why did Rizal say that there of the sage and imaginable liberties before putting a hoe in his hand or placing him in a workshop; such
is a lack of national sentiment
a pretension would be an absurdity and vain folly. What we want is that no obstacles be placed on his
among Filiprnos? What role
does it have in achieving liberty way, not to increase the many that the climate and the situation of the islands already create for hjm, not
and progress? to begrudge him educational opportunities for fear that when he becomes intelligent he will separate
. Was Rizal fair in criticizing
both the Spanish colonial
from the colonizing nation or demand rights to which he is entitled. Since some day or other he will
government and the Filipinos become enlightened, whether the Government likes it or not, let his enlightenment be as a gift given to
themselves? What solutions
him and not as a spoii of war. We wish the policy to be sincere and consistent or highly civilizing, without
does he propose?
petty reservations, without distrust, without fear nor misgivings, wishing the good for the sake of the
good, civilization for the sake of civilization. . . let the Government attend more to material interests rather
than to the interests of the four friar corporations; Iet it send out intelligent employees to develop industry,
just judges, all well paid, so that they would not pilfer or be venal, and lay aside all religious pretext.
This
policy has the advantage in that while it may not completely lull to sleep the instinct of liberty, yet the day
that the mother country lose her colonies she will at least keep the gold amassed and not regret having
ungrateful children.
Source: Jose Rizal. Political and Historicat Writing
THE PROPAGANDA MOVEMENT
TEW
Chapter $urmntary
Several significant events and trends during the nineteenth century provide the
background for the Propaganda Movement. These are: 1) world trade and the
commercialization of agriculture; 2) rise of a wealthy class of mestizos and natives;
3) spread of education which produced the ilustrados; 4) secularization issue in the
catholic church; and 5) cavite mutiny and the execution of the Gomburza.
The Propaganda Movement was a peaceful campaign for reforms led by Jose Rizal,
Marcelo H. del Pilar, Mariano Ponce, Graciano Lopez Jaena and other Filipinos.
Unfortunately, it failed to attain essential rights and privileges for the Filipinos because
of the turbulent politics in Spain, the influence of the friar orders, the insuff icieny oi funds
to sustain the movement and lnternal disputes among Filipino leaders.
The emergence of a Filipino national consciousness was the most important legacy of
the Propaganda Movement.
&msemmEffier$t
Write an essay to answer the following questions.
1. Compare and contrast the ideas and perspectives of Lopez Jaena, Del Pilar, and Rizal
regarding the problems in the Philippines. ln which points do they agree or differ? What
solutions, if any, did theY ProPose?
Z. Based on the what you have read, how did the propagandists envision an ideal Filipino
nation? What are the principles in which it should be built?
3. Taking inspiration from the Filipino propagandists, write about the present predlcaments
of our society and think of general solutions that may remedy these problems.
Suggested ffi**d$x"tgs
Anderson, Benedict. Under Three Flags: Anarchism and the Anti-colonial lmagination.
Manila: Anvil Publishing lnc., 2006.
Guerrero, Leon Maria. The First Filipino: A Biography of Jose Rizal. Manila: National
Historical lnstitute, 2008.
Mojares, Resil. Brarns of the Nation: Pedro Paterno, T.H. Pardo de Tavera, lsabelo de
los Reyes and the Production of Modern Knowledge. Quezon City: Ateneo de Manila
University Press, 2006.
Schumacher, John. Ihe Propaganda Movement, 1880-1895 The Creation of a Filipino
Consciousness, the Making of the Revoluiltbn. Rev. ed. Quezon City: Ateneo de Manila
University Press, 1997. r,,,rr.r',,;, ';.. .,
Thomas, Megan. Orientalists, Propagandists and llustrados Fytin_ino Scholarship and

the End of Spanish Cotonialism. Manila: AnvilPublishing lnc., 2016.
Opposite page. Members of the Katipunan. As the
Propaganda Movement crumbled and faited, a new form of
resistance emerged. On July 7, 1892, just a day after Jose
Rizal's arrest, Andres Bonifacio along with Deadato Arellano
and Teodoro Plata, among others formed the Kataastaasang
Kagalanggalangang Katipunan ng mga Anak ng Bayan. The
Katipunan started the full-scale revolution against Spain and
sou ght Ph i I ipp i ne i nd epe ndence.
Phato courlesy af Wkimedia Commons
*I-"{APTilffi VIII
The 1896 Philippine

Revolution
ffen July 6, 1892, Jose fuzal was arresred by the Spanish authorities and was
LF:;T'ff T"JJfi ;J:L'J'[:".?;ffi 1.,"n!o:i,'!!;l;hT'il'fi:i

incarcerated.r \X/hat was left with La Liga was eventually
Cuerpo de Compromisarios
which continued the aspirations of the former. On the other hand, another group that
exhibited a militant form of nationalism was established the day after Rizalt arrest. At
the night of July 7, 1892, Andres Bonifacio with Deodato Arellano, Valentin Diaz,
Teodoro Plata, Ladislao Diwa, Jose Dizon, among others formed the Kataastdasan
Kagalangalangang Katipunan ng mga Anah ng Bayan or the Katipunan. The secret
sociery aimed to separate from Spain, defend the poor and the oppressed, promote good
moraliry and reject religious fanaticism and obscuranrism.2 The resort to radical means
can be seen as a reaction from the failure of the Propaganda Movement ro have tangible
reforms that could alleviate or even eradicate the colonial condition. Hence, revolution
was the logical option for a dissatisfied people to liberate themselves.
S-:----*----.1$-------*--*-I{+----*-*-*------t{i.! *+iiir------___ -il*_-*__-*-_

JUL 7. 18S2 AUffi S_ 1&SS AiJG 2$, 1ES6 *gC 3S, ^tSS$ tu:AR ?9, tssr AFE 2S*MAV 4, 189? M.qY r$, 1897
Katipunan was Katipunan was "Cry
The iconic Execution of Dr Tejeros Trial of Andres Bonifacio in Execution of
estab shed ln discovered after Pugadlawin"
of Jose Bizal at Convention l\4aragondon, Cavite Andres Bonifacio
Tondo. Manlia. the confession of occurred. Bagumbayan, transpired at a at Mt. Tala in
Teodoro Pati6o l\4anila friar estate house l\4aragondon,
to Fr. Mariano in San Francisco Cavite
Gil of the Tondo de lvlaiabon,
curate. Cavite where
Emilio Aguinaldo
was elected
president.
The story of the 1896 Philippine Revolution is usually examined in two phases.
'Ihe 19, 7896 aftet
first phase began with the discovery of the Katipunan on August
Teodoro Patino, a Katipunero, confessed the secrets of the society to Fr. Mariano Gil,
an Augustinian friar in Tondo, Manila. The Katipunan was discovered when Patino
and Apolonio de la Cruz had a misunderstanding. In order to take vengeance upon
the latter, Teodoro shared information about the Katipunan to his sister, Honoria, who
was an inmate in an orphanage. Petrified by this revelation, Honoria disclosed what she
knew to Sor Teresa, one of the nuns of the institution. The latter then urged Teodoro
to absolve himself by approaching the Tondo curate.3 After the Spanish authorities
proved the existence of the sociery they conducted mass arrests and cordoned Manila.
Luckily, Bonifacio and his men managed to escape and proceeded to Balintawak. On
August 23, t896, more than 1,000 Katipuneros met ar the yard of Juan A. Ramos,
the son of Melchora Aquino. It was on that day when the iconic Cry of Pugadlawin
transpired. The revolutionaries tore their cedulas as a sign of taking up arms against
**-illF**-*-- fii'ii.r---**"--*-*::ii---:*---
--;H--*---*-----*+:.ri;-- 'lSS&
N*V 1,1E$7 *E* 't5, tSSr JUN 1S, 18SS $HpT "t5, *HC t*,1&SS JAN ?3,18Sg FSS 4. nSSS
Biak-na-Bato The Truce of Philippine l\,4alolos Congress Treaty of Paris the

By virtue ol Rupture oi the
Constitution was Biak-na-Bato was independence was convened at was s gned ratified Malolos Phllippine-
signed, thereby signed which led was celebrated Barasoaln Church by American Constitution, the American War
proclaiming the to the exile of at Kawit, Cavite. and Spanish 1st Philippine
Biak-na-Bato Aguinaldo and representatives Republic was
Republic in San his men to Hong inaugurated with
Miguel, Bulacan Kong. Aguinaldo as its
president
97
FOCUS QUESTION the Spaniards. By August 30, the revolution had spread to different areas around for r
What is the significance and Manila. This prompted Governor-general Ramon Blanco to declare a state of war B")
egacy of the 1896 Philippine unto the provinces of Manila, Cavite, Laguna, Batangas, Bulacan, Pampanga, Thrlac, colc
Revolution to modern-day
society? and Nueva Ecija.a susl
The revolution would change its course when Bonifacio was invited to Cavite in qu-
LEARNING order to intervene in the growing rift between the factions of Magdalo and Magdiwang. Bul
EBJECTIVHS For this purpose, three important assemblies transpired in the said province which, in:.:
At the end of the chaptet students ultimately, decided the fate of Bonifacio as the leader of the lsyslu6lon-the Imus --
-';.
should be able to:
Assembly on December 31, 1896, the Tejeros Convention on March 22,7897, and the .: g:
. explain the nature and
aims of the Katipunan and second Tejeros meeting the following day. The March 22 elections in Gjeros, which was l
differentiate the society from marred by claims of electoral fraud, catapulted the Magdalo general Emilio Aguinaldo t-:
the Propaganda Movement;
o understand the complex to the presidency of the new revolutionary government. This compelled Bonifacio and ::,.
narrative of the 1896 Philippine his followers from the Magdiwang side to meet in March 23 and draft their protest
.
Revolution;
through the 'Acta de Tejeros." The following month, another document called the
identify the turning points
that shaped the totality of the
"Naik Military Agreement" was created to officially form an independent government
revolution; headed by Bonifacio.5 Although these were attempts for the Supremo to reassert his
. expound on the controversies
and intrigues that surrounded
leadership in the revolution, Aguinaldo and his camp saw them as acts of rreason
'S7hat
the important events and against the elected government.6 happened next led to the demise of Bonifacio.
people of the Philippine
Andres, together with his brother Procopio, would be violently arrested at Limbon in
Revolution:
. recognize the struggle of the Indang, Cavite. Thereafter, both were subjected to a court martial which lasted from
revolutionaries in asserting April2g to May 4. Unfortunately, "the counsel chosen by the Aguinaldo group, did
Philippine independence and
self-government; and
not defend Bonifacio but appealed instead for forgiveness on account of the 'evil and K
o explain how did the Filipinos detestable deeds' the latter had committed."T On May 8, 1897, the judge of the military nl
respond to American
court, Gen. Baldomero Aguinaldo, recommended the verdict of death sentence for the
intervention.
Bonifacio brothers. President Aguinaldo commuted the punishment to exile but was
persuaded by the likes of Gen. Mariano Noriel and Gen, Pio del Pilar, among orhers,
to revert to the original verdict. The fateful day of May 10, 1897 marked the execution
of the Bonifacio brothers at the foot of Mt. Tala in Maragondon, Cavire.8 Due to
continuous military campaigns on Cavite directed by Governor Generals Camilo de
Polavieja and his successor Fernando Primo de Rivera, Aguinaldo's government moved
its headquarters from Thlisay, Batangas to Biak-na-Bato in San Miguel, Bulacan.e There,
Aguinaldo authorized the ratification of the Biak-na-Bato Constitution on November
l, 1897t0 and, at the same time, acceded to the Thuce of Biak-na-Bato on December
75, l897.tt The First Phase of the revolution concluded in December 27 when
ft
Biak-na-Bato Constitution - Teodoro
Aguinaldo and his men left for Hong Kong from Pangasinan to honor the conditions
of the truce.12
The return of Aguinaldo to the Philippines in May 1B9B marks the beginning of
the Second Phase of the revolution. This was during the time when the United States
A. Agoncillo explains in lvlalolos:
had officially declared war on Spain on April 25, 1898. Convinced of the necessity to
The Crisis of the Republic that the
charter was provisional until the immediately organize a provisional government upon his return, Aguinaldo proceeded to
termination of the revolution. The Cavite to establish a dictatorial governmenr. This was followed by efforts on the Filipino
constitution, drafted by Felix Ferrer
and lsabelo Artacho, was based
freedom-the declaration of Philippine independence was celebrated in
side to assert their
on the Cuban Constitution. More June 12, the local governments were reorganized in]une I B, and the dictatorial governmenr
so, the charter established Tagalog
was replaced by a revolutionary governmenr in June 23.13 On the other hand, the
as the official language of the
Bepub ic Spaniards, through Governors-general Basilio Agustin and his successor Fermin Jaudenes,
were secretly communicating with Admira.l George Dewey and General W'esley Merritt
THE 1896 PHILIPPINE REVOLUTION

fbr the conditions of surrender. The Americans agreed to stage a mock battle at Manila
Bay on August 13, 189814 to make it seem that the spaniards fought for
the Philippine
te
The negotiatlons for the Truce of
.oIo.ry until the bitter end. By this time, Aguinaldo and his forces already had strong Brak-na-Bato lasted from August to
,urpi.io.r, towards their American "allies." Nonetheless, the Filipinos persisted in their December 1897. Pedro A. Paterno
in served as the negotiator between
r-*,, :: r selldetermination. The Malolos Congress convened at the Barasoain Church Governor-genera Primo de Rivera
on September 15, 1898. This paved the way for the creation of a constitution
that
$r- ' :-r and Aguinaldo. The conditions of
23, 1899. Simultaneously, tensions the truce stated that the Spanish
n, -:-iated the First Philippine Republic on
January government would PaY Aguinaldo
,ro:-i*n the Filipinos and the Americans were amplified when the Theary of Paris was and his men 800,000 Pesos in
iE:.t on December 10, 1898 and the Benevolent fusimilation Proclamation was issued exchange for their voluntary exile
to Hong Kong. The total amount
-,-::rted
r-, States President \Tilliam McKinley eleven days later' The ruPture of hostilities would be made in three dePosits -
on
rr-1-.n both camps came unexpectedly when the San Juan Bridge incident transpired 4OO,0O0 pesos uPon their deParture
from Biak-na-Bato, 200,000 Pesos
:::. -qht of February 4, 1899.15 upon surrender of more than 700
lh. ."t.nsire history of the 1896 Philippine Revolution accounts for the numerous pieces of ftrearms, and 200,000
,_ -.qles of the Filipino people against internal and external threats. Hence' the
current pesos when the Peace anthem
nature entitled Te Deum had been sung

that are essential to comprehend the history and
---=1. will look r, do.,rrrr..r,s by the
in Manila. 1n addition, the SPanish
as an organization. The Act of Proclamation of Independence government wouLd dlstribute
:
=c Katipunan
.
. -:ino People ".rd .*...pt, from the Malolos Constitution will also be included in 9OO,OOO pesos to the lndividuals
affected by the atrocities of the

- -:-r to show how the Filipinos asserted
their freedom and capaciry for self-government' revol utlon.
and
-,0:1r-, this
chapter will also consider several documents issued by Emilio Aguinaldo
--:,rlinario Mabini in response to American intervention'
Kati*ummm ffi**urcffiffiCs mmd thm FErst ffihms*

of tHi* tffi#ffi ffiftEB*ppEne ffiew*E*ct$*xt
'**=*$*ga"ae" *r Ketuamgkuetmng ffimgmwirx ffi# r*S* H' Lg. ffi' q#
mga 2.LL.8."16 was written by the
-:re "Decalogue" or "Katungkulang Gagawin ng
-:ather of the Revolution," Andres Bonifacio. The document outlines the duties of Freemasonry in the Phi iPPlnes-a
raternal organization that became
:he Katipuneros which include the veneration of God, a high regard for fraterniry
f
popular amongst the m ddle class,

for the need to claim freedom
-rd patriotism within the society, and a recognition
particularly the ilustrados in Spain,
because of its belief in liberty and
-.o, .h. country. Since Bonifacio was also a mason,'7 his "Decalogue" is reminiscent
equality Some of the Promlnent
,rf some of the essential ideals of Freemasonry like reverence to the Creator, as already masons included ProPagandlstas
mentioned. Another masonic aspect of the document is how it gives value to

loyalry such as Marcelo H. del Pllar, Jose
Rlzal, and Graciano Lopez Jaena.
amongsr brethren, even ar the expense of one's life. But what separates Freemasonry
Freemasonry's lnf luence permeated
from the Katipunan is the latter's aim to liberate the nation from the yoke of colonial the Katlpunan when Andres
Bonifacio patterned the latter's
oppression.ls
initiattan rltes after the former. Astde
In retrospect, the notion of militancy as a conrcxt for Bonifacio's "Decalogue" from Bonifacio, some of the famous
disringuislres it from its Masonic influence. rcvolutionary leaders who were

masons included Emilio Aguinaldo
and Antonio Luna.
Primary Source
K,,.K,,,K,,,
Katungkulang gagawin ng mga
1. Sumampalataya sa Maykapal ng taimtim sa puso

2. Gunamgunamin sa sarili tuina, na ang matapat na pag sampalataya sa Kanya ay ang pag ibig sa
lupang tinubuan, sa pagkat ito ang tunay na pag ibig sa kapwa
3, ykintal sa puso ang pag asa na malabis na kapurihan at kapalaran na kung lkamamatay ng tawoy
mag bubuhat sa pagliligtas sa kaalipinan ng bayan.
99
r* 5.
Sa kalamigan ng loob, katiagaan, katuiran at pag asa sa ano mang gagawin nag bubuhat ang
ikagaganap ng mabuting ninanais.
Paingat ingatang gaya ng puri ang mga bilin at balak ng K,',K,',K,'.
According to Jim Richardson's
recent study on the Katipunan in 6. Sa rsang na sa sapanganrb sa pag tupat ng kanyang tungkol, idadamay ng lahat, ang buhay at
The Light of Liberty; Documents
yaman upang maligtas yaon.
and Studies on the Katipunan,
1892-1897 published in 2013, Hangarin na ang kalagayan ng isa't isa, maging huaran ng kanyang kapwa sa mabuting
a particular document {rom the
pagpapasunod at pag tupad ng kanyang tungkol.
Archivo General Militar de N/adrid
shows that the organization had B. Bahaginan ng makakaya ang alin mang nagdaralita.
already been existing as early as I Ang kasipagan sa pag hahanap-buhay ay siyang tunay na pag ibig at pag mamahal sa sarili sa
January of 1892. This would mean
that the day following Rizal's arrest
asawa, anak at kapatid o kabayan.
on July 6, 1892, the Katipunan 10 Lubos na pag sampalataya sa parusang ilinalaang sa balang sowail at magtaksil, gayon din sa pala
would then take an active role
na kakamtan ukol sa mabuting gawa. Sampalatayanan din naman na ang mga layong tinutungo
(albeit secret) in {ostering a militant
mode of nationalism, one that ng K,*,K,,,K*,, ay kaloob ng Maykapal, sa makatwid ang hangad ng bayan ay hangad din Nya.
would be geared toward staging a
revolution. .The
text below is the English translation done by Jim Hichardson.
K,',K;K,',
Duties of the Sons of the People
GUIDE QUESTIONS 1. Believe with a fervent heart in the Creator.
. \ lha\ aspec\s ol \he 2. Re{tect always that a sincere {arth in Him rnvolves \ove o{ one's nat(ve land, because this shows true
"Decalogue" reflect the
love for one's fellows.
Katipunan s aspirations fo.
independence? 3. Engrave on the heart the conviction that to die for the liberation of the country from enslavement is
o How does the "Decalogue" the highest honor and fortune.
protect the secrecy of the
Katipunan?
4. ln any endeavor, the realization of good aspirations depends on calmness, perseverance, reason
and hope.
5. Guard the instructions and plans of the K,,,K,,-K,,, as you would guard your own honor.
6. Anyone who falls into danger whilst carrying out their duties should be supported by all, and
rescued even at the cost of life and riches.
7. Let each of us strive in the performance of our duty to set a good example for others to follow.
B. Share whatever you can with whoever is needy.
9. Diligence in earning a livelihood is a true expression of love and affectlon for self, spouse, children
and brothers or compatriots.
10. Believe absolutely that scoundrels and traitors will be punished and good deeds will be rewarded.
Believe, likewise, that the aims of the K-,,K--,K",- are blessed by the Creator, for the will of the people
is also His will.
Source: Translated by Jim Richardson, Katipunan Documents and Studles
-'Kartilya"
hy Emilio -.laeinto
The "Kartilya" or the "Teachings of the Katipunari' was written by the "Brains of
the Katipunan," Emilio Jacinto. If Bonifacio's "Decalogue" presenred the ten duties
of Katipuneros, the "Kartilya" served as a pamphlet of "twelve guiding principles and
fourteen teachings."re Jacinto wrote the document beautifully with "a diction that was
pure and crisp and transparent."20 Because of this, Bonifacio realized the superiority
of the "Kartilya" over his "Decalogue" and chose the former as a primer for neu'
recruits. By reading the contents of the said document, it aims to expound on the
Katipunant aspirations and to enumerate the ethical values which were expected from
t]IiA2I.LR 8 THE 1896 PHILIPPINE REVOLUTION

:,:smembers.2l Furthermore, these teachings conveyed the importance of good morals
;,rd character, equality amidst race and descent, the respect for women, and the defense
:ithe oppressed.
rrimary Source
- stipunan Nang Manga A. N. B. sa may Nasang Makisanib sa Katipunang lto
Sa pagkakailangan, na ang Iahat na nagiibig pumasuk sa katipunang ito, ay magkaroon ng lubos

-- oananalig at kaisipan sa mga layong tinutungo at mga kaaralang pinaiiral, minarapat na ipakilala
.. kanila ang mga bagay na ito, at ng bukas makalawa'y huag silang magsisi at tuparing maluag sa
.- coban ang kanilang mga tutungkulin.
Ang kabagayang pinaguusig ng katipunang ito ay lubos na dakila at mahalaga; papagisahin
.^g loob at kaisipan ng lahat ng tagalog sa pamagitan ng isang mahigpit na panunumpa, upang
-.a pagkakaisang ito'y magkalakas na iwasak ang masinsing tabing na nakabubulag sa kaisipan at
-atuklasan ang tunay na landas ng Katuiran at Kaliwanagan.
Sa salitang tagalog katutura'y ang lahat nang tumubo sa Sangkapuluang ito; sa makatuid, bisaya
ran, iloko man, kapangpangan man, etc,, ay tagalog din.
Dito'y isa sa mga kaunaunahang utos, ang tunay na pag-ibig sa bayang tinubuan at lubos na
cagdadamayan ng isa't isa.
Maralita, mayaman, mangmang, marunong, lahat dito'y magkakapantay at tunay na magkakapatid.
Kapagkarakang mapusok dito ang sino man, tataligdan pilit ang buhalhal na kaugalian, at paiilalim
sa kapangyarihan ng mga banal na utos ng katipunan.
Ang gawang lahat, na laban sa kamahalan at kalinisan, dito'y kinasusuklaman; kaya't sa bagay
ra ito ipinaiilalim sa masigasig na pakikibalita ang kabuhayan ng sino mang nagiibig makisanib sa
(atipunang ito.
Kung ang hangad ng papasuk dito'y ang tumalastas lamang o mga kalihiman nito, o ang
ikagiginhawa ng sariling katawan, o ang kilalanin ang mga naririto't ng maipagbili sa isang
Cakot na salapi, huag magpatuloy, sapagkat dito'y bantain lamang ay talastas na ng makapal
na nakikiramdam sa kaniya, at karakarakang nilalapatan ng mabisang gamut, na laan sa
mga sukaban.
Dito'y gawa ang hinahanap at gawa ang tinitignan; kaya't hindi dapat pumasuk ang di makagagawa,
kahit magaling magsalita.
lpinauunawa din, ang mga katungkulang ginaganap ng lahat ng napaaanak sa katipunang ito ay
lubhang mabibigat lalung lalu na, kung gugunitain na di magyayaring maiiwasan at walang kusang
pagkukulang na di aabutin ng kakilakilabot na kaparusahan.
Kung ang hangad ng papasuk dito, ang siya'y abuluyan o ang ginhawa't malayaw na katahimikan
ng katawan, huag magpatuloy, sapagkat mabigat na mga katungkulan ang matatagpuan, gaya ng
pagtatangkilik sa mga naaapi at madaluhong na paguusig sa lahat ng kasamaan; sa bagay na ito ay
aabuting ang maligalig na pamumuhay.
Di kaila sa kangino paman ang mga nagbalang kapahamakan sa mga tagalog na nakaiisip nitong
mga banal na kabagayan (at hindi man), at mga pahirap na ibinibigay na nagharing kalupitan, kalikuan
at kasamaan.
Talastas din naman ng lahat ang pagkakailangan ng salapi, na sa ngayo'y isa sa mga unang lakas
na maaasahang magbibigay buhay sa lahat; sa bagay na ito, kinakailangan ang lubos na pagtupad sa
mga pagbabayaran; piso sa pagpasok at sa buan buan ay sikapat. Ang salaping ito'y ipinagbibigay
alam ng nagiingat sa tuing kapanahunan, bukod pa sa mapagsisiyasat ng sinoman kailan ma't ibigin.
Di makikilos ang salaping ito, kundi pagkayarin ng karamihan.
101
ffi Ang lahat ng ipinagsaysay at dapat gunitain at mahinahong pagbulaybulayin, sapagkat di
magaganap at di matitiis ng walang tunay na pagibig sa tinubuang lupa, at tunay na adhikang
Known as the "Bra ns of the ipagtangkilik ang Kagalingan.
Katrpunan," Emilro Jac nto was At ng lalong mapagtimbang ng sariling isip at kabaitan, basahin ang sumusunod na
formal y educated at Colegio
de San Juan de Letran. He then
attended the University of Santo MGAARAL NANG KATIPUNAN NG MGAA.N,B
Tomas to study law but was
Ang kabuhayang hindi ginugugol sa isang malaki at banal na kadahilanan ay kahoy na walar;
unable to finish the course. Jac nto
became the youngest member of lilim, kundi damong makamandag.
r*e Kalipunan al the age of 19.
Ang gawang magaling na nagbubuhat sa pagpipita sa sarili, at hindi sa talagang nasang gumav, a
Aside from authoring lhe Kartilya,
he served as the editor in chref
ng kagalingan, ay di kabaitan.
of lhe Kalayaan, the Katrpunan's Ang tunay na kabanalan ay ang pagkakawang gawa, ang pagibig sa kapua at ang isukat a-l
officlal newspaper.
bawat kilos, gawa't pangungusap sa talagang Katuiran.
Maitim man at maputi ang kulay ng balat, lahat ng tao'y magkakapantay; mangyayaring ang sa.,
higtan sa dunong, sa yaman, sa ganda...; ngunit di mahihigtan sa pagkatao.
Ang may mataas na kalooban inuuna ang puri sa pagpipita sa sarili; ang may hamak na kalooban
inuuna ang pagpipita sa sarili sa puri,
Sa taong may hiya, salita'y panunumpa.
Huag mong sasayangin ang panahun; ang yamang nawala'y magyayaring magbalik; nguni't
panahong nagdaan na'y di na muli pang magdadaan.
lpagtanggol mo ang inaapi, at kabakahin ang umaapi.
Ang taong matalino'y ang may pagiingat sa bawat sasablhin, at matutong ipaglihim ang dapat
ipaglihim,
ELB Sa daang matinik ng kabuhayan, lalaki ay siyang patnugot ng asawa't mga anak; kung ang
According to Jim Richardson's umaakay ay tungo sa sama, ang patutunguhan ng iaakay ay kasamaan din.
recent study or lhe Kattpunan tn
Ang babai ay huag mong tignang isang bagay na libangan lamang, kundi isang katuang at karamay
The Light af Liberty: Documents
and Studies an the Katipunan, sa mga kahirapan nitong kabuhayan; gamitan mo ng buong pagpipitagan ang kaniyang kahinaan, at
1892-1897 pub ished in 2013, alalahanin ang inang pinagbuhata't nagiwi sa iyong kasangulan.
a particular document from the
Ang di mo ibig na gawin sa asawa mo, anak at kapatid, ay huag mong gagawin sa asawa, anak,
Archivo General Militar de Madrid
shows that the organization had at kapatid ng iba.
already been existing as early as
Ang kamahalan ng tao'y wala sa pagkahari, wala sa tangus ng llong at puti ng mukha, wala sa
January of '1892. This would mean
that the day following RizaL's arrest pagkaparing KAHILILI NG DIOS, wala sa mataas na kalagayan sa balat ng lupa; wagas at tunay na
on July 6, 1892, the Katipunan mahal na tao, kahit laking gubat at walang nababatid kundr ang sariling wika, yaong may magandang
vuould then take an active albeit
asal, may isang pangungusap, may dangal at puri; yaong di napaaapi't di nakikiapi; yaong marunong
secret role rn {ostering a militant
mode of nationalism, one that magdamdam at marunong lumingap sa bayang tinubuan.
be gea'eo rowaros srag'ng a Paglaganap ng mga aral na ito ai maningning na sumikat ang araw ng mahal na Kalayaan dito sa
ô-lo
revolution.
kaabaabang Sangkalupuan, at sabugan ng matamis niyang liwanag ang nangagkaisang magkalah :
magkakapatid ng ligaya ng walang katapusan, ang mga ginugol na buhay, pagud, at mga tiniis na
kahirapa'y labis nang natumbasan.
Kung lahat ng ito'y mataruk na ng nagiibig pumasuk at inaakala niyang matutupad ang mga
tutungkulin, maitatala ang kaniyang ninanasa sa kasunod nito.
tl
Source: Translation by Jim Richardson, Katipunan Documents and S:-..
C,i \i\Pl ts-i\ !, IHE lBgB PH\L\PP\NE RE\ OLUI\ON

Asssciation of the Sons of the Pe*p*e
TO THOSE WHO WANT TO JOIN THIS ASSOCIATION
ln order that all who want to enter this Association may have a full understanding and knowledge
of its guiding principles and main teachings, it is necessary to make these things known to them so that
they will not, tomorrow or the next day, repent, and so that they may perform their duties wholeheartedly.
This Association pursues a most worthy and momentous object: to unite the hearts and minds of all
the Tagalogs by means of an inviolable oath, in order that this union may be strong enough to tear aside
the thick veil that obscures thought, and to find the true path of Reason and Enlightenment.
(-The word Tagalog means all those born in this Archipelago; even a person who is a Visayan,
llocano, or Kapampangan, etc. is therefore a Tagalog too.)
One of the foremost rules here is true love of the native land and genuine compassion for one
another
Poor, rich, ignorant, wise - here, all are equal and true brethren.
As soon as anybody enters here, he shall perforce renounce disorderly habits and shall submit to
the authority of the sacred commands of the Katipunan.
All acts contrary to noble and clean living are repugnant here, and hence the life of anyone who
wants to affiliate with this Associatron will be submitted to a searching investigation.
lf the applicant merely wishes to know the secrets of the Association, or to seek personal gratif ication,
or to know who is here in order to sell them for a handful of silver, he cannot proceed, for here the many
who are watching him will already know his intentions, and will immediately have recourse to an effective
remedy, such as befits traitors.
Here, only actions are demanded and esteemed; hence anybody who is not willing to act should
not enter, no matter how good a speaker he might be.
It is also announced that the dutles to be performed by the members of this association are
exceedingly hard, especially if one remembers that there can be no dereliction or wilful evasion of duty
without the exaction of a terrible punishment.
lf an applicant merely desires financial support relief or wants to lead a life of bodily comfort and
ease, he had better not proceed, for he will encounter weighty tasks, like the protection of the oppressed
I
and the relentless fight against all that is evil. ln this way, his fate will be a vexatious life.
Nobody rs unaware of the misfortune that threatens the Filipinos who contemplate these things
that are sacred (and even those that are not) and the sufferings they are made to endure by the reign
of
cruelty, injustice and evil.
Everybody also knows the need for money, which today is one of the main things upon which we
depend to bring sustenance to all. ln this regard, the punctual payment of dues is required: one peso
upon entry and then twelve and a half centimos each month. The custodian of the funds will periodically
render an account to the members, and each member has a right to examine the accounts, should
he
so wish. The funds cannot be expended without the consent of the majority.
All this must be thought over and deliberated upon calmly, as it cannot be accomplished
or endured
by anyone who has no love for his native land and no genuine desire to promote progress.
And for the upliftment of your mind and virtue, read the following
TEACHINGS OF THE KATIPUNAN OF THE SONS OF THE PEOPLE

A life that is not dedicated to a great and sacred cause is iike a tree without a shade, or poisonous
a
weed.
A good deed lacks virtue lf it springs from a desire for personal prof it and not from a sincere desire
to do good.
103
GUIDE GtJ€STI*ruS True charity resides in acts of compassion, in love
for cne s fellow men, and in making true Reason
. What portions of the ,,Kartilya,, the measure of every move, deed and word.
promote the value of honor and
Be their skin dark or pale, all men are equal. one
morality of character? can be supenor to another in knowledge, wealth
. How does the "Kartilya,, and beauty... but not in being.
recognize the value of equality?
A person with a noble character values honor above sellinterest,
while a person with an ignoble
character values self-interest above honor.
An honorable man's word is his bond.
Don't waste time; lost wealth may be recovered, but
time lost is lost forever.
Defend the oppressed and fight the oppressor.
An intelligent man is he who takes care in everything he
says and keeps quiet about what must be
kept secret.
Along the thorny path of life, the man leads the way and his wife and children follow. lf the leader
goes the way of perdition, then so do those who are led.
Do not regard a woman as a mere plaything, but as a helpmate and partner in the hardships of this
existence. Have due regard to her weakness, and remember the mother who brought you into this world
and nurtured you in your infancy.
What you would not want done to your wrfe, daughter and sister, do not do to the wife, daughter
and sister of another.
A man's worth does not come from him being a king, or in the height of his nose and the whiteness
of his face, or in him being a priest, a REPRESENTATIVE OF GOD, or in his exalted position on the face
of this earth. Pure and truly noble is he who, though born in the forest and able to speak only his own
tongue, behaves decently, is true to his word, has dignity and honor, who is not an oppressor and does
not abet oppressors, who knows how to cherish and look after the land of his birth.
When these doctrines have spread and the brilliant sun of beloved liberty shines on these poor
lslands, and sheds its sweet light upon a united race, a people in everlasting happiness, then the lives
lost, the struggle and the suffering will have been more than recompensed.
Source: Translation by Jim Richardson, Katipunan Documents and Studies
Yhe T*jertrs Csnvention, Mareh AI, l Sgr

The Tejeros Convention on March 22, 1897 was one of the most importanr events
that witnessed the factionalism within the Katipunan. Prior ro rhe affairs at Tejeros,
Bonifacio had already been invited several times to visit Cavite in order to witness the
achievements of the revolutionaries there and to mediate between the rival factions
of the provincs-1he Magdiwang and the Magdalo. Both held several towns under
their control and wanted to claim revolutionary leadership of the insurgents in the
province. After the insistence ofArtemio Ricarte and Mariano Alvarez, Bonifacio agreed
to leave for the said province in late 1896. By December 31 of that year, anassembly
at Imus, Cavite was convened in order to solve the problem of revolutionary leadership
in the province. Two important arguments prevailed in that assembly-the Magdalo
believed that a new Bovernment should be formed to replace the Katipunan which had
already ceased to be a secret society while the Magdiwang argued that the Katipunan
should remain as their government because it already had an existing constitution and.
by-laws approved and followed by its membership. Because of the heated discussions
that ensued, the assembly ended without a definite resolution.22
Three months later, another convention was held at an estate-house in Tejeros, San
Francisco de Malabon, Cavite on March 22, 1897. Jacinto Lumbreras and Teodoro
.ii:F]
CiI;i 3 THE 1896 PHILIPP'NE REVOLUTION
Conzales acted as presiding ofHcer and secretary of the assembly, respectively. Both were
members of the Magdiwang. The issue regarding the creation of a new governmenr was
again debated upon. After an hour of heated arguments, Bonifacio took the helm of the
convention and acceded to an election of a new governmenr. The following were elected
as officers: Emilio Aguinaldo as President (elected in absentia), Mariano Jiias as Vice
President, Artemio fucarte as Captain-general, Emiliano Riego de Dios as Director of
'War,
and Andres Bonifacio as Director of the Interior. The convenrion ended in chaos
after Daniel Tirona, a Magdalo, argued that the position of Director of the Interior was
one reserved for a man with a lawyert diploma. Bonifacio felt insulted and the situation
deteriorated with the Supremo, holding Tirona at gun point, demanded for a rerraction.
In frustration, Bonifacio stated aloud: "I, as chairman of this assembly, and as President
of the Supreme Council of the Katipunan... declare this assembly dissolved, and I annul
all that has been approved and resolved."23
The following day, March 23, Bonifacio and his followers (45 men in total) met
once more at the estate-house in Tejeros to officially reject and invalidate the elections
r*
Daniel Tirona against Andres
that happened the previou s day.2a For this purpose, the attendees affixed their signatures Bonifacio - Teodoro A. Agoncillo
on a document called 'Acta de Tejeros" which explicitly affirmed that the March 22 discusses in Revolt of the Masses:
The Story of Bonifacio and the
election was illegitimate and marred with fraud.2, On the same day, Emilio Aguinaldo, Kati pu n an thal Daniel Tirona
who was leading battle at Pasong Santol, was informed by his brother General Crispulo
a recommended Jose del Rosario,
a Magdiwang and a lawyer, to be
Aguinaldo of his election to the presidency. Aguinaldo and the elected officials (except voted for the position of Director of
Bonifacio) proceeded to prepare for the oath-taking ceremony held at the convent hall the Interior.
of a church in Santa Cruz de Malabon/Thnza. Cavite.26
105
The divisions witiin rhe rer-olurionan, fbrces inrensified. when on April 19,1g97,
Bonifacio and his foilowers mer ar ,r, .rr"..-house in Naik, Cavite to create
another
document that cemented their separarion from Aguinaldo's governmsnl-*rs "\xik
Military Agreement." Aside from establishing an independent government, the
agreement formed an army which was placed under the command
of General pio
del Pilar, a Magdalo who defected to Bonifaciot group.r: The gathering at Naik
was
primarily in response to treasonable acts committed by AguinalJot .r-p. Specifically,
Aguinaldo was accused of having "betrayed the revolution by coming ro an agreement
with the Spanish enemy."28
Artemic Fli*art*'* Seclaratimr? ab*ut tF!€
t? Teieros e*mvemtimm, Mareh Aq, TSS?

Below is the text ofArtemio Ricartet declaration which reveals his reluctance to
participate
Electoral Fraud in Tejeros - On in the oath-taking ceremony in March 23 dueto the questionable conduct of the .l..tio.r,
the issue of electoral fraud and
the previous day' It discloses how Ricarte felt compelled to attend. rhe ceremony
irregularities, Jim Richardson primarily
explains in Light of Liberty, "Almost because he was invited by Magdiwangk minister of development, Emiliano ni.go d.
all ballot papers for their candidates Dios, and that the event was graced by Magdiwang leaders from different rowns,
had been marked by just one .rl*.ly
person, and had been issued to Mariano Tiias, Santiago Rillo, vicente fuego de Dios, among others.2e
people who were not entifled to A historical account of the oath-taking ceremony ar the convent hall in Tanza,
vote. The document l"Acta de
Cavite can be seen in Teodoro A. Agoncillo's lhe Reuob of the Masses. In this
Tejeros"] also reiterates one of the book,
arguments Bonifacio had advanced Agoncillo narrates how the elected Captain-general secretly proceeded ro rhe
convent
for postponing the elections - that and observed the preparations for the oath-taking ceremony. .Vhen fucarte
a number of delegates had been was about
unable to attend." See Light of to take his leave, Jacinto Pulido, an official of the Thnza popular council, saw him.
He
Liberty, 330-333. was then brought before Aguinaldo and Tlias. Amidst the persuasion
of those around
him to take the oath of office, Ricarte adamantly refirsed. He declared, "This
premature
oath-taking will cause serious trouble and misunderstanding among the revolutionists,
for I myself witnessed all that transpired in Tejeros."3o In the ..rj, Ri.*r..
gave way
to the pressure exerted upon him and took the oath.3r As mentioned above,
fucarte
explains the reasons for his actions through the d.eclaration written
on March 24, 1g97,
a day after the ceremonies at Tanza.
Primary Source
Ako si Artemio Ricarte "Vibora" may katampatang taong, taga bayan
ng Batak, lalauigan ng Hukuman
ng llocos Norte, kapatid sa K.K.K. ng mga A,N.B,, at tumatahan dito
sa Mapagtiis o Malabon sakop ng
S B Magdiuang o Noveleta, ay nagsasaysay ng boong katotohanan
at hanggang sa labi ng hukay ay
aking haharapan.
Na sa oras na ikaanim ng hapon kahapon alinsunod sa isang liham
sarinlan na kalakip nito, ay
sumapit ako sa convento ng bayan ng Tanza o panguagui, at nadatnan
ko ang Kgg. na Dakirang
G Emiliano Riego de Dios, Ministro de Fomento, at Kgg. na Dakilang G. Mariano Trias,
Ministro de
Gracia y Justicia ng S.B. Magdiuang, pati G. Santiago Rillo, vicente
Riego de Dios, at iba,t iba pang
Guinoo sa bayan bayang nasasakupan nitong nasabing S B.; at gayon
din na nadatnan ko ang ilang
Matataas na G. Pinuno sa s.B. Magdaro, at sa pagdating ko,
ay namasdang kong nakahanda anc
isang crucifi.jo sa guitna ng Antesara ng nasabing convento; at
ang mga G. pinunong nabangguit na
ay kapagkaraka'y nagsabi ng kadahilanan ng pagkahiling nila na
ako'y humarap doon, at ualang ibang
dahil, kundi ang pagtanggap sa pamamagitan ng isang panunumpa
sa harapan ng crucifijo at sa
masid ng kalahatan o irang bayan, ng katungkurang pagka pangurong
Digma ng Katagarugan, ayon sa
CilirPTlIii'8 THE 1896 PHtLtPptNE REVOLUTTON
I
': nalabasan ng pagkapulong ng arao naika22 nitong lumalakad na buan; sa bagay naito, ay ipinakita
'lmuli sa kalahatang naroroon, ang malaking kaayaoan kong tumanggap ng naturang katungkulan
sa
-ga kadahilanang sumusunod:
Una- Aking pinasasalamatan ang paglabas ko sa paghalal na ito, na maging Pangulong Hukbo ng
cuong Katagalugan; datapua kinikilala kong may karumihan o kalabuan ang pagkaparaan ng pagkahalal
sa akin; sapagkat napaguari ko na hindi nasunod ang tunay na kalooban ng mga taong bayan at;
lkalaua - lginagalang ko ang naturang katungkulan, at natatalastas ko ang kaniyang kalakhan at

'aoangyarihan; at gayon din na natatakot ako ang buong aking nakakayanan sa lahat ng bagay, na
-chang kulang na kulang at maliit na maliit sa dahilang ito, natalos at napagkilala ko ang di ko karapatan;
.a lahat ng ito, at hindi maaamin ng konsiyensiy a ko ang pagtanggap ng nasabing katungku/an: Gayon
1-E unang isinagot ko sa mga G. at mga taong bayang naroroon na sari saring pinagbuhatan, na aking
-akaharap sa convento at nagpatalastas sa akin ng pagsumpa sa pagtanggap sa gabing yaon
ng
âsabing katungkulan.
Ako'y nagsabi rin na kung sa gabing ito'y maghahandog ng panunumpa sa pagtanggap na nasabi
-
J katungkulan, ay hindi ako makakaayon, dahil
Una -- Sa uala sa Kapulungan ang mga karamihang pinunong humarap sa paghahalal, lalung lalo
-a ang President ng pagkapulong sa nasabing oras na ika 22 nitong lumalakad na buan;
lkalaua -- Sa pagkatanto ko na kung ito'y gagauin, siya ang pagmumulan ng malaking kaguluhan
l: hindi ipagkakaisa ng mga bayan bayan, anupa't ipinahalata ko sa kalahatan ang totoong hindi pag
-.,cn, hanggang sa ako'y humingi sa kaginoohan at sa taong bayan, ng dalauang bagay:
Patayin ako sa oras ng gabing yaon, sa kadahilanang nasasabi sa itaas na ito o bigyan
:<o ng tatlong oras na pahintulot o isang oras kaya at ng mapag isip ko ang mga bagay bagay
rlt
Artemio Ricarte and the
-a nararapat sa pagtanggap ng nasabing katungkulan; itong ikalauang bagay na hiniling ko, ay Oath-Taking at Tanza - lt is
interesting to note that on March 23,
r nagaua kong paraan lamang, upang makaalis ako sa Kapulungang yaon, Ang lahat na aking
1897, Ricarte had been present at
- riling, ay ualang nangyari, sapagka't ualang umayon ni kahit isa man lamang; sa madaling Tejeros to sign the "Acta de Tejeros"
salita,
sa himok at pag amu amo'y kalahatan sa pamamagitan ng Kgg. na Dakilang G. Emilio Aguinaldo, and had attended the oath-taking
ceremony at Tanza church.
rangulong Digma ng S.B. Magdalo, na sa oras ng
ikaualo ng gabi, ay naghandog ng panunumpa, Jim Richardson supposes that
ang Kgg, na Dakilang G. Mariano Trias, Ministro de Gracia y Justicia ng S.B. Magdiuang bagaman, because Ricarte was "oscillating
between two camps IBonifacio
a<ing mauulit, na hindi maaamin ng aking kalooban, sa oras na ikaisa ng hatinggabing yaon, ay
and Aguinaldo's groupsl," he had
âghandog din ako ng panunumpa ng pagtanggap ng
katungkulang pagka pangulong Hukbo ng first attended the gathering at
::ong Katagalugan. Tejeros for the "Acta de Tejeros"
then proceeded to Tanza for the
Ito ang buong katotohanan na kailanma'y hindi ko matatalikdan kaya't sa arao na ito ika 24 ng buan
ceremony.
-J lMarzo ng taong isang libo, ualong daan, siam na put pito, ay linagdaan ko ng tunay kong pangalan,
acellido at pamagat na tinataglay.
G. Artemio Bicarte Vibora
.The text
below is the English translation done by Jim Richardson.
l, Artemio Ricarte "Vibora", of legal age, of the town of Batak in the provincial jurisdiction of llocos
\lorte, a brother of the K.K.K. ng mga A.N.B. and residing here at Mapagtiis
or Malabon, under the
.rrrsdiction of the S.B. Magdiwang or Noveleta, declare the following to be the whole truth that I shall
'raintain to the grave.
That at six o'clock yesterday afternoon, in conformity with the attached letter
[see below], I went
io the convento of the town of Tanza or Panguagui and there I found the Honorable Don Emiliano Riego
de Dios, Minister of Development, and the Honorable Don Mariano Trias, Minister ol Grace and Justice
of the S.B. Magdiwang, together with Srs. Santiago Rillo, Vicente Riego de Dios, and other gentlemen
107
t-
from the towns under the jurisdiction of the said S.B., and likewise I found various high chiefs of S.B.
Magdalo. Upon my arrival I noticed that a crucif ix had been prepared in the center of the hall of the said
convento; and the aforementioned chiefs thereupon informed me of the reason why they had requested
my presence there, which was none other than that I should take an oath of office, before the crucifix
and
watched by people from all or some of the towns, as President of War of Katagalugan, in conformity with
stated to all
the outcome of the convention held on the 22nd of the current month. ln this regard I again
those present there my great reluctance to accept said off ice for the following reasons:-
First - That I appreciated having been elected President of War of all Katagalugan in this election,
but that I recognized there had been dirty or shady practices in the manner of my
election, because I
understood that it had not been in conformity with the true will of the people.
Second - That I respected the said office and realized its importance and authority; and
that I
was fearful in all respects about my abilities. I considered myself very deficient and inadequate,
and
recognized that I did not have the necessary competence, and that on account of all this I could not
people
in good conscience accept the said office. This was my first reply to the gentlemen and other
present there, from various places, whom I met at the convento, and who advised me that I must take
the oath of off ice that very night,

not
I also stated that if the oath of said office was to be administered that very same night could
I
agree, because:
GUIDE SUESTION$ First - The majority of the chiefs present at the election, and especially the President of the
. What were the reasons why convention held at the said time, the 22nd of the present month, were absent from the Assembly.
Ricarte felt reluctant in taking Second - I knew that if this was done, it would cause much disturbance and discord in the towns:
the oath of office?
in short, I gave them all to understand that I strongly disagreed, to the extent that I requested of
the
. What were Ricarte's oPinions
about the elections conducted gentlemen and the townspeople two things:
on March 22.1897?
That they kill me that same night, for the reasons above cited, or that they give me three hours, or a:
least one hour, to think over what I must necessarily do in order to accept said office; this second reques:
was but a mere pretext, in order to enable me to absent myself from that Assembly. I obtained nothing
of what I requested, because not even one of them gave me his assent. To be brief, at the request
anc
supplication of all, His Excellency Don Emilio Aguinaldo, President of War ol S.B, Magdalo, took the oatl.
at about eight o'clock in the evening, together with His Excellency Mariano Trias, Minister of Grace anc
Justice of S.B. Magdiwang, and though, I again repeat, I could not in good conscience accept it, I als:
took the oath as President of war of all Katagalugan, at about one o'clock that night.
This is the whole truth which I shall never be able to retract, hence, on this day the 24th of the mon:-
of March, of the year one thousand, eight hundred and ninety-seven, I sign my real name, surname ar:
the alias I bear.
Don Artemio Ricarte Vibc'"
Source: Translation by Jim Richardson, Katipunan Documents and Stuo::
Ar:dres Bonifaeio's Letter to Emilio Jacinto,

ABrll 16, lSSr
In a small portion of Bonifacio's letter written almost a month after the Tejero.
Convention, the Supremo expresses his sentiments to Jacinto regarding the turmoil tha:
\What is important in the letter is Bonifacio'.
had transpired during the said assembly.
pronouncement of the treachery committed by some individuals within the revolutionar,
movement.32 The Supremot dismay at the proceedings of the March 22 convention lec
to rhe eventual fragmentation of the insurgent forces made official through the Acta ci.
Tejeros and the Naik Military Agreement.
Ci];D-'-i],] THE 1896 PHILIPPINE REVOLUTION

Primary Source
ANDRES BONIFACIO
MAYPAGASA
P ng K. Kapulungan
Naik ika 16 ng Abril 1897
M, Emilio Jacinto Pingkian
Kgg. na Pangulong hukbo
Buhat sa mga kaguluhan dito sa pagka pasok ng kalaban sa mga bayan ng Silang, P Dasmarinas, rL?
Bakood, Ymus, Kawit, Noveleta, Malabon, Tansa at Salinas, ay hindi ako bigyang panahun na makasulat ln different letters and official
documents, Bonifacio would sign
sa inyo na sagutin ko ang inyong mga sulat sa akin, gayon mag pinilit kong makasulat diyan at his name together with the word
maipadala sa ating Kapatid na si M, Nlltcllnllc Gxqbnrn [Antonino Guevara] na may malaking bagay na "Maypagasa" which means, "there
is hope." lndeed, the Supremo's
sa inyo'y ipagsasabi.
Katipunan name or nom de guerre
Ang inyong ipinadala dito ay aking tinangap na dalawang tarrong polvora, isang bayong na suited his role as the leader of a
capsulang walang laman at tatlong pung piso. Sa sulat ay nasasabing limang pu, datapua't ito lamang revolution which fought for the
independence of the people. (Photo
ang idinating sa akin sa pagka't di umano'y kinuha uli ng Kap. na Nakpil ang dalawang pung piso.
from Jim Richardson's Light of
Ang sunod sunod na pagka agaw ng kalaban sa mga bayan ng nasabi sa unahan nito, ay buhat Liberty)
sa kakulangan nang pagkakaisa at pananatili ng dating kaugalian na pag iiringan ng mga pinuno na
magpahangan ngayo'y nananatili pa, kahit inaabot na ang mahigpit na kalagayang tinatawid ng bayan.
Dito'y may tinangap na sulat si Capitang Emilio, na padala ng isang Jesuita na nagngangalang Pio
Pi at isang Kastila na si Rafael Comenge ng hindi pa na aagaw ang Ymus, doo'y hinihikayat ang mga
pinuno ng Revolucion nabigyan na ng hanga itong paglalaban at di umano'y blbigyan tayo ng laganap
na kapatawaran. Ang nasabing Capitan Emilio ay mag ginawang Condiciones na ibig na hingin sa
kaaway na gaya ng paalisin ang mga fraile, diputados a cortes at iba pang mga bagaybagay, at itoy
ipinahatid sa kay M, Mariano Alvarez at hinihingi ang kanyang pag ayon, itoy isinanguni sa akin at ng
hindi namin sang ayunan ay ang ginawa ng taga Ymus, ay sinulatan ng lihim ni Cap. Emilio ang mga
Pangulo sa Bayang sakop ng Magdiwang.
Ang Presidente na sr M. Mariano sa mapagtalastas ito ay tumawag ng pulong at singuni ang
kalooban ng lahat, doo'y pinagkaisahang ipatuloy ang pakikilaban sa Kastila at aagaw ng ano pamang
pakikipagyari. Sa pulong na ito, ay pinagkaisahan na ibangon ang Gobierno ng revolucion; datapuat
ang kinalabasan ay gulo, sapagka't natuklasan ng lahat ang daya ng taga Magdalo, kayat nawalang
kabuluhan ang pulong na yaon.
Sa mga kaguluhan dito at pagkatalo, ay ang mga tao rito ay nasira ang mga loob, at si Tirona,
Kelles, Jose del Rosario na Mtro de guerra, Tte general at director de guerra ay nang si pagprisinta na
sa Kastila kasama ng makapal na pinuno at taong bayan na taga Tansa, ito'y taong Magdalong lahat.
Sa mga kataksilang ito na namasdan ng mga kawal ni Capitang Emilio, ang lahat halos (ng mga
K) ay naglulumuhod sa akin, na silay ilayas ko na at dalhin diyan sa atin; datapua't hindi ko payagan ito
sa pagkat ako'y naaawa sa makapal na taong bayan na walang kasalanan ay siyang aabutin ng katakot
takot na pagkaligalig at kamatayan.
Ang mga taga Batangan ay napaiilalim sa kapangyarihan ng K.S. at kumikilala sa ating
kapangyarihan at sa makalawa ay sisimulan nila ang pagsalakay sa walong bayan. Sa pagsalakay na
ito ay humingi sa akin ng saklolo at pinadalhan ko naman ng dalawang pung barilan at dalawang pung
sandatahan at ng umaakay na General ay ang Kapatid na si M. Artemio Ricarte,
Ang bayan ng Batangan ay nagtayo na ng isang Gobierno Provincial at ang general nila ay nag
ngangalang M, Miguel Malvar, taong matalino at marahil ay mabuti kaysa mga dating kilala nating
generales dito sa Tangway.
109
Kung palaring makuha ang bayan ng Lipa na isa ito walong bayan papasukin, ay doon nila ako
inaayayahan lumagay at ng maitawid di umano sa Camarines ang panghihimagsik, kayat sa bagay na
ito ibig kong maalaman kung ako'y lalong kailangan diyan ay diyan ako paparian at kung hindi ay dito
ako mangangasiwa na.
Kinakailangang totoo ang tayo'y magkaroon ng continuacion sa pag galaw at ng lumaganap na
mabuti ang panghihimagsik sa Sangkapuluan, kayat ibig kong mabatid na kung kayo'y nakasapit na sa
dakong Bulakan at Nueva Ecija, at kung hindi pa ay magiiwan ako dito ng makapangasiwa at patungo
tayo doon; sa pagkat kung hindi tayo kikilos, diya'y batid ninyo, na naririan si Vnvqrtc Llntfrbndnc
paninira sa atin
[Mamerto Natividad], ay itoy di malayong gawin sa dakong iyan ang ginawa niya ditong
Ang armas ay hindi pa dumarating mag pahangang ngayon at ito'y isa pa na nagiging dahil[an,
ng aking ikinatitigil dito.
Ang inyong ina ay na sasa Marigundong na kasama ng kanyang kamaganak doon at wala namang
ano pamang sakuna ng pinagdadaanan.
Tangapin ninyo ang aking mahigpit na yakap.
Ang K. P;c
And. . Bonifac,:
Maypagas.
-The text below is the English translation done by Jim Richardson.
ANDRES BONIFACIO
MAYPAGASA
President of the Supreme Congress
Naik, April 16, 1897
Sr. Emilio Jacinio Pingkian
#
Katipunan was a ten-part historical
Most Respected Chief of the ArmY:
Due to the turmoil here and the entry of the enemy into the towns of Silang, P Dasmarinas, Bacoor,
Kawit, Noveleta, Malabon, Tansa and Salinas, I have not had time to write to you in answer to your
l-
le::-
-s
docudrama released by GMA to me. So I shall try hard to write a letter there now, and the bearer will be our brother Don Anto-nc
Network in 2013. Directed by King
Mark Baco and written by lan Guevara , who has most important things to tell you.
Victoriano, the series {ocused on I received what you sent me here: two cans of gunpowder, a sackful of empty cartrrdge shells. a-r:
the history of the Katipunan, the ..r:
thirty pesos. ln the letter it says f ifty, but that is all that reached me, because again Brother Nakpil is
Phllippine Revolution, and Andres
Bonifacio's life. An introductory to have taken the twenty pesos.
video for the series entitled Anak ng The successive capture of the aforementioned towns by the enemy is due to the unity and resc -:1:r"r
Bayan; The Katipunan Primer can
that formerly prevailed having now been lost and spurned by the leaders. They maintain that a-:-a:
be accessed via the GMA Public
Affa rs YouTube channel, even though the situation befalling the people is dire.
Here Capitan Emilio has received a letter, sent by a Jesuit called Pio Pi and a Spaniard. i=:,e
Comenge; this was when lmus had not yet been captured. The letter urged the leaders of the Rev:' rrm
to give up this cause for which we are fighting, and said we would be given an absolute pardo' -*e
*i31i.
said Capitan Emilio set out conditions he wanted to seek from the enemy, like expulsion of the
deputies in the Cortes, and other things, and relayed this to Don Mariano Alvarez, requesting his ass+1
He consulted me, and we did not assent. What the lmus people then did was that Capitan Emili: n':*
in secret to the presidents of the towns under the Magdiwang.
President Don Mariano learned of this, and called a meeting and sounded out everyone's f- - is
There it was resolved to continue the fight against the Spaniards and to reject any type of reconc ,a m
Cir.ir-r:al il THE 1896 PHILIPPINE REVOLUTION

'r,t this meeting it was agreed to establish the Government of the revolution, but the outcome was chaos,
secause everybody discovered the deceit of the Magdalo people, so that meeting lost any significance.
Due to the turmoil here and the defeats, the resolve of people here was broken, and Tirona, Cailles
and Jos6 del Rosario , who were Minister of War, Lieutenant-General, and Director of War, surrendered
:a the Spaniards, and were followed by many leaders and citizens from Tansa; these are all Magdalo
Having witnessed this treachery on the part of Capitan Emilio's soldiers, nearly all (the brethren)
lame to me on their knees asking me to let them get away, and to take them there to our place. But I
rould not consent to this, because I pity the great number of innocent citizens who would face the most
lreadful troubles and slaughter.
The Batangas people are under the authority of the Supreme Council, and recognize our authority.
-he day after tomorrow they will commence attacks on eight towns. For this offensive they requested
'ny assistance, and so I sent them twenty riflemen and twenty bolomen, and the General in command is
3rother Don Artemio Ricarte.
The people of Batangas have already established a Provincial Government. Their general is called
)on Miguel Malvar ,a very intelligent man, and better, perhaps, than the generals we have so far come
:c know here in Tangway.
lf they have the tortune to take the town of Lipa, which is one of the eight towns to be invaded, they
,vrll invite me to base myself there, in order to be able, as they say, to carry the revolution into Camarines.
For this reason I wish to know whether I am more needed there, in which case I shall go there; and if not,
shall direct matters here.

It is essential for us to agree on how the resistance should best be continued and the revolution
extended throughout the Archipelago. I therefore wish to know whether you have gone yet to Bulacan
and Nueva Ecija. lf not, I shall leave the directorate here and we shall go there, because if we do not
make a move, you know that Mamerto Natividad is there, and before long he will be doing in that place
what he did here: slander us.
The arms have not yet arrived up until now, and this is yet another reason that is detaining me here.
Your mother is at Maragondon together with her relative there, and no misfortune whatever has
befallen her.
Receive my affectionate embrace.
The Supreme President,
And . . Bonifacio
Maypagasa.
Source: Translation by Jim Richardson, Katipunan Documents and Studies
The $econd Fhase of the 18SS philipplne Hevolution

and the Reactions to Annerican Intervention
The Declaration of Philippine lndependefiee by Amhroslo
Rianzares Bautista, "!une 12, "t$$8
The "Declaration of Philippine Independence" or the "Act of Proclamation of
Independence by the Filipino People"33 was written by Ambrosio Rianzares Bautista,
a lawyer who served as an adviser to Aguinaldo at that time. It was read by Bautista
before a crowd that took part in the independence ceremony on June 12, 1898 at
Kawit, Cavite. The independence document was signed by 98 individuals that included
a colonel from the American army named L.M. Johnson who represented the United
111
States. Aguinaldo had intended for Admiral George Dewey to attend the ceremony
but the latter declined. On the same day, the Philippine national flag was raised while
the Marcha Nacional Filipina was played by the San Francisco de Malabon band. The
narional banner was sewn by Marcela M. Agoncillo, her daughter Lorenza Agoncillo'
and Jose Rizal's niece, Delfina Herbosa. On the otherhand, the national march was
created by a Caviteno comPoser' Julian Felipe.3a
The historic date of June 12 was set by Aguinaldo through a decree issued on
June 5, 1898. His intentions in doing so were simple-to amass
the loyalry of the
Filipino people and to inspire them to further engage the Spanish forces. However'
Apolinario Mabini, Aguinaldot chief adviser, had a different position. For him, the
presidentt immediate concern should be directed toward organizing the governmenr
so as ro convince foreign countries that the newly-born nation was already capable
for self-government. Evidently, the independence ceremonies pushed through
and Mabini's recommendations were acted upon in June 18, six days later, where
Aguinaldo ordered for the "reorganization of the towns under the authority of the
Filipino government."3s
Primary Source
ln the town of Cavite Viejo36, in this province of Cavite, on the twelfth day of June eighteen hundred an:
ninety-eight, before me, Don Ambrosio Rianzares Bautlsta, Auditor of War and Special Commissione-
appointed to proclaim and solemnize this act by the Dictatorial Government of these Philippine lslands
for the purposes and by virtue of the circular addressed by the Eminent Dictator of the same Don Emilio
Aguinaldo y Famy, the undersigned being assembled, among whom f igure commanders of his army and
the representatives of others who have not been able to attend and notable residents of various towns
of the same, taking into consideration that their inhabitants being already weary of bearing the ominous
yoke of Spanish domination, on account of the arbitrary arrests and harsh treatment practised by the
Civil Guard to the extent of causing death with the connivance and even with the expressed orders of
their commanders, who sometimes went to the extreme of ordering the shooting of prisoners under the
pretext that they were attempting to escape, in violation of the provisions of the Regulations of their
Corps, which abuses were unpunished on account of the uniust deportations, especially those decreed
by General Blanco, of eminent personages and of high social position, at the instigation ol the
Archbishop3, and the friars interested in keeping them out of the way for their own and avaricious
purposes, deportations which were quickly brought about by a method of precedure more execrable
than that of the lnquisition and which every civilized nation rejects on account of a decision being
rendered without a hearing of the persons accused, the people determined to start an insurrectionary
movement in August, eighteen hundred and ninety-six, for the purpose of recovering the independence
and sovereignty of which Spain deprived them through the Adelantado Miguel Lopez de Legazpi, who
continuing the course followed by his predecessor Fernando de Magallanes, who arrived upon the
shores of Cebu and occupied that lsland by virtue of the treaty of friendship which he celebrated with its
King Tupas, although he was killed on the battle which took place on said shores, to which he was
provoked by King Kalipulako3E de Maktan, who was suspicious of his bad intention; he landed on the
lsland of Bohol, entering also into the celebrated blood compact of friendship with its King Sikatuna, for
the purpose, after taking Cebu by force of arms, because the successor of Tupas3e did not permit him to
occupy it, of coming to Manila, the capital, as he did, likewise winning the frlendship of King Solimana0
and Lakandula and afterwards taking possession of it and thus the entire Archipelago for Spain, by
virtue of an order of King Philip ll; that in view of these historical data, because in international law the
' ::-::=
_-
'j
THE 1896 PHILIPPINE BEVOLUTION
:'escription established by the laws legalizing even the fraudulent acquisition of the property of
- Cividuals is not recognized, there can be no doubt as the legality of such a movement as the one that tB
The Aguinaldo house/shrine where
,'. as quieted but not entirely quenched by the pacification proposed by Pedro A. Paterno with Don Emilio
the Philippine lndependence was
:::rnaldo as President of the Republican government established rn Biac-na-bato, and accepted by the proclaimed in '1898. lt rs located at
l:.ernor General, Don Fernando Primo de Bivera, under conditions which were established, some in Camino Real Kawit, Cavite.
--
'g and others verbally, among them a general amnesty for all deported and sentenced; that by Phalo courtesy of Crcspo Azonn
.=scn of nonfulfillment of some of these conditions after the destruction of the Spanish squadron by the
,-11 American force and the bombardment of Cavite, Don Emilio Aguinaldo returned to start a new
.-,: ution, and hardly had he given the word to commence, on the thirty-first of the last month, when
.:. eral towns anticipated movement, and on the twenty-eight between lmus and Cavite Viejo there was
:- :ngagement and captured a Spanish force one hundred and seventy-eight, commanded by a major
-' 'narine infantry. This movement spread like an electric spark through the other towns not only in this
:-:;'ince, but also in Bataan, Pampanga, Batangas, Bulacan, Laguna, and Morong, some of them with
.:aoorts. So complete is the triumph of our arms, truly marvelous and unparalleled in the history of
-: onial revolutions, that in thefirst province there remain to be surrendered onlythe detachments4lof
'.arc and lndang; in the second there are none at all, in the third, resistance by the Spanish forces is
::alized in the town of San Fernando, where the greater part are concentrated, the remainder being in
','acabebe, Sesmoan and Guagua; in the fourth only in the city of Lipa; in the fifth, in the capital and
-alumpit; and in the remaining two, only in their respective capitals. The city of Manila will soon be
:lmpletely besieged by our forces, and also the posts in the provinces of Nueva Ecija, Tarlac,
rangasinan, La Union,, Zambales, and several others in the Visayan islands, where insurrection has
:'oken out in several of their towns, having started in some almost at the moment of completing that
:acif ication, and in others even before that, wherefore the independence of our territory and the recovery
a'our sovereignty are assured. And summoning as a witness of the rectitude of our intentions, the
Supreme Judge of the Universe, and under the protection of the mighty and humane North American
',Jation, we proclaim and solemnly declare, in the name and by the authority of the inhabitants of all these
Philippine lslands, that they are and have the right to be free and independent; that they are released
'rom all obedience to the crown of Spain; that every political ties between the two is and must be
completely severed and annulled; and that, like all free and idependent states, they have complete
authority to make war, conclude peace, establish treaties of commerce, enter into alliances, regulate
commerce, and execu\e other acts and th\ngs \hat \ndependen\ S\a\es have lhe r\ght \o do. Repos\ng
firm conlidence in the protection of Divrne Providence, we mutually pledge for the support of this
declaration, our lives, our fortunes and our most sacred possession, which is our honor. We acknowledge,
approve and confirm, together with the orders that have been issued therefrom, the Dictatorship
established by Don Emilio Aguinaldo, whom we honor as the Supreme Chief of this nation, which this day
commences to have a life of its own, in the belief that he is the instrument selected by God, in spite of
his humble origin, to efiect the redemption of this unfortunate people, as foretold by Doctor Jose Rizal in
the magnif icent verses which he composed when he was preparing to be shot, liberating them from the
yoke of Spanish domination in punishment of the impunity with which their Government allowed to the
commission of abuses by its subordinates; and for the unjust executions of said Rizal and others who
were sacrificed to please the greedy body of friars ln their insatiable desire to seek revenge upon and
exterminate all those who are opposed to their Machiavellian purposes, which tramples upon the penal
code prescribed for these islands; and for the sake of those persons who, though merely suspected,
were convicted by the commanders oi detachments at the instigation ol the iriars without form or
semblances of a trial and without the spiritual consolation afforded by our sacred religion; and likewise
for the execution for the same motives of the eminent native Filipino priests Doctor Jose Burgos, Mariano
113
r-
I
Gomez, and Jacinto Zamora, whose innocent blood was shed through the intrigues of those so-called
religious orders which pretended that a military insurrection had broken out on the night of January
21s142,1872, in the Fort of san Felipe in the town of cavite, accusing said martyrs of starting it, so as to
prevent the execution of the decree-sentence issued by the Council of State in the appeal in administrative
\\t\ga\ion (confenc\oso adm\n\statrvo)\n\erposedby lhe Secu\ar C\ergy agarns\\heRola\ Orders"nhete\n
it was directed that the parishes under them in the jurlsdiction of this Archbishopric should be turned
over to the Hecoletos in exchange for those controlled by the Recoletos in Mindanao, which were
transfered by the Jesuits. These revoked completely, and the return of those parishes was ordered The
papers were filed in the Colonial Department43, to which they were sent some the last months of the
preceding year, for the preparation of the respective Royal Provision. That was what caused the tree of
Liberty to bud in this land of ours, the iniquitous measures employed to suppress it only causlng it tc
grow more and more, until, the last drop having been drained from the cup of our afflictions, the former
insurrection broke out at Caloocan, extended to Santa Mesa, and continued its course to the adioining
places in this province, where the unequalled heroism of its inhabitants met with failure in the battles wit'
General Blanco, and continued to struggle against the great hosts of General Polavieja for the period c'
three months, without any of the war material that we now possess, but commencing with arms peculia'
to the country, such as the bolo, sharpened bamboo, and arrow. Moreover, we confer upon our renownel
Dictator, Don Emilio Aguinaldo, all the powers necessary for the due administration of his Governmen:
including the prerogatives of pardon and amnesty. And tinally, it was unanimously resolved that ti' :
Nation, independent from this day, must use the same flag used heretofore, whose design and colors a"=
described in the accompanying drawing, with design representlng in natural colors the three arr.
referred to. The white triangle represents the distinctive emblem of the famous Katipunan Society, whi:-
by means of its compact of blood urged on the masses of the people to insurrection; the three stars
represent the principal lslands of this Archipelago, Luzon, Mindanao, and Panayaa, in which thls
insurrectionary movement broke out; the sun represents the gigantic strides that have been made by the
sons of this land on the road of progress and civilization, its eight rays symbolizing the eight provinces
GUIDE SUESTIONS of Manila, Cavite, Bulacan, Pampanga, Nueva Ecija, Bataan4s, Laguna and Batangas, which were
. According to the document, declared in a state of war almost as soon as the first insurrectionary movement was initiated; and the
what were the historical colors blue, red and white commemorate those of the flag of the United States of North America, in
circumstances that led to
the emergence o{ national manitestation of our profound gratitude towards that Great Nation for the disinterested protection she is
consciousness? extending to us and will continue to extend to us. And grasping said f lag, I displayed it to the assemblage,
. Based on the proclamation,
and all swore solemnly to recognize it and defend it to the last drop of our blood. ln witness whereof, I
what is the meaning of the

different symbols found on the commit the proceedings in writing in this act, which is signed with me by all those concurring in this act,
Philippine national flag? as well as by the only foreigner a North American subject, Mr. L.M. Johnson, Colonel of Artillery, who
attended the meeting, to all of which I certify.
tl
(Signed) AMBROSIO RIANZARES.
Source: John R. M. Taylor, Philippine Insurgent Becords
The Malstros *enstltutisn

The Malolos Constitution was a product of the convocation of the Malolos Congress on
September 15, 1B9B at the Barasoain Church in Malolos, Bulacan. The congressional
delegates, both elected and appointed individuals, came from different walks of
Iife, particularly "43 lawyes, i8 physicians, five pharmacists, two engineers, seven
businessmen, four agriculturists, three educators, three soldiers, two painters, and one
priest," among others.a6 According to Agoncillo's Malolos: The Crisis of the Republic, the
CHAPTER 8 THE 1896 PHILIPPINE REVOLUTION

* -xber of delegates by July 7, 1898 reached to a total of 193 individuals-42
: :,..red
and 151 appointed by Aguinaldo.aT After the ceremonies of September
---. delegates proceeded to vote for the ofHcers of the Congress. Pedro A. Paterno
,
- ---1osen as President, Benito Legarda as Vice President, Gregorio Araneta as First
:.r:::rr, and Pablo Ocampo as Second Secretary. Two days later, the Congress
-;- .: th€ same basilica and created a Permanent Commission of Justice rogerher
, ..-. :ight committees. One of these eight committees was the Committee to Draft
- . -onstitution.a8
îe power of the Congress to frame and propose a constiturion was
critical matter a
ELB
-.: -\{abini pointed out to Aguinaldo. For him, the decrees issued by the president The Philippine Nationai Flag with
-- -rne 18, 20, and23 did not give Congress the authoriry to do so. Mabini stressed an anthropomorphic sun with
eight rays representing the eight
.: rhe Congress was formed not to draft a charter but to advise the President of provinces placed under martial
- . Revolutionary Government on essential matters.4e More so, the creation of a law by the Spanish in 1896. The
image of the flag below, used in
- .-stitution at that time was untimely given the existing situation where power had 1898-1901, noticeably has the red
:-, be consolidated unto the president.50 Nonetheless, the creation of a constitution strlpe over the blue to denote a time
:roceeded as Mabinit recommendations were met with opposition from the leaders of war.
rf the Congress. The draft of the charter was formed through the leadership of Felipe Pholo courtesy ol Wikimedia Commans
Calderon and its provisions were debated upon by the delegates from September to
November 1898. It was officially promulgated the followingyear, January 21, 1899. ''+,,.;i,tr,,t,"
-i o days later, the First Philippine Republic was inaugurated with Aguinaldo as ;irffi
-tl::-]liti.ii
:. President.5l
The approved Constitution was based on the charters of Belgium, Mexico, U-X
Cuatemala, Costa fuca, Brazll,, and France.52 It was considered as the "first democratic
constitution in Southeast Asid'53 which allowed for the creation of three branches of
government-the executive, the legislative, and the judiciary. The Malolos Constitution
was unique because it officially recognized the freedom and equality of all religious
practice and it separated the church from the state. This amendmenr to Calderon's
draft5a was highly debated in Congress from October to November 1898 because many
cf its delagates wanted to retain Catholicism as state religion. It was only through
Pablo Tecsont vote that the said amendment was passed.55 Another distinct feature
of the Malolos Constitution was the apparent supremacy of the legislation over rhe
other branches. In Calderont view, there was a necessity to keep the executive in check
because it was dominated by military men who were largely ignorant in srare affairs.
According to him:
. . .we were for a long time going to have a really oligarchic republic in which the military elemenr,
which was ignorant in almost its entirery would predominate, I preferred to see that oligarchy
neutralized by the oligarchy of intelligence, seeing that the congress would be composed of the
most intelligent elements of the nation. This is the principal reason why I vested the congress
with such ample powers. . In one word where oligarchies were concerned, I preferred the
oligarchy of the intelligence of many to an ignorant oligarchy.56
The excerpts below are from the Malolos Constitution which show the
extent of infuence of the legislature over the other branches. In addition, these
Passages present the duties and responsibilites bestowed upon the execurive and
the judiciary.
115
member of the Assembly cannot be done without prior authorization from the Assembly or from
the Permanent Commission. However, once the Assembly has been notified about the warrant
of arrest, it shall be held liable if, within the next two days after notification, it does not authorize
imprisonment or manifest the reasons for refusing the same.
-'. cle 47 . The National Assembly shall also have the following powers:
1. Create bylaws for its internal governance;
2. Examine the legality of election and legal aptitude of the elected members;
3. Upon its convocation, appoint its President, Vice President and Secretaries. Provided that
the Assembly is not dissolved, its President, Vice President and Secretaries shall continue
exercising their office for four terms; and
4. Accept the resignation presented by its members and grant leaves of absence in accordance
to the bylaws.
--:cie 48. No bill may be passed into law without being submitted into a vote in the Assembly. The
presence of at least a fourth part of the total number of members whose election has been duly
approved and have been sworn to office is required in order to pass a law.
Article 49. No bill may be approved by the Assembly until after it has been voted upon in its entirety,
and subsequently article by article.
tl
:1icle 53, The off ice of a representative shall be for four years, and those who exercise such off ice shall
have the right to receive as a form of compensation an amount provided for under the law and in
accordance to the circumstances.
Those who fail to attend the entire period of legislation shall not have the right to receive
compensation, bu1 shall regain such right once they attend the sessions thereafter.
tl
qLB
TITLE VII - ON THE EXECUTIVE POWER
Article 56. Executive power resides in the President of the Republic, who shall exercise it through his Drafts for the Constitution-The
Committee to Draft the Constitution
Secretaries.
received two proposed charters-
Article 57, The administration of the particular interests of towns, provinces and the State shall be Paterno's and Mabinr's Calderon
entrusted respectively to town assemblies, provincial assemblies and the incumbent Administration noticed that Paterno's proposal,
backed by many of the delegates
in accordance to the law, and shall be based on the broadest decentralization and autonomy of
in Congress, seemed to have been
adminrstration, strongly based on the Spanish
Constitution of '1868. On the other
hand, Mabin's draft, based on
TITLE VIII - ON THE PRESIDENT OF THE REPUBLIC the General Statutes of Universai
A(icle 58. The President of the Republic shall be elected through an absolute majority of votes by the Masonry, was unpopular in
Congress because majority of its
Assembly and the special representatives convened as a constituent chamber, His appointment
members were Catholic. Hence,
shall be for four years and he will be eligible for re-election. Calderon created his own draft
Article 59, The President of the Republic, as well as the members of the Assembly, shall have the using lhe Pdle.no versio.r as basis
See Malolos: The Crisis of the
initiative of the laws. He shall promulgate the laws once they have been passed and approved by Republic, 240-241 .
the latter, and shall supervise and ensure their execution.

lrticle 60. The power to enforce the law shall extend to any concern related to the preservation of public
order in the country, and to the external security of the State.
Article 61 . The President of the Republic shall promulgate a law within twenty days following the
transmittal of its definitive approval to him by the Assembly.
tl
117
Article 65. The President of the Republic shall have the army and the navy at his disposition, declare war,
and enter into a peace agreement and ratify it, with the prior consent of the Assembly,
Article 66. Peace treaties shall not be def initive unless approved by the Assembly through a vote.
Article 67. Apart from the powers necessary to execute laws, it is the duty of the President of the Republic
qt to:
1. Confer civil and military employment in accordance to the law;
The Malolos Congress gathered 2. Appoint Secretaries of Government;

inside Barasoain Church n Malolos, 3. Direct diplomatic and commercial relations with other powers;
Bulacan.
4. Ensure the swift and complete administration of justice in the entire territory;
Phota caurtesy of W)hmedia Cammans.
5. pardon lawbreakers in accordance to the law, subject to the provisions relating to the
Secretaries of Government;
6. preside over national solemnlties, and welcome accredited envoys and representatives of
foreign powers.
tl
Article 69. The president of the Republic has the power to impose rules for the compliance and
enforcement of the laws subject to the requisites that the same prescribe'
Article 70, The President of the Republic can, with the prior concurrence of the Representatives adopted
through a majority of votes, dissolve the Assembly before the expiration of the term legally prescribed
for its mandate.ln this case, they shall be convened for new elections within three months.
Article 71. The President of the Republic alone shall be held responsible in cases of high treason.
tl
TITLE IX _ ON THE SECRETARIES OF GOVERNMENT
Solicitor General - represents the Article 73, The Council of Government shall be composed of a President and seven Secretaries, whc
government of a country in legal shall be put in charge of the portfollos of: Foreign Relations, interior, Finance, War and the Navy
disputes or issues. The Solicitor
public Instruction, Public Works and Communications, Agriculture, Industries and Commerce.
General also takes the role of legal
advrser of the government he/she Article 74. Anything that the President of the Republic commands or resolves in the exercise of his
represents.
authority shall be signed by the Secretary concerned. No public official shall fulfill any order tha:
lacks such requisite.
Article 75. The Secretaries of Government shall be held jointly responsible by the Assembly for the
general policies of Government, and individually for their personal actions. lt shall be the duty of the
Solicitor General of the Nation to prosecute them, and of the Assembly to judge them.The laws sha
determine the cases wherein the Secretaries of Government are to be responsible, the penalties tc
which they shall be subjected, and the manner on how to proceed against them.
Article 76. In order for the Secretaries to obtain pardon if and when they are convicted by the Assembly
it is necessary that a petition be f irst approved by the Representatives by an absolute majority
TITLE X - ON JUDICIAL POWER

Arlicle 77. The courts have the exclusive power to apply the laws, on behalf of the Nation, in civ
and criminal trials.The same codes of law shall apply to the entire Republic, notwithsianding ths
variations that the law may prescribe in particular circumstances.There shall be but one code c'
laws applicable to all citizens in ordinary, civil and criminal trials,
Article 78. The courts shall not apply general and municipal regulations, except insofar as they are i-
conformity to the laws.
Article 79. The exercise of judicial power resides in a Supreme Court of Justice, and in the tribunals tha:
are to be established bY law.
llr:.P-r::3 I THE 1896 PHILIPPINE REVOLUTION

--.' composition, organization and other attributes shall be determined by the organic laws that GUIDE QUESTIONS
;*:. :e enforced. Why is the Malolos Contitution
- - , . 33. The President of the Supreme Court of Justice and the Solicitor General shall be appointed by
considered a unique and
modern charter for its time?
-= National Assembly with the concurrence of the President of the Republic and the Secretaries of What are the duties and
Gorernmen\, and sha\\hale abso\u\e\ndependenee\\om\he\egrs\a\\re and execu\\\eb\anches, respons\b\\\\es o\ \he \espec\\\e
branches of government?
Article 81. Any citizen can initiate public action against members of the judiciary for misdemeanors that
How does the legislation
they commit in the exercise of their office, control the executive and the
ln Barasoain, on the 20th day of January, elghteen hundred and ninety-nine. ludiciary?
The President of Congress.

PEDRO A, PATERNO.
The Secretaries,
PABLO TECSON.
PABLO OCAMPO
Source: The 1899 Malolos Constitution
Select*d ffissumeffits *ffi ffiemctimers

to Arm*ri*ar* !mterver*tE*m
The newly instituted Philippine Republic immediately encountered hostilities with
the American forces when on the night of February 4, 1899, an untoward incident
occured at the San Juan Bridge between Sta. Mesa and San Juan. Immediately, Captain
Fernando Grey who was temporarily assigned to command the Filipino troops in the
Third Zone of Manila sent this message to Aguinaldo in Malolos: 'At nine sharp tonight,
American camp started hostilities. Our forces answered enemy fire. All in their posts
without fear. Await orders."57 \Mhat happened in the following days ushered the period
of the Philippine-American 'War which lasted up to 1902. The next two documents
were written and issued by Aguinaldo in reaction to the incident of February 4 and the
American assault which transpired in February 5.
President Hmi!io Aguin*ld*'* ffieclaration cf War cn the United

States (fu?*lotos, Bulacen sn Febrtr*ry 4, I8S*)
,{guinaldot declaration of war is short and direct to the point. The text conveys a sense
of urgency in that it immediately addressed the unexpected acts of hostiliry from the
American side. More importantly, the declaration communicated to Filipinos three
important things-first, that peaceful relations with the Americans were, henceforth,
broken; second, that the Americans should be treated as enemies; and third, that
information about the state of war between them andAmericans should be relaved to
rhe different localities and the Congress.
Primary Source
Nine o'clock p.m., this date, lreceived from Caloocan station a message communicated to me that
:he American forces, without prior notification or any just motive, attacked our camp at San Juan
le Monte and our forces garrisoning the block-houses around the outskirts of Manila, causing
:he losses among our soldiers, who in view of this unexpected aggression and of the decided
atlack of the aggressors, were obliged to defend themselves until the firing became general all
along the line.
119
No one can deplore more than I this rupture of friendly relations. I have a clear conscience that
I have endeavored to avoid it at all costs, using all my efforts to preserve friendship with the army of
occupation, even at the cost of not a few humiliations and many sacrificed rights.
But it is my unavoidable duty to maintain the integrity of the national honor and that of the army so
place
unjustly attacked by those who, posing as our friends and liberators, attempted to dominate us in
of the Spaniards, as is shown by the grievances enumerated in my manifesto of January Bth last; such
as the continued outrages and violent exactions committed against the people of Manila, the useless
conferences, and all my frustrated efforts in favor of peace and concord
Summoned by this unexpected provocation, urged by the duties imposed upon me by honor and
patriotism and for the defense of the nation entrusted to me, calling on God as a witness of my good faith
and the uprightness of my intentions, I order and command:
GUIDE &L$ffi$T$#ru l. peace and friendly relations between the Philippine forces and the American forces of
prescribed
. Whal did Aguinaldo instruct occupation are broken, and the latter will be treated as enemies, within the limits
to his forces which broke the by the laws of war,
peaceful ties with the United
2. American soldiers who may be captured by the Philippine forces will be treated as prisoners of war
States?
3. This proclamation shall be communicated to the accredited consuls of Manila, and tc
Congress, in order that it may accord the suspension of the constitutional guaranties and the
resulting declaration of war.
Given at Malolos, FebruarY 4' 1899.
EMILIO AGUINALDO
General-in-Chief
Source: John R. M. Taylor, Philippine lnsurgent Recor3:
Fr*s*demt ffirmiilm Agx*ma$d*'* &ppeal t* t!:e FEEipim*s

t* Fight tE:* &slt*ri*mm lmvader* f*r Free#*m's $ake
{fu4mlmlos, ffiulscan sm Fehru*ry S, lSSS}
The appeal below is a reirerarion of the main points stated in Aguinaldo's declaration
of war. The text emphasizes the fact that amidst Aguinaldo's efforts to avoid an armec
conflict, rhe "measureless pride of the American Government and of its representatives
in these islands" seemed to disregard his attempts towards peaceful communication
Moreover, the document could also be seen as Aguinaldot way of affirming the valo:
and strength of Filipinos at the face of formidable adversaries.
Primary Source
"
To the Filiplno PeoPle:
By my proclamation of yesterday, I have published the outbreak of hostilities between the Philippine for:=
Heneral Luna is a 2015 biopic that
focuses on the life and struggles of and the American forces of occupation in Manila, unjustly and unexpectedly provoked by the latter.
General Antonio Luna as one of the
ln my manifesto of January B last, I published the grievances sufiered by the Philippine forces =
major leaders of the Filipino forces
in the Philippine-American War. The the hands of the army of occupation. The constant outrages and taunts, which have caused the mis--'
ilm was directed by Jerrold Tarog, -e
of the people of Manila, and, finally, the useless conferences and the contempt shown the Philipp
f
p'oouced by Fe.nando O'tigas.

and written by Tarog, HenrY government prove the premeditated transgression of justice and liberty. I know that war has alv':,,:
Franc a, and E.A. Rocha. What is produced great losses; I know that the Philippine people have not yet recovered from past losses a-:
rnteresting is the {ilm's exposition on
patr otrsm, nationalism, and the ills
are not in the condition to endure others. But I also know by experience how bitter is slavery, anc :"
of the Philippine society. experience I know that we should sacrifice all on the altar of our honor and of the national integritr' s:
unjustly attacked.
Ct-^.ii:tl E THE 1896 PHILIPPINE REVOLUTION

lhavetriedtoavoid,asfarasithasbeenpossibleformetodoso,armedcon{lict,inmyendeavors
:]assureourindependencebypacificmeansandtoavoidmorecostlysacrifices'Butallmyeffiorts
-avebeenuselessagainstthemeasurelessprideoftheAmericanGovernmentandofitsrepresentatives
.theseislands,WhohavetreatedmeaSarebelbecauseldefendthesacredinterestofmycountryand
not make myself an instrument of

their dastardly lntentions'
:r GUIDE &UHSTI*F{
PaStcampaignsWillhaveconvincedyouthatthepeoplearestrongWhentheywishtobeso. . How did Aguinaldo encourage
,.Jithoutarmswehavedrivenfromourbelovedcountryourancientmasters,andWithoutarmsWecan his fellow Filipinos to de{end
.:pulsetheforeigninvasionaslongaswewishtodoso.Providencealwayshasmeansinreserveand their natlon against the

intervention o{ the American
crompthelpfortheweakinorderthatiheymaynotbeannihilatedbythestrong;thatjusticemaybe {orces?
lone and humanity Progress' martyrs'

by the generous blood of our
Be not discouraged, our independence has been watered
despised generous sacrif ices'
will strengthen itNature has never
aood which may be shed in the {uture be listened to' that
our vows may
our efforts may not be wasted, that
But remember that in order that
curendsmaybegained,itisindispensablethatweadjustouractionstotherulesoflawandofright, l
passions'
and to conquer our own evil
iearning to triumph over our enemies l
EMILIO AGUINALDO
President of the Philippine Republic
Malolos, FebruarY 5, 1899
Source: John R M Taylor, Philippine lnsurgent Records
Apatinarl* Bllabini's ffieply ta the Pr*clamstimn

oitne First Phitippine SCIrnmiss-is.n
tiu*lui*to, F*lLleva Eeila on April.15- 18*S)
happening' the United States government
While the Phitippitte-Ameritan \Var was
Senttwoimportantcommissionsinorder.o",,.,,thesituationinthePhilippinesand
PreParethecountryforcolonization.ThefirsttobesentwastheschurmanCommission
whicharrivedirr.t.to'""ryonMarch4'1899'AlsoknownastheFirstPhilippine
Commission,itwasnamed,ft.,it,chairmanDr,JacobGouldSchurman(presidentof
CornellUniversiry)andwascomposedoffourothermembers.Initsevaluationofthe
Philippinesituation,thecommissionconcludedthattheFilipinoswerenotprepared
proposed the following to the United
States
for self-government and, consequently'
government with a bicameral
president \william McKinley: l)the creatio.t of " civil
the Americans;
governments in areas pacified by
legislation; 2)the formation of local
3)rheestablishentofacomprehensivesystemofeducation'Publichealth'sanitation' elite by
and 4)cooperation with the Filipino
and maintenance of natural resources;
proposing an autonomous status
for the Philippines'58
During their stay in the Philippines'
iht Stht"-an Commission issued a
people on April 4' .1899.'5e It enumerated
11
proclamation dd"t"d to the Filipino
regulative principles which served ", "
g,rii. for Filipino-American relations' among
thto,rghout the Philippines
them.,the enforcement of the authority of th. United Strt.,
...guaranteeandprotectionofthecivilrightsoftheFilipinos,freedomofreligious
people' but to work
worship, and equal ,,""di"g before the |1w ]' ' "ot to t*pltit the
intentions over the
for their welfare ' ' '"60 Critical of the American
""d "a'"t'ltment sentiments by issuing a reply on
philippines, Mabini took the liberry to voice out his
121
April 15, 1899. The document below is the full text of his reply which scrudnized the
contents of the Schurman Commissiont Proclamation.
Primary Source
rlt BELOVED BROTHERS AND COMPATRIOTS:

tn the Oceania of the sth of April appears the proclamation signed by the American Commission,
Schurman Commission and the of Congress, composed of the following: Messrs: Jacob Gould Schurman, George Dewey, Elwell S. Otis,
American Civil Government- Charles Denby, Dean C. Worcester, and John R. McArthur.6l
one of the most lmportant
recommendations of the
The Commission begins by saying that it was appointed by President McKinley, that the United
commission was the creation of a States might worthily fulfill the high responsibility and obligations which they contracted on accepting
civil government with a bicameral
the sovereignty of the Philippine lslands ceded by Spain by virtue of the Treaty of Paris ratified by the
legislative branch composed of
the Philippine Commission (upper Government of both contracting nations.
house; American-dominated) and It assures that its Government, animated by goodwill and fraternal sentiments, has for its object to
the Philippine Assembly (lower
procure the well-being, prosperity and happiness of the Filipino people, as well as the aggrandizement
house; Filipino politicians who were
popularly elected). This made sure and elevation to an honorable position amongst the more civilized peoples of the world; and as means
that the Americans appeased the
to accomplish these ends, the security of peace and order, the guarantee of civil and religious liberty,
Filipino elite through cooperation in
colonial administration. the establlshment of lustice, the cultivation of letters, sciences and liberal arts, the extension of foreign
relations, the expansion of industrial and mercantile enterprises, the multiplication and improvement of
the means o{ communication in the interior, the development by means of modern mechanical inventions
of the great natural resources of the Archipelago through the medium of the effectivity and constant
assistance of the people.
It adds that to realize these noble ideals which constitute the highest human civilization, they
propose to establish in the Philippines an advance system of government under which the Filipino
people will enjoy the greatest autonomy and the most ample liberty which are in consonance with those
obligations and those ends; for purpose the Commission hopes to be able to visit the people of the
different provinces with the humanitarian aim of listening to the most advanced opinion of the natives,
consult their views and desires, and invite the counsel, cooperation and aid of the Filipino people.
And after setting forth as a conclusion the compatibility of the American sovereignty with the rights
and liberties of the Filipino people, and menacing with the inevitable ruin produced by the armies,
fleets, and all the powerful resources of a nation great and powerful, those who do not respect the
said sovereignty, it terminates by stating for the consideration of the people various bases in the guise
of a programme of the improvements and reforms which its government thinks of introducing into the
political, judicial, and economical regimen of the country, to the extent that they are permitted by the
sovereign rights and international obligations of the United States.
Such is, in synthesis, the address of the American Commission to the Filipino people, which, to
inspire more confidence, has not hesitated to resort to a lie, assuring, with the greatest lack of shame that
my Government, in not understanding the goodwill and fraternal sentiments of their ambitious Presldent,
provoked the war, when all the world is convinced that President McKinley had to declare it to force the
American Senators in opposition to ratify the cession of the Philippines stipulated in the Treaty of Paris.
sacrificing to his ambition the well-being of two people who ought to be united by an eternal friendship
You see well that the North American Government pretends to impose its sovereignty over the
Philippine lslands, invoking a title completely void. This title is in the Treaty of Paris stipulated by the
Hispano-American Commission on the 1Oth of December last, and ratified according to the Commission
which signed the address, by the American Government some weeks past, and by that of Spain on
the 20th day of March, also past. This contract of cession was concerted and consummated when the
Spanish domination had ceased on the Philippines, thanks to the triumphs of our arms. Moreover, in thls
,]896
C!T'IIF 8 THE PHILIPPINE REVOLUTION
people, to whom belongs the
cession no intervention was allowed to the representatives of the Filipino
What a marvel it produces
sovereignty of the islands, according to natural rights and international laws
a people jealous
to contemplate, at the end of a century called that of enlightenment and civilization,
in the course
and proud of their own sovereignty employing all the great means of force accumulated
which they believe
of its free llfe, to tear from a people weak, but worthy of better fortune, the rights
see, before such a scandalous
inherent in themselves by natural and divine law, And how it aff licts one to
io whom Providence confides the lofty
usurpation, the cold and indifferent attitude of the Great Powers
justice
mission and the great means to guard peace and universal
own sovereignty' that is'
But it does not matter; we shall fight until the last breath, to revindicate our
rur independence. lf great and powerful rs the North American nation, mUCh grealer and more powerful
proud. Our interests
s providence, which watches over the unforiunate and punishes and humiliates the
rave suffered so much, that perhaps we shall soon be acquainted with misery; thus, laying down our
and we
arms, we should leave our sons without liberty nor the means of reconstituting our fortunes,
should bequeath them besides all the penalties and sufferings of a fight which they would necessarily
have to confront, if today we do not free them from this labor. lf you wallow in this misery oppressed
beneath the weight of the chains of servitude, there will present to your mind the sorrowful future of our
descendants. Do you not prefer a thousand times death? To this lamentable state of desperation you will
see reduced all those who inconsiderately allow themselves to be led by the fal\acious promises oi the
American Commission.
On the other hand, these promises, well-examined, signify nothing in practice. They are the same
which the political parties are used to give to gain assistance to rise in power, and they do absolutely
nothing once their object is attained. Because it is very easy to promise, when one does not incur either
legal obligation or responsibility for the nonJulfillment of the promise. And furthermore - take good
notice of this the North American Government has not desired, nor does it desire to recognize our
-
independence, because this recognition would bind it to a formal agreement with us, and not to fail nor
depart from the stipulations of such agreement. This I have tried to obtain from the beginning, but the
representatlves of the North American Goverhment have always refused to give an ofiicial character
(or standing) to my government, having recourse at first to evasion and finally to the provocation of
war, They have promised to aid us in the attainment of our liberties, and you have seen how they have
provoked us to war because we do not resign ourselves to lose them (our liberties) by recognizing their
sovereignty.
ELB
It seems that it pleases them more not to have an agreement, so that they may ireat us as they please
after having subjected us to their domination. lt would be more advantageous for them to promise us the The End of Mabini's Cablnet - as
the head of the cablnet, Mablni
greatest advancement in all classes of industry and means of communication, that they might afterwards
had signif icant inf luence over
possess themselves of our properiy, and take under protection all industries with the aid of their great Aguinaldo's government. However,
IVabini's pro-independence stance
capital, and reduce us to the condition of partners, farmers or operatives, if not mere dependents or
made him unpopular amongst the
servants. lt is a clever and ingenious scheme to promise us the most ample autonomy and the greatest i.l'rJenl,a 'nenbe's of the P"i ippine
political liberties, that they might afterwards oppress us at their whim under pretext that the concessions Assembly who wanted autonomy.
Because of this, Mabini resigned
of liberty were prejudicial to their rights of sovereignty and their international obligations. We were equals
from his post and was repLaced bY
of the Spaniards by the laws of Spain, but we could not obtain lustice in anything without resorting to vile Pedro Paterno with a reorganized
cabinet.
interminable artful means nor without passing through an interminable series of humiliations for wherever
we would turn the hatred of race followed us, (this is) much harder, more cruel and implacable amongst
the Anglo-Saxons.
Open your eyes my beloved countrymen, while there is time. Fight without truce or rest, without
vaccilation or dismay, without measuring the time of duration, nor the inimical forces nor the importance
of sacrif ices. Do not expect from others your happiness or well-being, because egotism and self-interest
123
:il
Apolinario Mabini was born on July 23, 1864
in Tanawan, Batanga$. Despite of his poor
background, he managed to undergo formal
STUDY &I* schooling in the Colegio de San Juan de
Letran and the University of Santo Tomas
(UST). ln 1894, Mabini received his law
degree from the Faculty oi Civil Law in the
UST. Unfortunately, he contracted polio which
eventually led to the paraiysis of his legs in
1896. Known as the "Brains o, the Revolution,"
Mabini became Emilio Aguinaldo's chief
adviser. He also held important positions in the
president's government such as Prime Minister
and Secrstary of Foreign Affairs. Because of
his nationalistic sentiments, he was arrested
by the Americans and exiled to Guam in 1901.
Mabini returned to the Philippines in 1903. His
homecoming was short-lived as cholera took
his life in Mav 13 of the same vear.
dominate individuals, cities, and nations, above all when separated by the impassable abyss opened
by race hatred. Even if the Constitution of the United States be declared law in the Philippines, and the
North American Congress grants us all, absolutely all ihe rights and liberties of American citizens and
the autonomy of the states recognized by the said Constitution, which is the greatest good which we
.1st
may expect from annexation, race hatred will curtail these prerogatives above all when Section of the
Article of the said Constitution prohibits each state from imposing duties of importation and exportation
which products are at the disposition of the Treasury of the United States, and from dictating laws ot'
this point without the approbation of the North American Congress. By this section we may not impose
without authorization of the same Congress any tonnage duty, nor have in time of peace troops no'
ships of war, which might retain respect for our liberties and acquired rights. Annexation, whatever be
the form it adopts would unite us perpetually to a nation whose manners and customs are distinct fron
ours, which hates mortally the colored race, and from which we could not separate ourselves except by
means of war.
GUIDE ffiUE$TI#ruS And because war is the last resource which remains to us for the salvation of the Fatherland anc
. How did Mabini repudlate the our national honor, let us fight while there remains to us an atom of strength; let us acquit ourselves as
validity of the Treaty of Paris? gallant men, now that to the present generation is reserved the battle and the sacrifices. lt matters nc:
. What were Mabini's specific
criticisms about the if we die in the midst or at the end of a painful journey; the generations to come, while praying over ou'
proclamation of the First tombs, will grant us tears of love and gratitude, not of bitter reproach.
Philippine Commission?
San lsidro, April 1Sth, 1899.

By authority of the President of the Republic and its Government.
AP MABINI
Source: John R. M. Taylor, Philippine lnsurgent Reco'c:
Ci-iAPi'.ll 8 THE 1896 PHILIPPINE REVOLUTION

Chapter SummarY that intended for the
. The Katipunan, founded at thl night of July 7,18g2,was a society
PhilippinestocompletelySeparatefromSpainthroughradicalorrevolutionarymeans.
AndresBonlfado,the"FatheroltheBevolution,,,envisionedanationthathaditsown
the yoke of colonial abuse
government and its people free from
oDuringtheCourseoftherevolution,theKatipunanenduredinternalissueswhich
eventuallyresultedinfactionalismandthefragmentationoftherevolutionarymovement.
TheTe|erosConventiononMarch22,lsg1dividedtherevolutionariesinCavitebetween
thosewhoSupportedEmilioAguinaldoandBonifacio.Becauseofthisthesupremoand
hisbrotherwerearrestedandexecutedonMayl0,lsgTatMt.TalainMaragondon,
Cavite.
oThedeclarationofindependenceonJunel2,-lsg8,althoughopposedbyApolinario
Mabini,wasoneofthemeansbywhichtherevolutionariesbegantoassertthe
independenceofthecountry.TheholdingoftheMalolosCongressandthedraftingof
theMalolosConstitutionwereconcreteattemptsbytheFilipinosforthelrcapacityfor
self-government'
Assessment
Theassessmentsbelowcanbeassignedtostudentsindividuallyorbygroup:
-l.Discussion.Focusontheconceptofmilitantnationalismanditsinfluencesonthe
ideologicalframeworkoftheKatipunanaSanorganization.Atthattime,WaSthecallfor
revolutionthemostviableoption?HowdidmilitancyshapetheCoUrSeofhistoryduring
the revolution?
2.Report.LookforthetranscriptofthetrialofAndresBonifacio(probablesources/
references:..TranscriptoftheTrialofAndresBonifacio,,'MalacaflanPalacePresidential
Museum&Library,http://malacanang.gov.ph/3330transcript-of-the{rial-of-andres-
Sarmiento' Abraham F' TheTrial
of Andres Bonifacio:The Appeal' Quezon
bonifacio/ and
City:UniversityofthePhilippinesPress'2005).Conductaninvestigationofthedifferent
testimoniesusedforthecourtmartial.Whatwerethefactsusedbythemilitarycourt
toascertainBonifacio,sguiltofcommittingtreasonagainstAguinaldo'sgovernment?
Discuss the findings in class'
Suggested Readings Republlc. Quezon city: University of

the
. Agoncillo, Teodoro A. Malolos: ile crisis of the
PhiliPPines Press, 1960' u?1,,

.=uii r Eaaiaeta.;@;;lheKarrr.ur]J,!
E
*ffi
UINIT THffiilH
The auest
for Sovereignty
aving declared the Philippine independence on June 12, 1898, Filipinos

rallied to protect this independence. Unfortunately, the Americans reneged on
their promise to recognize Philippine independence and instead annexed the
Philippines as a colony.
This unit covers the Philippines as an American colony. It opens with a text of the
Tleary of Paris wherein Spain cedes the Philippines to the United States in exchange of
$20 million. Together with this treaty is the document signed by United States President
\Tilliam McKinley known as the Benevolent Assimilation Proclamation officially
announcing the acquisition of the Philippines as a colony by the United States.
The efforts of the US in suppressing Filipino nationalism are included in this unit
and are shown through excerprs of the Sedition Law of 1901, Brigandage Law of 1902,
and the Flag Law of1907.
Included in this unit are the three-year Japanese Occupation which took place from
1942-1945 as well as the declaration of Philippine independence in 1946.
127
Opposite page. The Battle of Manila is the first and largest battle
of the Philippine-American War. Tensions between the Philippines
and the US began to rise when the US refused to leave the country
and expressed its desire to take over it. The battle began on the
evening of February 4, 1899, when two US sentries fired shots at a
group of Filipinos crossing the San Juan del Monte bridge, causing
both sides to exchange fire. The next day, February 5, 1Bgg,
US General Arthur MacArthur gave the order to attack Filipino
trenches. The picture on the opposite page shows fallen Filipino
insurgents in a trench near Sta. Ana, Manila.
Phota caurtesy of Wikimedia Commong
THAPTIR IX
American Occupation
of the Philippines
he United States, compared to European powers such as Spain, Great Britain, and
France, was a relative late-comer to the colonial enterprise. The Philippines, rhen
a long-time Spanish colony in Southeast Asia, was acquired by the Americans
only in the final years of the nineteenth century. Some suggest that the colony fell under
American control simply as an unavoidable consequence of the Spanish-American'War.
Yet, others also contend that the US waged war against Spain to acquire the Philippines,
citing economic interests, the desire to further develop their military capabilities, and
the long-standing belief in "manifest destiny''and "the white man's burden."'S7'hatever
the case may be, one thing remains 11ug-1hs Philippines was annexed by the US as a
colony.
\X/hile the US had been present in the Philippines as early as the 1820s, thanks to
the gradual opening of the colony to foreign traders (the Americans imported sugar
and abaca from the Philippines), the narrative about the American occupation of the
*---lH-----**--- **:*ti-.-
FEB 1*, 1898 MAY 1, rS$8 JUN '!2, 189S JUN 1$, t8$8 ALJff 13,1898 OHC 21,18SB JAN E3.1SgS
Sinking of USS Maine Baftle of Manila Bay Declaration Establishment of l\4ock Battle of Manila Release of Benevolent lnauguration of the
of Philippine the Anti-lmperialist Assimilation Malolos Republic
independence League Proclamation
chipelago can be traced to the Spanish-American'War. To protect its citizens and
nnomic interests in Cuba, the United States sent its naval forces to the said colony
L the Caribbean which was then struggling to gain independence from the Spanish
mpire. On February 15, 1898, however, the US battle ship Maine suddenly exploded
orn rhe inside and sunk while docked at the Havana Harbor. This incident resulted
ot only in the death of more than two hundred individuals but also in the increased
rd-spanish sentiments in the States. Though an official declaration of war was not
rued by the United States undl April25, 1898, strong public opinions against the
mnish had been extensively apparent, which even retained the rallying cry "Remember
Le Maine, to hell with Spain!"
Meanwhile in the Philippines, in December of the previous year, the Pact of Biak-na-
rto had been agreed upon by the Filipino revolutionary forces led by Emilio Aguinaldo
rd by the Spanish colonial government under Governor-ge neral Fernando Primo de
:3 :3se FEB 4, l8S* FgB S, lSSS FEE'iS" 1SS$ SEe 2. 1E$S &{&ffi ?S, IS*"l ApH tS. 1$S'l
r:=::1 of Kiplings SanJuanBridge Ratificationofthe Releaseof BattleofTiradPass Aguinaldosarrestin Aguinaldo'sofficial
'': ',,:- s Burden lncident Treaty of Paris Anti-lmperiallst Palanan surrender
League s Address
129
FOCUS QUESTIONS Rivera. This pact, negotiated through the assistance of Pedro Paterno, created a truce
-- How did the United States conquer and obliged Aguinaldo and his high-ranking officials to go on exile to Hong Kong. A
and colonize the Philippines? disagreement between Aguinaldo and a fellow revolutionary named Isabelo Artacho,
Specifically, what were the
justifications used by the Americans forced Aguinaldo to escape incognito to Singapore via Saigon. \Vhile in Singapore,
in annexing the Philippines? Aguinaldo was summoned by the US consul general, Edward Spencer Pratt on April 23,
1898, few days before the formal start of the Spanish-American \trar. Arguing that the
LEARNING United States and the Philippines were fighting a common adversary, Pratt persuaded
GEJECTIVES the Filipino leader to forge an alliance with the Americans who, in return, shall support
By the end of this chapter, students the colonyb campaign for independence. Rounsevelle \7ildman, the US consul general
should be able to: in Hong Kong also made a similar pronouncement. These alleged promises disseminated
. identify and explain the major
motivations which led the specifically byAguinaldo himself, unfortunately, were later denied byAmerican officials.
Americans to colonize the It was Commodore George Dewey of the US Asiatic Squadron, a fleet of the
Philippines;
. United States Navy assigned in Hong Kong, who was tasked to launch an attack against
ascertain the significance of 'V7ith
the Benevolent Assimilation the Spanish squadron in Manila. This assault was a successful one. the looming
Proclamation;
Spanish defeat in the islands, Aguinaldo resumed the struggle against the colonizers,
. trace the events leading to the
Philippine annexation, including and declared independence onJune 12,lB9B. The Filipinos failed to realize that the
the Philippine-American War; American and Spanish officials in the colony were secredy forging an agreement. \7ith
and
. the help of a Belgian consul named Edouard Andre, a settlement was reached between
analyze the different
standpoints regarding the the two parties. This agreement obliged the Spanish in Manila headed by Governor-
American occupation of the
General Basilio Augustin to surrender to the forces of Dewey and not to the Filipinos.
Philippines.
This shall take place after staging a mock battle between the Spanish and the Americans
STUDY AID
.:l
:rli:,, : rii,..ljl
i:" i,-r,|:
+II
This photograph shows the USS Malne entering the harbor of the Havana, Cuba,in January ,
' 1898, few weeks before its infamous destruction. This US battleship, simrlar to its sister USS
Teias, was ordered by, the US governrnenl in 1 886 as a response to the growing naval forces
of other American countries such as Brazil and Chile,
CI.JAPIIFi'J AMEHICAN OCCUPATION OF THE PHILIPPINES

STUDY &fiffi
::'n on May 26, 1859 in the
--.,,n of Taal in Batangas,
:: ipe Agoncillo was a FiliPino
.,', yer and revolutionary
::.ointed by Emilio Aguinaldo
- -B9B as a diplomat to
-: United States. He was
'is(ed to ensure US President
,, ,iarn McKinley's aoproval
-' Pn:lippine independence
'."ich was declared previously
- uune. After failing to do so.
-: attempled to communicate
r. pino sentimen[s to the
-rer,can delegaies to tf'e
-'eaty of Paris ano then tried
-: oersuade members of the
-S Senate not to ratify the
.a d rreaty. He. nevertheless.
J/as unsuccessful in these
endeavors,
c':--rein Filipinos will not be involved. This fabricated encounter now known as the
tB
l.lrck Battle of Manila, which took place on August 13, 1898, however, was absolutely Cuba, an archipelago in the
"::lecessary as a Protocol of Peace had already been signed in \Washington a day earlier. Caribbean, was similar to the
Philippines insofar as it was one of
,:is protocol forced the belligerent parties into a truce and instructed them to create a the few remaining possessions of
the Spanish Empire toward the end
would officially end the war. Regrettably, the Filipinos were never included
=-a$' that of the nineteenth century. Before the
-:: the negotiarion for peace which ultimately resulted in the Tieary of Paris of 1898. advent of European colonization,
In this particular chapter, with the use of primary sources, students will be dealing it was inhabited by a number of
indigenous groups like the Taino,
leading to the official start of theAmerican occupation of the Philippines,
r..-rth the evenrs
Guanahatabey, and Ciboney
starting with the signing of the Theaty of Paris and ending with the Philippine-American people. lt was officially declared
as a colony in 1511 when Diego
\\1r. Likewise, this chapter explores the different motivations which fueled American
Velasquez Cu6llar completed the
rspansionism as well as the varying opinions of different groups regarding the annexation conquest of town of Baracoa.
of the Philippines to the United States as a colony.
Ti=* Yrem€y *f FmrEs *f t ffiS#

To fulfill the provisions set by the Protocol of Peace, signed on August 12, 7898 by
\\riiliam R. Q"y,the Secretary of State of the United States, and by His ExcellencyJules
\{. Cambon, Ambassador Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary of the Republic of France
at \Tashington who was acting on behalf of the Spanish government, the parties at war
agreed ro convene in Paris to negotiate a treary that would officially end the hostilities
of the Spanish-American \Var. Five commissioners from each country were tasked
to accomplish this. From the United States were Day, senators Cushman K. Davis,
W.illiam P. Frye, George Gray, and a diplomat,'il/hitelaw Reid. The Spanish delegation,
on the other hand, was composed of the envoys Eugenio Montero Rios, Buenaventura
.\barzuza,Jose de Garnica, \Tenceslao Ramirez de Villa lJrrutia, and Rafael Cerero.
131
Meetings were held between October and December 1898, with the resuldng
agreement, now known as the Tieaty of Paris, being finalized on December 10. After
debates among its statesmen regarding the prospects of the United States becoming
an imperial power, the senate ratified the Tieaty on February 5, 7899, wo days after
the infamous San Juan Bridge incident, with Spain following suit on March 19, 1899.
Documenrs of ratification were exchanged at'W'ashington on April 11, 1899, therebl'
entering the teaty into force on the same day.
\X/hile Felipe Agoncillo, representative of the Aguinaldo government, wanted to
George Dewey, born in 1837 in the participate in the drafting of the ueary he was denied to do so on the grounds that
state of Vermont, was a member oI
the Philippines, although already declared independent by Filipino revolutionaries,
the US Navy. During his term as a
commodore, he had been tasked during the time was considered a Spanish possession. As a result, Filipino public
to launch the attack against Manila opinion and sentiment regarding their own future were never considered by the
in 1898 as part of US offensive
attending commissioners. The finalized version of the treary through Articles I, II, and
against Spain. In recognition of
the triumph of Dewey in the Battle III ultimately obliged Spain to relinquish its claims on its colonial territories such as
of Manila Bay, he was promoted Cuba, Puerto fuco, and the Philippines in exchange of $20 million from the United
to Admiral, the highest possible
military rank ln the US Navy. Until States. Likewise, the teaty of Paris determined the fate of Spanish residents living in
this day, he remains the only person these colonies as stated in Articles IX, XI, XIII, to name a few. However and more
to be awarded such rank.
importantly, it also gave a glimpse of the possible future for the Filipinos amidst the
already complicated situations in the Philippines. Below is an excerpt from the Tleaty of
Paris of 1898, particularly Articles I, II, III, iX, X and XWI which are most pertinenr
to the Filipinos.
Primary Source
The United States of America and Her Maiesty the Queen Regent of Spain, in the name of her august
son Don Alfonso Xlll, desiring to end the state of war now existing between the two countries, have for
that purpose appointed as plenipotentiaries:
The President of the United States, William B. Day, Cushman K. Davis, William P Frye, George Gray,
and Whitelaw Reid, citizens of the United States;
And Her Majesty the Queen Regent of Spain,
Don Eugenio Montero Rios, president of the senate, Don Buenaventura de Abarzuza, senator of
the Kingdom and ex-minister of the Crown; Don Jose de Garnica, deputy of the Cortes and associate
justice of the supreme court; Don Wenceslao Ramirez de Villa-Urrutia, envoy extraordinary and minister
plenipotentiary at Brussels, and Don Rafael Cerero, general of division;
Who, having assembled in Paris, and having exchanged their full powers, which were found
to be in due and proper form, have, after discussion of the matters before them, agreed upon the
following articles:
Article I
Spain relinquishes all claim of sovereignty over and title to Cuba. And as the island is, upon its evacuation
by Spain, to be occupied by the United States, the United States will, so long as such occupation shal
last, assume and discharge the obligations that may under international law result from the fact of its
occupation, for the protection of life and property.
Article ll
Spain cedes to the United States the island of Porto Rico and other islands now under Spanish
sovereignty in the West lndies, and the island of Guam in the Marianas or Ladrones.
(-]|:API IB iJ AIV]ERICAN OCCUPATION OF THE PHILIPPINES

Article lll
3carn cedes to the United States the archipelago known as the Philippine lslands, and comprehending
.ê islands lying within the following line:
A line running from west to east along or near the twentieth parallel of north latitude, and through
.ê middle of the navigable channel of Bachi, from the one hundred and eighteenth (11Bth) to the one
^Jndred and twenty-seventh (1271h) degree meridian of longitude east of Greenwich, thence along the
:re hundred and twenty seventh (127th) degree meridian of longitude east of Greenwich to the parallel
:'four degrees and forty five minutes (4' 45 ) north latitude, thence along the parallel of four degrees
ard forty f ive minutes (4' 45') north latitude to its intersection with the meridian of longitude one hundred
:rd nineteen degrees and thirty five minutes (119" 35') east of Greenwich, thence along the meridian of
:rgitude one hundred and nineteen degrees and thirty five minutes (119" 35') east of Greenwich to the
:arallel of latitude seven degrees and forty minutes (7' 40') north, thence along the parallel of latitude
:' seven degrees and forty minutes (7'40') north to its intersection with the one hundred and sixteenth
'16th) degree meridian of longitude east of Greenwich, thence by a direct line to the intersection of
:'.re tenth (1Oth) degree parallel of north latitude with the one hundred and eighteenth (11Bth) degree
reridian of longitude east of Greenwich, and thence along the one hundred and eighteenth (l1Bth)
:egree meridian of longitude east of Greenwich to the point of beginning. The United States will pay
.c Spain the sum of twenty million dollars ($20,000,000) within three months after the exchange of the
'atifications of the present treaty,
t.l
Article lX
Spanish subjects, natives of the Peninsula, residing in the territory over which Spain by the present GUIDE GUtr$Ti*ru$
:reaty relinquishes or cedes her sovereignty, may remain in such territory or may remove therefrom, . According to the Treaty of
'etaining in either event all their rights of property, including the right to sell or dispose of such Paris, what would happen to
the remarning colonies of the
property or of its proceeds; and they shall also have the right to carry on their industry, commerce
Spanish empire (Plîlippines.
and professions, being subject in respect thereof to such laws as are applicable to other foreigners. Cuba, and Puerto Rico)?
ln case they remain in the territory they may preserve their allegiance to the Crown of Spain by . Were the provisions of
the treaty pertinent to the
rnaking, before a court of record, within a year from the date of the exchange of ratifications of this Philippines aligned to what
!
ireaty, a declaration of their decision to preserve such allegiance; rn default of which declaration they had been previously promised
shall be held to have renounced it and to have adopted the nationality of the territory in which they
to Aguinaldo b,y the American
officials he met in Singapore
I
may reside. and Hong Kong?
The civil rights and political status of the native inhabitants of the territories hereby ceded to the
United States shall be determined by the Congress.
Article X
The inhabitants of the territories over which Spain relinquishes or cedes her sovereignty shall be secured
in the free exercise of their religion.
Article XI
Spaniards residing in the territories whose sovereignty Spain cedes or renounces shall be subject in civil
and criminal matters to the tribunals of the country in which they reside, conformably with the common
laws which regulate their competence, being enabled to appear before them in the same manner and to
employ the same proceedings as the citizens of the country to which the tribunal belongs must observe.
133
Article Xll
Judicial proceedings pending on the interchange of the ratifications of this treaty in the territories over
which Spain renounces or cedes sovereignty shall be determined conformably with the following rules:
First, sentences pronounced in civil cases between individuals or in criminal cases before the above-
mentioned date, and against which there is no appeal or annulment conformably with the Spanish law,
shall be considered as lasting, and shall be executed in due form by competent authority in the territory
within which said sentences should be carried out. second, civil actions between individuals which on
the afore-mentioned date have not been decided, shall continue their course before the tribunal in which
the lawsuit is proceeding or before that which shall replace it. Third, criminal actions pending on the
afore-mentioned date before the supreme tribunal of Spain against citizens of territory which, according
to this treaty, will cease to be Spanish, shall continue under its lurisdiction until definite sentence is
pronounced, but once sentence is decreed its execution shall be intrusted to competent authority of the
place where the action arose.
Afiicle Xlll
Literary, artistic and industrial rights of property acquired by Spaniards in Cuba, Puerto Rico, the
philippines and other territories ceded on the interchange of ratifications of this treaty shall continue to
be respected. Spanish scientific, literary and artistic works which shall not be dangerous to
public order
in said territories shall continue entering therein with freedom from all customs duties for a
period of ten
years dating from the interchange of the ratifications of this treaty [' ' ]
Article XV
The Government of either country shall concede for a term of ten years to the merchant ships of the
other the same treatment as regards all port dues, including those of entry and departure, lighthouse and
tonnage dues, as it concedes to its own merchant ships not employed in the coasting trade. This article
may be repudiated at any time by either Government giving previous notice thereof six months beforehand.
Article XVll
The present treaty shall be ratified by the President of the United States, by and with the advice and
consent of the Senate thereof, and by Her Majesty the Queen Regent of Spain; and the ratif ications shall
be exchanged at Washington within six months from the date hereof , or earlier if possible
ln faith, whereof, we, the respective Plenipotentiaries, have signed this treaty and have hereunto
affixed our seals.
Done in duplicate at Paris, the tenth day of December, in the year of Our Lord one thousand eight
hundred and ninetY-eight,
fSeal] William R. DaY
[Seal] Cushman K. Davis
fSeal] William P FrYe
[Seal] Geo. GraY
[Seal] Whitelaw Reid
fSeal] Eugenio Montero Rios
fSeal] B. de Abarzuza
[Seal] J. de Garnica
lSeal] W, H. de Villa Urrutia
[Seal] Rafael Cerero
Source: Treatv of Peace (Treaty of Paris)
Ci-{iiPTEfi I AMERICAN OCCUPATION OF THE PHILIPPINES

The Benevolent Assimilati*n Frsclammti*n
Though the Tieaty was ratified by the US Senate on February 6, lSgg,President \William
McKinley had already clarified as early as December of the previous year his opinion
regarding the possibility of annexing the Philippines. The Ohio-native statesman issued
a proclamation now known as the Benevolent Assimilation Proclamation
which is one
of the earliest official indications of the American policy regarding the Philippines. It
openly acknowledged the intentions of the US to stay in the Philippines and ro exercise
the rights of sovereignry over its inhabitants.
The making of the decision, according to McKinley, in an account given in 1903 to
a delegation of Methodist dignitaries, was not an easy task. He said:
\X{hen next I realized that the Philippines had dropped inro our laps I confess I did not know
rvhat to do with them. I sought counsel from all sides-Democrats as well as Republicans-but
got little help.' He then exclaimed, 'One night late ir came to me this way-I don't know how
it Benevolence is defined as the
B'as,but it came: (1) That we could not give them back to Spain-that would be cowardly and "disposition to do good" or the
dishonorable; (2) that we could nor turn them over to France or Germany-our commercial "desire to do good to others."
rivals in the Orient-that would be bad business and discreditable; (3) that we could not leave
rlem to themselves- they were unfit for self-government-and they would soon have anarchy
and misrule over there worse than Spain's was; and (4) that there was nothing left for
us ro do but
to take them all, and to educate the Filipinos, and uplift and civilize and Christianize
them, and
bv God's grace do the very best we could by them, as our fellow-men for whom Christ
also died.
-{nd then I went to bed, and went to sleep, and slept soundly, and the next morning I sent for the
chief engineer of the War Department (our mapmaker), and I told him to put the philippines
on
rhe map of the United States [pointing to a large map on the wall of his office],
and there they
are , and there they will stay while I am president!,l
\7ith in mind, McKinley ultimately issued a proclamation on

these realizations
December 21, 1899 known as the Benevolent Assimilation Proclamation. Aguinaldo
j
would later issue a counter-proclamation that vehemendy opposed the prospect of
annexation. Below is the proclamarion of McKinley.
Primary Source
Executive Mansion, Washington
21 December 1898
The destruction of the Spanish fleet in the harbor of Manila by the United States naval squadron
commanded by Rear-Admiral Dewey, followed by the reduction of the city and the surrender of the
Spanish forces, practically effected the conquest of the Philippine Islands and the suspension of the
Spanish sovereignty therein. With the signature of the treaty of peace between the United States and
Spain by their respective plenipotentiaries at Paris on the lOth instant, and as a result of the victories
of American arms, the future control, disposition, and government of the Philippine lslands are ceded
to the United States. ln the fulfillment of the rights of sovereignty thus acquired and the responsible
obligations of government thus assumed, the actual occupation and administration of the entire group
oi the Philippine lslands becomes immediately necessary, and the military government heretofore
possible
maintained by the United States in the city, harbor, and bay of Manila is to be extended with all
dispatch to the whole of the ceded territory.
135
ln performing this duty, the military commander of the united
states is enjoined to make known to
the inhabitants of the Philippine lslands that in succeeding
to the sovereignty of spain, in severing the
former political relations, and in establishing a new political power,
the authority of the Unjted states
is to be exerted for the securing of the persons and property
of the people of the islands and for the
confirmation of all their private rights and relations. lt will be the
duty of the commander of the forces
of occupation to announce and proclaim in the most public manner
that we come, not as invaders or
conquerors, but as friends, to protect the natives in their homes,
in their employments, and in their
personal and religious rights. AII persons who, either by active
aid or by honest submission, co-operate
with the Government of the United States to give effect to these beneficent purposes
will receive the
reward of its support and protection. All others will be brought within
the lawful rule we have assumed.
with firmness if need be, but without severity, so far as possible.
Within the absolute domain of military
authority, which necessarily is and must remain supreme in the ceded
territoiy until the legislation of the
unlted States shall otherwise provide, the municipal laws of the territory
in respect to private rights and
property and the repression of crime are to be considered
as continuing in force, and to be administereo
by the ordinary tribunals, so far as practicable. The operations of
civil and munlcipal government are
GUIDE ffiUHSTI*ru$ to be performed by such officers as may accept the supremacy of
the United States by taking the oath
. According to President of allegiance, or by officers chosen, as far as practicable, from
the inhabitants of the islands. while the
McKinley, how did he arrive
control of all the public property and the revenues of the state passes
at th6 decision of annexing with the cession, and while the
the Philippines to the United use and management of all public means of transportation are
necessarily reserved to the authority o*
Slates?
the united states, private property, whether belonging to indrviduals
. How does the Benevolent or corporatrons, is to be respected
Assimilation Proclamation of except for cause duly established. The taxes and duties heretofore payable
by the inhabitants to the late
President McKinley made government become payable to the authorities of the United
States unless it be seen fit to substitute for
explicit US intentions in the
them other reasonable rates or modes of contribution to the expenses
Philippines? of government, whether general
, Why is the document tifled or local. If private property be taken for military use, it shall be paid
for when possible in cash, at afai
"Benevolent Assimllation?,,
valuation, and when payment in cash is not practrcable, receipts
) What were the words in the are to be given. All ports and places
document that touch the in the Philippine lslands in the actual possession of the land and
naval forces of the united states
consequences of opposing US will be opened to the commerce of all friendly nations. All goods
and wares not prohibited for military
annexation of the philippines?
reasons by due announcement of the military authority will be
admitted upon payment of such duties
and other charges as shall be in force at the time of their importation.
Finally, it should be the earnest
wish and paramount aim of the military administration to win
the confidence, respect, and affection of
the inhabitants of the Philippines by assuring them in every possible
way that full measure of individual
rights and liberties which is the heritage of free peoples,
and by proving to them that the mission of
the United states is one of Benevolent Assimilation, substituting
the mild sway of justice and right for
arbitrary rule ln the fulf illment of this high mission, supporting
the temperate administration of affairs for
the greatest good of the governed, there must be sedulously maintained
the strong arm of authority, to
repress disturbance and to overcome all obstacles to the
bestowal of the blessings of good and stable
government upon the people of the Philippine lslands under
the free flag of the United States.
So u rc e : rhe B e n e vo t e n t A s s i :i:i:i:::
my
":,
Address 4{oplqq by rhe Anri-tmperialist League,

February 10, iggg
\rhile it has been aPparent that American expansionism was motivated
by different
factors and was justified through various means, nor everyone
agreed with the decision
of President McKinley. Though the move had gathered ..ror,no,r, suppoft
from other
politicians and prominent individuals such as Kipling, dissenting opinions
nevertheless
Ci]APTi:iJi 9 AMERICAN OCCUPATION OF THE PHILIPPINES

In June 15, 1898, the American Anti-Imperialist League was established to
r*-:--:ced.
,,::ose American annexation of the Philippines. One of the strongest argument of the
@
:,:-r-iduals forming the organization was the claim that colonizing the Philippines is One of the prominent members
: ---rnount to the Americans abandoning their own ideals such as self-government and of the Anti-lmperialist League
was its f irst president, George
c-:-Ceterminism, as well as the nonintervention. Some of the prominent members of Boutwell. Born in 1818, Boutwell
* ; group included the former president Stephen Grover Cleveland, former senators assumed different key positions
in the government. He served
=:rge Boutwell from Massachusetts and John Carlisle from Kentucky, activists as Secretary of the Treasury
;:: Addams and Edward Atkinson, writer Mark Twain, and the steel magnate and under President Ulysses Grant,
: - anthropist Andrew Carnegie. as governor of the state of
Massachusetts, and as its
On February 10, 1899, the League agreed to issue petition and disseminated it in representative and senator in
.'jers. The content ofthe address. the US Congress. Aside trom his
anti-imperialist stand, he was known
as a prominent abolitionist.
:-'nary Source
10 February 1899
*-; ';ll ratification of the Treaty with Spain will cause a technical change in the relations of the
--:-r States to the Philippine lslands, but will afford no reason for any change of the purposes of
*s :nti-lmperialists in regard to the future of the islands, nor will it in the least affect the clear duty of
- = iepublic.
/Ve are now engaged in warfare with the inhabitants of those islands. lt is unprofitable to discuss the
:-:s:ron as to which party began hostilities. No other result could have been expected, when the lines
:- a c opposing military forces were held so close and in such tense condition that little was needed to
-:-se an explosion.
Certain facts, however, are beyond dispute: that Aguinaldo was brought to the islands by our own
,.'snLp that his aid was accepted and desired in our military operations against the Spaniards, and that
--:es of independence were encouraged by our consuls and other officers. lt is equally indisputable
*=: a parliament of the islands, organized by representatives elected by 186 towns and provinces,
--:se Aguinaldo President and framed a constitution, which was promulgated, defining the powers and
.-:es of the separate departments of the government with remarkable clearness and ability; that the
l:,ernment so formed beyond a doubt represented fairly the people of the islands and probably with
: - .e as much fairness as the Continental Congress in Philadelphia , in 1775, represented the people of
*. ihirteen States.
It is also undeniable that on January 5 President McKinley issued a proclamation through
l:neral Otis, declaring that on the 1Oth of the previous month the Philippine lslands had been ceded
'- ihis country by Spain by the signature of the Treaty of Paris, and further ordered him to extend
: military government of the United States 'to the whole of the ceded territory,' and to demand
-e surrender of lloilo, which was then held by the Filipinos in an orderly manner by capture from
,h : - -- -,r^
- . :: - t-+i in law that this assumption of power was warranted in advance of the ratif ication
,r!
t;1 - , l li- parties, and there can he no doubt that the arbitrary claim greatly aggravated the
- -; s ands, whose hope of independence seemed thus rudely destroyed.
::- 1'2:.aty resolution as to the future of the islands was assented to by the Administration
'- :-- :ation of the Treaty by the Senate, and none has been made since.
' .
-' :-at we assert to ownership of the Philippines must rest,
therefore, either upon conquest
i" :-:se from their spanish oppressors, or upon both, and in any case it is, as we believe,
- :he principles of this Republic, and fraught with danger to its peace and to the peace
137
GUIDE *UffiSTI*TSS The first result we already witness, a war of subjugation, which must embitter the people we seek
. What was the Anti-lmperialist to rule, and which, however successful, must bring disaster and death to our soldiers, and unmeasured
League and who were its
cost to our people.
members? What was the goal
of this group? Profoundly impressed with the seriousness of the situation, it is the purpose of the Anti-lmperialists
o Were their ideas aligned with to continue the circulation of literature, to assist in the formation of leagues, and by public meetings,
those o{ President McKinley?
What were the principles and
and every proper means known to a free people, to agitate for the revival in the land of the spirit of
beliefs they upheld when Washington and Lincoln, to protest against a spirit of militarism and force, to oppose the colonial idea
confronted by the annexation
and a permanently large standing army, and to assert the vital truths of the Declaration of lndependence
issue?
embodied in the Constitution and indissolubly connected with the welfare of this Republic.
They urge, therefore, all lovers of freedom, without regard to party associations, to cooperate with
them to the following ends:
First. That our government shall take immediate steps towards a suspension of hostilities in the
Philippines and a conference with the Philippine leaders, with a view to preventing further bloodshed
upon the basis of a recognition of their freedom and independence as soon as proper guarantees can
be hail of order and protection to property.
Second. That the Congress of the United States shall tender an off icial assurance to the inhabitants
of the Philippine lslands that they will encourage and assist in the organization of such a government
in the islands as the people thereof shall prefer, and that upon its organization in stable manner the
United States, in accordance with its traditional and prescriptive policy in such cases, will recognize the
independence of the Philippines and its equality among nations, and gradually withdraw all military and
naval forces.
Source: /ddress of the Anti-lmperialist League
5E *xmt*'mt!*ffi s ffispE*€& ng
E
qLB "Yfr* Wf*gEte ffimm's ffiur#*m"

The statements given by President McKinley in different insrances prove one point-
The Judge was a weekly satirical the decision of the United States to colonize the Philippines had been motivated by
magazine first published in
different factors. One of these, as presented in the previous source discussed, was the
the United States in the late
nineteenth century. Aligned with desire to improve the lives of the Filipinos and, more importantly, to civilize them.
the Republican Party, contributors It is apparent that \Testerners like the Americans believed that they had a moral
of the Judge campaigned for
William McKinley, mainly through
obligation to bring humaniry especially non-\tresterners and non-whites ro the
editorial cartoons, in the 1896 US path of civilization. This kind of aspiration has been imbedded in the mentaliry of
Presidential elections. They likewise
different'Western groups since time immemorial. For instance, the Spanish friars who
supported McKinley's decision
to colonize the Philippines. The spearheaded the conversion process in the Philippines had remarked in their writings
magazine's popularity declined that without the help of the Spanish, the ways and practices of the Filipinos, including
after the Great Depression and it
eventually ceased its operalions
their religion, would have remained barbaric or uncivilized. \Vhile this conviction
tn 1947. may appear on the surface as a product of \Testern philanthropism, generosiry and
altruism, it should be remembered that one of the fundamental principles on which
this mentaliry stands upon is the idea that non-whites do nor possess the capaciry to
civilize themselves on their own, thus necessitating the help of others. And with the
impending annexation of the Philippines by the US, this attitude toward non-'S7'esterners
including the Filipinos finally assumed a name. It has since been known as the "white
mant burden."
The term 'white mant burden" comes from the poem titled "The \7hite Mant
Burden: The United States and the Philippine Islands," writren by Rudyard Kipling, an
English journalist and writer. This piece, published in different periodicals starting in
J:!:J 9 AMERICAN OCCUPATION OF THE PHILIPPINES

i:t:'.rry 1899, urges its readers to take on the colonial enterprise and describes natives
* ,-"
jividuals who utterly needs assistance. Its opening stanza reads:2
TAKE up theWhite Man's bardtru- ELB

Sendforth the bestye breed- Following the declaration of
Go, bind your sons to exile independence in 1 776, the
territory o{ the newly formed US of
To serue your captiue?s need;
America steadily f urthered through
To wait, in heauy harness, purchases and annexations in the
On flutteredfolk and taild- nineteenth century. From thirteen

colonies in the east coast, the
Your new-caught sullen peoples, territorial expansion and evolution
Half deuil and half child. of the US followed a western route
toward the Pacific, thus the term
"US Westward Expansion." Together
This poem quickly became a famous endorsement of the civilizing mission. And in with manifest destiny, it has been
: natter of few months, it ultimately manifested in various editorial carroons like the one of the malor themes that
highlight tre US colonial enre.prise
:.s on the following pages. and that emphasize the acquisition
of lands not only as rightful but as
well as predetermined.
Ti:e Wtuife Xlllan'$ Elurd*n {Apologies ta Rudyard Kipling}
::'gazine in the United States published from l8B1 to 1947.In this particular piece
,.:-rencing Rudyard Kiplingt poem "The rMhite Man's Burden," John Bull and uncle
:"::r. the personifications of Great Britain and US, are seen as the cenrral figures. They
;:= shown to be carrying non-whites, who are depicted in grotesque racist images, to Rudyard Kipling, born ln 1865
--.:-ization. However, it must be noted that John Bull is way ahead of uncle Sam, in Bombay, British lndia, was a
-:.-rting the Britisht earlier engagement with the colonial enterprise. It is also well-known English poet, journal st,
and novelist. Some of his famous
:=::arkable that those individuals being carried by Uncle Sam are far more primitive works include the novel titled Kim,
_. :.ppearance than those being carried by John Bull, showing the supposed Britisht and a collection of short storres
known as lhe Jungle Book. Ne
,;-::ess in civilizing its subjects. The creator of this caricarure was Vicror Gillam, a was awarded the Nobel Prize for
:'-:uiar political cartoonist who supported McKinleyt presidential campaign and term Literature in 1907.
:,::rgh his illustrations in various magazines such as theJudge, the .!r. Louis Dispatch,
:-. -'\-ew Yorh lYorld, and New York Globe.
ii-he Filipinas' First Bath

.-- ' secondcaricatureappearedonthe frontcoveroftheJune 10, 1899 issueof theJudge.
---.:=. the President of the US, \Tilliam McKinley, is being shown trying to bathe a child
m':: is almost naked and carries a spear. Interpretations suggesr that the water signifies
:- -:ation. on the orher hand, the child being held by McKinley is a symbolism for the
a-::osedly childlike, unruly, and dangerous Filipinos. In the background to the right
o ::. US Capitol Building; on the left are other children who have finished bathing
sr,- .','ho are now dressed with clothes patterned after the uS fag, thus, making them
inting* ffiepi*ting "Manifest Destiny',

-^
-n
the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, there also existed a strong beliee aside
r-- ie
previously discussed 'white mant burden," among Americans that they were
:;*--ed ro expand across North America beginning at the Atlantic seaboard toward the
: ,: seaboard. Alongside their territorial expansion, which would later cross the Pacific,
139
Primary Sources
.i
ri+:i
,..1n
Top. The White Man's Burden appeared

on Judge Magaztne an Apil 1 1899 The
idea was originali\, t'rotn lhe poet Rudyard
Kipling. lt seeks t. jLtstify the calanizattan
af the Philippine ls ards by lhe US
Bight. The secana \rcrk, The Filipino's

First Bath. depicts Amenca s maral
burden ta ct/tlbe lhe Filipinas This
cartoon \/as pubiished on June 1 899,
after the Treaty o{ Paris where the
Philippi]es \ras [tri ned aver to the US by
Spain fhls sholv-s lhe Filipina's resistance
to lhe new mastet a cclonlal rLtle
Oppo-slle page lili istratlans American

Progress (top) ar.i Westward the
Course of Empire rakes its Way (bottam)
boih depict the b.,,ief;n the tdea af
Ar'.. '.. De- , p a\a .a. | -o
the suppased inertability of the US
expansion validai ig tls acquisitian af
new territotEs.
Source l/y'tkil iealta ar irtars
1,)iii'ri:Ti:ii I AIVERICAN OCCUPATION OF THE PHILiPPINES

GUIDE ffiUHSY!ffiTq$
. ln the first illustration, who
do you think are the People
being depicted? Who are the
individuals carrYing the baskets
full ol other People? Who are
those being carried? And
where are theY going? What
does the pile of rocks represent
in the caricature? How are the
Americans and British dePicted
compared to the apparently
Chinese, Indians, and other
non-Western PeoPle? What
does the caricature say about
the nature of these People?
. For the second illustration, who
rs the man in the middle? What
is he doinO? And who is the
child he is holdingibathing?
Compare the child to the other
children at the background.
What can you say about them?
What does lhe caricature
say about the nature of these
naanla? v
PuvP
141
they also thought that they would be propagating American values and institutions which
would be beneficial to mankind. This belief is known as manifest destiny.
The term manifest destiny was coined by the journalist John L. O'sullivan who
John Gast, born in Berlin 1842, first used it in an article titled 'Annexation," published in the United States Magazine
.,rras a Brooklyn-based painter and
and Democratic Reuiew and later on in a New York newspaper in 1845.In these pieces,
llthographer. He is known primarily
for paintrng the American Progress. O'Sullivan exhorted the US to annex Texas and Oregon for it was the manifest destiny
Emanuel Gottlieb Leutze. born ofthe country to overspread the continent. Several paintings and caricatures would be
in '18'16 in Schweibisch Gmund,
meanwhile, was a painter widely
later on inspired by manifest destiny.
known for his works depicting
historical events such as Westward
the Course of Empire Takes lts Way
John Gast's American Progrese
('860) aro Washington Crossing The painting American Progress (1872) shows a woman, probably Columbia who is a
the Delaware (1851). personification of the US, leading the Americans towards the west. Bringing light to
wherever she goes, Columbia is seen with a book-a resrament to enlightenmsnl-2nd
GUIDE &Uf;$TIGNS a telegraph wire which is meant to bind the whole nation together. Fleeing from the
. ln John Gasl's Amerrcan scene and into the darkness are the native Americans who appear frightened seeing the
Pragress, who are the
advancing of Columbia.
characters being depicted?
Who is the woman at the
m dd e and how does she look Emanuel Gottlieh Leutce's l#esfward
like? Where is she headed to?
How about the people on the
f*e Sourse af Erxpire Fakes its Way
ground? Who are they? Portrayed in this piece are the Americans in their quesr ro expand westwards, with
. lr Fmanuel Gottljeb Leutzes
the Pacific apparently at the horizon. Together with the people are their implements.
Westward the Course of Empire
Takes its lzllay, how will you their train of covered wagons, and other possessions. In the middle, a man is
describe the people in the showing to his wife the glories of frontier as the boy in front looks thoughtfully into
painting? How do they look like
and what are the things thal
the future.
they are carrying with them? The painting titled Westward the Course of Empire Thkes lts Way is a mural
Where are they headed to?
o created by Emanuel Gottlieb Leutze in 1860. It takes its title from one of the lines
What do these two paintings
say about the United States of George Berkeleyt poem titled On the Prospect of Phnting Arts and Learning in
and lts people? What are the America. Similar to the American Progress of John Gast, it also celebrates and idealizes
commonalities between these
two paintings? What do they
the American notion of manifest destiny and wesrward expansion. This piece-
say about American ideals now found at the United States Capitol Building, shows pioneering Americans in
and most importantly, how
their quest to expand their domain further to the west from their original thirteen
will you relate them to US
expansionism? states along the Atlantic seaboard. Together with the people are their implements
their train of covered wagons, and other possessions. In the middle, a man is
showing to his wife the glories of frontier as the boy in front looks thoughdully into
the future.
$orne Prirnary $ources on the

Philippine-American War
Thinking that the Americans were in the Philippines to defeat the Spanish and to help
Filipinos gain their independence, Aguinaldo immediately started to set up his ovr,
government after arriving on May 19, 1898. The dictatorial government, established a
few days after he had arrived, was later replaced by a revolutionary one on June 23,1898"
,
The First Philippine Republic, now known as the Malolos Republic, was inaugurated-
meanwhile, on January 23, 1899 . By this time, with the Tieary of Paris already finalized-
tensionhadbeen buildingup betweenAmericanandFilipino soldiers,withafull-scaleclash
expected to ensue anytime soon. The release ofthe BenevolentAssimilation Proclamation"
1::!::ii:ij a) AMERICAN OCCUPATION OFTHE PHILIPP|NES

a-nich explicitly stated the desire of the Unites Srates
to annex the philippines also made
re situation worse. The tension between the military force of the philippines
and the
- S would led to the outbreak of the Philippine-American \Var on F.br,.r"iy 4,lB99.The
Joining the Katipunan at the age
7'ar Prompted the US Congress to ratify the aforementioned of 19, Gregorio Del Pilar was one
ueary rwo days later. In this
-ncident, Private \Tilliam Grayson tried to stop advancing Filipino soldiers who of the youngest generals who
were on fought for Philippine independence
Jreir way toward an American-occupied area near the San
Juan Bridge. In an accounr, during the Revolution. rhus earning
he recalled: him the title'The Boy General.,
He was born in l87S in the town
of Bulacan, Bulacan to a wealthy
- velled "halt"... the man moved, I challenged with another "halt." Then he immediately family that included the well-known
shouted
-Halto" to me. \7ell I thought propagandist Marcelo H. Del pilar.
the best thing to do was to shoot him. He dropped. Then rwo his uncle. He graduated from the
Fr.lipinos sPrang out of the gateway about fifteen feer from us. I called "halt" and Miller fired Ateneo de Municipal in 1896,
and dropped one. I saw another one was left. Well I think I shortly before the Revolution broke
got my second Filipino that time.
\x.e retreated out. He was promoted as a general
to where our six other fellows were and I said, "Line up felrows; our enemy
are in in 1898 after he had successfully
nere all through these yards"' \7e then retreated to the pipe
line and got behind the water work defeated the Spanish in his
nain and stayed there all night. It was some minutes after our second shots before Filipinos
hometown. And together with the
rest of the Aguinaldo government,
cegan 6ring.a
he went to Hong Kong after the
signing of the Pact of Biak-na-Bato.
Despite the attempts of Aguinaldo to conrain the incident, General He is perhaps well-remembered for
MacArthur leading the Filipinos in the Battle of
ordered his men to advance against the Filipinos the following
day, thus starting Tirad Pass.
:he Philippine American-\7ar. Several battles were consequentiy recorded
in this
C-rree-year confict. One of which is the infamous Battle
of Tirad pass wherein
:ative forces under the command of General Gregorio del Pilar tried
to delay
:dvancing American roops to give Aguinaldo time to find a more secured
Seadquarters. In a diary entry dated December "-pl.
2, rg99, also the day ofthe battle,
Del Pilar wrires:
lle General lAguinaldo] has given me a pick of all the men rhat can be
spared and ordered me
:: defend the pass. I realize what a terrible has been given me. And
yet, I Gel that this is the
:iosr glorious moment of my life. r{4rat I do is done for my beloved
counrry. No sacrifice can be
:ro great.5
Del Pilar larer succumbed to the Americans led by Major peyton c.

March.
l'larcht men were assisted by a Cordillera native named.
J"rru"rio Galut who directed
:-e Americans to the location of the Filipinos. Del Pilar
was killed and, according to a
':'''unalist accompanying the Americans, with his mortal remains
looted for souvenirs.
Ie recalled:
l:e souvenir fiend was at once at work, and the body was stripped
of everything of value,
-n rhe diamond ring to the boots. A pair of handsome field-glasses,
with an attachment
o:lch determined the rarlges for the rifemen, was turned
over ro Captain Jenkinson by one of
:' men' Three little gold lockers hung around his neck - one with an enamel representation
:r a saint in it; another a purely ornamental one, and the last a small Agnus
Dei. He wore
-.;-.r spurs, shoulder-straps of gold, and a new khaki suit, such as all the
higher Filipino
:i;ers wear. He carried no sword. In one of his pockets was an American
rwenty-dollar
r:'l piece, which he had shown to me when he was in Manila with a peace embassy some
:,:,nrfis before.
143
mltl* &gulma*dc's Fro*lamatian
ffi
*f $urresrder ts the United $tates

After nvo years of fighting and leading the Filipinos, and after the fall of severu-
comrades such as Mabini and Luna, President Aguinaldo was ultimately captured b-n
the Americans with the help of the Macabebes of Pampanga in the isolated town o:
Palanan, Isabela on March 23, 1901.It was on April 19, 1901 that Aguinaldo official|"
surrendered to the US. His proclamation is found below.
Primary Source
To the Filipino People:
I -+
believe that I am not in error in presuming that the unhappy fate to which my adverse fortune
led me is not a surprise to those who have been familiar day to day with the progress of the war. --;
lessons thus taught, the full meaning of which has recenily come to my knowledge, suggested to me w :
irresistible force that the complete termination of hostilities and a lasting peace are not only desirable b-t
absolutely essential to the welfare of the Philippines.
The Filipinos have never been dismayed by their weakness, nor have they faltered in following the
path pointed out by their fortitude and courage. The time has come, however, in which they find their
advance along the path impeded by an irresistible force - a force which, while it restrains them, yet
enlightens the mind and opens another course by presenting to them the cause of peace, this cause
has been joyfully embraced around glorious and sovereign banner of the United States. ln this manner,
they repose their trust in the belief that under its protection our people will attain all the promised liberties
which they are even now beginning to enjoy.
The country has declared unmistakably in favor of peace; so be it. Enough of blood; enough of
tears and desolation. This wish cannot be ignored by the men still in arms if they are animated by no
other desire than to serve this noble people which has clearly manifested its will.
GUIDE *#HSYHffiru So also do I respect this will now that it is known to me, and after mature deliberation resolutely
How did Aguinaldo justify his proclaim to the world that I cannot refuse to heed the voice of a people longing for peace, nor the
surrender to the Americans? lamentations of thousands of families yearning to see their dear ones in ihe enjoyment of the liberty
promised by the generosity of the great American nation.
By acknowledging and accepting the sovereignty of the United States throughout the entire
Archipelago, as I now do without any reservations whatsoever, I believe that I am serving thee, my
beloved country. May happiness be thine!
Source: Emilio Aguinaldo's Proclamation of Surrender to the Unlted State
!-r::,irl i:ii 0 A[/ERICAN OCCUPATION OF THE PHILIPPINES

-rpter Summary
--= Dhilippines, together with cuba and Puerto Rico, was acquired by the United states
---,gh the Treaty of Paris. The treaty ended the Spanish-American War. The US paid
u " i:l' million for annexing the Philippines.
"
-*-= "om economic and political reasons, the United States also used different
-,r':ations to defend their action of annexing the Philippines. For instance, they
' --:d the white man's burden-a widely held belief among Westerners that they have
; -r'21 duty to civilize the non-whites such as the Filipinos. Likewise, their belief in
-.-':st destiny also fueled their territorial expansion towards the Pacific.
--i-3 were different responses to the plans of the United States to annex the Philippines.
* . i: was clear that President William McKinley wanted to acquire the Philippines,
L the
: - - .rperialist League opposed the imperialist design of the United States.
:.-.:ns between the forces of Aguinaldo and of the United States quickly escalated
: - ,,, ing the ratification of the Treaty of Paris and the release of the McKinley's Benevolent
-.srmilation Proclamation. The San Juan Bridge incident led to the Philippine-American
='of 1899.
n --: surrender of Emilio Aguinaldo on March 23, 1901 officially ended the Philippine-
--:rican War but Filipino resistance to the US continued until 1910.
tssessment
'iltrllrrl:
-: a^ essay, answer the following questions:
':' lsas were used by the United States to justify their imperialist design over the
:: "es?
-.. a'gument were used by the lmperialist League to oppose US annexation of the
: ' :: .es?
*::
#as the situation in the Philippines and in the United States prior to the start of the
:-,,' :911"-grerican War?
,11 gestGd'Headings Li: :.:!i:.i:.i
the understanding of the students regarding the American occupation of the

, these followrng sources can be consulted:
Wrcillo, Teodoio. Maiolos; Crisis of the Repub/ic. Quezon City: University of the
+xripl6u'[i$+,fu;;-ffi
_,rr...__. __:l -*__ :ii
Scurrt James, American Occupation of the Philippines, 1898-1912. New York: The
.,,,.
rrl
in tne in ippines: Th7, Aims, Exeauttion, and r

,.+av; oiu*ilAn1fi oo$i' ll
)0-l913.Westport,.'e cticut; Greenwood

','T.-'l - ',
..,.,,,...,..',
'-t ..t,-t..ar: *.... 'l'i"r, l l ,, l
.' -i,
rrt#
Opposite page. U.S. Secretary of War William Howard Taft
addressing the First Philippine Assembly. After the U.S. gained
control of the Philippines, its Congress passed the Philippine
Organic Act in 1902, which served as the constitution of
the Philippines up until it was replaced by the Jones Act
of 1916. When the act was passed, Secretary Taft thought
that an assembly would improve the relationship between
the Philippines and the US and help prepare the country for
independence. He then presided over the inauguration of the
First Philippine Assembly on October 16, 1907.
Pholo c@rt6y of Wikimedia Cofrmons.
CHAPTER X
The Suppression of
Filipino Nationalism and
the Filipinization of the
Government
t n 1902, the American colonial government designated the fourth of July, a dat:
I profo,rndly dear and symbolic to the United States and its people, as the officii
I end of the "insurrection' of their newly acquired possession-the Philippines. Th;:
insurrection, Iabeled such by the US, was recognized by Filipino revolutionaries as a
legitimate war, which began in February 1899 during the San Juan Bridge incident anc
ended in March 1901 with the surrender of President Emilio Aguinaldo. His surrende:
to the new colonizers, who had been portraying themselves as benevolent peoples anc
friends to the natives, led to the surrender of other revolutionary forces across the
archipelago. However, Filipino resistance in different areas, such as in southern Luzor.
and Mindanao, continued to threaten American rule in the Philippines until 19 13. One
"*-"#--.-**---
JAN 20,189S MAE 16,1S00 sc? 1901 NOV 1901 JUL 4, 'l$01 01 JUL 1302 JUL 4, 1902 NOV 1e02
Establishment Establishment Libel Law was Sedition Law was Establishment of Cooper Act was Official endof Brigandage LaH
of the Schurman of the Taft passed enacted a civil government passed the Philippine- was passed
Commission Commission in the Philippines American War
under Taft
>
,: the last skirmishes recorded during the period was the Battle of Bud Bagsak which
-"'.r f6ugh1 between the forces of Datu Amil of Sulu and General John Pershing of the
'-::=d States Army.
-midst these hostilities, US President'William McKinley in early 1899 sent to the
:,:-,ippines a mission tasked specifically to assess the Philippine situation and to establish
i :-i-il government in the islands. This delegation, called the First Philippine Commission
- : Schurman Commission, was headed byJacob Schurman, then president of hy League
;;hool Cornell Universiry together with George Dewey, Elwell Otis, Charles Denby, and
lean'Worcester. The commission gave some key recommendations to the US President
:,n how to proceed with the establishment of colonial rule in the Philippines. First, it
:::----------***-*-- **-*-****-..'i+-----,----'----+liJ-
--
4US 1$S7 *ST 1S, 'r*0? *C? 3S, "tS*E JUN "8S13 ALIG 181S -;AN"rS33 f!4AR"l$34 F*AY i*. l$35
: ag Law was lnauguratlon of Publication of Battle of Bud Jones Law was Hare-Hawes- Tydings-l,,4cDuffie Ratification of
.nacted the Philipp ne Aves de RapiRa Bagsak enacted Cuttlng Act was Law was enacted the Philippine
Assembly passed by the US Constitution
Congress
147
FOCUS *UESTIftruS suggested that a civil government should supplant the existing military administration,
. Why is the perlod following established in August 1898 after the American victory in the It{ock Battle of Maniia
lhe Philippine-American
and first headed by General \Wesley Merritt. Secondly, it recommended the creation of a
War described as an era of
suppressed nationalism? bicameral legislature, with the lower house to be composed of Filipino statesmen whiie
o What were the actions taken leaving the upper house to American colonial administrators. And lastly, the Schurman
by the Americans during this
pefiod and what were the Commission likewise endorsed the improvement of the general sanitary conditions of
motivations and goals? the Philippines and the founding of a public school system to educate the Filipinos.
. On the other hand, how did the
A second delegation led by \Tilliam Howard Taft was sent to the Philippines in
Filipinization take place?
o What efforts were made by the June 1900. The Second Philippine Commission, also known as the Taft Commission.
colonial government to further proceeded to execute the recommendations previously given by Schurman and
this process?
his colleagues. In October of the same year, this Philippine Commission was given
the authority to exercise legislative powers in the Philippines by President \Tilliam
LEARNING McKinley. Ultimately, on July 4, 1901, a civil government was established, known as
offiJHefivEs the Insular Government, with Thft himself as the governor-general. A military governor.
By the end of this chapter, students Adna Chaffee, continued to administer unpacified areas until exacdy a year later when
should be able to:
the Philippine insurrection was declared officially over.
o identify and explain the
different legislations passed In this particular chapter, with the use of primary sources, students will be
by the Americans in the looking into two subsequent periods of Philippine history following the Philippine-
Philippines to suppress
nationalist sentimentsi
American lWar. First is the period dubbed by nationalist historians as the era oj
o identify and explain the taPPressed ndtionalisrn, a time dominated by repressive American policies and actions
different legislations passed
aiming to extinguish nadve nationalist sentiments to strengthen colonial control over
by the United States Congress
leading to the Filipinization the archipelago. Second is the era of Filiplnlzation, wherein a more active Filipino
of the government and participation in governance led to eventual independence. Some ofthe sources excerpteC
the granting of Filipino
independence; and
in this chapter are the laws passed by the Philippine Commission that were thought to
c analyze the main provisions of suppress Filipino nationalism namely the Libel law, Sedition law, Brigandage law and rhe
the 1935 Philippine Constitution
Flag law.
Hx*erpte *f Aet N*. &77

r* cr tf?e LibeE Law of tr SSt
After the establishment of a civil government in the islands with \William Howard Tat
Fought in June 1913, the Battle of as the governor-general, the Philippine Commission, the sole legislative body in the
Bud Bagsak was one of the final
colony originally composed of Dean'Worcester, Luke Edward'Wright, Henry Clay Ide-
encounters between the Moros and
the American occupation forces and Taft himself, passed a number of legislations which aimed to further the American
during the early years of American colonial agenda, to prevent any imminent resistance from the Filipinos, and to avoi<l
colonization in Mindanao. The Moro
fighters, together with their wives,
the Americans being portrayed to the public negatively. One of these was the Philippine
chrldren, and relatives, built sturdy Commission Act No. 277, also known as the Libel Law of 1901. This particular lag.
forti{ications atop l\,4ount Bagsak
enacted in October of the said year, prohibited malicious defamation in writins.
in Patikul, Sulu, in an attempt
to hold off the establishment of printing, and theatrical exhibitions. Excerpts of the law are found below
a US stronghold in lvlindanao.
They, nevertheless, were easily
annihiiated by colonial forces led by
Primary Source
John Pershing. Act No. 227, October 24, 1901
AN ACT DEFINING THE LAW OF LIBEL AND THREATS TO PUBLISH A LIBEL, MAKING LIBEL AN:
THREATS TO PUBLISH A LIBEL MISDEMEANORS, GIVING A RIGHT OF CIVIL ACTION THERFOR, AN:
MAKING OBSCENE OR INDECENT PUBLICATIONS MISDEMEANOHS
By authority of the President of the United States, be it enacted by the United States Philippir-=
Commission that:
Cl-iAirli:ii rC THE SUPPRESSION OF FILIPINO NATIONALISIM AND THE FILIPINIZATION OF THE GOVERNMENT
#cnoNl.Alibelisamaliciousdefamation,expressedeitherinwriting,printing,orbysignsor
.::.:nelike,orpublictheatricalexhibitions,tendingtoblackenthememoryofonewhoisdead
-..aohthehonesty,Virtue,orreputation,orpublishtheallegedornaturaldefectsofonewhois
L -a thereby expose him to public hatred' contempt' or ridicule ffi
malicious intent to iniure another publishes or
Every person who willf ully and with a
sEcTloN 2.
Jacob Gouid Schurman, born on
:-:-.estobepublishedanylibelshallbepunishedbyafineofnotexceedingtwothousanddol|arsor May 22, 1854, was an American
--- scnment for not exceeding one year, or both' diplomai and educator who is
have been malicious if no justifiable motive
for known in PhiliPPine history as
sEcTloN 3. An injurious publication is presumed to the head of the First PhiliPPine
-:. -g it is shown. Commission which existed irom
may be given in evidence to the court, and 1899 to
'1900. He was later
sEcTloN 4. ln all criminal prosecutions for libel the truth
good motives assigned to Greece, China,
, : :.oears to the court that the matter charged as Iibelous iS true and was published with
and GermanY as Part of the US
be convicted; but to establish this
:-: .cr justif iable ends, the party shall be acquitted; otherwise lie shall diplomatic corPS.
be proven, but also that it was published with
:=.=ise, not only must the truth of the matter So charged
-: -: I motive and for lustif iable ends '
SEcTloN6.Everyauthor,editor,orproprietorofanybook,newspaper,orserialpublicationis
:âr,geablewiththepublicationofanywordscontainedinanypartofsuchbookornumberofeach
-:,rspaper or serial as fully as if he were the author of the same'
newspaper is liable to any prosecution for a
sEcTloN 7. No reporter, editor, or proprietor of any
of any statement'
-=. and true report of any judicial, legislative, or other public official proceedings' or
except upon proof of malice in making such
::eech, argument, or debate in the course of the same,
-::ort, which shall not be implied from the mere fact of publication '
SEc.g.Aprivatecommunicationmadebyanypersontoanother,ingoodfaith,intheperformance
reasonable purpose of protectlng
-. any duty, whether legal, moral, or social, solely with the fair and
-3 rnterests of the person making the communication
or the interests of the person to whom the
and the person making the Same sha|l not be
::rmunication is made, is a privileged communication,
;-'lty of libel nor be within the provisions of this Act'
SEc'lo.EverypersonWhothreatensanothertopublishalibelconcerninghim,oranyparent,
.-sband, wife, or child of such person, or any member of his family, and every person who
offers
::preventthepublicationofanylibeluponanotherperson,Withintenttoextortanymoneyorother
punished by a fine of not exceeding one thousand
.aluable consideration trom any person, shall be
or both' '
:cllars or by imprisonment for not exceeding six months'
GUIDE ffit$ffiSY$#NS
SEC.l2.Anypersonwhowrites,composes'stereotypes'prints'publishes'sells'orkeepsforsale'
paper, hook, or other matter, or who designs'
. How was libel defined in the
:lstributes, or exhibits any obscene or indecent writing, act?
:cpies,draws,engraves,paints,orotherwisepreparesanyobscenepictureorprint,orwhomolds, . What were the sanctions to
or indecent figure, or who writes, composes,
or prints any persons found guilty of libel?
]UtS, CaStS, or otherwise makes any obscene . Was it necessary for the
shall be guilty of a misdemeanor
.otice or advertisement of any such writing, paper, book, print, or f igure Americans, through the
Philipplne Commlssion, to
andpunishedbyafineofnotexceedingonethousanddollarsorbyimprisonmentnotexceeding
enact such legislation?
lne year, or both,
Enacted' october 24' 1901
source: ActNo' 277 (Libet Law of 1go1)
ouAves de rapifra"
5d ffieffgsrrm*ersfo's
the law discussed above took place
One of the most notable incidents which involved
Interior, filed a complaint against
in 190g, when Dean \Torcester, then Secretary of the
by Rafael Palma in 1901 . \Torcester,
E| Rerlacimiefito, a newspaper Company established
offended by
a Michigan-trained ,ootog*. t.trn.d .olonial administrator, was utterly
149
r
an editorial article featured on October 30, 1908 issue of the said publication. The
piece, titled "Aves de rapi6a" or 'Birds of Prey," was wrirten by Fidel Reyes. However,
the case filed by \Torcester likewise implicated a number of key figures running and.
contributing to rhe newspaper such as Martin Ocampo, Teodoro M. Kalaw, Lope K.
Santos, and Faustino Aguilar, among others. The complaint reads:
That for a long time the defendants have been maliciously persecuting and attacking the plaintiff
In this source, libel is defined as the in said newspaper, until at last on 30th of October 1908, with the malicious intenrion of injuring
'malicious defamation' expressed
in different mediums such as in
the plaintifl who on the said date was, and still is a member of the Civil Commission of the
writrngs and prints which tend to Philippines and Secretary of the Interior in the Government of the Philippines, they attacked the
'blacken the memory of one who honesry and reviled the fame of the plaintifl not only as a private person but also as an official
is dead or to impeach the honesty,
virtue, or reputation, or publrsh the of the Government of the Philippine Islands, and with the object of exposing him to odium.
alleged or natural defects of one contempt, and ridicule of the public . . .t
who is alive, and thereby expose
him to public hatred, contempt, or
ridicule.' In its I 9 12 decision, the Supreme Court found the defendants guilty and sentenced.
them to fines and prison rerms. Nonetheless, no prison rime was rendered by any of
them as the governor-general, Francis Burton Harrison, later on provided executive
pardon. A translated version of the 'Aves de rapiia" is found below.
ffi Primary Source

On the surface of the globe, some were born to eat and devour, others to be eaten and devoured,
William Howard Taft was born on Now and then the latter have bestrrred themselves, endeavoring to rebel against an order of things
September 15, 1857 in Cincinnati,
which makes them the prey and food of the insatiable voracity of the former. At times, they have beer
Ohio. He earned his degrees from
Yale University and the Cincinnati fortunate, putting to fight the eaters and devourers, but in a majority of these cases they do not obtai.
Law School before entering public anything but a change of name or plumage.
service. He later became the 27th
President and 1Oth Chief Justice of
The situation is the same in all the spheres of creation; the relation between the ones and the other-:
the United States, making him the is that dictated by the appetite and the power to satisfy it at the fellow-creature's expense.
only person to have occupied both
Among men it is easy to observe the development of this daily phenomenon, And for some
positions.
psychological reason the nations who believe themselves powerful have taken the fiercest and mos:
harmful creatures as emblems; it is either the lion, or the eagle, or the serpent, Some have done so by a
secret impulse of affinity and others in the nature of simulation, of infatuated vanity, making themselve :
appear that which they are not nor will ever be.
The eagle, symbolizing liberty and strength, is the bird that has found the most adepts. And me-
collectively and individually, have desired to copy and imitate the most rapacious bird in order io triumc-
in the plundering of their fellow-men.
These are men who, besides being eagles, have the characteristics of the vulture, the owl and t-=
vampire.
Ascending the mountains of Benguet to classify and measure the skulls of the lgorots and stu3.
and civilize them, and to espy in his flight with the eye of the bird of prey, where are the large depos::
of gold, the prey concealed amongst the lonely mountains, to appropriate them to himself afterwarc:
thanks to legal facilities made and unmade at will, but always for his own benefit.
Authorizing, despite laws and ordinances, an illegal slaughtering of diseased cattle in order ::
derive benefit from the infected and putrid meat which he himself was obliged to condemn by virtue .'
his official position.
Presenting himseif on all occasions with the wrinkled brow of the scientist who consumes his '.
in the mysteries of the laboratory of science, when his whole scientific labor is confined to dissecr-:
.IiAT'i[F, i i-) THE SUPPRESSION OF FILIPINO NATIONALISIV AND THE FILIPINIZATION OF THE GOVERNMENT
.sects and importing fish eggs, as if the fish eggs of this country were less nourishing and savory, so as GUIDE QUE$TIOHS
:c make it worth the while replacing them with species coming from other climes.
. What did the article comment
on?
Giving an admirable impulse to the discovery of wealthy lodes in Mindanao, in Mindoro, and
in
o Who do you think were being
:ther virgin regions of the archipelago, with the money of the people, and under the pretext of the described as those "born to eat
and devour" and those "Iborn]
:ublic good, when, as a strict matter of truth, the object is to possess all the data and the key to the to be eaten and devoured?"
-ational wealth for his essentially personal benef it, as is shown by the acquisition of lmmense properties o While no name was mentioned
'=grstered under the names of others. in the article, why do you
think did Dean Worcester feel
promoting through secret agents and partners, the sale to the city of worthless land at fabulous
alluded to?
:-;ces which the city fathers dare not refuse from fear of displeasing the one who is behind the motion,
:-d which they do not refuse for their own good.
patronizing concessions for hotels on filled-in lands, with the prospects of enormous profits, at the
:{pense of the blood of the PeoPle

Such are the characteristics of the man who is at the same time an eagle who surprises
and
who affects a petulant
levours, a vulture who gorges himself on the dead and putrid meats, an owl
:.nniscience and a vampire who sllently sucks the blood of the victim until he leaves it bloodless.
It is these birds of prey who triumph. Their flight and aim are never thwarted.
Who will detain them?
Some share in the booty and plunder. Others are too weak to raise a voice of
protest. And others
: e in the disconsolating destruction of their own energies and interests.

And then there appears, terrifying, the immortal legend:
MANE' TECEL'
"otat"tr,.", worcester v. Mariano ocampo, et al., G.R. No. L-s932, SC (February 27
' 1912).
Excerpt sf &c€ N*. *S2 sr The $edition Law of t$$t

Another llgislation intending to suppress Filipino nationalism, was likewise enacted by the
rr
Philippine Commission in November 1901. The Philippine Commission Act No. 292, Published during the early
American period, the E/
oth.r*ire known as the Sedition Law of 1901, prohibited the Filipinos from advocating Renacimientowas one ol the
Philippine independence or political seParation from the United States, covering all Phillppine publications which
suffered from the strict colonial
porribl. methods-from the overt to the passive-including speeches, publications, and censorship policies imPlemented
literature. Those found guilry of sedition were sentenced to death or imprisonment. in the Philippines. lts wnters
A play written by Juan Abad titled Thnihalang Ginto was considered seditious after consistently called out the abuses
of colonial officials and openlY
ir was staged in l9O2 in different theaters in Manila, Laguna, and Cavite. It was about campaigned for the retention of
Dalita's d"ught.r Ligaya, who was forbidden to see her lover Kaulayaw by her uncle, Spanish as an official language for
Maimbot. Instead, Ligaya received a golden bracelet from Maimbot which ultimately
the Philippines.
bound her to his control. Judge Paul Linebarger of a lower court in Batangas found Strictly speaking, a vulture is a kind
the drama seditious (many interpreted the rather cruel character of Maimbot as a of predatory bird that scavenge
on carcasses of dead animals.
personification of the United States while Ligaya was the Philippines) and sentenced Nevertheless, it is also used as
ih. to two years of imprisonment and a fine of $2,000. \'Mhile the ruling for the a figure of speech to refer to an
"utho. individual who takes advantage of
first case was pending in the Supreme Court after an appeal had been made, Abad was
other people, esPeciallY those who
once again for producing another allegedly seditious play titled Isang Punlo ng are in unfortunate situations.
"rr.rt.d
Kaa*iy in 1904.2 Another playwright who faced similar accusations of enticing the
Filipinos to resisr American control was Aurelio Tolentino who authored Kahapon,
Ngayon, at Buhas which premiered in 1903. In it, Tolentino showed his audience the
stluggles of Inangbayan and her son Thga-ilog in rejecting the foreign interventions of
,h. Chirr.r., the Spanish, and the Americans. And at one point, the script called for the
actor playing Thga--ilog to tear and trample on the uS fag as a sign of triumph.
This
151
led to the immediate arrest of Tolentino and his company who were found guilry of
sedirion by the Supreme Court in March 1906. Other plays which shared the similar
fare were Mariano Martinezt Pulong Pinaghhuan and Gabriel Beato Francisco's Ang
Katipunan, ro name a few.3 Some important portions of the Sedition Law of 1901 are
found below.
Primary Source
Act No. 292, November 04, 1901
Treason was defined in the AN ACT DEFINING THE CRIMES OF TREASON, INSURRECTION, SEDITION, CONSPIBACIES TO
legislation as the instigation of war COMMIT SUCH CRIMES, SEDITIOUS UTTERANCES, WHETHER WRITTEN OB SPOKEN,
by Philippine residents, who had
previously sworn their alleglance
THE FORMATION OF SECRET POLITICAL SOCIETIES, THE ADMINISTERING
to the US, against their colonizers. OR TAKING OF OATHS TO COIVMIT CRIMES, OR TO PREVENT THE DISCOVERING OF THE SAME,
Sedition, on the other hand, was
AND THE VIOLATION OF OATHS OF ALLEGIANCE, AND PRESCRIBING
identified as the act of publicly
rising up against the Americans THE PUNISHMENT THEREFOR.
to achieve certain goals such as
"to prevent the promulgation or
execution of any law."
By authority of the President of the United States, be it enacted by the United States Philippine
Commission, that:
SECTION 1. Every person, resident in the Philippine lslands, owing allegiance to the United States
or the Government of the Philippine lslands, who levies war against them or adheres to their enemies
giving them aid and comfort within the Philippine lslands or elsewhere, is guilty of treason, and, upor
conviction, shall suffer death or, at the discretion of the court, shall be imprisoned at hard labor for nc:
less than five years and fined not less than ten thousand dollars.
SECTION 2. Every person, owing allegiance to the United States or the Government of th:
Philippine lslands, and having knowledge of any treason against them or either of them, who conceals
and does not, as soon as may be, disclose and make known the same to the provincial governor in the
province in which he resides or to the Civil Governor of the lslands, or to some judge of a court of recorc
is guilty of misprision of treason and shall be imprisoned not more than seven years and be fined nc:
more than one thousand dollars,
SECTION 3. Every person who incites, sets on foot, assists, or engages in any rebellion c'
insurrection against the authority of the United States or of the Government of the Philippine lslands. c-
the laws thereof, or who gives aid or comfort to anyone so engaging in such rebellion or insurrectto-
shall, upon conviction, be imprisoned for not more than ten years and he fined not more than te-
thousand dollars,
SECTION 4, lf two or more persons conspire to overthrow, put down, or destroy by force ti-=
Government of the United States in the Philippine lslands or the Government of the Philippine lslanc.
or by force to prevent, hinder, or delay the execution of any law of the United States or of the Philippir=
lslands, or by force to seize, take, or possess any property of the United Slates or of the Governme':
of the Philippine lslands, contrary to the authority thereof, each of such persons shall be punished b'v =
fine of not more than five thousand dollars and by imprisonment, with or without hard labor, for a peric.:
not more than six years.
SECTION 5. All persons who rise publicly and tumultuously in order to attain by force or outside :.
legal methods any of the following ob.iects are guilty of sedition:
1. To prevent the promulgation or execution of any law or the free holding of any popular electic-
2. To prevent the lnsular Government, or any provincial or municipal government or a-,
public official, from freely exercising its or his duties or the due execution of any judiciar :'
administrative order.
CI-jAPiL]i]
,10 THE SUPPRESSION OF FILIPINO NATIONALISM AND THE FILiPINIZATION OF THE GOVERNMENT
3. To inflict any act of hate or revenge upon the person or property of any official or agent of the
lnsular Government or of a provincial or municipal government.

4, To inflict, with a political or social object, any act of hate or revenge upon individuals or upon
any class of individuals in the lslands.
5. To despoil, with a political or social object, any class of persons, natural or arti{icial, a
municipality, a province, or the lnsular Government, or the Government of the United States,
or any part of its property.
SECTION 6. Any person guilty of sedition as defined in section five hereof shall be punished by a
'rine of not exceeding five thousand dollars or by imprisonment not exceeding ten years, or both.
SECTION 7. All persons conspiring to commit the crime of sedition shall be punished by a f ine of
not exceeding one thousand dollars or by imprisonment not exceeding five years, or both.
SECTION 8. Every person who shall utter seditious words or speeches, write, publish, or circulate
scurrilous libels against the Government of the United States or the lnsular Government of the Philippine
lslands, or which tend to disturb or obstruct any lawful officer in executing his office, or which tend to
nstigate others to cabal or meet together for unlawful purposes, or which suggest or incite rebellious
:onspiracies or riots, or which tend to stir up the people against the lawful authorities or to disturb the
ceace of the community, the safety and order of the Government, or who shall knowingly conceal such
evil practices, shall be punished by a fine not exceeding two thousand dollars or by imprisonment not
exceeding two years, or both, in the discretion of the court.
SECTION 9. All persons who shall meet together for the purpose of forming or who shall form any
secret society or who shall, after the passage of this Act, continue membership in a society already
formed, having for its object, in whole or in part, the promotion of treason, rebellion, or sedition, or the
promulgation of any political opinion or policy, shall be punished by a f ine not exceeding one thousand
dollars or by imprisonment not exceeding one year, or both.
SECTION 10. Until it has been officially proclaimed that a state of war or insurrection against GUIDE *UESTISruS
ihe authority or sovereignty of the United States no longer exists in the Philippine lslands it shall be . What acts were considered
unlawful for any person to advocate, orally or by writing or printing, or like methods, the independence seditious by the law?
. Was it necessary lor the
cf the Philippine lslands or their separation from the United States, whether by peaceable or forcible Americans lo enact a
means, or to print, publish, or circulate any handbill, newspaper, or other publication advocating such legislation such as this? Explain
your answea
independence or separation.
. What do you think were the
Any person violating the provisions of this section shall be punished by a f ine of not exceeding two effects or consequences of this
thousand dollars and imprisonment not exceeding one year. law to the Filipinos?
t...1
SECTION 17. A foreigner, residing in the Philippine lslands, who shall commit any of the crimes
specified in the preceding sections of this Act, except those specif ied in sections one and two, shall be
cunished in the same way and with the same penalty as that prescribed for the particular crime therein.
Enacted, November 4, 1901.
Source: ActNo. 292 (Sedition Law of 1901)
Act &$*. € SSS *tr €$?ffi F$mg L*w ef $ S#7

a*d &et ffim. St S *r the ffirigamdeff# Lew #f t S*tr
In August 1907, few months before the formal inauguration of the Philippine legislature's
lower house to be composed exclusively of Filipino lawmakers, another direct assault
rvas sustained by the nationalist and pro-independence efforts in the Philippines. A new
legislation, Act No. 7595, was enacted by the All-American Philippine Commission,
rvhich prohibited the display of fags, banners, and emblems which may entice Filipinos
153
to rebel against American authorities. This law also included the symbols used by the
sociery which initiated the Philippine Revolution in 1896-rhe Katipunan. The
full
text of the legislation is provided below.
Primary Source
Act No. 1696, August 23, tgo7
AN ACT TO PROHIBIT THE DISPLAY OF FLAGS, BANNERS, EMBLEMS, OR DEVICES
USED IN
THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS FOR THE PURPOSE OF REBELLION OR INSURRECTION
AGAINST
THE AUTHORITY OF THE UNITED STATES AND THE DISPLAY OF KATIPUNAN FLAGS.
BANNERS
EMBLEMS, OR DEVICES, AND FOR OTHER PURPOSES.
By authority of the United States, be it enacted by the philippine comnrission, that:

SECTION 1. Any person who shall expose, or cause or permit to be exposed, to public vie.r,
on his own premises, or who shall expose, or cause to be exposed, to public view, either
on his ow-
premises or elsewhere, any flag, banner, emblem, or device used during
the late insurrection in th:
il..ir:i:,ir:r. . .,
STUDY AID
The Philippine flag was first officially unfurled during the declaration of phiiippine
independen"""ni,n"rz,iessi"K";tt:;;*,.";;;;#'*'';;,,i,i["Lo,,"
by Marcela and Lorenza Agoncillo and Delfina Herbosa, a relative of Dr. Jose niz*af
. fnI
eight-rayed sun on the flag symbolizes the first eight Philippine provinces to rise
up aqainst
dulnO the Philippine Revolution of 1896, Meanwhile, the three stars sym;olize
]!e lPanish
the three maior island gloups pf the Philippines--Luzon, Visayas (panay,
accordino to the
original text of the proc'lamation of Philippine "
i^0"p".J"""";'; il;;;;ffi;,;"'
"oL'..
(btJe, red, ano wrrite;:wer","r"It,", in"i;;; ;;;.;; ;ilffi;'il*",d".,n"
.,i;rr,iir.rr.,r.,,rr,, , ,,,:iir1ii,ri..r.-!r,:r:,.,,,,,,."iriiii:iiiii i ..,ai.i.....i... ,*
CI.IAPiLR 1O THE SUPPRESSION OF FILIPINO NATIONALISM AND THE FILIPINIZATION

OF THE GOVERNIVENT
Philippine lslands to designate or identify those in armed rebellion against the United States, or any
flag, banner, emblem, or device used or adopted at any time by the public enemies of the United
States in the Philippine lslands for the purposes of public disorder or of rebellion or insurrection against
The authority of the United States in the Philippine lslands, or any flag, banner, emblem, or device
of the Katipunan Society, or which is commonly known as such, shall he punished by a fine of not
less than five hundred pesos nor more than five thousand pesos, or by imprisonment for not less
than three months nor more than five years, or by both such fine and imprisonment, in the discretion
of the court.
SECTION 2, Any person or persons having charge of any banquet, public entertainment, public
et
meeting, or reunion, or any parade, procession, or review, who shall display, or cause or permit to During the Revolution, the
Katipunan, its local chapters,
be displayed. at such banquet, public entertainment, public meeting, or reunion, or in such parade, and even its individual members,
procession, or review, or who shall expose, or cause to be exposed, to public view any flag, banner, used dilferent flags as their otficlal
symbols or emblems. The usage
emblem or device used during the late insurrection in the Philippine lslands to designate or identify
and d splay o'sllch were likewise
those in armed rebellion against the United States, or any flag, banner, emblem, or device used or later proh bited by the Americans
adopted at any time by the public enemies of the United States in the Philippine lslands for the purposes durlng the early years of occupation
to prevent any resurgence of
of public disorder or of rebellion or insurrection against the authority of the United States in the Philippine pro-i'1oependerce sert'Te1IS.
lslands, or any flag, banner, emblem, or device of the Katipunan Society, or which is commonly known Shown is one of the earliest f lags
used by the Katipunan.
such, shall be punished by a fine of not less than five hundred pesos nor more than five thousand
pesos, or by imprisonment for less than three months nor more than five years, or by both such fine and
imprisonment, in the discretion of the court.
SECTION 3, lt shall lie unlawful for any person to expose, or cause or permit to be exposed, to
public view on his own premises, or expose, or cause to be exposed to public view either on his own
premises or elsewhere, or to display or cause to be displayed at any banquet, public entertainment,
meeting, or reunion, or in any parade, procession, or review, or for any person having charge of such
banquet, public entertainment, meeting, or reunion, or of such parade, procession, or review, to permit
to be displayed or exposed to public view any flag or banner the use or display of which is prohibited
by executive order of the Governor-General. Any. person who shall violate the provisions of this section
shall be punished by a fine of not less than five hundred pesos nor more than five thousand pesos,
or by imprisonment for not less than three months nor more than five years, or by both such fine and
imprisonment, in the discretion of the court: Provided, however, that nothing in this section, contained
shall be construed to authorize the Governor-General to permit the use or display of any flag, banner,
emblem, or device whose use, display, or exposition to public view ;s prohibited by the preceding
sections of this Act.
t...1
SECTION 4, Any person who shall wear, use, or expose to public view in any parade, procession,
or review any uniform or dress, or part thereof, adopted or used during the late insurrection in the
Philippine lslands to designate or identify those in armed rebellion against the United States, or any
unlform or dress, or part thereof, adopted or used at any lime by the public enemies of the United
States in the Philippine lslands for the purposes of public disorder or of rebellion or insurrection
agalnst the authority of the United States in the Philippine lslands, shall be punished by a fine of not
less than five hundred pesos nor more than five thousand pesos, or by imprisonment for not less
than three months nor more than five years, or by both such line and imprisonment, in the discretion
of the court.
tl
Enacted, August 23, 1907
Source: Act No. 1696 (Flag Law of 1907)
155
ffirlg*mdffiS* tffiw
Historians also consider yet another legislation, enacted on
Novemb er 12, 1902,
Brigandage was defined in the as a tool which was utilized by American authorities to exdnguish
legislation as an act, involving three any remaining
revolutionary activities in the Philippines. Act No. 518, also calleJ
or more persons, of "conspirjng the Brigandag. f";
together" to form a "band of of 1902, prohibited the act of highway robbery or brigandage in the philippineJ
robbers for the purpose of stealing.,,
After
the widespread surrendering or demise of leading Filipino r"evolutionary
Brigands, in addition, were also generals who
fought the Americans in the philippine-American \Var, the colonial
identified as men who "roam over goir.rrr-.rt of
the country, armed with deadly the United States officially viewed all subsequent acrs of resistance
weapons."
as band.olerismo or
brigandage. The change of official outlook, as well as the creation
and the passage of the
abovementioned act, effectively reduced the lingering resistance
efforts as mere criminal
works strikingly similar to those of the ladrones (thieves) and tulisanes (bandits).
An
excerpt of the law is found below.
Primary Source
Act No.518, November 12,1902
AN ACT DEFINING HIGHWAY ROBBERY OR BRIGANDAGE,
AND PROVIDING FOR THE
PUNISHMENT THEREFOR.
By authority of the United states, be it enacted by the phirippine
commission, that:
SEcrloN 1' whenever three or more persons, conspiring together, shall form
a band of robbers for
the purpose of stealing carabao or other personal property, by means
of force and violence, and shall
go out upon the highway or roam over the country,
armed with deadly weapons for this purpose, they
shall be deemed highway robbers or brigands, and every person
engaged in the original formation of
the band, or joining it thereafter, shall, upon conviction thereof, be punished
by death or imprisonment
for not less than twenty years, in the discretion of the court,
sEcrloN 2' To prove the crime described in the prevrous section, it shall not
be necessary to
adduce evidence that any member of the hand has in fact committed
robbery or theft, but it shall be
suffrcient to justify conviction thereunder if, from the circumstances,
it can be inferred beyond reasonable
doubt that the accused was a member of such an armed
band as that described in said section.
GUIDE GUE$TI*r{S sEcrloN 3' Persons guilty of the crime defined in section one may be punished
therefor in the
. How did the Flag Law suppress Court of First lnstance in any province; in which they may be
taken or from which they may have fled.
Filipino Nationalisme
o SECTION 4' Every person knowingly aiding or abetting
How did the Brigandage such a band of brigands as that described
Law affect the Filipinos, most in section one by giving them informatlon of the movement
of the police or constabulary, or by securing
especially those who were still
stolen property from them, or by procuring supplies of food,
campaigning for philippine clothing, arms, or ammunjtion and furnishing
independence? the same to thorn shall upon conviction, be punished by imprisonment
for not loss than ten years and
not more than twenty years. . . ,
Enacted, November 12, 1902.
Source: ActNo. 51 I (Brigandage Law of 1902)
ffiyggryts *f the phi{ippine Organic Aet

*f t *Sfr er Cssper Ast
The term Filipinization refers to the process or policy of actively
placing Filipinos in
different government position during the Americar occupation
of ,fr.
This process, considered a crucial part of preparing the Phiiippines "..hip.l"go.
for independenc.,
reached its peak during the term of the Yale-educ"ted Francis
Burton Harrison as the
governor-general of the islands. The Democratic Party was the
parry in power having
their presidential candidate \Toodrow \Tilson win the elections. It was
Harrison
CI-JAPi[i] 1iJ THE SUPPRESSION OF FILIPINO NATIONALISIV AND THE FILIPINIZATION

OF THE GOVERNIVENT
who began appointing key government positions, especially to those with adequate
educational arrd skills. Aside from this, he even allowed top
"tt"i.r-.rrt "d-irrirtrative to form
Filipino political figures, such as Manuel L. Quezon and Sergio M. osme6a,
drrirory body (Council and State) to assist the governor-general in managing
the
"., had been present
colony. However, it must be noted that efforts towards Filipinization
even during the early years of the American occuPation of the
islands'
Act,
In 1901 for example, the Philippine Organic Act, also known as the CooPer
was passed by the United States congress. This laq primarily
authored by Henry A'
cooi.r, a member of the united States House of Representatives from \Tisconsin,
b..r*. the basic law of the colonial goyernment in the Philippines and was the basis
Deemed as
of different societal changes such as Filipino participation in government.
the law provided for a legislative body, known as the
a constitution for the
"o-lony, Likewise'
Philippine Assembly, which was to be occupied by elected Filipino statesmen'
them the privilege of
the Act secured a number of rights for the Filipinos and gave
starting in 1907 '
sending rwo non-voring resident commissioners to the US congress
pablo 6campo and Berrito Legarda, both graduates of the Universiry of Santo Tomas,
were rhe first holders of the position. Other pertinent issues to
the Philippines, such
are also
as those relating to natural ,.ro,r...r, including its usage and conservation,
are found below.
discussed in the law. Important portions of the cooper Act
Primary Source
Philippine Organic Act, July 01' 1902
OF THE AFFAIRS OF CIVIL
AN ACT TEMPORARILY TO PBOVIDE FOR THE ADMINISTRATION
GOVERNMENTINTHEPHILIPPINEISLANDS,ANDFoROTHERPURPOSES
sTthCongressoftheUnitedStatesofAmerica'FirstSession'1902'
therein who were

sEcTloN 4. That all inhabitants of the Philippine lslands continuing to reside
ninety-nine, and then reslded in the
spanish subjects on the eleventh day of April, eighteen hundred and
and held to be citizens
Philippine lslands, and their children born subsequent thereto, shall be deemed
of the Philippine lslands and as such entitled to the protection o{ the
United States, except such as shall
with the provisions of the
have elected to preserve their allegiance to the crown ot spain in accordance
hundred
treaty ofpeace between the united states and spain signed at Paris December tenth, eighteen
and ninety-eight.
deprive any person of life,
SECTION 5. That no law shall be enacted in said lslands which shall
person therein the equal protection of the
liberty, or property without due process of law, or deny to any
laws.
heard by himself and
That in all criminal prosecutions the accused shall enjoy the right to be
him, to have a speedy and public
counsel, to demand the nature and cause of the accusation against
process to compel the attendance of
trial, to meet the witnesses face to face, and to have compulsory
witnesses in his behalf,
process of law; and no
That no person shall be held to answer for a criminal offence without due
be compelled in any
person for the same offence shall be twice put in ieopardy of punishment, nor shall
criminal case to be a witness against himself'
That al! persons shal/ before c onviction be bailable by suff icrent sureties,
except f or capital offences
Thatno|awimpairingtheobligationofcontractsshallbeenacted.
That no person shall be imprisoned for debt'
't57
r- -D
That the privilege of the writ of habeas corpus shall not be suspended, unless when in cases of
rebellion, insurrection, or invasion the public safety may require it, in either of which events the same
Born in '1850, Henry Ailen Cooper may be suspended by the President, or by the Governor, with the approval of the philippine Commission,
was a lawyer and member of the
wherever during such period the necessity for such suspension shall exist.
US Congress, representing the first
district of Wisconsin. He studied That no ex post facto law or bill of attainder shall be enacted.
al Nortawes-er1 University Ior his That no law granting a title of nobility shall be enacted, and no person holding any office of prof it or
pre-law and law degrees before
eventually belng admitted to the Bar
trust in said lslands, shall without the consent of the Congress of the United States, accept any present,
in Chicago. As a polttician, he was emolument, office, or title of any kind whatever from any king, queen, prince, or foreign state.
known for drafting the Philippine
That excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines imposed, nor cruel and unusual
Organrc Act which became
the basic law of the colonial punishment inflicted.
government in the Philippines. That the right to be secure against unreasonable searches and seizures shall not be viojated.
That neither slavery, nor involuntary servitude, except as a punishment for crime whereof the party
shall have been duly convicted, shall exist in said lslands.
That no law shall be passed abridging the freedom of speech or of the press, or the right of the
people peaceably to assemble and petition the Government for redress of grievances.
That no law shall be made respecting an establishment of religion or prohibiting the free exercise
thereof, and that the free exercise and enjoyment of religious profession and worship, without
discrimination or preference, shall forever be allowed.
That no money shall be paid out of the Treasury except in pursuance of an appropriation by law.
That the rule of taxation in said lslands shall be uniform.
That no private or local bill which may be enacted into law shall embrace more than one subject,
and that subiect shall be expressed in the title of the bill.
That no warrant shall issue but upon probable cause, supported by oath or affirmation, and
particularly describing the place to be searched and the person or things to be seized.
That all money collected on any tax levied or assessed for a special purpose shall be treated as a
special fund in the Treasury and paid out for such purpose only.
SECTION 6. That whenever the existing insurrection in the Philippine lslands shall have ceased
As the Cooper Act functioned as and a condition of general and complete peace shall have been established therein and the fact shall
the basic aw or constitution of the
be certified to the President by the Philippine Commission, the President, upon being satisfied thereof,
Phi ipplnes, it secured a number
of rights for the native residents shall order a census of the Philippine lslands to be taken by said Philippine Commission; such census
of the Philippines. What were in its inquiries relating to the population shall take and make so far as practicable full report for all
these rights? And coming from the
Spanish period, do you think these
the inhabitants, of name, age, sex, race, or tribe, whether native or foreign born, literacy in Spanish
newly given rights made signif icant native dialect, or language, or in English, school attendance, ownership of homes, industrial
and social
changes to the ltves of the Filipinos?
statistics' and such other information separately for each island, each province, and municipality, or
Why or why not?
other civil division, as the President and said Commission may deem necessary: provided, that
the
President may, upon the request of said Commission, in his discretion, employ the service
of the Census
Bureau in compiling and promulgating the statistical information above provided for,
and may commit to
such Bureau any part or portion of such labor as to him may seem wise.
SECTION 7. That two years after the completion and publication of the census, in case
such
condition of general and complete peace with recognition of the authority of the United States
shall have
continued in the territory of said lslands not inhabited by Moros or other non-Christian
tribes and such
facts shall have been certified to the President by the Philippine Commission, the president
upon being
satisf ied thereof shall direct Commrssion to call, and the Commission shall call, general
a election for the
choice of delegates to a popular assembly of the people of said territory in the philippine lslands,
which
shall be known as the Philippine Assembly, After said Assembly shall have convened
and organized, all
the legislative power heretofore conferred on the Philippine Commission in all that part of
said lslands
(.frriPl.i:* .l'-l THE SUPPBESSTON OF FILIPINO NATJONALISIV AND THE FILIPINIZATION OF THE
GOVERNMENT
not inhabited by Moros or other non-Christian tribes shall be vested in a Legislature consisting of two
Houses - the Philippine Commission and the Philippine Assembly. Said Assembly shall consist of not
less than fifty nor more than one hundred members to be apportioned by said Commission among the
provinces as nearly as practicable according to population: Provided, that no province shall have less
than one member: And provided further, that provinces entitled by population to more than one member
may be divided into such convenient dlstrict as the said Commission may deem best.
public notice of such division shall be given at least ninety days prior to such election, and the
ln Section 6, the Cooper
election shall be held under rules and regulations to be prescribed by law. The qualification of electors
Act mandates the Philippine
of such election shall be the same as is now provided by law in case of electors in municipal elections. Commission to conduct a census
The members of Assembly shall hold office for two years from the f irst day of January next following their for the Philippines in preparation for
the forthcoming general election.
election, and their successors shall be chosen by the people every second year thereafter. No person
The results of this first census
shall be eligible to such election who is not a qualif ied eiector of the election district in which he may be conducted during the American
period is available at the Philippine
chosen, owing allegiance to the United States and twentyJive years of age'
Statistics Authority website,
The Legislature shall hold annual sessions, commencing on the first Monday of February in each www.psa.gov.ph.
:- r :..iinutng not exceeding ninety days thereafter (Sundays and holidays not included); Provided,
'-= ..s: meeting of the Legislature shall be held upon the call of the Governor within ninety days
--- ..st e ection: And provided further, that if at the termination of any session the appropriations
..:t-,. for the support of Government shall not have been made, an amount equal to the sums
-_: - aied in the last appropriation bills for such purposes shall be deemed to be appropriated; and
-: Legislature shall act in such behalf the Treasurer may, with the advice of the Governot make the
-:îs necessary for the purposes aforesaid.
--: Legislature may be called in special session at any time by the Civil Governor for general
: i:in, or for action on SUCh Specific subjects as he may designate No special session Shall
-^
-e longer than thirty days, exclusive of Sundays.
-ê Assembly shall be the judge of the elections, returns, and qualifications of its members. A
- . -':, shall constitute a quorum to do business, but a smaller number may adjourn
from day to day
and
.-: -zy be authorized to compel the attendance of absent members. lt shall choose its Speaker
rule
,- =- :fricers, and the salaries of its members and off icers shall be ixed by law. lt may determine the
f
:, :s croceedings, punish its members for disorderly behavior, and wlth the concurrence of twothirds
yeas and
:,:€L a member. lt shall keep a journal of its proceedings, which shall be published, and the
-:, s of the members on any question shall, on the demand of oneJifth of those
present, be entered on
:-: lournal.
and
sEcTloN g. That at the same time with the first meeting of the Philippine Legislature,
: €nnially thereafter, there shall be chosen by said Legislature' each House voting separately' two
..sident Commissioners to the United States, who shall be entitled to an official recognition as such by
Governor of
: departments upon presentation to the President of a certificate of election by the Civil
,-./ands, and each of whom sha// be enli/ed lo a sa/ary,oayab/e month/y 'by the united states at
; --
',
"-.-:--:''r-a'Za.'-,777,;'7. >';:;"";;;'---;-=:=>:{:3?'7;;==S::'
:::-:âDeeligjbletosuchelectionWhoisnotaqualifiedelectorofSaidlslands,
- r e+^rô and
- :31 States, who ic
anr'] rrrhn is nnt
not thirt\/ vears of age
thirty years a0e.
-
tlNM"*,:,tr i --=- -: SJpreme Court and the Courts of Fjrst lnstance of the Philippine lslands
, : : - s= .Jr sdiction as heretofore provided and such additional jurisdiction as shall
power of said Government to
cscnbed by the Government of said lslands, subject to the
Ee and method of procedure. The municipal courts of said lslands shall possess and
Fr as heretofore provided by the Ph,i)ipp)ne Comm\Sslon, Subjec\\n a\\ ma\\e\S\o Such
as may be hereafter enacted by law; and the chief Justice and Associate
[ffit"-
159
Justices of the supreme Court shall hereafter be appointed by the president,
by and with the advice and
consent of the Senate, and shall receive the compensation heretofore prescribed
by the Commission
until otherwise provided by Congress. The judges of the Court of First
lnstance shall be appointed by
the Civil Governor, by and with the advice and consent of the Philippine
Commission: provided, that the
admiralty iurisdiction of the Supreme court and Courts of First lnstance
shall not be changed except by
Act of Congress.
sEcTlON 10. That the Supreme Court of the United States shall have jurisdiction
to review, revise,
reverse, modify, or aff irm the final judgments and decrees of the Supreme Court of the philippine
Islands
in all actions, cases, causes, and proceedings now pending therein
or hereafter determined thereby in
which the Constitution or any statute, treaty, title, right, or privilege of the
United States is involved, or in
causes in which the value in controversy exceeds twenty{ive thousand dollars,
or in which the tiile or
possession of real estate exceeding in value the sum of twenty-five
thousand dollars, to be ascertained
by the oath of either party or of other competent witnesses, is involved or
brought in question; and
such final judgments or decrees may and can be reviewed, revised, reversed,
modified, or affirmed by
said Supreme Court of the United States on appeal or writ of error by the party
aggrieved, in the same
STUDY AIfi
The cooper Act paved the way for the estabrishment of a bicamerar
regisrature for the
Philippines in 1907. The upper house. known as the phirippin"
c;;,"i;;;,
*as neaa"a
by the American governor-generar. on the other hand, the rower
house or the phirippine
Assembllz was:conrpes€d of Filjpino legisrators, with sergio
osmefra as the:speaker and
Manuel L. Quezon and Vicente Singson as the majority and minority
readers, iespectivery
The assembly was inaugurated on bctober 16, 1g07.
CI.IAIT.TEFi
,1iJ THE SUPPRESSION OF FILIPINO NATIoNALISM AND THE FILIPINIZATIoN
oF THE GoVERNMENT
procedure, aS far aS applicable, aS the final
-;]..er, Under the Same regulations, and by the Same
Courts of the United States
- : l-'rents and decrees of the Circuit
'
SEcTloNl2.ThatallthepropertyandrightswhichmayhavebeenacquiredinthePhilippine
:l^JsbytheUnitedStatesunderthetreatyofpeacewithSpain,signedDecembertenth,eighteen
.-.:.edandninety-eight,exceptsuchlandorotherpropertyasshallbedesignatedbythePresidentof
are hereby
-; reservations of the Government of the United states'
-rited States for military and other of the
: ::ed under the control of the Government of said lslands, to be administered for the benefit
- - acltants thereof , except as provided in this Act'
philippine lslands, subiect to the provisions of this Act
sEc,oN i3. That the Government of the
to its agricultural character and productiveness'
=- I except
as herein provided, shall classify according
public
,-: shall immediately make rules and regulations for the lease, sale, or other disposition of the
shall not go into efiect or have
.-:s other than timber or mineral lands, but such rules and regulations
_:forceoflawuntlltheyhavereceivedtheapprovalofthePresident,andWhenapprovedbythe
the next ensuing session
:.esident they shall be submitted by him to congress at the beginning of
close of such
by congress at said session they shall at the
rhereof and unless disapproved or amended
homestead entry
lslands: Provided' that a single
period have the force and efiect of law in the Philippine
shall not exceed sixteen hectares in extent
philippine lslands is hereby authorized and empowered
sEcION 14. That the Government of the
perfect their
to enact rules and regulations and to
prescribe terms and conditions to enable persons to
transfer of sovereignty from spain
prior to the to the United
title to public lands in said lslands, who,
of the
required by the Spanish laws and royal decrees
States, had fulfilled all or Some of the conditions
of title; and
thereto, yet failed to secure conveyance
Kingdom of spain for the acquisition of legal title
patents, without compensation, to any native of said
the Philippine Commission is authorized to issue
more than sixteen hectares in extent' which
were public
lslands, conveying tltle to any tract of land not
of
native or his ancestors prior to and on the thirteenth
lands and had been actually occupied by such
August, eighteen hundred and ninety-eight'
philippine lslands is hereby authorized and empowered,
sEcTloN 15. That the Government of the
legislation, to provide for the granting or sale
and
on such terms as it may prescribe, by general
other citizens of said lslands such
parts and portions
conveyance to actual occupants and settlers and
as it
mineral lands, of the United States in said lslands
of the publlc domain, other than timber and
maydeemWiSe,notexceedingsixteenhectarestoanyonepersonandforthesaleandconveyance
persons:
hectares to any corporation or association of
of not more than one thousand and twentyJour
Provided,thatthegrantorsaleofsuchlands,whetherthepurchasepricebepaidatonceorinpartial
payments,shalIbeconditioneduponactualandcontinuedoccupancy,improvement,andcu|tivationof
purchaser or grantee
than five years, during which time the
the premises sold for a period of not less
restriction shall not apply to transfers
encumber said land or the title thereto; but such
cannot alienate or
ofrightsandtitleofinheritanceunderthelawsforthedistributionoftheestatesofdecedents.
SEcTloN16.Thatingrantingorsellinganypartofthepublicdomainundertheprovisionsofthe
and such
shall be given to actual occupants and settlers;
last preceding Section, preference in aIl cases
possession or occupancy o{ any native of the Philippine
public lands of the Unlted states in the actual
lslandsshallnotbesoldbysaidGovernmenttoanyotherpersonwithouttheconsenttheretoofSaid
Provided, that the prior right hereby secured
to an
prior occupant or Settler first had and obtained:
proof of title than possession, shall not apply to
more than
ocoupant of land, who can show no other
sixteen hectares in anY one tract'
SEcTloNlT.Thattimber,trees,forests,andforestproductsonlandsleasedordemisedby
be cut' destroyed'
under the provisions of this Act shall not
the Government of the Philippine lslands
161
removed, or appropriated except by special permission of said Government
and under such regulations
as it may prescribe.
All moneys obtained from lease or sale of any portion of the public domain
or from licenses to cut
timber by the Government of the Philippine lslands shall be covered into the lnsular
Treasury and be
subject only to appropriation for insular purposes according to law.
SECTION 18. That the forest laws and regulations now in force in the philippine
lslands, with
such modifications and amendments as may be made by the Government of
said lslands, are hereby
continued in force, and no timber lands forming part of the public domain
shall be sold, leased, or
entered until the Government of said lslands, upon the certification of the Forestry
Bureau that said
lands are more valuable for agriculture than for forest uses, shall declare such
lands so certified
to be agricultural in character: Provided, that the said Government shall have the
right and is hereby
empowered to issue licenses to cut, harvest, or collect timber or other forest products
on reserved or
unreserved public lands in said lslands in accordance with the forest laws and
regulations herejnbefore
mentioned and under the provisions of this Act, and the said Government
may lease land to any person
or persons holding such licenses, sufficient for a mill site, not to exceed four hectares
in extent, and
may grant rights of way to enable such person or persons to get access
to the lands to which such
licenses apply.
SECTION 19. That the beneficial use shall be the basis, the measure, and
the limit of all rights to
water in said lslands, and the Government of said lslands is hereby
authorized to make such rules and
regulations for the use of water, and to make such reservations
of public lands for the protection of the
water supply, and for other public purposes not in conf lict with the provisions of this Act,
as it may deen-
best for the public good.
GUIDE QUESTIOT*S SECTION 20. That in all cases public lands in the Philippine lslands valuable for minerals
shall be
. Why did the Cooper Act of reserved from sale, except as otherwise expressly directed by law.
1902 provide the holding of a
SECTION 21. That all valuable mineral deposits in public lands in the philippine lslands,
census? both
. How did the establishment of a surveyed and unsurveyed, are hereby declared to be free and open to exploration, occupation,
and
Philippine Assembly composed purchase, and the land in which they are found to occupation
of Filipinos be an opportunity
and purchase, by citizens of the United
for self-government? States, or of said lslands: Provided, that when on any lands in said lslands
entered and occupied as
. What did the law say about agricultural lands under the provisions o{ this Act, but not patented, mineral
deposits have been found,
the natural resources of the
the working of such mineral deposits is hereby forbidden until the person, association, or corporation
Philippines and the prospect of
exploiting them? who or which has entered and is occupying such lands shall have paid to the Government
of said
. Was the prescribed lslands such additional sum or sums as will make the total amount paid for the mineral claim
participation of the Filipinos or claims
in which said deposits are located equal to the amount charged by the Government
in the system of governance for the same as
significant? Why or why not? mineral claims....
SECTION 86. That all laws passed by the Government of the Philippine lslands shall be reported
to Congress, which hereby reserves the power and authority to annul the same, and the philippine
Commission is hereby directed to make annual report of all its receipts and expenditures to the
Secretary
of War.
Source: Ihe Philippine Organic Act of 1902
ffqg{gt of the Phitippine Autcnomy Asr

of 191S or J*neo Larrir
After the conditions set by the Cooper Act had been met, the lower house of the
Philippine legislature, the Philippine Assembly composed of Filipinos was elected
in 1907. The assembly was formally inaugurated on Octob er 16, 1907, with Sergio
Osmefia of Cebu as the Speaker of the assembly. One of the most notable acts legislated
C}iAPi[FJ 1I] THE SUPPRESSION OF FILIPINO NATIONALISM AND THE FILIPINIZATION OF THE GOVERNMENT
by the body was Act 1801 or the Gabaldon Act which allotted a budget of one million
pesos for the construction of public schools throughout the Philippines. Another early
legislative measure of the Philippine Asembly was the establishment of the University
of the Philippines in 1908. It was in 1916 when the Cooper Act was supplanted by a
new organic law, the Philippine Autonomy Act of 1916 which significantly furthered
Filipino participation in the government.
This particular law, enacted on August 29,1916, was authored by US Representative
from Virginia, 'STilliam Atkinson Jones. It ultimately created a bicameral Philippine
Iegislature, with upper and lower houses to be exclusively composed of Filipino
lawmakers. An excerpt of the law is found below.
:'*?'ySource
Philippine Autonomy Act, August 29, 19.16
-'. ACT TO DECLARE THE PURPOSE OF THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES AS TO THE FUTURE
POLITICAL STATUS OF THE PEOPLE OF THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS, AND TO PROVIDE A MORE
AUTONOMOUS GOVEHNMENT FOR THOSE ISLANDS.
PREAMBLE
,'r.ler€a.S it was never the intention of the people of United States in the incipiency of the war with Spain
:: make it a war of conquest or for territorial aggrandizement; and

Whereas it is, as it has always been, the purpose of the people of the United States to withdraw
:reir sovereignty over Philippine lslands and to recognize their independence as soon as a stable
government can be established therein; and
Whereas for the speedy accomplishment of such purpose it is desirable to place in the hands of the
people of the Philippines as large a control of their domestic affairs as can be given them without, in the
meantime, impairing the exercise of the rights of sovereignty by the people of the United States, in order
that, by the use and exercise of popular franchise and governmental powers, they may be the better
prepared to fully assume the responsibilities and en.joy all the privileges of complete independence:
Therefore
Section 3. Bill o, Rights
(a) Due process and eminent domain. That no law shall be enacted in said lslands which shall
deprive any person o{ life, liberty, or property without due process of law, or deny to any person therein the
equal protection of the laws. Private property shall not be taken for public use without just compensation.
(b) Rights of persons accused of crime. That in all criminal prosecutions the accused shall enjoy
the right to be heard by himself and counsel, to demand the nature and cause of the accusation against
him, to have a speedy and public trial, to meet the witnesses face to face, and to have compulsory
process to compel the attendance of witnesses in his behalf .
That no person shall be held to answer for a criminal offense without due process of law; and no
person for the same offense shall be twice put in jeopardy of punishment, nor shall be compelled in any
criminal case to be a witness against himself .
That all persons shall before conviction be bailable by suff icient sureties, except for capital offenses.
(c) Obligation of contracts. That no law impairing the obligation of contracts shall be enacted.
(d) lmprisonment for debt, That no person shall be imprisoned for debt.
(e) Suspension of habeas corpus, That the privilege of the writ of habeas corpus shall not be
suspended, unless when in cases of rebellion, lnsurrection, or invasion the public safety may require
it, in either of which event the same may be suspended by the President, or by the Governor-General,
wherever during such period the necessity for such suspension shall exist.
163
(f) Ex post facto laws, primogeniture, titles of nobility. That no ex post facto law or bill of attainder
shall be enacted nor shall the law of primogeniture ever be in force in the Philippines.
That no law granting a title of nobility shall be enacted, and no person holding any office of prof it or
trust in said lslands shall, without the consent of the Congress of the United States, accept any present
emolument, office, or title of any kind whatever from any king, queen, prince, or foreign state
(g) Bail and punishment. That excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines imposed
William Atkinson Jones was born nor cruel and unusual punishment inflicted.
in 1849 in the town of Warsaw, (h) Unreasonable searches. That the right to be secured against unreasonable searches and
Virglnia. After f ghting in the
American Civll War, he entered seizures shall not be violated.
the Un versity of Virginia where he (i) Slavery. That slavery shall not exist in said lslands; nor shall involuntary servitude exist therein
eventually earned his law degree.
except as a punishment for crime whereof the party shall have been duly convicted,
He later became an active member
of the Democratic Party and (j) Freedom of speech. That no law shall be passed abridging the freedom of speech or of the press
was elected to the US Congress or the right of the people peaceably to assemble and petition the Government for redress grievances.
representing Virginia's f irst district.
ln his tenure at the House, he
(k) Freedom of religion. That no law shall be made respecting an establishment of religion or
sponsored the Philippine Autonomy prohibiting the free exercise thereof, and that the free exercise and enjoyment of religious profession
Act which supplanted the Cooper
and worship, without discrimination or preference, shall forever be allowed; and no religious test
Act.
shall be required for the exercise of civil or political rights. No public money or property shall ever be
appropriated, applied, or used, directly or indirectly, for the use, benef it, or support of any sect, church
denomination, sectarian institution, or system of religion, or for the use, benef it, or support of any priest
preacher, minister, or other religious teacher or dignitary as such.
(l) Polygamy. Contracting of polygamous or plural marriages hereafter is prohibited. That no law
shall be construed to permit polygamous or plural marriages.
(m) How public funds to be spent. That no money shall be paid out of the treasury except in
pursuance of an appropriation by law.
(n) Uniform tax. That the rule of taxation in said lslands shall be uniform,
(o) Subject and title of bills. That no bill which may be enacted into law shall embrace more than
one subject, and that subject shall be expressed in the title of the bill.
(p) Warrants of arrest, That no warrant shall issue but upon probable cause, supported by oath or
affirmation, and particularly describing the place to be searched and the person or things to be seized
(q) Special funds. That all money collected on any tax levied or assessed for a special purpose
shall be treated as a special fund in the treasury and paid out for such purpose only.
Section 9. Public Property and Legislation on Public Domain, Timber and Mining
That all the property and rights which may have been acquired in the Philippine lslands by the United
States under the treaty of peace with Spain, signed December tenth, eighteen hundred and ninety-eight,
except such land or other property as has been or shall be designated by the President of the United
States for military and other reservations of the Government of the United States, and all lands which
may have been subsequently acquired by the Government of the Philippine lslands by purchase under
the provisions of sections sixty{hree and sixty{our of the Act of Congress approved July first, nineteen
hundred and two, except such as may have heretofore been sold and disposed of in accordance with
the provisions of said act of Congress, are hereby placed under the control of the government of said
Islands to be administered or disposed of for the benefit of the inhabitants thereof, and the Philippine
Legislature shall have power to legislate with respect to all such matters as it may deem advisable; but
acts of the Philippine Legislature with reference to land of the public domain, timber, and mining hereafter
enacted, shall not have the force of law until approved by the President of the United States: Provided,
That upon the approval of such an act by the Governor-General, it shall be by him forthwith transmitted
to the President of the United States, and he shall approve or disapprove the same within six months
Ci-iAPii:R 1C THE SUPPRESSION OF FILIPINO NATIONALISM AND THE FILIPINIZATION OF THE GOVERNMENT
from and after its enactment and submission for
his approval, and if not disapproved within such
trme it
shall become a law the same as if it had been specifically
approved: provided, further, That where lands
in the Philippine lslands have been or may be reserved
for any public purpose of the United States,
and' being no longer required for the purpose for which reserved,
have been or may be, by order of
the President, placed under the control of the government
of said lslands to be administered for the
cenefit of the inhabitants thereof, the order of the President
shall be regarded as effectual to give the
government of said lslands full control and power
to administer and dispose of such lands for the benefit
rf the inhabitants of said lslands.
Section 12. The philippine Legislature
:hat general legislative powers in the Philippines,
except as herern otherwise provided, shall be
in a Legislature which shall consist of two houses, one
"ested the senate and the other the House of
lepresentatives, and the two houses shall be designated "the philippine
Legislature,,: provided, That
.rntil the Philippine Legislature as herein provided
shall have been organized the existing philippine
-egislature shall have all legislative authority hereln granted to the Government of the philippine
slands, except such as may now be within the exclusive jurisdiction
of the philippine commission,
is so continued until the organization of the Legislature
"''hich herein provided for the philippines.
the Philippine Legislature shall have been organized, the
"/hen exclusive legjslative jurisdiction
Id authority exercised by the Philippine commission shall thereafter be
exercised by the
r.riiippine Legislature.
Section 13. Election and eualification of Senators

-iat the members of the senate of the Philippines,
except as herein provided, shall be elected for
:erms of six and three years, as hereinafter provided, by
the qualified electors of the philippines. Each
cf the senatorial districts defined as hereinafter provided
shall have the right to elect two senators. No
person shall be an elective member of the Senate
of the Philippines who is not a qualified elector and
over thirty years of age, and who is not able to read and write
either the Spanish or English language,
and who has not been a resident of the Philippines for at least
two consecutive years and an actual
resident of the senatorial district from which chosen for period
a of at least one year immediately prior
to his election,
Section 14. Election and eualifications of Representatives
-hat the members of the House of Representatives shall, except as herein provided,
be elected triennially
:y the qualified electors of the Philippines. Each of the representative districts hereinafter provided for
stall have the right to elect one representative. No person shall be an elective member of the House of
iepresentatives who is not a qualified elector and over twenty{ive years of age, and who is not able
:c read and write either the Spanish or English language, and who has not been an actual resident of
the district from which elected for at least one year immediately prior to his election: provided, That the
members of the present Assembly elected on the first Tuesday in June, nineteen hundred and sixteen,
shall be the members of the House of Representatives from their respective districts for the term expiring
in nineteen hundred and nineteen.
Section 15. Qualifications of Voters
That at the first election held pursuant to this Act, the qualified electors shall be those having the
qualifications of voters under the present law; thereafter and until otherwise provided by the philippine
Legislature herein provided for the qualifications of voters for senators and representatives in the
Philippines and all off icers elected by the people shall be as follows:
Every male person who is not a citizen or subject of a foreign power twenty-one years of age or
over (except insane and feeble-minded persons and those convicted in a court of competent jurisdiction
of an infamous offense since the thirteenth day of August, eighteen hundred and ninety-eight) who
165
shall have been a resident of the Philippines for one year and of the municipality in which he shall
offer to vote for six months next preceding the day of voting, and who is comprised within one of the
following classes:
(a) Those who under existing law are legal voters and have exercised the right of suffrage.
(b) Those who own real property to the value of 500 pesos, or who annually pay 30 pesos or more
of the established taxes.
(c) Those who are able to read and write either spanish, English, or a native language.
Section 16. Senate and Representative Districts, and Appointive Senators and Representatives
Similar to the Cooper Act, the Jones That the Philippine lslands shall be divided into twelve senate districts, as follows:
Law also served as a constitution
First district: Batanes, Cagayan, lsabela, llocos Norte, and llocos Sur.
for the Philippines containing a Bill
of Rights for the Filipinos. What Second district: La Union, Pangasinan, and Zambales.
were lhe rights included in the Third district: Tarlac, Nueva Ecija, Pampanga, and Bulacan.
Jones Law? Were these similar or
different from those provided for by
Fourth district: Bataan, Rizal, Manila, and Laguna.
the Cooper Act? Which do you think Fifth district: Batangas, Mindoro, Tayabas, and Cavite.
was more favorable to the Filipinos?
Sixth district: Sorsogon, Albay, and Ambos Camarines.
Seventh district: lloilo and Capiz.
Eight district: Negros Occidental, Negros Oriental, Antique, and palawan.
Ninth district: Leyte and Samar.
Tenth district: Cebu.
Eleventh district: Surigao, Misamis, and Bohol.
Twelfth district: The Mountain Province, Baguio, Nueva Vizcaya, and the Department of Mindanao anc
Sulu.
The representative districts shall be the eighty-one now provided by law, and three in the Mounta -
Province, one in Nueva Vizcaya, and five in the Department of Mindanao and Sulu.
The first election under the provisions of this Act shall be held on the first Tuesday of October, ninetee-
hundred and sixteen, unless the Governor-General in his discretion shall fix another date not earlie-
than thirty nor later than sixty days after the passage of this Act: Provided, That the Governor-Genera s
proclamation shall be published at least thirty days prior to the date f ixed for the election, and there sha
be chosen at such election one senator from each senate district for a term of three years and one :c-
six years. Thereafter one senator from each district shall be elected from each senate district for a ter-
of six years: Provided, That the Governor-General of the Philippine Islands shall appoint, without t-:
consent of the Senate and without restriction as to residence, senators and representatives who wi l. -
his opinion, best represent the senate district and those representative districts which may be incluc::
in the territory not now represented in the Philippine Assembly: Provided further, That thereafter electic-:
shall be held only on such days and under such regulations as to ballots, voting, and qualificatic--.
of electors as may be prescribed by the Philippine Legislature, to which is hereby given authorit.i :-
redistrict the Philippine lslands and modify, amend, or repeal any provision of this section, except s-:-
as refer to appointive senators and representatives. s
Section 17, Tenure of Senators and Representatives
That the terms of office of elective senators and representatives shall be six and three years, respeci .
= ,
and shall begin on the date of their election. ln case of vacancy among the elective members c. :-+
Senate or in the House of Representatives, special elections may be held in the districts wherein:---
vacancy occurred under such regulations as may be prescribed by law, but senators or representa, ,:.
elected in such cases shall hold office only for the unexpired portion of the term wherein the vac'-:
occurred. Senators and representatives appointed by the Governor-General shall hold office
--
removed by the Governor-General. . . ,
r-:iJAi:Ti:i:i iC THE SUPPBESSION OF FILIPINO NATIONALISM AND THE FILIPINIZATION OF THE GOVERNMENT
Section 19. Procedure for Law.Making
(a) Legislative.lournal and the veto power. That each house of the Legislature shall keep a journal
of its proceedings and, from time to time, publish the same; and the yeas and nays of the members
of either house, on any question, shall, upon demand of oneJifth of those present, be entered on the
journal, and every bill and joint resolution which shall have passed both houses shall, before it becomes
a law, be presented to the Governor-General. lf he approve the same, he shall sign it; but if not, he
shall return it with his objections to that house in which it shall have originated, which shall enter the
objections at large on its.journal and proceed to reconsider it. lf, after such reconsideration, two{hirds
of the members elected to that house shall agree to pass the same, it shall be sent, together with the
objections, to the other house, by which it shall likewise be reconsidered, and if approved by two{hirds
of all the members elected to that house it shall be sent to the Governor-General, who, in case he shall
then not approve, shall transmit the same to the Presjdent of the United States. The vote of each house
shall be by the yeas and nays, and the names of the members voting for and against shall be entered on
the journal. lf the President of the United States approve the same, he shall sign it and it shall become a
law. lf he shall not approve the same, he shall return it to the Governor-General, so stating, and it shall not
become a law: Provided, That if any bill or joint resolution shall not be returned by the Governor-General
as herein provided within twenty days (Sundays excepted) after it shall have been presented to him the
same shall become a law in like manner as if he had signed it, unless the Legislature by adjournment
prevent its return, in which case it shall become a law unless vetoed by the Governor-General within
thirty days after ad.iournment: Provided, further, That the President of the United States shall approve or
disapprove an act submitted to him under the provisions of this section within six months from and after
its enactment and submission for its approval; and if not approved within such time, it shall become a
aw the same as if it had been specif ically approved.
(b) The veto on appropriations.The Governor-General shall have the power to veto any
particular item or items of an appropriation bill, but the veto shall not affect the item or items to
which he does not object. The item or items objected to shall not take effect except in the manner
heretofore provided in this section as to bills and joint resolutions returned to the Legislature without
his approval.
(c) Report of laws to Congress. All laws enacted by the Philippine Legislature shall be reported to
rlt
the Congress of the United States, which hereby reserves the power and authority to annul the same. The Jones Law designated more
(d) Revisal of former appropriations. lf at the termination of any fiscal year the appropriations powers to native legislators
by allowing the Filipinos to
necessary for the support of Government for the ensuing fiscal year shall not have been made, the democratically choose individuals
several sums appropriated in the last appropriation bills for the objects and purposes therein specified, who would occupy the seats in
the upper house, now called the
so far as the same may be done, shall be deemed to be reappropriated for the several objects and
Senate ol the Philippines, The
purposes specified in said last appropriation bill; and until the Legislature shall act in such behalf elections, held in October '1916,
the treasurer shall, when so directed by the Governor-General, make the payments necessary for the created a Senate dominated by
the Nacionalista Party. Quezon
purposes aforesaid. was appointed as the Senate
Section 20. The Resident Commissioners President and Francisco Villanueva
as the Majority Floor Leader. Other
(a) Selection and tenure. That at the first meeting of the Philippine Legislature created by this Act
prominent members of this house
and triennially thereafter there shall be chosen by the Legislature two Resident Commissioners to the were Rafael Palma, Filemon Sotto,
United States, who shall hold their office for a term of three years beginning with the fourth day of March and lsauro Gabaldon.
following their election, and who shall be entitled to an official recognition as such by all Departments
upon presentation to the President of a certificate of election by the Governor-General of said lslands.
(b) Compensation. Each of said Besident Commissioners shall, in addition to the salary and the
sum in lieu of mileage now allowed by law, be allowed the same sum for stationery and for the pay of
necessary clerk hires as is now allowed to the members of the House of Representatives of the United
167
States, to be paid out of the Treasury of the United States, and the franking privilege allowed
by law to
members of Congress.
(c) Qualifications. No person shall be eligible to election as Besident Commissioner
who is not a
bona fide elector of said lslands and who does not owe allegiance to the United States and who is
not
more than thirty years of age and who does not read and write the English language. The present
two
Resident Commissioners shall hold office until the fourth of March, nineteen hundred and seventeen.
(d) Temporary vacancy.ln case of vacancy in the position of Resident Commissioner caused
by resignation or otherwise, the Governor-General may make temporary appointments until the next
meeting of the Philippine Legislature, which shall then fill such vacancy; but the Resident Commissioner
thus elected shall hold office only for the unexpired portion of the term wherein the vacancy occurred.
Section 21. The Governor-General
(a) Title, appointment, residence. That the supreme executive power shall be vested in an
executive officer, whose official title shall be "The Governor-General of the Philippine lslands.,, He shall
be appointed by the President, by and with the advice and consent of the Senate of the United States,
and hold his office at the pleasure of the President and until his successor is chosen and qualified. The
Governor-General shall reside in the Philippine lslands during his official incumbency, and maintain
his
office at the seat of Government.
(b) Powers and duties, He shall, unless otherwise herein provided, appoint, by and with
the consent
of the Philippine Senate, such officers as may now be appointed by the Governor-General, or such
as he is authorized by this Act to appoint, or whom may hereafter be authorized by law to appoint:
but appointments made while the Senate is not in session shall be effective either until disapproval
or until the next adjournment of the Senate. He shall have general supervision and control of all of
the
departments and bureaus of the Government in the Philippine lslands as far as is not inconsistent with
the provisions of this Act, and shall be commander in chief of all locally created armed forces and
i;ilrii#
,The,JgnesLaW, .;rrr
STUDY AIT} .divided.the,',, ,, ,,r,, , ,
,P.,hilip$ines jnto., .,
llwelvgl sehatbrlal ., ;,
,ArslrietS. O ig] ttt "
,alfaislii*were.r-,,
,altowed lo:elect two
senators eiceot
tfi€.twelfth;,whose
,r
,r.e,,P,,r9s,eq1atives.,,,,
,to] thg; S_eqatel, - 1,:, ;,1 ;
:weredi tg,..:r,'"
appolnted,by,tlie , , ,
Arnerieanmlonial, ,,
govefnment; :r : : .: l
S
OItI\ TEi-i 1O THE SUPPBESSION OF FILIPINO NATIONALISM AND THE FILIPINIZATION OF THE GOVEBNMENT
Til tia. He is hereby vested with the exclusive power to grant pardons and reprieves and remit fines
=rd forfeitures, and may veto any legislation enacted as herein provided. He shall submit within ten
:ays of the opening of each regular session of the Philippine Legislature a budget of receipts and
=xpenditures, which shall be the basis of the annual appropriation bill. He shall commission all officers
:rat he may be authorized to appoint, He shall be responsible for the faithful execution of the laws of the
rnilippine lslands of the United States operative within the Philippine lslands, and whenever it becomes
iecessary he may call upon the commanders of the military and naval forces of the United States in the
slands, or summon the posse comitatus, or call out the militia or other locally created armed forces, to
crevent or suppress lawless violence, invasion, insurrection, or rebellion; and he may, in case of rebellion
cr invasion, or imminent danger thereof, when the public safety requires it, suspend the privileges of
the writ of habeas corpus, or place the lslands, or any part thereof, under martial law: Provided, That
whenever the Governor-General shall exercise his authority, he shail at once notify the President of the
United States thereof, together with the attending facts and circumstances and the President shall have
power to modify or vacate the act of the Governor-General.
(c) Report of the Governor-General. He shall annually and at such other times as he may be
required make such official report of the transactions of the Government of the Philippine lslands to an
executive department of the United States to be designated by the President, and his said annual report
shall be transmitted to the Congress of the United States; and he shall perform such additional duties
and functions as may in pursuance of the law be delegated or assigned to him by the President.
Section 22. The Executive Departments and the Legislature
(c) Provisions for a bureau for non-Christians. There is hereby established a bureau, to be known
as the Bureau of Non-Christian Tribes, which said bureau shall be embraced in one of the executive
departments to be designated by the Governor-General, and shall have general supervision over the
public afiairs of the inhabitants of the territory represented in the Legislature by appointive senators and
re p resentatives.
Section 26. The Judiciary
(a) Jurisdiction of courts and appointment of judges. That the Supreme Court and the Courts of
Frrst Instance of the Philippine lslands shall possess and exercise jurisdiction as heretofore provided
and such additional jurisdiction as shall hereafter be prescribed by law. The municipal courts of said
slands shall possess and exercise jurisdiction as now provided by law, subject in all matters to such
alteration and amendment as may be hereafter enacted by law; and the chief justice and associate
.JStices of the supreme court shall hereafter be appointed by the President, by and with the advice and
.onsent of the Senate of the United States. The judges of the court of f irst instance shall be appoirrted by
:ne Governor-General, by and with the advice and consent of the Philippine Senate: Provided, That the
admiralty jurisdiction of the supreme court and courts of first instance shall not be changed except by
act of Congress. That in all cases pending under the operation of existing laws, both criminal and civil,
::e jurisdiction shall continue until final judgment and determination.
Section 27. Cases Appealable to the United States Supreme Court
That the Supreme Court of the United States shall have jurisdiction to review, revise, reverse,
rodify, or affirm the final judgments and decrees of the supreme court of the Philippine lslands in
a i actions, cases, causes, and proceedings now pending therein or hereafter determined thereby in
,'rhich the Constitution or any statute, treaty, title, right or privilege of the United States is involved, or
^ causes in which the value in controversy exceeds $25,000, or in which the title or possession of real
:state exceeding in value the sum of $25,000, to be ascertained by the oath of either party or of other
:lmpetent witnesses, is involved or brought in question; and such final judgments or decrees may and
:an be reviewed, revised, modif ied, or aff irmed by said Supreme Court of the United States on appeal or
169
writ of error by the party aggrieved within the same time, in the same manner,
under the same regulatiofl
and by the same procedure, as far as applicable, as the final judgments and decrees
of the distric:
courts of the United States,
Approved, August 29, 19i6.
Source: Ihe Jones Law of 19.€
HfgFHt cf the Fhitippine *mdependen*e Aet

sf tS84 or Tydimgs-BUi*duffi* Abt
In the preamble of the Jones Law 1916, it was clearly stated that the United States
will eventually'withdraw their sovereignry over the Philippine Islands" and will granr
Filipino independence "as soon as a stable government can be established therein.'
Although campaigns for independence had been present since 1906, such efforts
were
later halted with the onset of the First \7orld lVar. It was in l9l9 after the
conclusion
of the war, when new active independence missions were once again sent to
the United
States. Two of the most notable, out of the total of twelve, were the 1919 independence
mission led by then Senate President Manuel L.
Quezon, future presideit of th.
Commonwealth period, and the 1931 OsRox mission headed by then-senate president
Pro-tempore Sergio Osmeha and Speaker of the Assembly Manuel
Roxas, also bori
future Presidents of the philippines.
Primary Source
The philippine lndependence Act (Tydings_McDuffie Act), March
23, i934
AN ACT TO PROVIDE FOR THE COMPLETE INDEPENDENCE
OF THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS, TO
PROVIDE FOR THE ADOPTION OF A CONSTITUTION AND
A FORM OF GOVERNMENT FOR THE
ISLANDS, AND FOR OTHER PURPOSES.
Convention to Frame Constitution for philippine lslands
sEcTloN 1' The Philippine Legislature is hereby authorized to provide
for the election:r
delegates to a constitutional convention, which shall meet in the
hall of the House of Representatives
in the capital of the Philippine lslands, at such time as the philippine
Legislature may fix, c._.r
not later than october 1, 1934, to formulate and draft a constitution
for the government of ire
Commonwealth of the Philippine lslands, subject to the
conditions and qualifications prescribec
in this Act, which shall exercise jurisdiction over all the tenitory
ceded to the United States by il,e
treaty of peace concluded between the United States and spain
on the 10th day of December
1898, the boundaries of which are set forth in Article lll
of said treaty, together with those islanos
embraced in the treaty between Spain and the United States
concluded at Washington on rE
7th day of November, 1900. The Philippine Legislature shall provide
for the necessary expenses:r
such convention.
Character of Constitutions _ Mandatory provisions
SECTION 2.
(a) The constitution formulated and drafted shall be republican
in form, shall contain a bill j
rights, and shall, either as a part thereof or in an ordinance
appended thereto, contain provisions to Lf-E
effect that, pending the final and complete withdrawal of the
sovereignty of the United States over r€
Philippine lslands.
(1) All citizens of the Philippine lslands shall owe allegiance
to the United States.
(2) Every officer of the government of the commonwealth
of the philippine lslands shall, before
entering upon the discharge of his duties, take and subscribes
an oath of office, declaring, amon*a
CHAPTE|'i 1O THE SUPPRESSION OF FILIPINO NATIONALISM AND THE FILIPINIZATION

OF THE GOVERNMENT
The Resident Commissioner of the Philippines,
a position created by the Cooper Act in 1902,
continued to exist even after the Jones Law The STUDY AID
Commissioners were two non-voting members of the
US House oi Representatives sent by the Philippines
from '1907 to 1946. Holders of these positions were
free to engage in different legislative matters but
did not hold full voting rights. The first Resident
Commissioners were Benito Legarda and Pablo
Ocampo. Both of them came from prominent families
and were educaied at the University of Santo Tomas.
Pablo Ocampo's father was a gobernadorcillo in
Manila. The last commissioner, meanwhile, was
Cartos P. Romulo, a graduate of the University of the
Philippines and Colurnbia University. Bomulo would
later serve as the President of the United Nations
General Assembly, as a diplomat for many Philippine
Presidents, and as President ol the UP. He was also
awarded with the Pulitzer Prize and the Philippines'
Quezon Service Cross and Legion of Honor.
Ither things, that he recognizes and accepts the supreme authority of and will maintain true faith and
a legiance to the United States.
(3) Absolute toleration of religious sentiment shall be secured and no inhabitant or religious
trganization shall be molested in person or property on account of religious belief or mode of worship.
(4) Property owned by the United States, cemeteries, churches, and parsonages
lr convents appurtenant thereto, and all lands, buildings, and improvements used exclusively for
'elrgious, charitable, or educational purposes shall be exempt from taxation.
(5) Trade relations between the Philippine lslands and the United States shall be upon the basis
:rescribed in section 6.
(6) The public debt of the Philippine lslands and its subordinate branches shall not exceed limits
-ow or hereafter f ixed by the Congress of the United States; and no loans shall be contracted in foreign
:ountries without the approval of the President of the United States.
(7) The debts, liabilities, and obligations of the present Philippine Government, its provinces, GUIDE OUESTION$
-unicipalities, and instrumentalities, valid and subsisting at the time of the adoption of the constitution, . Compared with the provisions
previously set by the Cooper
:rall be assumed and paid by the new government.
Act, how did the Jones Law
(B) Provision shall be made for the establishment and maintenance of an adequate system of public reorganize the government?
:chools, primarily conducted in the English language. Which powers and duties were
transferred to the Filipinos?
(9) Acts affecting currency, coinage, imports, exports, and immigration shall not become law until . Why did the Jones law provide
=cproved by the President of the United States. Resident commissioners to be

sent to the united states?
(10) Foreign affairs shall be under the direct supervision and control of the United States.
(11) All acts passed by the Legislature of the Commonwealth of the Philippine lslands shall be
-eported to the Congress of the United States.
(12) The Philippine lslands recognizes the right of the United States to expropriate property for
-;blic uses, to maintain military and other reservations and armed forces in the Philippines, and, upon
:-der of the President, to call into the service of such armed forces ali military forces organized by the
rrilippine Government.
't71
(13) The decisions of the courts of the Commonwealth of the Philippine lslands shall be s,: :: :
review by the Supreme Court of the United States as provided in paragraph 6 of section 7,
(14) The United States may, by Presidential proclamation, exercise the right to interve:= -: -r"
preservation of the government of the Commonwealth of the Philippine lslands and for the ma .::-:-
of the government as provided in the constitution thereof, and for the protection of life, prope:. :.:
individual liberty and for the discharge of government obligations under and in accordance ,,.- -.
provisions of the constitution,
(15) The authority of the United States High Commissioner to the government of the Commonv,:-*
of the Philippine lslands, as provided in this Act, shall be recognized.
(16) Citizensandcorporationsof theUnitedStatesshallenjoyintheCommonwealthof thePhil c: -+
lslands all the clvil rights of the citizens and corporations, respectively, thereof.
(a) The constitution shall also contain the totlowing provisions, eftective as of the date:'*t
proclamation of the President recognizing the independence of the Philippine lslands, as here-r'q
provided:
(1)That the property rights of the United States and the Philippine lslands shall be c-:-;"
ad\us\ed and sett\ed. and \hat a\\ exst\ng proper\y r\gh\s ot c\\\zens or corporatrons o\ \he Un\\e: :-=",*,
shall be acknowledged, respected, and safeguarded to the same extent as property rights :' : -:.-r
of the Philippine lslands.
(2) That the officials elected and serving under the constitution adopted pursuant to the :': . .
of this Act shall be constitutional officers of the free and independent Government of the :- :: .
lslands and qualified to function in all respects as if elected directly under such governmeni. ,-- i ,- :
serve their full terms of office as prescribed in the constitution.
(3) That the debts and liabilities of the Philippine lslands, its provinces, cities, municipa ::: i :
instrumentalities,whichshall bevalidandsubsistingatthetimeof thefinal andcompletewitrr-:,:, :

the soverergnty of the United States, shall be assumed by the free and independent Governme-: :" - "
Philippine lslands; and that where bonds have been issued under authority of an Act of Cor^:-=:: :
the United States by the Philippine lslands, or any province, city, or municipality therein, the P" : : - -
Government will make adequate provision for the necessary funds for the payment of inte.:s' :"r:
principal, and such obligations shall be a first lien on the taxes collected in the Philippine lslancs
(4) That the Government of the Philippine lslands, on becoming independent of the United S
= ;
will assume all continuing obligations assumed by the United States under the treaty of peace wrir -
-:: :
ceding said Philippine lslands to the United States.
(5) That by way of further assurance the Government of the Philippine lslands will embc:, -*
foregoing provisions [except paragraph (2)] in a treaty with the United States, . . .
Relatrons with the United States Pending Complete lndependence

SECTION 6. After the date of the inauguration of the government of the Commonwealth :--..
Philippine Islands trade relations between the United States and the Philippine lslands shall be a: -: ,
provided by law, subject to the following exceptions:

(a) There shall be levied, collected, and paid on all refined sugars in excess of f ifty thousand lon_c :: -.:
and on unref ined sugars in excess of eight hundred thousand long tons, coming into the United States *_"-
the Philippine lslands in any calendar year, the same rates of duty which are required by the laws:'-,
United States to be levied, collected, and paid upon like articles imported from foreign countries.
(b) There shall be levied, collected, and paid on all coconut oil coming into the United States '-. -
::
\he Ph\\\pp\ne \s\ands \n any ca\endar year \n excess oi \wo hundred \housand \ong \ons, \he sam: -
o{dutywhicharerequiredbythelawsoftheUnitedStatestobelevied,collected,andpaidupi-.:
articles lmported trom foreign countries.
Ci.,1'iPTi:i]
.ILl THE SUPPRESSION OF FILIPINO NATIONALISM AND THE FILIPINIZATION OF THE GOVERNMENT
b-
archipelago can be traced to the Spanish-American'War. To protect its citizens and
economic interests in Cuba, the United States sent its naval forces to the said colony
in the Caribbean which was then struggling to gain independence from the Spanish
Empire. on February 15, 1898, however, the uS battle ship Maine suddenly exploded
from the inside and sunk while docked at the Havana Harbor. This incident resulted
not only in the death of more than two hundred individuais but also in the increased
anti-Spanish sentiments in the States. Though an official declaration of war was nor
issued by the United States until Apri|25,1898, strong public opinions against the
Spanish had been extensively apparent, which even retained the rallying cry "Remember
the Maine, to hell with Spain!"
Meanwhile in the Philippines, in December ofthe previous year, the Pact of Biak-na-
Bato had been agreed upon by the Filipino revolutionary forces led by Emilio Aguinaldo
and by the Spanish colonial government under Governor-ge neral Fernando Primo de
FFB 1&SS FEB 4., t&S* FEB S, ''8gS FEB tS, ]SSS *Ee *, 1S$S ffiAH ?S. .tss"r Apffi :s. xssl
Publication of Kipling's San Juan Bridge Batification of the Belease of Battle of Tirad Pass Aguinaldo's arrest in Agujnaldo's official
White l\4an's Burden lncident Treaty of Paris Anti-lmperialist Palanan surrender
League s Address
129
cord, cordage, rope and cable,
(c) There shall be |evied' collected, and paid on all yarn, twine,
(abaca) or other hard fibers' coming into the united
tarred or untarred, wholly or in chief value of Manila
year in excess of a collective total of three million
states from the Philippine lslands in any calendar
poundsofallsuchartiolesherelnbeforeenumerated,thesameratesofdutywhicharerequiredby
and paid upon like articles imported from foreign
the laws of the United states to be levied, collected,
countries.
Major independent missions which aimed to

secure independence for the Filipinos were
led by some ol the Philippines'foremost
political figure$. A Spanish-mestizo, Manuel
L. Quezon, was born in 1878 and hailed
from Baler. He attended the Colegio de San
Juan de Letran (CSJL) and the University
of Santo Tomas (uST) where he obtained
his law degree in 1903. ln 1904, he placed
fourth at the Bar eXarns He was a councilor STUDY AID
andra governo{l in his home province before
he became a member of the Philippine
Asseinbly in ,1907' lie was the Senate
President in 1916' !n 1'9-44' Quezon died Jrom
tuberculosis while serving as the President of
the Cornmonwealth government wiiich was
then in exile in Washington.
Sergio Osmefra, meanwhile, was born
in Cebu City in 1878 to a wealthy Filipino-
Chinese entrepreneurial clan. Similar to
Quezon, he was educated at the CSJL and
UST. ln 1903, he placed second in the Bar
exams and began his potitical career shortly
after. After serving as the governor of Cebu,
he was elected to the Philippine Assembty
in 1907 and was appointed lo become
the Speaker. He subsequently served as
a senator from'1922 until '1935 before he
was elected the vice-president to Ouezon.
Upon the latter's death in 1944, he assumed
the presidency of the Commonwealth
government. He hetd the position until 1946.
Born in 1892 in Capie, Manuel A. Roxas
was a member of a wealthy family. He was
educated at the University of the Philippines
and was the Bar exam topnotcher in 1913,
i
He had served in his home province as a
councilor and as a governor before he was
elected to the Philippine Assembly in 1922
and as a senator in 1941 . After the war, he
was elected as the first president of the
Third Philippine Republic in 1946, defeating
Sergio Osmefta.
173
(d) ln the event that in any year the limit in the case of any article which may be exported to
the United States free of duty shall be reached by the Philippine lslands, the amount or quantity of
such articles produced or manufactured in the Philippine lslands thereafter that may be so exported
to the United States free of duty shall be allocated, under export permits issued by the government
of the Commonwealth of the Philippine lslands, io the producers or manufacturers of such articles
proportionately on the basis of their exportation to the United States in the preceding year; except that
in the case of unrefined sugar the amount thereof to be exported annually to the United States free of
duty shall be allocated to the sugar-producing mills of the lslands proportionately on the basis of their
average annual production for the calendar years 1 931 , 1 932, and 1 933, and the amount of sugar from
each mill which may be so exported shall be allocated in each year between the mill and the planters
on the basis of ihe proportion of sugar to which the mill and the planters are respectively entitled. The
Governmeni of the Philippine lslands is authorized to adopt the necessary laws and regulations for
putting into effect the allocation hereinbefore provided.
(e) The governmeni of the Commonwealth of the Philippine lslands shall impose and collect an
export tax on all articles that may be exported to the United States from the articles that may be exportec
to the United States from the Philippine lslands free of duty under the provisions of existing law as
modified by the foregoing provisions of this section including the articles enumerated in subdivisions (a)
(b) and (c), within the limitations therein specified, as follows:
(1) During the sixth year after the inauguration of the new government the export tax shall be 5 pe'
centum of the rates of duty which are required by the laws of the United States to be levied, collectec
and paid on like articles imported from foreign countries;
(2) During the seventh year after the inauguration of the new government the export tax shall be
10 per centum of the rates of duty which are required by the laws of the United States to be levie:
collected, and paid on like articles imported from foreign countries;
(3) During the eighth year after the inauguration of the new government the export tax shall b.=
15 per centum of the rates of duty which are required by the laws of the United States to be levie:
collected, and paid on like articles imported from foreign countries;
(4) During the ninth year after the inauguration of the new government the export tax shall be 20 p:-
centum of the rates of duty which are required by the laws of the United States to be levied, collecte :
and paid on like articles imported from foreign countries;
(5) After the expiration of the ninth year of the inauguration of the new government the export tax
shall be 25 per centum of the rates of duty which are required by the laws of the United States to be
levied collected and paid on like articles imported from foreign countries.
The government of the Commonwealth of the Philippine lslands shall place all funds received in
such export taxes in a sinking fund, and such funds shall, in addition to other moneys available for the
purpose, be applied solely to the payment of the principal interest on the bonded indebtedness of the
Philippine lslands, provinces, municipalities, and instrumentalities until such indebtedness has been
fully discharged.
When used in this section in a geographical sense, the term "United States" includes all Territories
and possessions of the United States, except the Philippine lslands, the Virgin lslands, American Samoa,
and the island of Guam.
SECTION 7. Until the final and complete withdrawal of American soverelgnty over the Philippine
lslands:
(1) Every duly adopted amendment to the constitution of the government of the Commonwealth
of the Philippine lslands shall be submitted to the President of the United States for approval. lf
the President approves the amendment or if the President fails to disapprove such amendment
CHAPTI:R 10 THE SUPPRESSION OF FILIPINO NATIONALISM AND THE FILIPINIZATION OF THE GOVERNMENT
within six months from the time of its submission, the amendment shall take effect as a part of
such constitution.
(2) The President of the United States shall have authority to suspend the taking effect of or the
operation of any law, contract, or executive order of the government of the Commonwealth of the
Philippine lslands, which in his judgment will result rn a failure of the government of the Commonwealth
of the Philippine Islands to fulfill its contracts, or to meet its bonded indebtedness and interest thereon
or to provide for its sinking funds, or which seems likely to impair the reserves for the protection of the
currency of the Philippine lslands, or which in his judgment will violate international obligations of the
United States.
(3) The Chief Executive of the Commonwealth of the Philippine lslands shall make an annual report
to the President and Congress of the United States of the proceedings and operations of the government
of the Commonwealth of the Philippine lslands and shall make such other reports as the President or
Congress may request.
(4) The President shall appoint, by and with the advice and consent of the Senate, a United States
High Commissioner to the government of the Commonwealth of the Philippine lslands who shall hold
office at the pleasure of the President and until his successor rs appointed and qualified. He shall be
known as the United States High Commissioner to the Philippine lslands. He shall be the representative
of the President of the United States in the Philippine Islands and shall be recognized as such by the
government of the Commonwealth of the Philippine lslands, by the commanding officers of the military
forces of the United States, and by all civil off icials of the United States in the Philippine lslands. He shall
have access to all records of the government or any subdivision thereof, and shall be furnished by the
Chief Executive of the Commonwealth of the Philippine lslands with such information as he shall request.
lf the government of the Commonwealth of the Philippine lslands fails to pay any of its bonded or
other indebtedness or the interest thereon when due or to fulf ill any of its contracts, the United States High
Commissioner shall immediately report the facts to the President, who may thereupon direct the High
Commissioner to take over the customs offices and administration of the same, administer the same,
and apply such part of the revenue received therefrom as may be necessary for the payment of such
overdue indebtedness or for the fulfillment of such contracts, The United States High Commissioner shall
annually, and at such other times as the President may require, render an off icial report to the President
and Congress of the United States. He shall perform such additional duties and functions as may be
delegated to him from time to time by the President under the provisions of this Act.
The United States High Commissioner shall receive the same compensation as is now received by
the Governor-General of the Philippine lslands, and shall have such staff and assistants as the President
may deem advisable and as may be appropriated for by Congress, including a financial expert, who
shall receive for submission to the High Commissioner a duplicate copy of the reports to the insular
auditor. Appeals from decisions of the insular auditor may be taken to the President of the United States.
The salaries and expenses of the High Commissioner and his staff and assistants shall be paid by the
United States.
The first United States High Commissioner appointed under this Act shall take office upon the
inauguration of the new government of the Commonwealth of the philippine lslands.
(5) The government of the Commonwealth of the Philippine lslands shall provide for the selection
of a Resident Commissioner to the United States, and shall fix his term of office. He shall be the
representative of the government of the Commonwealth of the Philippine lslands and shall be entitled to
offrcial recognition as such by all departments upon presentation to the President of credentials signed
by the Chief Executive of said government. He shall have a seat rn the House of Representatives of the
United States, with the right of debate, but without the right of voting. His salary and expenses shall be
175
fixed and paid by the Government of the Philippine lslands. Until a Besident Commissioner is seiected
and qualified under this section, existing law governing the appointment of Resident Commissioners
from the Philippine lslands shall continue in effect
(6) Review by the Supreme Court of the United States of cases from the Philippine lslands shall be
as now provided by law; and such review shall also extend to all cases involving the constitution of the
Commonwealth of the Philippine lslands.
SECTION 8.
(a) Effective upon the acceptance of this Act by concurrent resolution of the Philippine Legislature
or by a convention called for that purpose, as provided in section 17:
.1924
(1) For the purposes of the lmmigration Act of 1917, the lmmigration Act of lexcept section
13 (c)1, this section, and all other laws of the United States relating to the immigration, exclusion, or
expulsion of aliens, citizens of the Philippine lslands who are not citizens of the United States shall be
considered as if they were aliens. For such purposes the Philippine lslands shall be considered as a
separate country and shall have for each fiscal year a quota of fifty. This paragraph shall not apply to
a person coming or seeking to come to the Territory of Hawaii who does not apply for and secure an
immigration or passport visa, but such immigration shall be determined by the Department of the Interior
on the basis of the needs of industries in the Territory of Hawaii.
(2) Citizens of the Philippine lslands who are not citizens of the United States shall not be admitted
to the continental United States from the Territory of Hawaii (whether entering such territory before or
after the effective date of this section) unless they belong to a class declared to be non-immigrants by
section 3 of the lmmigration Act of 1924 or to a class declared to be nonquota immigrants under the
provisions of section 4 of such Act other than subdivision (c) thereof, or unless they were admitted to
such territory under an immigration visa. The Secretary of Labor shall by regulations provide a method
for such exclusion and for the admission of such excepted classes.
Recognition of Philippine lndependence and Withdrawal of American Sovereignty
SECTION 10.
(a) On the 4th, day of July immediately following the expiration of a period of ten years from the
date of the inauguration of the new government under the constitution provided for in this Act the
president of the United States shall by proclamation withdraw and surrender all right of possession'
supervision, jurisdiction, control, or sovereignty then existing and exercised by the United States in and
over the territory and peopte of the Philippine lslands, including all military and other reservations of the
Government of the United States in the Philippines (except such naval reservations and fueling stations
as are reserved under section 5), and, on behalf of the United States, shall recognize the independence
of the Philippine lslands as a separate and self-governing nation and acknowledge the authority and
control over the same of the government instituted by the people thereof, under the constitution
then in force.
(b) The President of the United States is hereby authorized and empowered to enter into negotiations
with the Government of the Philippine lslands, not later than two years after his proclamation recognizing the
independence of the Philippine lslands, for the adjustment and settlement of all questions relating to naval
reservations and fueling stations of the United States in the Philippine lslands, and pendlng such adjustment
and settlement the matter of naval reservations and fueling stations shall remain in its present status,
Tariff Duties After lndePendence
SECTION 13. After the Philippine lslands have become a free and independent nation there shall be
levied, collected, and paid upon all articles coming into the United States from the Philippine islands the
rates of duty which are required to be levied, collected, and paid upon like articles imported from other
foreign countries; Provided, That at least one year prior to the date fixed in this Act for the independence
CiiAPI'[:Fi iC THE SUPPRESSION OF FILIPINO NATIONALISM AND THE FILIPINIZATION OF THE GOVERNMENT
of the Philippine lslands, there shall be held a conference of representatives of the Government of the
United States and the Government of the Commonwealth of the Philippine lslands, such representatives
to be appointed by the President of the United States and the Chief Executive of the Commonwealth
of the Philippine lslands, respectively, for the purpose of formulating recommendations as to future
trade relations between the Government of the United States and the rndependent Government of the
Philippine lslands, the time, place, and manner of holding such conference to be determined by the
President of the United States; but nothing in this proviso shall be construed to modify or affect in any
way any provision of this Act relating to the procedure leading up to Philippine independence or the date
upon which the Philippine lslands shall become independent.
lmmigration After lndependence
SECTION 14. Upon the final and complete withdrawal of American sovereignty over the Philippine
lslands the immigration laws of the United States (including all the provisions thereof relating to persons
ineligible to citizenship) shall apply to persons who were born in the Philippine lslands to the same
extent as in the case of other foreign countries.
Source: Ihe Philippine lndependence Act of 1934
Excerpt of the 1935 Philippine Csnstituti*sr

One of the main provisions of the previously discussed Tydings-McDuffie Act was
the organization of a convention that would draft and finalize the constitution to
be used by the Philippine governmenr. In July 1934, Filipinos elected around 200
delegates for the said convention with Senator Claro M. Recto of Thyabas as the head.
The constitution was finalized in February 1935 and was formally ratified through a
plebiscite on May 14, 1935. The transitional government, called the Commonwealth,
was eventually inaugurated in November of the same year with Quezon and Osmefia
as president and vice-president, respectively. An excerpt of the 1935 Constitution is
found below.
Primary Source
CONSTITUTION OF THE PHILIPPINES
The Filipino people, imploring the aid of Divine Providence, in order to establish a government that shall
embody their ideals, conserve and develop the patrimony of the nation, promote the general welfare,
and secure to themselves and their posterity the blessings of independence under a 169ime of justice,
liberty, and democracy, do ordain and promulgate this Constitution.
Article l.-The National Territory
SECTION 1. The Philippines comprises all the territory ceded to the United States by the treaty of
Paris concluded between the United States and Spain on the tenth day of December, eighteen hundred
and ninety-eight, the limits of which are set forth in Article lll of said treaty, together with all the islands
embraced in the treaty concluded at Washington, between the United States and Spain on the seventh
day of November, nineteen hundred, and in the treaty concluded between the United States and Great
Britain on the second day of January, nineteen hundred and thirty, and allterritory over which the present
Government of the Philippine lslands exercises jurisdiction.
Article ll.-Declarataon of Principles
SECTION 1. The Philippines is a republican state. Sovereignty resides in the people and all
government authority emanates from them.
SECTION 2. The defense of the State is a prime duty of government, and in the fulfillment of this
duty all citizens may be required by law to render personal military or civil service.
177
SECTION 3. The Philippines renounces war as an instrument of national policy, and adopts the
generally accepted principles of international law as a part of the law of the Nation.
SECTION 4. The natural right and duty of parents in the rearing of the youth for civic efficiency
should receive the aid and support of the Government.
SECTION 5. The promotion of social justice to insure the well-being and economic security of all the
people should be the concern ot the State.
Article l1l.-Bill of Rights
SECTION 1.
GUIDE GUESTIONS (1) No person shall be deprived of life, liberty, or property without due process of law, nor shall any
. What two signi{icant provisions person be denied the equal protection of the laws.
did the Tydings-Mcduffie Law
(2) Private property shall not be taken for public use without just compensation.
contain?
. How did the law change (3) The right ot the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects against
the political situation in the unreasonable searches and seizures shall not be violated, and no warrants shall issue but upon probable
Philippines?
. How did the law arrange the
cause, to be determined by the judge after examination under oath or aff irmation of the complainant ano
relations between the US and the witnesses he may produce, and particularly describing the place to be searched, and the persons
the Philippines?
or things to be seized.
. What were the rights granted
to the United States even after (a) The liberty of abode and of changing the same within the limits prescribed by law shall
not be
the recognition of Philippine impaired.
independence? Were these
(5) The privacy of communication and correspondence shall be inviolable except
iustifiable? Explain. upon lawful order
of the court or when public safety and order require otherwise.
(6) The right to form associations or societies for purposes not contrary to law shall not
be abridged
(7) No law shall be made respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise
thereof , and the free exercise and enloyment of religious profession and worship, without discriminatior
or preference, shall forever be allowed. No religious test shall be required for the exercise of civil o:
political rights,
(8) No law shall be passed abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press, or the right
of the
people peaceably to assemble and petition the Government for redress of grievances
(9) No law granting a little of nobility shall be enacted, and no person holding any
office of profit o'
trust shall, without the consent of the National Assembly, accept any present, emolument, office,
or title
of any kind whatever from any foreign state.
(10) No law impairing the obligation of contracts shall be passed.
(1 1) No ex post facto law or bill of attainder shall be enacted.
(12) No person shall be imprisoned for debt or nonpayment of a poll tax.
(13) No involuntary servitude in any form shall exist except as a punishment for
crime whereof the
party shall have been duly convicted.
(14) The privilege of the writ of habeas corpus shall not be suspended
except in cases of invasion,
insurrection, or rebellion, when the public safety requires it, in any of which events the same
may be
suspended wherever during such period the necessity for such suspension shall exist.
(15) No person shall be held to answer for a criminal offense without due process
of law.
(16) All persons shall before conviction be bailable by sufficient sureties,
except those charged
with capital offenses when evidence of guilt is strong. Excessive bail shall not be required.
(17) ln all criminal prosecutions the accused shall be presumed to be innocent
until the
contrary is proved, and shall enjoy the right to be heard by himself and counsel, to be informed
of the nature and cause of the accusation against him, to have a speedy and public trial, to meet
the witnesses face to face and to have compulsory process to secure the attendance of witnesses
in his behalf.
CHAPTEft IC THE SUPPBESSION OF FILIPINO NATIONALISM AND THE FILIPINIZATION OF THE GOVEHNMENT
(18) No person shall be compelled to be a witness against himself '
(19) Excessive fines shall not be imposed, nor cruel and unusual
punishment inflicted'
(20)Nopersonshallbetwiceputinjeopardyofpunishmentforthesameoffense.lfanactis
shall constitute a bar to another
punished by a law and an ordinance, conviction or acquittal under either
prosecution for the same act.
(2,1)Freeaocesstothecourtsshallnotbedeniedtoanypersonbyreasonofpoverty.
Article IV.
-CitizenshiP
SECTION 1, The following are citizens of the Philippines:
time of the adoption of this constitution'
(1) Those who are citizens of the Philippine lslands at the
parents who, before the adoption of this
(2) Those born in the Philippine lslands of foreign
Philippine lslands'
constitution, had been elected to public office in the
(3) Those whose fathers are citizens of the Philippines
(4)ThoseWhosemothersarecitizensofthePhilippinesand,uponreachingtheageofmajority,
elect PhiliPPine citizenshiP
(5) Those who are naturalized in accordance with law'
in the manner provided by law'
SECTION 2, Philipplne citizenship may be lost or re-acquired
Article v.-suffrage
the Philippines not otherwise
sEcTloN 1. Suffrage may be exercised by male citizens of
disqualifiedbylaw,whoaretwenty-oneyearsofageoroverandareabletoreadandwrite,andwho
in the municipality wherein they propose to vote
shall have resided in the Philippines for one year and
Assembly shall extend the right of suffrage
for at least six months preceding the election. The National
purpose within two years after the adoption of
to women, if in a plebiscite which shall be held for that
women possessing the necessary qualifications
this Constitution, not less than three hundred thousand
shall vote affirmatively on the question'
Article Vl. - Legislative Department
SECTION 1, The Legislative power shall be vested
in a National Assembly' The Members of the
National Assembly shall not exceed one hundred and

twenty, shall be chosen every three years' and
shall be apportioned among the several provinces as nearly as may be according to the number of
at least one Member' The National Assembly
their respective inhabitants, but each province shall have
years after the return of every enumeration' and not
shall by law make an apportionment within three
otherwise. Until such apportionment shall have been made,
the National Assembly shall consist of
by the representative districts as now
ninety-eight Members, of whom eighty-seven shall be elected
of the other eight existing special
provided by law; and three by the Mountain Province, and one by each
of sulu, Lanao' and cotabato shall
provinces. The Members of the National Assembly in the provinces
provinces they shall be elected by the qualified
be chosen as may be determined by law; in all other
voters therein.
Assembly unless he has been f ive years
SECTION 2. No person shall be a Member of the National
a citizen of the Philippines, is at least thirty years of age,
and, at the time of his election' a qualified
for not less than one year immediately prior
elector, and a resident of the province in which he is chosen
to his election.
SECTION 3.
may be called in the corresponding
(1) ln case of vacancy in the NationalAssembly a special election
in the manner prescribed by law, but the member thus
elected shall serve only for the unexpired
district,
term.
(2)ElectionsfortheNationalAssemblysha|lbeheldonthedatesfixedbylaw.
(3)TheNationalAssemblyshal|conveneinregularsessiononceeveryyear,onthesecond
179
Members was held, unless a
Monday of the month immediately following that on which the election of its
session at any time by the
different date is fixed by law. The National Assembly may be called in special
president to consider general legislation or only such subjects as he may designate. No special session
hundred days, exclusive
shail continue longer than thirty days and no regular session longer than one
of SundaYs.
and such oihe'
(4) The National Assembly shall choose its Speaker, a secretary, a sergeant-at-arms,
a quorum to do business' bul
officers as may be required. A majority of all the Members shall constitute
a smaller number may adjourn from day to day, and may compel
the attendance of absent Members' tn
provide
such manner and under such penalties as the National Assembly may
punish its Members for
(5) The Natlonal Assembly may determine the rules of its proceedings,
Member' shall keep a Journal of
lt
disorderly behavior, and, with the concurrence of twothirds, expel a
parts as may in its judgment
its proceedings, and from time to time publish the same, excepting such
request of the onejifth of its
require secrecy; and the yeas and nays on any question shall, at the
Members present, be entered in the Journal'
shall be an Electoral Commission composed of three Justices of the
Supreme
SECTION 4. There
by the National Assembly, three of
Court designated by the Chief Justice, and of six Members chosen
votes, and three by the party having
whom shall be nominated by the party having the largest number of
shall be its Chairman'
the second largest number of votes therein. The senior Justice in the Commission
to the election, returns, and
The Electoral Commission shall be the sole judge of all contests relating
qualif ications of the Members of the National Assembly'
provided by law,
sECTloN 5, The Members of the National Assembly shall, unless otherwise
per diems and other emoluments
receive an annual compensation of five thousand pesos each including
or allowances and exclusive only of travelling expenses to and from their respective districts when
shall take effect until
attending sesslons of the National Assembly. No increase in said compensation
after the expiration of the full term of the Members of the National
Assembly elected subsequent to the
an annual compensation
approval of such increase. The Speaker of the National Assembly shall receive
of sixteen thousand pesos until otherwise provided by law'
SECTION 6. The Members of the National Assembly shall in all cases
except treason, felony, and
of the National
breach of the peace, be privileged from arrest during their attendance at the sessions
or debate therein, they shal!
Assembly, and in going to and returning from the same; and for any speech
not be questioned in any other place
on the basis of proportionar
SECTION 7. The National Assembly shall elect from among its Members,
representation of the political parties therein, a commission on Appointments
and a commission or
shall be constituted withir
lmpeachment, each to consist of twenty-one members, These Commissions
election of its Speaker, anc
thirty days after the National Assembly shall have been organized with the
respective Chairmen or a
shall meet only while the National Assembly is in session, at the call of their
herein conferred upon then-
majority of their members, to discharge such powers and functions as are
SECTION, B.
the Governmer:
(1) No Member of the National Assembly may hold any other office or employment in
without forfeiting his seat, nor shall any such Member during the time for
which he was elected' b:
whereof shall have bee-
appointed to any civil office which may have been created or the emoluments
increased while he was a Member of the National Assembly
an'
(2) No Member of the National Assembly shall directly or indirectly be financially interested in
contract with the Government or any subdivision or instrumentality thereof, or in any franchise or spec :
Member app:=
privilege granted by the National Assembly during his term of off ice; nor shall any such
wherein the Government or =-
as counsel before the Electoral Commission or any court in any civil case
OF THE GOVERNMENT
CiiAI-'I'i:ft ] O THE SUPPHESSION OF FILIPINO NATIONALISM AND THE FILIPINIZATION
sub-division or instrumentality thereof is the adverse party, or collect any fee for his appearance in any
administrative proceedings or in any criminal case wherein an off icer or employee of the Government is
accused of an offense committed in relation to his off ice, No Member of the Commission on Appointments
of the National Assembly shall appear as counsel before any court inferior to the Supreme Court.
SECTION 9.
(1)The President shall submit within fifteen days of the opening of each regular session of the
National Assembly a budget of receipts and expenditures, which shall be the basis of the general
appropriation bill. The National Assembly may not increase the appropriations recommended by the
President for the operation of the Government as specified in the Budget, except the appropriations for
the National Assembly and the Judicial Department. The form of the Budget and the information that it
should contain shall be prescribed by law.
(2) No provision or enactment shall be embraced in the general appropriation, unless it relates
specifically to some particular appropriation in the bill; and any such provision or enactment shall be
llmited in its operation to such appropriation.
SECTION 10. The heads of departments upon their own initiative or upon the request of the National
Assembly may appear before and be heard by the National Assembly on any matter pertaining to their
departments, unless the public interest shall require otherwise and the President shall so state in writing.
SECTION 1-1.
(1) Every bill which shall have passed the National Assembly shall, before it becomes a law, be
presented to the President. lf he approve the same, he shall sign it; but if not, he shall return it with his
objections to the National Assembly, which shall enter the objections at large on its Journal and proceed
to reconsider it, lf, after such reconsideration, two-thirds of all the Members of the National Assembly
shall agree to pass the bill, it shall become a law, ln all such cases the votes of the National Assembly
shall be determined by yeas and nays, and the names of the Members voting for and against shall not
be returned by the President as herein provided within twenty days (Sundays excepted) after it shall
have been presented to him, the same shall become a law in like manner as if he had signed it, unless
the National Assembly by adjournment prevent its return, in which case it shall become a law unless
vetoed by the President within thirty days after adjournment.
(2) The President shall have the power to veto any particular item or items of an appropriation
bill, but the veto shall not affect the item or items to which he does not object. When a provision of an
appropriation bill affects one or more items of the same, the Prestdent cannot veto the provision without
at the same time vetoing the particular item or items to which it relates. The item or items objected to shall
not take effect except in the manner heretofore provided as to bills returned to the National Assembly
without the approval of the President. lf the veto refers to a bill or any item of an appropriation bill which
appropriates a sum in excess of ten per centum of the total amount voted in the appropriation bill for the
general expenses of the Government for the preceding year, or if it should refer to a bill authorizing an
increase of the public debt, the same shall not become a law unless approved by threeJourths of all the
Members of the National Assembly.
(3) The President shall have the power to veto any separate item or items in a revenue or tariff bill,
and the item or items vetoed shall not take effect except in the manner provided as to bills vetoed by
the President.
SECTION 12.
(l) No bill which may be enacted into law shall embrace more than one sublect which shall be
expressed in the title of the bill.
(2) No bill shall be passed or become a law unless it shall have been printed and copies thereof
in its final form furnished the Members at least three calendar days prior to its passage by the
181
Nat\ona\ Assemb\y, except when the President sha\\ have certi{ied io the necessty oi \ts immediate
enactment. Upon the last reading of a bill no amendment thereof shall be allowed, and the question
upon its final passage shall be taken immediately thereafter, and the yeas and nays entered
on the Journal.
SECTION 13.
(1) All money collected on any tax levied for a special purpose shall be treated as special fund and
As provided by the 1935 paid out for such purpose only, lf the purpose for which a special fund was created has been fulf illed or
Constitution, a unicameral abandoned, the balance, if any, shall be transierred to the general funds of the Government.
legislative body abollshed and
(2) No money shall be paid out of the Treasury except in pursuance of an appropriation made by
replaced the bicameral system
previously created and reorganized law.
by the Cooper Act and Jones Law. (3) No pub\ic money or property shall ever be appropriated, apptied, or used, directly or indirectly.
The new \egislature was ca\\ed
the National Assembly of the for the use, benefit, or support of any sect, church, denomination, sectarian institution, or system of
Philippines, with Gil M. Montilla of religion, or for the use, benetit, or support of any priest, preacher, minister, or other religious teacher o'
Negros Oriental as the Speaker.
This unicameral setup was adopted
dignitary is assigned to the armed forces or to any penal institution, orphanage, or leprosarium.
by the Japanese-sponsored SECTION 14.
Second Philippine Republic which
( 1) The rule of taxation shall be uniform.
created its own assembly in 1943.
Benigno S. Aquino of Tarlac served (2) The National Assembly may by law authorize the President, subject to such limitations an:
as its Speaker. restrictions as it may impose, to fix within specified limits, tariff rates, import or export quotas, an:
tonnage and wharfage dues.
(3) Cemeteries, churches, and parsonages or convents appurtenant thereto, and all lanc-'
buildings, and improvements used exclusively for religious, charitable, or educational purposes sha
be exempt from taxation.
SECTION 15. The National Assembly shall, with the concurrence of two{hirds of all its Membe'.
have the sole power to declare war.
SECTION 16. ln times of war or other national emergency, the National Assembly may by a.
authorize the President, for a limited period and subject to such restrictions as it may prescribe ::
promulgate rules and regulations to carry out a declared national policy.
Anicb Vll. - Executive Department
SECTION 1. The Executive power shall be vested in a President of the Philippines.
SECTION 2. The President shall hold his office during a term of six years, and together with :-:
Vice-President chosen for the same term, shall be elected by direct vote of the people. The elec::-
returns for President and Vice-President, duly certified by the board of canvassers of each provinc=
shall be transmitted to the National Assembly. Upon the receipt of such returns the National Assen'c ,
shall forthwith, in public session, count the votes, and proclaim the persons elected President a-:
Vice-President. The persons respectively having the highest number of votes for President a-:
Vice-President shall be declared elected, but in case two or more shall have an equal and the higl^:i
number of votes for either office, the National Assembly shall, by a majority vote of all its Members, e :::
one of said persons as President or Vice-President.
SECTION 3. No person may be elected to the office of President or Vice-President, unless h: :=
a natural-born citizen of the Philippines, a qualified voter, forty years of age or over, and has be:- :
resident of the Philippines for at least ten years immediately preceding the election.
SECTION 4. No person elected President may be re-elected for the following term, nor -:-:
the Vice-President or any other person who may have succeeded to the office of President as::-:-
provided at least one year before the election, be eligible to the ofiice of President at such electio'
SECTION 5. Elections lor President and Vice-President shall be held once every six years on a :: :
to be fixed by the National Assembly.
CI-.IAPi[i] 1O THE SUPPRESSION OF FILIPINO NATIONALISM AND THE FILIPINIZATION OF THE GOVERNMENT
SECTION 6. The terms of the President and Vice-President shall end at noon on the thirtieth day
:f December following the expiration of six years after their election, and the terms of their successors
shall begin from such time.
SECTION 7.|f, al the time fixed for the beginning of the term of the President, the President-
3 ect shall have died, the Vice-President-elect shall become President. lf a President shall not have
ceen chosen before the time fixed for the beginning of his term, or if the President-elect shall have
'ailed to qualify, then the Vice-President shall act as President until a President shall have qualified,
and the National assembly may by law provide for the case wherein neither a President-elect nor a
/lce-President-elect shall have qualified, declaring who shall then act as President, or the manner rn
'vhich one who is to act shall be selected, and such person shall act accordingly until a President or
''/ice-President shall have qualif ied.
SECTION B. Before he enter on the execution of his office, the President shall take the following
oath or affirmation:
"l do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I will faithfully and conscientiously fulfill my duties
As President of the Philippines, preserve and defend its Constitution, execute its laws, do justice to
every man, and consecrate myself to the service of the Nation. So help me God." (ln case of aff irmation,
ast sentence will be omitted.)
SECTION g. ln the event of the removal of the President from office or of his death, resignation,
or inability to discharge the powers and duties of the said office, the same shall devolve on the
Vice-President, and the National Assembly shall by law provide for the case of removal, death,
resignation, or inability, both of the President and Vice-President, declaring what officer shall then
act as President, and such officer shall act accordingly, until the disability be removed or a President
shall be elected.
SECTION 10. The President shall have an official residence and receive a compensation to be
ascertained by law which shall be neither increased nor diminished during the period for which he
shall have been elected, and he shall not receive within that period any other emolument from the
Government or any of its subdivisions or instrumentalities. Until the National Assembly shall provide
otherwise, the President shall receive an annual salary of thirty thousand pesos. The Vice-President,
when not acting as President, shall receive an annual compensation of fifteen thousand pesos until
otherwise provided by law.
SECTION 11.
(1) The President shall have control of all the executive departments, bureaus, or offices, exercise
general supervision over all local governments as may be provided by law, and take care that the laws
be faithf ully executed.
(2) The President shall be commander-in-chief of all armed forces of the Philippines and, whenever
it becomes necessary, he may call out such armed forces to prevent or suppress lawless violence,
invasicjn, insurrection, or rebellion, or imminent danger thereof, when the public safety requires it, he
may suspend the privileges of the writ of habeas corpus, or place the Philippines or any part thereof
under martial law.
(3) The President shall nominate and with the consent of the Commission on Appointments of
the National Assembly shall appoint the heads of the executive departments and bureaus, officers of
the Army from the rank of colonel, of the Navy and air forces from the rank of captain or commander,
and all other officers of the Government whose appointments are not herein otherwise provided
for, and those whom he may be authorized by law to appoint; but the National Assembly may by
law vest the appointment of inferjor officers, in the President alone, in the courts, or in the heads
of departments.
183
(4) The President shall have the power to make appointments
during the recess of the na.,,-;,
Assembly, but such appolntments shall be effective only until disapproval by
the Comn- s.: _. ilr
Appointments or untir the next adjournment of the Nationar Assembry.
(5) The President shall from time to time give to the National Assembly
information of the state c-
the Nation, and recommend to its consideration such measures as shalljudge
necessary and expedier--
(6) The President shall have the power to grant reprieves, commutations,
and pardons, and rerr:
fines and forfeitures, after conviction, for all offenses, except in cases of impeachment,
upon suc-
conditions and with such restrictions and limitations as he may deem proper to impose.
He shall har:
the power to grant amnesty with the concurrence of the Nationar Assembry.
(7) The President shall have the power, with the concurrence of a majority
of all the Members of 6:
National Assembly, to make treatles, and with the consent of the Commission on Appointments,
he sha
appoint ambassadors, other public ministers, and consuls. He shall receive ambassadors
and othe.
ministers duly accredited to the Government of the philippines.
SECTION 12.
(1) The executive departments of the present Government of the philippine
lslands shall continu:
as now authorized by law until the National Assembly shall provide otherwise.
(2) The heads of departments and chiefs of bureaus or off ices
and their assistants shall not, durin:
their continuance in office, engage in the practice of any profession, or intervene,
directly or indirecly. -
the management or control of any private enterprise which in any way may be affected
by the functiors
of their office; nor shall they, directly or indirectly, be financially interested in any contract
with 1^:
Government, or any subdivision or instrumentality thereof.
(3) The President may appoint the Vice-President as a member of his
cabinet and also as head c.
an executive department.
Article vlll. - Judicial Department
SECTIoN 1. The Judicial power shall be vested in one Supreme Court and in
such inferior cour:s
as may be established by law.
SECTIoN 2. The National Assembly shall have the power to define, prescribe,
and apportion th=
jurisdiction of the various courts, but may not
deprive the Supreme Court of its original jurisdictio-
over cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers, and consuls,
nor of its jurisdiction to review
revise, reverse, modify, or aff irm on appeal, certiorari, or writ of error, as
the law or the rules of court mar
provide, final judgments and decrees of inferior courts in_
(1) All cases in which the constitutionality or validity of any treaty,
law, ordinance, or executive orde.
or regulation is in question.
(2) All cases involving the legality of any tax, impost, assessment,
or toll, or any penalty imposec
in relation thereto.
(3) All cases in which the jurisdiction of any trial courts is in rssue.
(4) All criminal cases in which the penalty imposed is death or life
imprisonment.
(5) All cases in which an error or question of law is involved.
' SECTION 3. Until the National Assembly shall provide otherwise, the Supreme Court shall have
such original and appellate iurisdiction as may be possessed and exercised by
the Supreme Cour
of the Philippine lslands at the time of the adoption of this Constitution. The
original jurisdiction of the
Supreme Court shall include all cases affecting ambassadors, other public
ministers, and consuls.
SECTION 4 The Supreme Court shall be composed of a Chief Justice and
ten Associate Justices
and may sit either in banc or in two divisions unless otherwise provided by law.
SECTION 5. The members of the Supreme Court and all judges of inferior courts
shall be appointec
by the President with the consent of the Commission on Appointments of the National
Assembly.
CI.,iAP-iL,R 1O THE SUPPRESSION OF FILIPINO NATIONALISM AND THE FILIPINIZATION OF THE

GOVERNIVENT
SECTION 6. No person may be appointed member of the Supreme Court unless he has been five
years a citizen of the Philippines, is at least forty years of age, and has for ten years or more been a
ludge of a court of record or engaged in the practice of law in the Philippines.

SECTION 7. No judge appointed for a particular district shall be designated or transferred to another
district without the approval of the Supreme Court. The National Assembly shall by law determine the
residence of judges of inferior courts.
SECTION B. The National Assembly shall prescribe the qualifications of judges of inferior courts,
but no person may be appointed judge of any such courts unless he is a citizen of the Philippines and
has been admitted to the practice of law in the Philippines.
SECTION 9. The members of the Supreme Court and all .judges of inferior courts shall hold office
during good behavior, until they reach the age of seventy years, or become incapacitated to discharge
the duties of their office. They shall receive such compensation as may be fixed by law, which shall not
be diminished during the continuance in office. Until the National Assembly shall provide otherwise, the
Chief Justice of the Supreme Court shall receive an annual compensation of sixteen thousand pesos,
and each Associate Justice, fifteen thousand pesos.
SECTION 10. All cases involving the constitutionality of treaty or law shall be heard and decided
by the Supreme Court in banc, and no treaty or law may be declared unconstitutional without the
concurrence of twothirds of all the members of the Court.
SECTION 11. The conclusions of the Supreme Court in any case submitted to it for decision shall
be reached in consultation before the case is assigned to a Justice for the writing of the opinion of the
Court. Any Justice dissenting from a decision shall state the reasons for his dissent.
SECTION 12. No decision shall be rendered by any court of record without expressing therein
clearly and distinctly the facts and the law on which it is based.
Article lX. - lmpeachment
SECTION 1. The President, the Vice-President, the Justices of the Supreme Court, and the Auditor
General, shall be removed from office on impeachment for, and conviction of, culpable violation of the
Constitution, treason, bribery, or other high crimes.
SECTION 2. The Commission on lmpeachment of the National Assembly, by a vote of two{hirds of
its Members, shall have the sole power of lmpeachment.
SECTION 3. The National Assembly shall have the sole power to try all impeachments. When sitting
for that purpose the Members shall be on oath or affirmation. When the President of the Philippines is
on trial, the Chief Justice of the Supreme Cou( shall preside. No person shall be convicted without the
concurrence of threejourths of allthe Members who do not belong to the Commission on lmpeachment.
SECTION 4. Judgment in cases of impeachment shall not extend further then to removal from office
and disqualification to hold and enjoy any office of honor, trust, or profit under the Government of the
Philippines, but the party convicted shall nevertheless be liable and subject to prosecution, trial, and
punishment, according to law,
Article X.-General Auditing Office
. SECTION 1. There shall be a General Auditing Office under the direction and control of an Auditor
General, who shall hold off ice for a term of ten years and may not be reappointed. The Auditor General
shall be appointed by the President with the consent of the Commission on Appointments, and shall
receive an annual compensation fixed by law which shall not be diminished during his continuance in
office. Until the National Assembly shall provide otherwise, the Auditor General shall receive an annual
compensation of twelve thousand pesos.
SECTION 2. The Auditor General shall examine, audit, and settle all accounts pertaining to the
revenues and receipts from whatever source, including trust funds derived from bond issues; and audit,
185
in accordance with law and administrative regulations, all expenditures of funds or property pertaining to
or held in trust by the Government or the provinces or municipalities thereof. He shall keep the general
accounts of the Government and preserve the vouchers pertaining thereto. lt shall be the duty of the
Auditor General to bring to the attention of the proper administrative officer expenditures of funds or
property which, in his opinion, are irregular, unnecessary, excessive, or extravagant. He shall also
perform such other functions as may be prescribed by law.
SECTION 3. The decisions of the Auditor General shall be rendered within the time fixed by law,
and the same may be appealed to the President whose action shall be final. When the aggrieved party
is a private person or entity, an appeal from the decision of the Auditor General may be taken directly to
a court of record in the manner provided by law.

SECTION 4. The Auditor General shall submit to the President and the National Assembly an annual
report covering the financial condition and operations of the Government, and such other reports as may
be required.
Article Xlll. -General Provisions
SECTION 1. The f lag of the Philippines shall be red, white, and blue, with a sun and three stars, as
consecrated and honored by the people and recognized by law.
SECTION 2. All public off icers and members of the armed forces shall take an oath to support and
defend the Constitution.
SECTION. 3, The National Assembly shall take steps toward the development and adoption of a
common national language based on one of the existing native languages. Until otherwise provided by
law, English and Spanish shall continue as official languages.
SECTION 4, The State shall promote scientific research and invention. Arts and letters shall be
under its patronage. The exclusive right to writings and inventions shall be secured to authors and
inventors for a limited period.
SECTION. 5. All educational institutions shall be under the supervision of and subject to regulation
by the State. The Government shall establish and maintain a complete and adequate system of public
education, and shall provide at least free public primary instruction, and citizenship training to adult citizens.
All schools shall aim to develop moral character, personal discipline, civic conscience, and vocational
efficiency, and to teach the duties of citizenship. Optional religious instruction shall be maintained in the
public schools as now authorized by law. Universities established by the State shall enjoy academic
freedom. The State shall create scholarships in arts, science, and letters for specially gifted citizens.
SECTION 6. The State shall afford protection to labor, especially to working women and minors, and
shall regulate the relations between landowner and tenant, and between labor and capital in industry
and in agrlculture. The State may provide for compulsory arbifation.
SECTION 7. The National Assembly shall not, except by general law, provide for the formation,
organization, or regulation of private corporations, unless such corporations are owned or controlled by
the Government or any subdivision or instrumentality thereof.
SECTION 8. No franchise, certificate, or any other form of authorization for the operation of a public
utility shall be granted except to citizens of the Philippines or to corporations or other entities organized
under the laws of the Philipplnes, sixty per centum of the capital of which is owned by citizens of the
Philippines, nor shall such franchise, certificate, or authorization be exclusive in character or for a longer
period than fifty years, No franchise or right shall be granted to any individual, firm, or corporation,
except under the condition that it shall be subject to amendment, alteration, or repeal by the National
Assembly when the public interest so requires.
SECTION 9. The Government shall organize and maintain a national police force to preserve public
order and enforce the law.
CI.jAPi[R 'iU THE SUPPRESSION OF FILIPINO NATIONALISIV AND THE FILIPINIZATION OF THE GOVERNMENT
SECTION 10. This Constitution shall be officially promulgated in English and Spanish, but in case
cf conflict the English text shall prevail.
Article XVll.-The Commonwealth and the Republic
SECTION 1. The government established by this Constitution shall be known as the Commonwealth
cf the Philippines. Upon the final and complete withdrawal of the sovereignty of the United States and
the proclamation of Philippine independence, the Commonwealth of the Philippines shall thenceforth be
known as the Republic of the Philippines.
Ordinance Appended to the Constitution
SECTION 1. Notwithstanding the provisions of the foregoing Constitution, pending the final and
complete withdrawal of the sovereignty of the United States over the Philippines-
(1) All citizens of the Philippines shall owe allegiance to the United States.
(2) Every officer of the Government of the Commonwealth of the Philippines shall, before entering
upon the discharge of his duties, take and subscribe an oath of office, declaring, among other things,
ihat he recognizes and accepts the supreme authority of and will maintain true faith and allegiance to
the United States.
(3) Absolute toleration of religious sentiment shall be secured and no inhabitant or religious
organization shall be molested in person or property on account of religious belief or mode or worship.
(4) Property owned by the United States, cemeteries, churches, and parsonages or convents
appurtenant thereto, and all lands, buildings, and improvements used exclr..rsively for religious,
charitable, or educational purposes shall be exempt for taxation.
(5) Trade relations between the Philippines and the United States shail be upon the basis prescribed
in section six ol Pubiic Act Numbered One hundred and twenty-seven of the Congress of the United
States approved March twentyjour, nineteen hundred and thirtyJour.
(6) The public debt of the Philippines and its subordinate branches shall not exceed limits now
or hereafter fixed by the Congress of the United States, and no loans shall be contracted in foreign
countries without the approval of the President of the United States.
(7) The debts, liabilities, and obligations of the present Government of the Philippine lslands,
its provinces, municipalities, and instrumentallties, valid and subsisting at the time of the adoption
of the Constitution, shall be assumed and paid by the Government of the Commonwealth of
the Philippines.
(8) The Government of the Commonwealth of the Philippines shall establish and maintain an
adequate system of public schools, primarily conducted in the English language.
(9) Acts affecting currency, coinage, imports, exports, and immigration shall not become law until
approved by the President of the United States.
( 10) Foreign affairs shall be under the direct supervision and control of the United States.
(11) All acts passed by the National Assembly of the Commonwealth of the Philippines shall be
reported to the Congress of the United States.
(12) The Philippines recognizes the right of the United States to expropriate property for public
uses, to maintain military and other reservations and armed forces in the Philippines, and, upon order
of the President of the United States, to call into the service of such armed lorces all military forces
organized by the Government of the Commonwealth of the Philippines.
(13) The decisions of the courts of the Philippines shall be subject to review by the Supreme Court
of the United States as now provided by law, and such review shall also extend to all cases involving the
Constitution of the Philippines.

(14) Appeals from decisions of the Auditor General may be taken to the President of the United
States.
187
-
(15)
The United States may, by Presidential proclamation, exercise the right to intervene for the
preservation of the Government of the Commonwealth of the Philippines and for
the maintenance of the
Government as provided in the Constitution thereof , and for the protection of life, property, and individual
liberty and for the discharge of Government obligations under and in accordance with the provisions
of
the Constitution.
(16) The authority of the United States High Commissioner to the Government of the Commonwealth
of the Philippines as provided in Public Act Numbered One hundred and twenty-seven of the Congress
of the United States approved March twenty-four, nineteen hundred and thirtyJour, is hereby recognized.
(17) Citizens and corporations of the United States shall enjoy in the Commonwealth of the
Philippines all the civil rights of the citizens and corporations, respectively, thereof.
(18) Every duly adopted amendment to the Constitution of the Philippines shall be submitted to
the
President of the United States for approval. lf the President approve the amendment or if the president
fail to disapprove such amendment within six months from the time of its submission. the amendment
shall take effect as a part of such Constitution.
(19) The President of the United States shall have authority to suspend the taking effect of or
the operation of any law, contract, or executive order of the Government of the Commonwealth of the
Philippines, which in his judgment will result in a failure of the Government of the Commonwealth of the
Philippines to fulfill its contracts, or to meet its bonded indebtedness and interest thereon or to provide
for its sinking funds, or which seems likely to impair the reserves for the protection of the currency of the
Philippines, or which in his judgment will violate international obligations of the United States,
(20) The President of the Commonwealth of the Philippines shall make an annual report to thE
President and Congress of the Unlted States of the proceedings and operations of the Government c,
the Commonwealth of the Philippines and shall make such other reports as the president or Congress
may request.
GUIDE GUE$TIONS SECTION 2. Pending the final and complete withdrawal of the sovereignty of the United States
o What kind of government did over the Philippines, there shall be a Resident Commissioner of the Philippines to the United States
the 1935 Constitution provide?
o who shall be appointed by the President of the Commonwealth of the Philippines with the consent c.
What were the salient features
of the Bill of Rights provided in the Commission on Appointments. The powers and duties of the Resident Commissioner shall be as
the constitution? provided in section seven, paragraph five of Public Act Numbered One hundred and twenty-seven
o According to the constitution, of th:
who was a Filipino and who Congress of the United States, approved March twenty{our, nineteen hundred and thirtyJour, togethe.
were allowed to vote? with such other duties as the National Assembly may determine. The qualifications, compensation,
. an:
How did the constitution
expenses of the Resident Commissioner shall be fixed by law.
organize the Philippine
government? what were the SECTION 3. All other provisions of Public Act Numbered One hundred and twenty-seven of th:
branches of the government Congress of the United States, approved March twentyJour, nineteen hundred and thirty;our, applicab
and their respective functions :
and powers? to the Government of the Commonwealth of the Philippines are hereby made a part of this Ordinance
as
. What were the roles to be if such provisions were expressly jnterested herein.
assumed by the United
I HEREBY CERTIFY that this Constitution was adopted by the Constitutional Convention on Februar.
States as provided by the
constitution? B, 1935.
. The 1935 Constitution had (Sgd ) CLARO M. RECTO
been dubbed as a colonial
constitution. Cite pertinent President, Constitutional Convention
prov sions as proof of this fact. ATTEST:
(Sgd ) N PIMENTEL
Secretary, Constitutional Convention
Source: Ihe 1935 Philippine Constituilc-
CIjAPiTF ]iJ THE SUPPRESSION OF FILIPINO NATIONALISIV AND THE FILIPINIZATION OF THE GOVERNMENT
Shapter SummarY
, government in the
Following the Philippine-American war, the United states colonial
Philippines, particularly through its legislative body-the Philippine commission-tried
forces in the
to strengthen the colonial order and to defeat the remaining revolutionary
Brigandage Law'
islands. By enacting a number of legislations like the Sedition Law,
resistance and
Flag Law, and Libel Law, the Americans were able to SUppreSS native
nationalism, thus the era of suppressed nationalism'
, Filipinization of the government, meanwhile, took place with the help
of different laws
participate
passed by the US Congress. Little by little, Filipinos were given the chance to
positions in the government
in the governance of the islands by being appointed to key
the Philippine
and by being allowed to participate in the lawmaking process through
AssemblY.
It was the Tydings-McDuffie Act of 1934 which ultimately set the conditions
. before
it also called for the
Philippine independence was given to the Filipinos. similarly,
drafting of the Phllipprne Constitution of 1935'
Ass*s*rrlent legislations passed by the Philippine

1. Group work. Discussed in this chapter are the
sedition' with the help of pertinent
commission prohibiting actions such as libel and
literatureandthelnternet,trytolookforotherliterarypiecesandstageplaysconsidered
as of being libelous and seditious. Analyze
the content of those pieces (especially how
your findings in class' Research on the plays of
they went against the laws) and present
newspaper articles in Muling Pagsilang
Juan Abad and Aurelio Tolentino. Research on
(thetagalogCoUnterpartofEtRenacimr'ento)showingnationalisticfervor'
2.CompareandContrast.TheCooperandJonesLawsprovidedthefirstStepstowards
to participate in self-government'
autonomy and independence by allowing Filiplnos
Comparetheprovisionsofthesetwolawsandlookforsignificantchangesbetween
them.HowdidtheJonesLawexpandFllipinoparticipationinthegovernment?
Suggested ffieadingc
. Manila: University Pub Co ' 1936'
Aruego, Jose. Ihe Framing of eiitippine Constitution.
. Missions to the united states'
churchill, Bernardita. The Philippine lndependence
1
gg4.Canberra: Australian National University'
g1g-1
. Mandaluyong: Cacho Hermanos,

Forbes, Williarn Cameron. The Philippine lslands,
1 945.
Manila: Filipiniana Book Guild'
. o-u,ino Carlos. e)uezonr: Paladin of Phitipp6e Freedom'
New
. Taylor, George The lJnited States and the Phitippines: Problems of Partnership
York:Praeger;1.964;,],,:,.
rir,rri,..:
fi
i** i,.
,,.
irrr:
:ii
I
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Opposite page. ln the morning of December 7, 1941, the
lmperialJapanese Navy Air Service attacked the US naval
base at Pearl Harbor on Oahu lsland, Hawaii without any
warning. The attack sank ,B US naval vessels, destroyed 3OO
US aircrafts, and killed 2,403 men, including 68 civilians. The
US then declared war on Japan on December B, 1941. Three
days later, Japan's allies-Germany and ltaly-responded by
declaring war on the US, prompting the US to enter the Second
World War.
Phola cauilesy of Wikimedia Commong
CHAPT{fr X{
lapanese Occupation
he so-called peace time ofthe decade of the twenties and thirties in the Philippines
was shattered when Pearl Harbor, which was home to the US naval installation
in the Pacific, was bombed by the Japanese on December 7, l94l (December 8
in the Philippines). Soon after, military installations in the Philippines such as Clark
Air Field, Nichols Air Field, and Sangley Point were bombed by the Japanese. The
bombing of these military installations aimed to weaken American bases in the Paci6c.
The Philippines as an American colony was inevitably dragged into the war.
The defense of the Philippines was a priority of the Commonwealth government
in the light of an expansionist move of the Japanese. The first legislative measure of
ths 9snnwrvsdtb tevtwDsDt ,vit tbt Nciptd Dsfssr Ast Tb)s eet ptevided
the establishment of an infantry consisting of a reserve force and an active force, an
army air corps, and a navy. Io 1941, the military forces of the US and the military
forces of the Philippines were put under a single command and was headed by Douglas
McArthur. This military force was known as United States Armed Forces in the
Far East (USAFFE).
1S41 rs42 't943

Oec€ffber 7 The Japanese bomb Pearl Harbo( January J President Quezon signs an EO appointing Jorge Vargas as June 18 The KALIBAPI holds its
Clark Field, Nichols Field, and Sangley Point Mayor of Greater Manila first general assembly and is
Becember ?4 President l\4anuel Ouezon makes January $ The Japanese attack the USAFFE position in Bataan instructed by the Japanese to
Corregidor the seat of government January 2'l Prime l\4inister Hideki Tojo announces the possibility ol form the Preparatory Commission
Decembe.26 Manila is declared an Open City granting Philippine independence if the Filipino cooperate for Philippine lndependence
Decemtlet ?7 The Japanese bomb l\4anila hitting February 6 Aguinaldo, through a radio broadcast, urges MacArthur and (PCPr)
Santo Domingo Church and the lntendencia the USAFFE to surrender September 25 The National Assembly
Fehruary ?0 Quezon leaves Corregidor and proceeds to lloilo, Negros elects Laurel as the president of
and Mindanao the future republic
Mardh 2$ Quezon is brought to Australia and then to the US Octob€r 14 Jose P Laurel is inducted
Apri! I General Edward King surrenders USAFFE forces in Bataan; into office; the Philippine Republic
Death March begins is inaugurated
ri
ri_liirt+
:ilr.tr:il
+I
iirtil.::!
r.rrlri:rl
Japan, then an emerging power together with

Italy and Germany, formed the Axis
'!7.ith
Po*.rr. the outbreak of\florld \(/ar II, the US and Great Britain agreed to pursue
a "Europe First" Policy which meant the war resources of the two countries would
concentrate in defeating Nazi Germany while simultaneously fighting the Japanese in
the Pacific front but with less resources. Once Nazi Germany is no longer a threat
to Great Britain, the Allied Powers agreed to concentrate their forces against JaPan.
This being the case, Japan aimed to free Asia from its'Western colonizers by giving
independence to the colonized Asian countries. It was on this occasion that Japan
enunciated its Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere which aimed at freeing Asian
countries from their colonial masters but with the recognition of Japanese authority in
the region.
The Philippines as an American colony was thus to be freed from the clutches of the
US hence the occupation of the country from the Japanese invaders.
This chapter focuses on Japanese Occupation of the Philippines which lasted from
December l94t to September 1945.
---'i-{:*--*--
'!s44 't*45
Aprlt Airraid drills begin in Manila Ja'lu*ry I US forces land in Lingayen, Pangasinan
L{ay ? Jose Abad Santos is executed Fehruaiy l American forces enter Manila; the month-long Battle of Manila begins
nebruary af General MacArthur who had taken over the milltary administration oi the Ph\\\pp\nes hands
over
Augu*t 1 Quezon dies in Saranac Lake, New
York; Osmena succeeds as President the relns ol civi\ government to Presldent OsmeRa
+st*ber ?0 US lorces land in LeYte Juiy 4 MacArthur proclaims the liberation of the entire archipelago from the enemy
Oft*b*r *4*?S Battle of Leyte Gulf A$gilsl !S Japan surrenders unconditionally to the Allied Powers
fiecsmber I Formal inauguration oJ l\ilakapili $*[ternf:+r 3 General Tomoyuki Yamashita formal]y surrenders all Japanese iorces in the Philippines
191
FOCUS QUH$TIfiT\I War $tarts in tFre PhiliPPines
Why is the Japanese Hxeerpt frorn Sreaf*ing fhe Sdence
Occupation a turning Point in It was December 9,1941when news of the bombing of Pearl Harbor hit the front page
Philippine history?
of newspapers in Manila. Fearful of more Japanese bombing and anticipating worst-case
LEARNING scenarios, Filipinos evacuated to safer grounds and started hoarding food items'
OBJECTIVE$ Below is an excerpt from the war memoir written by Lourdes Reyes Montinola
At the end of the chapter, students entitled Breahing the Silence. Montinola was a daughter of Nicanor Reyes, founder of
should be able to: the Far Eastern University. She was T4years old when the war broke out in l94l'
. explain why the Philippines was
occupied by the Japanese;
Montinola lost her father, morher, a younger sister, and a younger brother when
. explain the Filipino response Japanese forces stormed their home in
Agno Street, Malate on February 9, 1945'
to the Japanese OccuPation
Montinola was rhe sole survivor of this carnage. This is what she wrote about the
of the country;
. explain the Japanese treatment start of the war:
of Filipinos; and
. assess the Japanese
Occupation in the PhiliPPines.
Primary Source
to
At first, the war had been an exciting novelty for us children. lt meant only a timely interruption
December
GUIDE AUESTIONS examinations. I was with mother and Lola Maria on the way to Antipolo to hear early maSS on
o How was the news of the war g, ..1g4.1 , it being the feast of the lmmaculate concepcion. we sensed something was wrong as crowds
huddled in many stops, and even traffic policemen seemed to be distracted. When we inquired
received by Montlnola? what
. What things did she notice
was going on, we were told that Pearl Harbor had been bombed. War had been declared by America!
before she learned that war has
started? This meant that the Philippines was also at war!
. What were the thoughts of a
We turned back home, to the great relief of Father, who was anxiously waiting in our carport.
I
14-year old girl about the news

wondered why Mother and Father were so alarmed. To me, Pearl Harbor and America were far away.
All
about the bombing of Pearl
Harbor? I could think of were the suman and Antipolo clay pots that we had missed buying.
Press, 1996).
Source: Montinola, Lourdes R., Breaking the Sitence(Quezon City: University of the Philippines
After the Japanese bombed military installations like Clark and Nichols; and
places like Baguio, Davao and Manila, Japanese forces landed in the northern part of
L,rrorr. The invaders landed in Vigan and Aparri on December 10, l94l; in Davao
on Decembe r 20; in Lingayen, Pangasinan on December 22; and in Atimonan and
Mauban in Lamon Bay on December 24.
The Commonwealth Government was evacuated to Corregidor and the USAFFE
forces withdrew to Bataan on the eve of Christmas in 1941'
Japanese forces which came from the northern Part
of Luzon and from the
sourhern part planned ro converge in Manila which made necessary the declaration
of Manila as an Open City on December 26. Despite such a declaration, Manila
was bombed by the Japanese, hitting Sto. Domingo Church and the Intendencia
in Intramuros.
President Manuel Quezont mandate as president was renewed on December 30'
l94l in Corregidor amidst successive occupation and aerial bombings of the Japanese.
On January g, l942,the Japanese started bombing the stronghold of the USAFFE forces
in Bataan. For three months, Filipino and American soldiers withstood Japanese air
attacks and naval blockade. At noon ofApril 9, the surrender of Bataan was announced
by the USAFFE Broadcast Station in Malinta Tirnnel in Corregidor. The message was
written by Captain Salvador P Lopez and announced on air by Lieutenant Norman
Reyes. Salvador P Lopez would later be president of the University of the Philippines.
CI..iAPTEHl1 JAPANESEOCCUPATION
I
I
h aorU q. tQqA tttm &&attnta Tunne[* *orreqid*r
l-rt., .t. Fa\\ of Bataan on Apri\ 9, 1942, Fi\ipino-American troops were forced to
rnarc\ lromBataan to San\errran\o,\ampatgt.\rs narc\ utt\et t\e\eat sl t\e
sun effected soldiers hunger, dehydration, and fatigue to the point of death. Thus, the
event earned for itself an infamous title, the "Death March." The fall of Bataan made
the Japanese forces concentrate on bombing Corregidor, the "Rock Fortress" of the
'Wainwright
Americans. On May 6,
1942, USAFFE Commander-in-chief Jonathan
surrendered the entire USAFFE forces in the Philippines to General Masaharu Homma.
Primary Source
Bataan has fallen. The Philippine-American troops on this war-ravaged and bloodstained peninsula
ril
have laid down their arms. With heads bloody but unbowed, they have yielded to the superior force and Open City - a city that is not
' numbers of the enemy.
defended or occupied by military
forces and should not be bombed
The world will long remember the epic struggle that Filipino and American soldiers put up in the according to international law.
ungle fastness and along the rugged coast of Bataan. They have stood up uncomplaining under the
lonstant and grueling fire of the enemy for more than three months. Besieged on land and blockaded
oy sea, cut off from all sources of help in the Philippines and in America, the intrepid fighters have done
all that human endurance could bear.
For what sustained them through all these months of incessant battle was a force that was more
:nan merely physical. lt was the force of an unconquerable faith-something in the heart and soul
:hat physical hardship and adversity could not destroy! lt was the thought of native land and all that
i holds most dear, the thought of freedom and dignity and pride in these most priceless of all our
ruman prerogatives.
The adversary, in the pride of his power and triumph, will credit our troops with nothing less than
:he courage and fortitude that his own troops have shown in battle. Our men have fought a brave and
citterly contested struggle. All the world will testify to the most superhuman endurance with which they
stood up until the last in the face of overwhelming odds.
But the decision had to come. Men fighting under the banner of unshakable faith are made of
something more than flesh, but they are not made of impervious steel. The flesh must yield at last,
endurance melts away, and the end of the battle must come.
Bataan has fallen, but the spirit that made it stand-a beacon to all the liberty-loving peoples of the
world-cannot falll
All of us know the story of Easter Sunday. lt was the triumph of light over darkness, life over death. GUIDE EUESTIShIS
It was the vindication of a seemingly unreasonable faith. It was the glorious resurrection of a leader, only . Why was Bataan surrendered
to the Japanese?
three days before defeated and executed like a common felon. . What ideas sustained the
Today, on the commemoration of that Resurrection, we can humbly and without presumption Filipinos to continue the fight
against the Japanese?
declare our faith and hope in our own resurrection, our own inevitable victory
. What did Bataan symbolize for
We, too, were betrayed by Judases. We were taken in the night by force of arms, and though we the "liberty-loving peoples ol
had done wrong to no man, our people were bound and delivered into the hands of our enemies. We the world"?
. Why is it more appropriate to
have been with mock symbols of sovereignty, denied by weaklings, lashed with repeated oppression,
commemorale April I not as
tortured and starved. We have been given gall to drink, and we have shed our blood, To those who look day of surrender but as a day
of valor (Araw ng Kagitingan)?
upon us from afar it must seem the Filipino people have descended into hell, into the valley of death. But
we know that the patient and watching men who said their simple prayers in the hills of Bataan, have not
lost faith, and we know that the hushed congregations in the churches throughout the land, drew from
the gospel as Mass renewed hope in their resurrection. To all of them we give today the message of the
angel of Easter morning: "Be not afraid, for He is risen."
193
We, too, shall rise. After we have paid the full price of our redemption, we shall return to show the
scars of sacrifices that all may touch and believe. When the trumpets sound the hour we shall roll aside
the stone before the tomb and the tyrant guards shall scatter in confusion. No wall of stone shall then be
strong enough to contain us, no human force shall suffice to hold us in subjection, we shall rise in the
name of freedom and the East shall be alight with the glory of our liberation.
Sorce: "Bataan Has Fallen
Addrese to the Peeptre *f the FhE$lppines

hy Lieuterlent ffier*eral &i$msmhmru hfi*mr ea
The Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere was an imperial concepr which was created
and promulgated by the Japanese to prevail in their occupied territories in Asia during
the years 1930-1945.It aimed to create a self-sufficient bloc of Asian nations free from
western powers, and led by Japan.
As for the Philippines, the Japanese army envisioned the counrry as a source of
agricultural products. Cotton cultivation was attempted by the Japanese. However, this
venture failed due to factors such as the lack ofskills, transportation shortage from the
Iack of fuel, and food shortage. Filipinos were lukewarm to the idea because it meant
servitude to Japanese needs instead of betterment for the Philippines.
On August 3, 1942, General Masaharu Homma, Commander-in-Chief of
the Japanese Imperial Forces in the Philippines explained to the Filipino people the
reason for their occupation of the Philippines and the idea of the Greater East Asia
Co-Prosperity Sphere.
Primary Source
The ideal of the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere is to establish, under the spirit of universa
brotherhood, a firm and enduring structure by consolidating Asia for the Asians and to create a
permanent and lasting sphere of happiness and well-being for the peoples within the great area havin!
geographical affinity. The process to realize this ideal is none other than by the related peoples unitir..;
themselves under the leadership of Japan, and by solidifying the bond of union, marching forwarc
along the road of economic and political progress as a unit of peoples directly concerned with the,.
own well-being and holding to a common ideal, The great aspiration of Japan since the founding c'
the Empire has been "To make the Universe a Home." The aim is to see every people and every natio-
acquire their rightful positions under the sun. lt is my firm conviction that the reconstruction of East As :
with closer relations among its peoples, with Japan as their spiritual support, will bring about not only
the realization of the state of mutual well-being and prosperity, but also the establishment of an enduring
peace among mankind.
It lies unquestionably with the determination to establish the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity
Sphere. lt is imperative that the Filipino people identify themselves with this great ideal and this great
mission if they would clearly comprehend the essential meaning of the Greater East Asia War and its
inevitable course.
ln this respect, it should be mentioned that the United States in exercising its sovereignty over the
Philippines as her territory, organized and trained the Philippine Army to fight Japan. Therefore, both,
actually and theoretically, the Philippines was our enemy. But our country, although regarding the United
States as our specific enemy, did not consider the Filipino people as such, and rather went so far as to
say that if the Filipino people were able to understand our supreme motives and would collaborate with
us in the construction of the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere, due consideration would be given
CHAPTIR 1 ] JAPANESEOCCUPATION
to a policy of according independence, You can readily see from this single fact how this war differs
from all others and how it is an exalted war waged upon the basis of the great principle upheld by Japan
since the foundation of the country.
Since landing in the Philippines with the Army under my command, I gave explicit orders to my
men, though the American forces are our enemy, always to treat the innocent Filiplno people with
kindness and consideration and to refrain, without just cause, from endangering their daily existence.
On the various sectors of the Jront, it was my express desire even to save the lives of the Filipino soldiers
pledging loyalty to the United States and furiously fighting against us under American command. The
{ervent efforts I made to prevent unnecessary bloodshed is a matter that must be still fresh in your
memory.
Today, it is true that the flames of war have subsided in the Philippines, and auspicious indications
of peace are gradually evident throughout the country. But unfortunately, it cannot be said that order
and security prevails completely over the whole Archipelago. This point is important. lf now you fail to
become conscious of the signif icance of the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere, and the important
share to be borne and the duty and the mission to be performed by the Philippines, you not only will
be exposing a decadent aspect, but soon you will return once again to the conditions when you were
helpless under the fetters of American control and be utterly of no consequence in the new framework
rising in accompaniment with the dynamic changes in the international situation.
But once you are able to perceive our determination in the prosecution of the Greater East Asia War
with the idea of creating new world history, you would spontaneously come to understand how much is
being expected of the political, economic, and the industrial capacity of the Philippines. I am fully aware
that you are experiencing inconveniences and hardships in your daily lives. But such distresses are
rnseparable with wars that are destined to create new history. Birth is usually accompanied by pain. ln
reality it is but the same kind of a suffering you underwent during the days long ago when you sought,
without success, to create a new Philippines. GUIDE QUESTION$
ln the construction of the New Philippines, the first step must necessarily be the laying of the o According to General Homma,
what is the objective of the
spiritual foundation which is the vital nucleus of culture, and around which politics, economy, industry,
Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity
and eduiation are based. What is that spiritual foundation? lt comes of your return to the original racial Sphere?
characteristics, to the pure Filipino traditions, after ridding the masque of Occidental culture. First under e How would.the Filipinos benefit
by adhering to the idea of the
Spanish rule, and then for a period of 40 odd years under American domination, the life of the Filipinos, Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity
as Orientals, was obliterated to suit the designs of the Americans. As a result, the Oriental traditions, of Sphere?
How would the adherence to
humanity and morale were effaced. The Filipino people turned to follow an easy-going life, consuming
this idea affect Filipino attitude
more than producing, and were led to hedonism and extravagance, conscious only of today, and toward the Americans?
oblivious of the morrow. Their sound racial characteristics were lost and they became the bold imitators How do you feel about the
Filipinos returning to their
of the American way of life which is devoid of introspection. lt will be for persons with aspirations to Oriental roots which Homma
retrieve and revive in their daily lives, the manners and the customs and the innate qualities of honesty mentioned to be beneficial to
us?
and fortitude, diligence and of being hardworking, and frugality and thrift that pulse in the veins of
According to General Homma,
Orienial peoples. what would be the punishment
I propose to speak frankly. So long as you are unable to free yourself from the obsession for that for those who would oppose
the Japanese Occupation of
Americanism which has undermined your life and vitality, you will continue to deteriorate spiritually and the Philippines?
will finally be led to the very brink of racial extinction. Arouse yourselves! I challenge particularly the
younger generation who are destined to shoulder the responsibilities of the new Philippines, The rebirth
of the Philippines can only be accomplished by shedding yourselves of the degenerating influence of
American culture which is based upon individualism, llberalism, and democracy, and of becoming once
more a genuine Oriental people.
It is necessary to understand that true independence is not mere ostentation. lts essence lies in the
195
perfection of the capacity for self-sustenance. The first requisite necessary to become an independent
people is the awakening to the need of a resolute and constructive spirit, and for each individual to awaken
to the consciousness that he is an integral part of Greater East Asia. This includes the abandonment of the
easy, day to day manner of living. You must speedily liquidate the old way of life characterized by the habit
of depending upon others for economic and spiritual support. You must begin to live with the confidence
and the conviction befitting an Oriental people and seek the perfection of a truly Filipino culture. To long for
independence without striving qualify forthat honour is as useless as it is vain.
sourcer Address to the people of the Phi\ippines by Lieutenant General Masaharu Homma
Commander-in-Chief of the lmperial Japanese Forces in the Philippines, August 3, 1942
lnaugural Address of President Jase F. Laurel

The year 1943 was marked by activities leading to the granting of independence to
the Philippines by the Japanese. The Kapisanan sa Paglilingkod sa Bagong Pilipinas
(KALIBAPI), the only political parry allowed by the Japanese, was established in
December 1942. In its first assembly held on June 18, the Preparatory Commission
for Philippine Independence (PCPi) was organized and was headed by Jose P Laurel. A
constitution was prepared and approved by the Japanese government. The constitution
provided for the crearion of a unicameral legislature called the National Assembly from
whose ranks would be chosen the president of the Japanese-sponsored Republic. On
September 25 , the National fusembly elected Jose P. Laurel as president of the Republic
and on October 14 was inducted into office. Below is the Inaugural Address of Jose P
Laurel as President of the Second Philippine Republic.
Primary Source
FELLOW COUNTRYMEN:
This is the hour of fulfillment of the supreme aspiration of our people for centuries. lt is but fitting that we
should on this momentous occasion dedicate a prayer of thanksgiving to those who paid the full price
of blood and treasure for the freedom which we have now achieved. Rest at long last in your hallowed
graves: immortal heroes of the Filipino race! The long night of vigil is ended, You have not died in vain.
The spirit of Mactan, of Balintawak, of Bagumbayan, of Malolos, and Bataan lives againl
Our first and foremost duty as a free and independent nation is to maintain peace and order within
our borders. No government worthy of the name will countenance public disorder or tolerate open
defiance of its authority, Unless we enjoy domestic tranquillity, we cannot prosecute to a successful
conclusion those labors essential to our daily existence and to our national survival. Without public
security, our natural resources will remain undeveloped, our fields uncultivated, our industry and
commerce paralyzed; instead of progress and prosperity, we shall wallow in misery and poverty and
face starvation.
We must till our idle lands, improve and diversify our crops, develop our fisheries, multiply our
livestock, dairy and poultry farms. Next we must produce other necessities such as clothing, fuel, building
materials, medicihal preparations, articles of daily use; in short, the minimum requirements of civilized
life. Then, we must turn our attention to the demands of heavy industry, explore the possibilities of our
exporting to other members of the Sphere those raw materials which we have in abundance in exchange
for goods which we cannot locally produce, adjust our internal economic structure in coordination with
the regional economy of the Asiatic bloc, and thus contribute our share to the realization of the noble
purpose of common prosperity. This means thatwe have to rehabilitate and plan out our national economy;
adopt a sound and stable currency; overhaul our credit and exchange systems to insure the steady flow
CHAPTI:FI11 JAPANESEOCCUPATION
Jose P Laurcl being sworn in as the third
President of the Philippines. An Octaber
14. 1943, the Second Phllpplne Republic
this time under Japan, was inaugurated
with Laurel as its President.
I : io ial; foster private initiative in business enterprise; stimulate scientif ic invention and research; create
-:, rdustries; establish factories and manufacturing plants; improve our existing transportation and
:--runication facilities construct more roads in accordance with a well devised general plan to promote
* intercourse; build bottoms to accommodate our overseas and coastwise trade; and f inally, adopt a
-.-a
- , -: eff tcient machinery of price control to prevent hoarding and prof iteering and insure a more equitable
- .:- cution of prime commodities consistent wrth our war-time economy. All these cannot be undertaken
-,-:-azardly but must be accomplished in accordance with a well conceived economic planning if we
,,::ct to rise to the full stature of independent nationhood. Our political emancipation would be vain and
-::r'y if we did not at the same time work out our economic salvation.
There is need of awakening the moral consciousness of our people so that they may be able
'ace their new responsibilities with added vigor and enthusiasm, We should evolve a new type of Jose P Laurel was the Chief
Justice during the Commonwealth
z:n who would be ready and willing to subordinate himself to the larger and more vital interests
Perlod. He helped draft the 1943
_-."e State. The Constitution guarantees to every man that modicum of personal liberty essential to Constrtution and become president
- . enjoyment of relative contentment and happiness. But of more transcendent importance than his of the Second Phi ippine RePublic.
He resisted Japanese efforts to
:-,,,rleges, are the duties which the individual owes to the State. The Constitution gives precedence to draft Filipinos into Japanese Military
-tse obligations in consonance with the fundamental idea that man does not live for himself and his service.
'i- y alone but also for the State and humanity at large. The new citizen, therefore, is he who knows his
' tlrs as well as his duties, and knowing them, will dlscharge his duties even to the extent of sacrificing
- s rights.
ln the up-building of the national character, the school, no less than the home and the church,
should play an important, if not dominating role. Our educational system must be renovated and due
:mphasis placed on the moral objective laid down in the Constitution, The other aims decreed in the
,Jndamental law like the development of personal and collective discipline, civic conscience, vocational
skill and social eff iciency, should be subordinated to the cultivation of moral character as the handmaiden
lfan intransigent nationalism. Character-formation shall be the mainspring of all educational enterprise
3orn of a telling realization that scholarship destitute of character is worthless, that religion deprived of
197
moralityismerefanaticism,thatpatriotismdevoidofhonorisonlyaposture,Wecancombattheevilof
excessivematerialismwhichweinheritedfromtheWestonlybyareturntothespiritualWaySoftheEaSt
where we rightfullY belong'
Re.definitionofpurposeandre-orientationofcurriculawouldbefutileiftheyWerenotbroughtto
bearuponthegreatmasso{ourpopulation.WhiletheConstitutionprovidesforcitizenshiptrainingto
adultcitizenswhichshouldnotbeneglectedbyallmeans'moredecisiveresultswouldbeaccomplished
generation' Elementary
of our youth and revolutionize a whole
if we concentrate on the plastic minds
instructionmustnotonlybefreeandpublicasrequiredbytheConstitution,butattendance,atleastin
primarygrades,musteventually,andasresourcespermit,bemadecompulsoryforallchildrenofschool
age'ltistheconstitutionaldutyofeverycitizentorenderpersonalmilitaryandcivilserviceasmaybe
requiredbylaw,andthestatehaseveryrighttoexpectthatthepersoncalledupontodischargethis
obligationbephysically,mentallyandmorallyequippedforthetaskdemanded.Toinsurethis,theState
mayfurnishthenecessarypreparatorytrainingdovetailedtoitsrequirements.andtheindividualiS
prescribed'
duty-bound to submit to the instruction so
rigid discipllne
All the students in our schools, colleges,
and universities must be subiected to the
ofawell-regulateddailyschedule.lngeneralandSubiecttosuchregulationsaSmaybeprescribed,
permit closer
to inculcate in them the habits of thri{t but to
they must wear a prescribed uniform not only
youth witl be abte to devote themselves conscientiously
superv\s\on over the\r actrv\tres. \n th\s way, our
totheirStudiesinsteadofwastingtheirtimeandsubstanceinfrivolityanddissipation.onlyby
them into the heroic mould shall the soft metal of
strengthening the moral fiber of our youth and casting
theirmindshardenintomaturityindeliblyimpressedwithUnswervingdevotiontothecountrythatgave
illustrious sires who once trod this very
them birth. Thus will they grow into worthy descendants of our
soil as freemen in dim ages past-brown, sun-kissed Filipinos, who love
freedom dearer than life itself'
The work of our schools should be correlated with and supplemented by wholesome and
substantial home life, in order to afford the young a practical pattern of social behavior and a
working demonstration of group cohesiveness. lt is imperative that we forge and rivet the links
the family can only
of family solidarity. The family is the basic unit of society and the breakdown of
result in the disintegration of society. The consolidation of the authority of the
paterfamilias, the
to
cultivation of the Oriental virtues of filial piety and obedience, and the restoration of womanhood
family
its proper place in the home-this is the tripod which should hold fast and elevate the Filipino
under the RePublic.
giving them more
We cannot listen to the fads of modernism which seek to flatter our women by
deprive them
freedom for their own undoing, without undermining the institution of the family. Nor can we
they now enjoy without turning back the clock to the days when they wore shackles and
of the rights
maintain the rights
were regarded as mere chattel. As we can neither advance nor retrocede, we have to
in any way the authority lodged in the
which we have already conceded to our women without impairing
primitive times has
head of the family to which they belong. This is inevitable because the matriarchy of
long since ceased to exist. ln every social unit there must always be a focal center of authority, and in the
Filipina family that epicentre has always been the father as head of the first barangay.
The Filipino woman must incarnate the purity and tenderness of Maria Clara, the solicitude
and self-sacrifice of Tandang Sora, the fecundity and motherly love of Teodora Alonso. The home
is her sovere\gn rea\m and mo\herhood \s \he h\ghest posit\on to wh\ch she shoutd aspke.
She
mission in life
should look forward to the rearing of children as the consummation of her noblest
of patriotism but also those
The young generation must suckle from her breasts not only the seeds
their elders and obedience to
rudiments of familial discipline which will imbue them with respect for
constituted authoritY.
C!'{/ri}TF-Fi
"i
1 JAPANESE OCCUPATION
I
l
The home, more than the school, should be the nursery of the mother tongue. The Government
will take the necessary steps for the development and propagation of the Tagalog language as
ordained in the Constitution not only through the medium of the lnstitute of National Language and
the encouragement of vernacular literature, but also by making its study compulsory in all schools
and eventually prescribing its use in official correspondence as well as in public ceremonres. But the
horn must do its share so that our children may learn from the cradle those folk-songs and folklore
transmitted by word of mouth from generation to generation and which form the repository of our common GUIDE OUESTIOHS
imperishable tradition. . How did Jose P Laurel as
president plan to govern the
It shall be the concern of my administration to improve the individual quality of the masses by
country?
stressing medical attention for expectant mothers, correct methods of pre-natal and infant care, . What were some of his priority
pro.lects in improving the
proper nutrition for our children, a well-balanced diet for adults, clean amusement and wholesome
economy?
sport and recreation for both young and old, and other measures designed l0 conserve the health . How did he plan to improve the
of the populace. For this purpose, all the resources of learning and science at our disposal will be lot of the ordinary Filipino?
. What were his views about
mobilized. There is absolutely no reason why we should devote more effort and attention to breeding
women and the Filipino family?
super-stallions for our racing stables, milch cows for our fairs or prize hogs for our markets, than to o What kind of educational
system did he envision?
raising healthy, intelligent and self-respecting human beings who will be a credlt to our country and
. Was his speech pro-Filipino or
who will glorify the Filipino race. There is dire need for the reappraisal of our standard of human values, proJapanese? Explain your
for the perfection of human industry as an art and a science, for the exaltation and dignification of the answer.
human personality.
At no time in our history is the demand for unity amongst our people more urgent or more
compelling. Only by presenting a compact and undivided front to all vital issues of the day can we
hope to erect the foundations of a strong and enduring Republic. I consider as rallying centers of our
national unity: The Flag, the Constitution, the National Anthem and the President of the Republic, The
Flag, I because it symbolizes the sacrifices of our heroes and synthesizes our common imperishable
tradition. The Constitution, because it expresses our collective and sovereign will and embodies the sum
of our political philosophy and experience. The National Anthem, because it epitomizes the trials and
tribulations, and crystallizes the longings and aspirations of our race. The President, because he is the
chosen leader of our people, the directing and coordinating center of our government, and the visible
personification of the State. Foursquare on these rallying points, the dynamic instinct of racial solidarity
latent in the heart of each and every Filipino must be roused from its lethargy and inflamed with the
passion of faith in our common destiny as a people.
Across the horizon, the Hand of Fate beckons us into the Promised Land. I am sure our people
will rise as one man to meet the challenge. After all, the government we have established under the
Constitution is our own government; it will be officered and manned by our own people; the problems it
will face will be our own problems. We shall encounter difficulties greater than any we have ever faced
in our national history. We shall have to adapt ourselves to the strange stimuli of a new environment and
undergo the travails of constant adjustment and readjustment. God helping us, we shall march with
steady, resolute steps forward, without doubt, vacillation or fear. There shall be no tarrying on the way, no
desertion from the ranks, no stragglers left behind. Together we shall work, work hard, work still harder,
work with all our might, and work as we have never worked before. Every drop, every trickle of individual
effort shall be grooved into a single channel of common endeavor until they grow into a f lowing stream,
a rushing cataract, a roaring torrent, a raging flood, hurdling all difficulties and demolishing all barriers
in the way of our single purpose and common determination to make our independence stable, lasting
and real.
Source: Inaugural address of President Laurel, October 14,1943
199
Letter of Claro M. Recto to Director General
of the Japanese Military Administration
On June 15, 7944, Claro M. Recto who was Minister of Foreign Affairs wrote to
Lieutenant General tkaki'Wachi (in some accounts, Taki'Wati), Director General of
the Japanese Military Administration protesting Japanese atrocities. The establishent of
a Japanese-sponsored Republic with Jose P Laurel at its helm did not make the Filipinos
accept Japanese Occupation readily. Six months after the inauguration of Laurel,
Claro M. Recto, the Minister of Foreign Affairs in the Laurel cabinet, was constrained
to pen a lengthy letter to the director-general. In other words, the republic and the
independence given by Japan to the Philippines did not offset the realities of daily life
under the Japanese regime. Japanese propensity for slapping, executions without due
process, outright confiscation of property and violence towards women were some of
the concerns which Claro M. Recto put forth to'Wachi.
Primary Source
It is deeply to be regretted that, notwithstanding the liberal policies laid down by the Tokyo Government
and carried out in their larger aspects by its able representatives here, little has been accomplished,
as a matter of fact, to eliminate the feeling of distrust and hostility which a considerable portion of our
people continue to entertain towards the present regime. This fact requires a word of explanation lest
the Japanese Government, unaware of the real reasons behind the present attitude of this portion of
the Filipino people, should come to regard all of them, in general, as ungrateful, unwilling or unable
to appreciate Tokyo's liberal policies towards the Philippines. For the Filipinos are an innately grateful
people, and it would be uniust to accuse them of ingratitude simply because they have so far not shown
the degree of cooperation which Japan had expected of them.
The explanation seems to be simple enough. lt may be found, in the first place, in the psychology
of the common people, not only in this country but everywhere. Here as elsewhere the common man is
less concerned with high policies, great issues or abstract principles than with matters that intimately
affect him, his livelihood, his individual rights, the welfare of his family and of the small community to
which he belongs. lf he is treated with discrimination, arrogance and cruelty, if he is thrown out of his
house without any other place of his own where to go, if his property is confiscated without what he
beileves to be just compensation, or if he is driven to desperation as a result of the present situation, he
f inds himself losing faith in the Bepublic and feeling aggrieved against Japan. lt is then quite diff icult to
impress him with the display of his country's flag, with generous donations of clothing and medicines,
or with such liberal policies as condonation of Army loans to the Republic, the restoration of public
properties to his government, the establishment of a new Philippine currency replacing the military scrip
now in use on a basis of parity with the yen, etc. These high matters of government policy interest the
man in the street or the barrio folk but little if at all. The real determinants of his attitude and conduct
towards Japan and the Japanese continue to be the incidents of everyday life, the things that happen
to him, to his family, to his friends, and to his neighbors. For the Filipino is both simple and worldly-wise.
He bases his judgment on the things he sees around him however seemingly unimportant these may
be. A little act of kirrdness and consideration is worth to him incalculably more than a thousand words
of propaganda.
Nor is the situation among the more enlightened classes any better. One would think that being
more reasonable and less sentimental than the common masses, they would be more inclined to judge
matters solely on a plan of abstract issues and principles. The truth, however, is that while the educated
Filipinos who sees the kind of treatment that is mated out to him and his neighbors may be less emotional
-l
Ci'l/rFTF-11 1 JAPANESE OCCUPATION
and violent in his reactions, he is nonetheless deeply affected. With him the violent emotional reaction
cf the common man becomes a coolly reasoned conviction. Precisely because he is educated, his
sensibilities are more easily violated by acts of injustice, cruelty, discrimination, offensive behavior, and
ack of consideration. Moreover, he is better able to distinguish between truth and propaganda, sincerity
'-1d pretense. He knows what independence means and what an independent country should be, if it
,',ere truly independent. He knows the intimate relationship between political sovereignty and economic
- lependence. He understands much better the differences between word and deed, between promise
=rd realization, between principle and action.

In view of these facts, we cannot but admit that one of the most important and pressing problems
.''nich confront the Filipino leaders today in how to convince the people of the reality of Philippine
-dependence in order that they may all support the Government of the Republic and cooperate with the
-apanese Forces by living in peace, and engaging in useful and productive activities.
When independence was proclaimed in October, 1943, a great many of those who doubted
-'apan's true tntentions towards the Philippines showed a willingness to change their attitude. They had
^ gh hopes for the newly established Republic, and expected to see a material improvement in the
:onditions than existing, particularly in the relations between Japanese and Filipinos, and between
:re Japanese and the Philippines authorities. There was, nevertheless, a good portion of the Filipino
ceople who feared that Philippine independence would not be real but was being declared merely for
cropaganda purposes.
From the time the republic was established, therefore, it has been the constant endeavor of the
r- lipino leaders to promote and maintain its prestige in the eyes of their own people, and to have it
exercise as much as possible the powers and prerogatives to which the government of a sovereign state
,s entitled, saving only the limitations arising from the exigencies of the war situation as defined in the
Pact of Alliance between the Philippines and Japan. To this end, we have appealed to our people, trying
io convince them that the independence of our country is real, that Japan's intentions in sponsoring and
recognizing it were sincere, and that therefore they should have faith in their Government, assisting it
n the work that it is doing, and cooperating to the fullest extend with the Japanese authorities in the
Philippines for the accomplishment of the noble purpose envisaged in the said Pact of Alliance.
lf the Filipino leaders have not thus far been as successful in their efforts as might be desired, their
failure is due to a number of causes, many of them traceable to certain practices which should have
been discontinued after our independence was declared, Foremost among these is the kind of treatment
to which, from the very beginning of the occupation of the Philippines, a great number of our people have
been subjected. ln order to better appreciate the harm that has been done as a result of such treatment,
an understanding of the Filipino character and psychology is necessary. One of the distinguishing traits
of the Filipino is his deep sense of gratitude and obligation. He is very eager to make friends and would
even sacrifice principle in the name of friendship. But he is an extremely sensitive individual, sensitive to
an act of kindness and generosity as well as to slight insult or injury. A kind act touches both his sense of
gratitude and loyalty and he will not feel as ease until he has reciprocated it in even greater measure than
he has received. This was shown by the attitude of the Filipinos upon the outbreak of the Greater East
Asia War. Believing that America had been kind and generous to them and that therefore they had a debt
of gratitude towards that country, and that in f ighting by her side they were fighting by her side they were
fighting for the independence of the Philippines, the Filipinos did not hesitate to throw their lot with the
Americans in the first stages of the war. lrrespective of what one may say as to whether or not the virtue in
this case was misplaced, the virtue itself remains a sound and admirable trait. As a matter of fact, it can
or should become the basis for the establishment of enduring friendly relation between the Japanese
and Filipino peoples. For to the extent that Japan will treat the Filipinos with justice and understanding,
201
of Filipino gratitude and loyalty. Needless to say'
a
to that extent also will she receive the full measure
contrarypolicyisboundtoproduceacontraryresult,fortheFilipinosare,aslhavealreadyStated,a
in him
to his friends, or to his countrymen will breed
sensitive people. An injury done to him, to his family,
a feeling of bitterness and hostility that will not
be easy to eradicate'
They Iesent an atirontto their
Another basic trait ot the Filipinos is their pride ot race and nat\onah\'
not unlike the Japanese Japan's appeal
dignity as a people and as individuals. ln this respect they are
a responsive chord in their hearts'
to the Filipinos on the ground of racial affinity and equality touches
in act and in deed, would prove to be
and a concrete manifestation of the avowals to this effect, both
between the two peoples Thus acts of
one of the most potent factors making for enduring friendship
Filipino with arrogance, or if a Japanese
discrimination should be avoided, and if a Japanese treats a
punishment is imposed upon a Filipino
goes unpunished for a wrong done to a Filipino, or if more severe
similar offense' or if when a Filipino is
wrongdoer than is imposed upon a Japanese who commits a
nor act in simple self-defense and
unjustly maltreated by Japanese civilians he can neither retaliate
and anger: and if the Filipinos see
therefore must nurse in his heart a sense of helpless resentment
service of the Embassy act as if they are
that Japanese subjects not in the Armed Forces nor in the
an authority over and above that of
completely exempt from the operation of Philippine laws and under
jurisdiction over the lives and
the Republic, of if they see that the military authorities exercise unlimited
of the Government of the
properties of Filipino citizens in total disregard of the prestige and authority
and breed in them
Republic all these make the Filipinos doubt the sense of fairness of the Japanese
equality and reciprocity do not apply to the
the belief that the principles of state sovereignty and of racial
relations between Japanese and Filipinos in the Philippines'
not been appreciated'
It is regrettable that the basic psychological traits of our people have
while perhaps effective in dealing
Knowledge of them might have avoided the use of methods which,
with the people of other countries, are not sulted to the nature,
education, and character of the Filipinos
them to posts or making them
The practice, for instance, of slapping Filipinos in the face, of tying
upon the slightest fault, mistake
kneel in public, at times in heat of the sun or beating them - this
other's language - is
or provocation, or without any other reason that failure to understand each
of the members of his family'
certain to create resentment on the part not only of the victim but also
practice of inflicting cruel, unusual
his friends, and ihe general public. Even more serious is the
during their investigation
and excessive punishment upon persons arrested on mere suspicion,
wherein' because of
and before their guilt has been established. There have even been cases
military or civilian' who were
overcrowding in public places, such as street cars, some Japanese
or pushed, immediately slapped or beat the persons they thoughi guiltily
of
inadvertently iostled
pushing them.
alive, killed at the point
Thousands ot cases have been reported of people being either burned
to various methods of physical
of bayonet, beheaded, beaten without mercy, or otherwise subjected
torture,withoutdistinctionaStoageorsex.Womenandchildrenbelowfifteenyearsareknownto
many occasions' these killings
have been among those who were the victims of such punishment on
alone, Tiaong, Tayabas' over one
and puntshments were purposely done in public. ln my home-town
people there shortly before the
hundred were summarily executed during the "zonification" of the
Tayabas, where not less than this
inauguration of the Republic. The same thing was done in Lopez,
no evidence bui the identif ication
number of people were put to death as recently as March, 1 944, upon
cited as typical instances of what are
by a secret informer. The cases of these municipalities are merely
things about all this is
common occurrences in other municipalities all over the lslands. The unfortunate
are punished merely upon suspicion
that in many cases the victims are really innocent of any crime but
private or personal grudge against them, or
of upon false denunciation by informers who harbor some
(Iil;\PTF.i] "i
1 JAPANESE OCCUPATION
if they are guilty at all, do not deserve the excessive penalties inflicted upon them. Many have no fault
at all except the tact that they have sons or brothers who are members of "guerilla" bands, or that they
have given food or temporary shelter to the latter, under threat of death or physical injuries. lf they do not
die as a result of the punishment -many do-they are released maimed, crippled, sick and naturally with
a feeling of bitter resentment against the injustice done to them, a feeling that is shared by their families
and friends and by those who have knowledge of such things.
Many also are the cases wherein people have been arrested taken for questioning, and then
disappear completely. No information is ever given to their relatives as to their whereabouts and the
nature of the charges against them. While the Philippine Government justifiably feels that is has a right
to intervene and ought to intervene in matters which involve the lives and welfare of its citizens, it has
not even gone to that extent but has merely tried to help the people who come to it for assistance in
securing information concerning those whose disappearances has been reported after having been
arrested by the Japanese authorities. ln many cases, however, no information whatever concerning their
whereabouts or the nature of the charges against them could be obtained.
The proclamation of the independence of the Philippines and the establishment of the Government
of the Republic have not minimized these occurrences. They used to be done before and they have
continued and continue to be done now. Most of the towns in the provinces are still actually governed by
the commanders of the local Japanese garrisons, who treat the municipal mayors as their subordinates
:',,en to the extent of beating them publicly, and who continue to arrest and punish peop,e without
=:vrsing either the local civil authorities or the national government, and naturally without turning over
-= accused persons to the authorities of the Bepublic. The only sign of independence is the display
--:re Filipino flag. Even Japanese civilians consider themselves above Philippine laws, and Filipinos
^:'<ng in Japanese companies are punished summarily by their employers instead of being lurned
- .:' to the appropriate Philippine authorities.
Because of all these, a considerable number of Filipinos believe that the basic principles underlying
-€ -,oint Declaration of Greater East Asia and the Pact of Alliance have been nullified in actual practice.
:: - :'ey know that in both these documents the basic condition of the collaboration between the Philippines
'-3 Japan is mutual respect of sovereignty. And to the extent that such respect has not been observed, to
that extent also do these Filipinos feel that these documents have lost intrinsic force and value.
Another matter that needs to be mentioned is the practice of exacting collective responsibility
for individual acts. lf a "guerrilla" happens, for instance, to ride in a carretela with other peace-loving
and law-abiding citizens who are completely unaware of the former's identity, and that "guerrilla"
is arrested, all those who, by pure accident, are riding with him, are also arrested and punished in
the same way. Or when a "guerrilla" is discovered and arrested in one of the small roadside eating
place (carinderia) in the provinces, the owner of the place and all those who happen to be eating
there at the time are also arrested and punished. Similarly, entire barrios and municipallties have
been placed in concentration, or their inhabitants exterminated, because they have been unable to
prevent "guenillas" from ambushing and attacking Japanese soldiers passing there, or because some
"guenillas" happened to repair to the place and exacted food or other commodities of the innocent folk,
who found themselves helpless because of the threats or coercion employed. Oftentimes, there is no
distinction between innocent and guilty, between old and young, or between strong or weak, to such
an extent that there have been instances where women and children below fifteen have died as result
of the concentration, excessive punishments and outright executions. ln fact, the innocent are usually
the only ones who suffer, because the culprits manage to get out or otherwise escape punishment.
While in other countries the exaction of collective responsibility may be justified, in the Philippines it is
hardly so, because for hundreds of years the Filipinos have been an individualistic people. Besides the
highly individualistic
fact that they are Matays who are by nature individualistic, their contact with the
Filipino does not usually concern
Spaniards and Americans has turther developed this racial trait. The
shou\d be he\d to accounl
himselt with the atfairs of hls nelghbor and consequent\y does not lee\ that he
forthem...
One other thing which constitutes a source of mounting dissatisfaction among
the people,
GUIDE QUESTIONS
ordered to
. According to Claro M, Recto, particularly in the city of Manila, is the fact that many of them have been and are being
lmperial Japanese Army
what behavior or actions o{ the evacuate their homes so that the same may be occupied by personnel of the
Japanese were unaccePtab\e tor accommodation were attended to
and Navy. While in the beginning the needs of the Army and Navy
to the FiliPinos?
owners and tenants, the situation
. How did Japanese atrocities with dispatch and with as little inconvenience as possible to the house
atfect the credibility of the actually driving them out into the
has come to such a point that it is no longer possible to do so without
independence granted bY
a question of unwillingness but of physical
the Japanese as well as the streets, with no place where they could be sheltered. lt is not
to others lt is of common knowledge
republic established? impossibility for the people to vacate their homes and transter
. According to Claro M. Recto, and hence further demands for evacuation of
that the housing situation in Manila is already very acute,
how must the JaPanese treat
people must stay homeless The Government
the Filipinos? private residences can only mean that great numbers of
. What Filipino traits according hasreceivednumerousappealsforassistanceinthisconnection,butunlessthemilitaryandnaval
to Recto must the JaPanese
remedy the situation' no solution to these appeals is
understand? authorities themselves take the necessary steps to
. How would both the FiliPinos humanly Possible.
and the JaPanese stand to gain over for the planting of cotton' horai rice'
ln various provinces, large tracts of land have been taken
if there is mutual respect and
in most cases without compensation
understanding? or for the construction of airfields and other military installations'
o Why did MacArthur announce lf the land taken over ls public land or government
or even a word of explanation given to the owners.
his return to the PhiliPPines? is only too willing provide every facility
What was he asking the
property, no question can possibly arise, since the Republic
property belongs to a wealthy people' such summary
Filipinos to do? for Japanese military operations, and where the
. Why did MacArthur invoke majority of cases' however' the lands
procedure causes no serious iniury and may be tolerated. ln the
Bataan and Corregidor?
else except such lands on which they are
. Why was the return o.f the thus taken over belong to small farmers who own nothing
in such cases a more tactful policy shoulc
Commonwealth Government completely dependent for their livelihood. lt is believed that
imPortant?
small landowners and making arrangements' so
. How would you assess be followed by giving the necessary explanation to the
property either by the Japanese Government of the
MacArthur based on his that they may be compensated for the use of their
proclamation?
Government of the Republic, as the case may be'
cause of constant requests for assistance
The incidents and practices which I have described as the
and in making representatives ic
received by the Philippine Government from the people concerned,
Affairs find itself in the strange roi'
their behalf to the Japanese authorities, the Ministry of Foreign
in the foreign country to whic-
of an embassy trying, none too successfully, to protect its nationals
it is accredited.
Source: Letter from Claro M Recto to the Ambassador Extraordinary
and Plenipotentiary of Japan to lvlanila Syozo Murata
Liber*ti*n sf the PhitlPPines

Freclmmati** *f Ger:eral Douglas ftolac&rthur
*cmntander-in-ehief of the United $tates Army
ta th* FeoPle of the FhiliPPines
Despite the independence granted by Japan to the Philippines and the establishment
of
a reiublic headed by a Filipino, the Filipinos continued to resist the invader.
News of
made air-raid drills a daily
an impending liberation of the Philippines by the Americans
realiry. The first American air raids in the Philippines took place in Davao on August
tg4i. On September 21, Manilaexperienced American air raids prompting President
Laurel ,o pro.l"i- the existence of war against the US. American forces landed in Leyte
Oi]Ai}TEii 11 JAPANESE OCCUPATION

General Douglas MacArthur wading
ashore at Leyte. On Octobet 20, 1944,
General MacArthur tultilled his promise ol
returning to the Philippines.
on October 20 and three days after, the Commonwealth Governmenr was temporarily
established in Thcloban, Leyte. On December 21, the Laurel governmenr evacuated to
Baguio.
January 1945 saw American forces landing in Lingayen, Pangasinan. The following
month, American forces entered Manila which started the month-long Battle of Manila.
ln March, President Laurel was fown out of the Philippines and brought to Taiwan and,
then to Japan.
Douglas MacArthur proclaimed on July 4 that the Philippines had been liberated
from the enemy. On August 15,1945,Japan surrendered unconditionally to the Allied
Powers and on September 3, General Tomoyuki Yamashita surrendered all Japanese
forces in the Philippines.
The words "I shall return," uttered by MacArthur when he departed the Philippines
in 7941, sustained the spirit of the Filipinos during the Occupation years. On October
20,1944, MacArthur announced the fulfillment of his promise.
Primary Source
[Released on October 23, 1944)
GENERAL HEADQUARTERS
SOUTHWEST PACIFIC AREA
OFFICE OF THE COMMANDER-IN-CHIEF
To the People of the Philippines;
WHEREAS, the military forces under my command have landed in Philippine soil as a prelude to the
liberation of the entire territory of the Philippines; and
WHEFEAS, the seat of the Government of the Commonwealth of the Philippines has been
re-established in the Philippines under President Sergio Osmefla and the members of his cabinet; and
WHEREAS, under enemy duress, a so-called government styled as the "Republic of the Philippines,"
was established on October 14, 1943, based upon neither the free expressron of the peoples' will nor the
205
sanction of the Government of the United States, and is purporting to exercise Executive, Judicial and
Legislative powers of government over the people;
NOW, THEREFORE, l, Douglas MacArthur, General, United States Army, as Commander-in-Chief of
the military forces committed to the liberation of the Philippines, do hereby proclaim and declare:
1. That the Government of the Commonwealth of the Philippines is, subject to the supreme authority
of the Government of the United States, the sole and only government having legal and valid
jurisdiction over the people in areas of the Philippines free of enemy occupation and control;
2. That the laws now existing on the statute books of the Commonwealth of the Philippines and the
regulations promulgated pursuant thereto are in full force and effect and legally binding upon the
people in areas of the Philippines free of enemy occupation and control; and
3. That all laws, regulations and processes of any other government in the Philippines than that of the
said Commonwealth are null and void and without legal effect in areas of the Philippines free of
enemy occupation and control; and
I do hereby announce my purpose progressively to restore and extend to the people of the
philippines the sacred right of government by constitutional process under the regularly constituted
Commonwealth Government as rapidly as the several occupied areas are liberated and the military
situation will otherwise permit; and
I do enjoin upon all loyal citizens of the Philippines full respect for and obedience to the Constitution
o( \he Commonruea\th ot the Phi\rpp(nes and the (aws, regu(at(ons and othe( acts of thei( dutY constituted
government whose seat is now firmly re-established on Philippine soil'
Douglas MacArthur
General, U.S. Army
Commander-in-Chief
Source: Proclamation of General Douglas MacArthur
to the People of the Philippines, October 23, 19M.
.-]i.1API't:ft 1I JAPANESEOCCUPATION
Chapter Suntmany
. Japan occupied the Philippines to implement the former's idea of Greater East Asia
Co-Prosperity Sphere.
. Colonies of Western Powers in Asia were granted independence by the Japanese as a
realization of the idea "Asia for the Asians."
o The Philippines was granted independence and a Republic was established headed by
Jose P. Laurel.
. Filipino leaders like Jose P Laurel and Claro M. Recto worked to protect the Filipinos
from the invader. ln a word, both were pro-Filipino.
. The Americans helped in the liberation of the Philippines from the Japanese.
&ssessffiTffiffit
i. lnterview two individuals (one male and one female) who lived during the Japanese
Occupation of the Philippines. Focus your questions on the following: food, health,
recreational activities, clothes, and an unforgettable experience.
2. Write a book review on a war narrative authored by a Filipino.
Suggested ffiemd$ngs
Jose, RicardoT. The Japanese Occupation. Vol. 7 of Kasaysayan: The Story of the
Filipino People. Manila: Asia Publishing Co., 1998.
Jose, Ricardo T. and Lydia Yu-Jose. The Japanese Occupation in the Philippines: A
Pictorial History. Makati: Ayala Foundation, 1997.
a Legarda, Benito Jr. Occupation'42.Manlla'. De La Salle University Press, 2003.
a Lichauco, Marcial P. Dear Mother Putnam: A Diary of the Second World War in the
Philippines. N.p.: privately printed, 1949.
Setsuho, lkehata and Ricardo Trota Jose, eds. Ihe Philippines under Japan: Occupation
Policy and Reaction. Quezon City: Ateneo de Manila University Press, 1999
:.
:=
=s
The battle for the liberation of Manila from the Japanese rule
was waged from February 3, 1945 to March 3, 1945. lt is
considered to be one of the greatest tragedies of Woild War
ll and was a turning point in the development of Philippine
society. More than 100,000 men, women, and children died
over the course of the Battle of Manila. Homes, buildings, and
architectural works were also reduced to rubble. The photo of
the destroyed Walled City of lntramuros shows the extent of
the damage sustained by the City of Manila as Philippine and
American troops fought against the lmperial Japanese forces.
Phato courtesy of Wikimedia Camnons.
CHAPTHH XII
lndependence and the

Establishment of
a New Republic
s one of the main provisions of the Tydings-McDuffie Act of 1934, a transitio-,
government called the Commonweabh was established in the Philippines. I-.
main goal was to get the Filipinos ready for complete independence fror.
the US and for self-rule. The Filipinos'desire for independence,6rst echoed in 18:--
through the revolutionary society called the Katipunan, was finally within reach. Th '
process toward self-governance, however, was rudely interrupted in l94l by the empir.
of Japan which had been notoriously expanding in different East fuian territoriei
since the 1930s. Under the guise of economic cooperation and shared prosperiry the
Japanese eventually entered Philippine skies and shores on December l94l after their
surprise assault against the US Armed Forces in Pearl Harbor. Hostilities between the
Japanese against the Filipinos and their American allies then ensued in various points
of the archipelago. President Manuel L. Quezon, together with other high-ranking
0*T ac, 1s44 MAH 3,'tS45 AUG I5,1945 sEF 2, 1S45

MacArthuas return to Liberation of Manila Jewel Voice Broadcast Formal Japanese
the Philippines surrender
officials of his US-sponsored goyernment, were forced ro move out of the Philippines
and to establish a government-in-exile, first in Australia and then in lWashington.
Meanwhile, after the fall of Bataan and Corregidor to the forces of General Masaharu
Homma, General Douglas MacArthur had left the Philippines for Australia in March
1942 via Mindanao. It was also in Austria that MacArthur, the military advisor to the
Commonwealth government, was quoted saying, "I came through and I shall return."
MacArthurt pledge, which sparked some hope among Filipinos amidst Japanese
violence for the nexr three years, was finally fulfilled on October zo, 1944 when his
forces landed in Le1te, liberating the Philippines from the Japanese. The following
weeks and months witnessed American and Filipino victories all over the archipelago.
Provinces in the Visayas, then in Luzon, were secured one by one. After a destructive and
bloody campaign against the Japanese, Manila was liberated on March 3, 1945, then the
JUL 2, lSitS JUL 4, 1S4$ MAR t{,1947 JAiil ES, 1g4S

Sell Trade Act was Declaration Military Bases Agreement Release of
enacted of Philippine was passed Proclamation No 51
independence from by President Roxas
thE US
209
FOCUS QUESTIONS entire Philippines on July 5,1945. Outside the Philippines, Japanese forces were also
. What steps were taken by on the retreat. Japan announced its surrendet through Emperor Hirohito himself, in a
the government and bY the radio broadcast in August of the same year before being formally recognized by other
Americans to "rebuild" the
Philippines?
belligerent parties on Septembe r 2, 1945. This surrender took place in the US \Tarship
o How can Philippine-US Missouriwhile docked at Tokyo Bay. The war in the Pacific was finally over.l
relations be described after
Back in the Philippines, the long-standing quest for independence also resumed.
the US granted PhiliPPines
independence? The Malacafian Palace was turned over to the Commonwealth government with Sergio
Osmeia as the president. The Congress was once again able to convene and called for a
general election on April 23, 1946. This particular race was won by Manuel Roxas,
the
LEARNING
OBJECTIVES ihird final head of the Commonwealth and first for the Third Philippine Republic'
"rrd
At the end of this chapter, students Independence was finally proclaimed on July 4, 1946'
should be able to: However, this feat came at a very unlikely, if not unfavorable time' The countrv
. identily and explain the
different problems which the
was profoundly destroyed, both in the physical and the emotional sense. Buildings,
Philippines had to address houses, and other public works had been reduced to rubble while thousands of lives
following the formal Political
were prematurely ended by the war and its atrocities. Families were broken and a
separation from the US after the
Second World War; collective trauma among the populace was rather aPparent. The enthusiasm for self-rule
. ascertain the degree of was replaced by anxiery caused by an uncertain future for the country. \fith a nation
destruction brought bY the War
to the Philippines, esPeciallY
.*t.rrirr.ly damaged, where would rebuilding begin? How would the deep wounds
to its major cities such as inficted by the war heal? Should the alleged war crime perpetrators and collaborators
the capital, Manila; and the
be punished or forgiven?
government efforts to imProve
the situation: and Such quesrions were probably the ones Filipinos had to confront during the earir'
. explain the relations between years of the poswar period. In this chapter, with the use of primary sources, the
following
the Philippines and the granting
of independence of the latter'
will be discussed: the declaration of independence; the process of rehabilitation of the
Philippines; and some of its other then-pressing concerns such as the damaged economl-'
the issue of US military bases in the islands, and the controversial collaboration issue
with the Japanese. Some of the sources included are the Treaty of Manila of 1946.
photos of port*", Philippines, the Bell Tlade Act' the Military Bases Agreement of
1947, andih. ..*, of the amnesry provided by President Roxas to Filipinos charged with
treasonable collaboration with the Japanese.
The signing ofrthe ' ' ,, , ,
STUDY AID Treaty of General , " '1
Rela.tions and Protoool ,
or the,Treaty. of Manila ,r
of ,1946 meant,that,Ihe
long-s andlngiquest of ,
the.Filipin6s toibe {ree,' l
linally materialized' l,
",,'
This historic event took
place in Manila and was
attended by several '
high+anking Philippine
and US offioials, The ,
raising of the Philippine

flag and the lowering of
the US flig *"t" 6qn6 in,
the Ceremony.
Ci{API'EFI 12 INDEPENDENCE AND THE ESTABLISHMENT OF A NEW REPUBLIC

Ireaty cf Genera! Relatians and
Prot*esl of 1946 or Treaty cf Manila
Ihe eventual Filipino independence promised by the Americans was formally realized in
ilB
\{anila on July 4, 1946, a date now regarded as the Republlc Day or Filipino-American After the bombing of the Japanese
cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in
Fnendship Da1t.lhis day marked the ratification of the document known as the Tleaty
August 1945, Emperor Hirohito of
ri General Relations and Protocol or the teaty of Manila of 1946. It was signed by Japan announced to his people the
President Manuel Roxas and by the US High Commissioner, Paul V. McNutt the formal surrender of the empire and
their acceptance of the provisions
oersonal representative of US President Harry tuman to the Philippines. written in the Potsdam Declaration.
This agreement officially 1) recognized the Philippines as an independent nation; 2) This was done through a radio
broadcast now known aslhe Jewel
relinquished US sovereignty over the entire Philippine islands; and 3) gave the US to a)
Voice Broadcast it aired on August
{iplomatically represent the Philippines in other countries while a Foreign Service Office 15, 1945. Hirohito read to his
n-as pending to be established; and (b) to maintain its military bases in the archipelago. constituents the so-called lmperial
Rescript on the Termination of the
The full text of the treary follows. Warwhich contained Japan's formal
surrender
Primary Source
TREATY OF GENERAL RELAT]ONS BETWEEN THE BEPUBLIC OF THE PHIL]PPINES
AND THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
-ê Republic of the Philippines and the United States of America, being animated by the desire to cement
:: relations of close and long friendship existing beNveen the two countries, and to provide for the Paul lvlcNutt, born in 189'1
.::cgnition of the independence of the Republic of the Philippines as of July 4, 1946, and the relinquishment in Franklrn, Indiana, was an
American politician and diplomat.
:'American sovereignty over the Philippine lslands, have agreed upon the following articles: He had been educated at the
Article I Indiana University and Harvard
University and was later elected
The United States of America agrees to withdraw and surrender, and does hereby withdraw and as the Governor of lndiana.
s-.r'ender, all rights of possession, supervision, jurisdiction, control or sovereignty existing and exercised ln 1937, he was made the Hlgh
Commissioner to the Philippines
c, rhe United States of America in and over the territory and the people of the Philippine lslands, except
by President Franklin D. Foosevelt,
a: use of such bases, necessary appurtenances to such bases, and the rights incident thereto, as the after Roosevelt himself defeated
L- ted States of America, by agreement with the Republic of the Philippines may deem necessary to McNutt in the Democratic Party's
presidential primaries. During
,::ain for the mutual protection of the Republic of the Philippines and of the United States of America. The
the Second World War, McNutt
u^led States of America further agrees to recognize, and does hereby recognize, the independence was instrumental in making the
Philippines a haven for Jewlsh
:' :he Republic of the Philippines as a separate seltgoverning nation and to acknowledge, and does
:ereby acknowledge, the authority and control over the same of the Government instituted by the people
rereof , under the Constitution of the Republic of the Philippines.
Article ll
The diplomatic representatives of each country shall enjoy in the territories of the other the
c',,/leges and immunities derived from generally recognized international law and usage. The consular
r=cresentatives of each country, duly provided with exequatur, will be permitted to reside in the territories
c'ihe other in the places wherein consular representatives are by local laws permitted to reside; they shall
srlcy the honorary prlvileges and the immunities accorded to such off icers by general international usage;
a"d they shall not be treated in a manner less favorable than similar off icers of any other foreign country.
Article lll
Pending the final establishment of the requisite Philippine Foreign Service establishments abroad, the
Eepublic of the Philippines and the United States of America agrees that at the request of the Republic of
:e Philippines the United States of America will endeavor, in so far as it may be practicable, to represent
::ough its Foreign Service the interests of the Republic of the Philippines in countries where there is no
P'rl ippine representation. The two countries further agree that any such arrangements are to be subject to
:ermination when in the judgment of either country such arrangements are no longer necessary.
211
a CJ
Article lV
: -: l:::1'' 1'
TheRepublicof thePhrlippinesag:eeslcass--3'a-Jl:;s-='-:':::--=
tes a': -s:---:-:::=:
- - :-:
of the Philippine lslands, its provinces'
citres' muncpa '= =: =-
While this treaty recognized

Philippine indePendence from the Subsistingonthedatehereof'TheRepublicofthePhilippineswilma(ea:.]-3:::-:.S:..:...e.=:=...
.934' unc:. a-.----
US after more than four decades bonds issued prlor i3 l\'1aj :,
principal of
funds for the payment of interest on and
ol colonization, it allowed the latter
to matntain its military bases in the o{anActofCongressoftheUniiedStatesotAmerioabythePhilippineislands,oranyprovl3:-:.
archipelago. lt also allowed the munioipalitytherein,andSUChobligationsshallbeafirstlienonthetaxescollectedinthePhilipol.:s
US to temPorarilY rePresent the
Articte V
Philippines in international matters
while a foreign affairs office is TheRepublicofthePhilippinesandtheUnitedStatesofAmericaagreethatallcases
- : ''
philippines which, in accordance with section
pending to be established' n""","*"", and people of the
^: :_
""""";",.;;; '!^!^^ ^4 A
'-^r
lndependenceActoflg34,arependingbeforetheSupremeCourtoftheUnitedStatesofAmer:a
dateofthegrantingoftheindependenoeoftheRepublicofthePhilippinesshallContinuetobes-:
ind
for such period of time after
ffi ;;;;"'arrr"*" court of the United states of America
GUIDE ffiU€SYE*NS î^-
_ a
. Wnat were lhe main Provisions asmaybenecessarytoetfeotuatethedispositronofthecasesathand.ThecontractingpartiesaS:==

^ Amdriâ ufl m ^{
of the Treaty of Manila of 1946? thatfollowingthedispositionofsuchcasesthesupremeCourtoftheUniiedStatesofAmericaw[cca
. What does the treaty say about originating in the Philippine lslands
to have the right ol review of cases
PhiliPPine-US reiatrons?
. Do You thlnk it was justifiable Article Vl
for the US to maintain its lnsofaraStheyarenotCoveredbyexistinglegislation,allclaimsoftheGovernmentofhe
military bases in lhe PhiliPPines
in sPite ol the latter being an
StatesofAmericaoritsnationalsagainsttheGovernmentoftheRepublicofthePhilippinesa':j
the Gc''='--* -
philippines and its nationals against
Republic of the
indePendent country? claims of the Government of the property rig^:S :. :*
be promptly adjusted and Settled. The
of the United States of America, Shall
States ot America, shall be
promptly adiusted and S=:-.: :,
Republic ot the Philippines and the United
mutualagreement,andallexistingpropertyrightsofthecitizensandcorporationsoftheFe:-:::
thePhilippinesintheUnitedStatesofAmericaandofcitizensandcorporationsoftheUniie:S.'=.-:-t -'"
and safegua'r==
philippines shall be acknowledged, respected
America in the Republic of the
While Manila sustained a great
deal of destruction as one of the SameextentaSpropertyrightsofCitizensandcorporationsoftheUnitedStatesofAmericas-]]-,1
main sites of the Pacif ic theate'
RepublicofthePhilippines,respectively.BothGovernmentsshalldesignaterepresentatives.,,--.i
:- '-:
ot the Second World War, another satisfactory and expeditlous dispcs=
to effect a
ciiy in Europe similarly sufiered the in concert agree on measures best calculated
legislation'
same {ate-Warsaw, the capital of claims as may not be covered by existing
Poland. German forces occuPied
Article Vll
the citY in September 1939 and
fell under a German-controlled TheBepublicofthePhilippinesagreestoassumea|lcontinuingobligationsaSsUmed..:.:
puPPet government The Jewish
StatesofAmericaUndertheTreatyofParisbetweentheUnitedStatesofAmericaandSpa.:-'.
population of the city, which made ceded i: -=
by which the Philippine lslands were
up around 30 Percent of the at Paris on the lOth of December' 1BgB'
entirety, was moved to a separate StatesofAmerica,andundertheTreatybetweentheUnitedStatesofAmericaandSpar::.'
quarters before Hitler started the 1900
"Final Solution" or the extermination
Washington on the 7th day of November'
of the Jews. It has been eslimated Article Vlll
that around 90 Percent of Poland's ThisTreatyShallenterinto{orceontheexchangeofinstrumentsofratificatlon.
Jewish population was murdered bY
the Nazls, most notably with the use ThisTreatyshallbeSubmittedforratifioationinaccordancewiththeconstjtutionalprocec--::
of gas chambers. theRepublicofthePhilippinesandoftheUnitedStatesofAmericaandinstrumentsofratiflCati...-
be exchanged and deposited at Manila
SignedatManila,thisfourthdayofJuly'onethousandninehundredandforty-six'
For the Government of the Republic of
the Philippines:
(SGD ) MANUEL ROXAS

of America:
For the Government of the United States
(Sgd ) PAUL V M.NUTT
source: General Be "'
OF A NEW REPUBLIC
Ci-iApl L:fi I2 INDEPENDENCE AND THE ESTABLISHIVENT
Fh*€*s *$ ffimm$Em &f€er €h* Wmr
The narratives about the ten-year transition period of the Philippines, as promised by the
Tydings-McDuffie Act of 1934, were unfortunately blemished by the atrocities of the l
war in the Pacific. As a next logical target of the Japanese Empire's expansionism which
worked along the lines of the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperiry Sphere, the Philippines
was ultimately dragged into the said worldwide conflict when Japanese forces invaded
the Philippines hours after the destruction of Pearl Harbor in December 1941 .
The next few years were some of the darkest in the archipelago's history-thousands
of lives were lost; the economy was in bad shape; there was widespread famine; and the
land was extensively damaged. It has been purported that Manila, next to the Polish
capital of \7arsaw, sustained the greatest physical destruction among the major theaters
of the Second \7orld \Var. The damage caused by the war to Manila, especially toward
the end of the Japanese occupation of the Philippines, had been well-documented in
different photographs. Some of these are found below.
:l
uffi
tit'::t'::t
w..'ffi'ffi ffi $$
il].i+
::,ji!
ffi #
213
-
GUIDE *UffiSTE*SdS
in
. What structures are depicted
the PhotograPhs?
. the
What can You say about
Manila caused bY
damage in
sedrcn Iot
the war? Yo- can
to
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Postwar Manila'
OF A NEW REPUBLIC
THE ESTABLISHMENT
CIiAI,iIJF ] 2 INDEPENDENCE AND
Excerpt fr*rc the FhE$*ppEme Yrmde &ct *f tS46 .;
ffi,
or Bel! Trade &** ffiffi,
w,
I,nricipating the eventual granting of independence to the Filipinos, a member ofthe US
-{ouse of Representatives, Charles Jasper Bell of Missouri, filed a bill in September 1945 Born in 1885, Charles Jasper
Bell was an American lawyer
;-hich aimed ro govern the future trading relations between the US and the Philippines.
and politician who served as a
-his bill was larer passed as a law and has since been known as the Philippine Ti'ade representative of M;ssouri to the
-l-cr or the Bell Tfade Act of 1946. Some of the main provisions of the bill include US Congress, He was educated at
the University of Missouri and the
- the fixed 2:1 exchange rate beween the Philippine peso and the US dollar;2) the Kansas City School of Law before
-rlimited free trade between the Philippines and the US for the next eight years; 3) he entered politics as a member
--::e gradual placing of tariffs on trade products until full rates are achieved in 1974; of the Democratic Party. He is
remembered for authoring the Bell
meant that
-.d 4) the granting of pariry rights to the Americans. The fourth provision Trade Act and co-authoring its
,r-:nerican entities can rap resources which was reserved to the Filipinos as stated in the complenenta,y bill. the Philiopi're
Rehabi itation Act.
-:t35 Philippine Constitution. Simply put, the Bell Tiade Act compelled the Congress
:-, amend the Constiturion.
The was received negatively by some critics for it was thought to tie the
bill
lrilippines to the US economically even after the granting of independence. However,
:::e US passed the bill as a complement to the Philippine Rehabilitation Act, which
:.edged a total of $620,000,000 ($120 million for the construction of public works,
j+00 million for individual damages, and $100 million in war surplus goods) as war
:;parations. However, the Rehabilitation Act provided that payments larger than $500
.:all not be released unless the Philippines ratifies the BellTlade Act first. This meant
--rar the Philippines had to consent to both of the legislations in order to avail of the
:ruch needed war reparations. Through the Commonwealth Act 733 enacted on July
:.1946, the Bell Trade Act was ratified by the Philippine Congress. An excerpt of the
.rcr is found below.
rrimary Source
AN ACT TO PROV]DE FOR THE TRADE RELATIONS BETWEEN THE UNITED STATES AND THE
PHILIPPINES, AND FOR OTHER PURPOSES
Article I
1. During the period from the date of the entry into force of this Agreement to July 3, 1954, both
lates inclusive, United States articles as defined in Subparagraph (e) of Paragraph 1 of the Protocol
:r this Agreement entered, or withdrawn from warehouse, in the Philippines for consumption, and
rhilippine articles as defined in Subparagraph (f) of Paragraph I of the Protocol entered, or withdrawn
'.om warehouse, in the United States for consumption, shall be admitted into the Philippines and the
-.lnited States, respectively, free of ordinary customs duty.
2. The ordinary customs duty to be collected on United States articles as defined in
Subparagraph (e) of Paragraph 1 of the Protocol, which during the following portions of the period from
.1974,
July 4, 1954, to July 3, both dates inclusive, are entered, or withdrawn from warehouse, in the
Philippines for consumption, and on Philippine articles as def ined in Sub-paragraph (f) of Paragraph 1 of
rhe Protocol, other than those specified jn ltems D to G, both inclusive, of the Schedule to Article ll, which
Curing such portions of such period are entered, or withdrawn from warehouse, in the United States
for consumption, shall be determined by applying the following percentages of the Philippine duty as
defined in Subparagraph (h) of Paragraph 1 of the Protocol, and of the United States duty as deiined in
Subparagraph (g) of Paragraph 1 of the Protocol, respectively:
215
r[
3l , 1954, both dates inclusive, f ive per centum. also a
a. During the period from July 4, 1954, to December
year '1955, ten per centum SUCh ]
b. During the calendar
and ::
The Bell Trade Act arranged for c. During each calendar year after the calendar year 1955, until and including the calendar
Unit.:
the continuous free trade between year 1972, a percentage equal to the percentage for the preceding calendar year increased for the
the Phllippines and the US from
preceding calendar year increased by five per centum of the Philippine duty and the United States duty'
per ::
the year of its Passing until 1 954.
with: -
For the {ollowing years, the law respectivelY, as so def ined.
per of lt':'
declared that a five-percent tariff
d. During the period from January 1, 1973, to July 3, 1974, both dates inclusive, one hundred
should apply to Products annuallY :
until full rates are reached in 1974 centum.
the.,
It also pegged the PhiliPPine Peso
with the US dollar in a 2:1 rate and
tl twc --
gave the Americans Parity rights
The following Schedule to Article ll shall constitute an integral part thereof:
f lve .,.
over Philippine resources.
Artick
Commodity DescriPtion All quantities
Numerical ltem
Sugars 952, 000 short tons
lar :.
Not to exceed 56. 000
A-1 May be relined sugars, meaning 'direct-consumption sugaf as
defined in Section 101 of the Sugar Act of 1937 of the United short tons
States which is set forth in part as Annex I to this Agreement Ut ::
-:
6, 000, 0oo lbs er::
B Cordage, includlng yarns, twines (including binding twines
descri5ed in Paragraph 1 622 of the Tariff Act of 1 930 of the Q'- -"
United States, as imended, which is set forth as Annex ll to this
Agreement), cords, cordage, rope, and cable, tarred or.untarred' P.:
wiolly or in chief value of Manila (abaca) or other hard fiber' -
a'a
Rice including rice meal flour, polish and bran 1, 040, 000 lbs
C
Z- ='
Cigars (exclusive o{ cigarettes, cheroots of all kinds, and paper 200, 000, 000 cigars
D
cigars and cigarettes, including wrappers).
E Scrap tobacco, and stemmed and un-stemmed flller tobacco 6, 500, 000 lbs
described in Paragraph 602 of the Tariff Act of 1930 of the
[Jnited States, as imended, which ls set {orth as Annex lll to this
Agreement.
F Coconut oil 200, 000 long tons
G Buttons of pearl or shell. 850, 000 gross
Article V
The value of philippine currency in relation to the United States dollar shall not be changed,
t-.
restrictlcr-:
convertibility of philippines pesos into United States dollars shall not be suspended, and no
be imposed on the transfer of funds from the Philippines to the United States except by
agreeme^'
shall
with the President of the United States.
Article Vl
1. Any citizen of the United States who actually resided in the Philippines, and any citizen oJ
t-:
philippines who actually resided in the United States, for a continuous period of three years during:-.
period of forty-two months ending November 30, 1941 , if entering the country of such former reside- - '
resurr - -
during the period from July 4, 1946, to July 3, 1951, both dates inclusive, for the purpose of
residence therein, shall for the purposes of the immigration laws, be considered a non-quota
immigr.-
After such admission as a non-quota immigrant he shall, for the purposes of the immigration ar:
.
--'
naturalization laws, be considered as lawfully admitted to such country for permanent residence
if sr=
benefits of this paragraph shall also apply to the wife of any such citizen of the United States,
Cl-iAPit'i]1:TINDEPENDENCEANDTHEESTABL|SHN4ENToFANEWFEPUBLIC
::- a citizen thereof, and to his unmarried children under eighteen years of age, and to the wife or any
,-:^ .itjzen of the Philippines, if she is also a citizen thereof or is eligible for United States citizenship,
:- r :r nis unmarried children under eighteen years of age, if such wife or children of such citizen oJ the
-
- :.J States or such citizen of the Philippines are accompanying or following to join him during such
:;-::. This paragraph shall not apply to a citizen of the Philippines admitted to the Territory of Hawair,
-- :.,:t an immigration or passport visa, under the provisions of Paragraph (1 ) of section B (a) of the act
.' t.-'ch 24, 1934, of the United States which is set forth as Annex Vlll to this Agreement.
2 There shall be permitted to enter the Philippines, without regard to any numerical limitations under
-. a#s of the Philippines, in each of the calendar years 1946 to 1951, both inclusive, one thousand
' - - rndred citizens of the United States, each of whom shall be entitled to remain in the Philippines for
4tde Vll
: The disposition, exploitation, development, and utilization of all agricultural, timber, and mineral GUIDE fiUHST;ONS
:-:: of the public domain, waters, minerals, coal, petroleum, and other mineral oils, all forces and o According to the Bell Trade Act,
what provisions would govern
:, -':3s of potential energy, and other natural resources of the Philippines, and the operation of public
the trading relations between
-- ::s. shall if open to any person, be open to citizens of the United States and to all forms of business the US and the Philippines?
How would you characterize
=-::-orise owned or controlled, directly or indirectly, by United States citizens, except that (for the period
these? Would you conside'
: -:'1c the amendment of the Constitution of the Philippines referred to in Paragraph 2 of this Article) the
them fair or untair?
:* 3oines shall not be required to comply with such part of the foregoing provisions of this sentence as . Do you think it was justiliable
,-: r conflict with such Constitution. to accept the Bell Trade Act
considering the damage that
2. The Government of the Philippines will promptly take such steps as are necessary to secure the had been sustained by the
Philippines from the war?
=-:ndment of the Constitution of the Philippines so as to permit the taking effect as laws of the Philippines
:' 3Jch part of the provisions of Paragraph 1 of this Article as is in conflict with such Constitution before
.-ah amendment.
t...1
President of the Senate
Speaker of the House

of Representatives
Finally passed by the Senate on July 2, 1946.
Secretary of the Senate
This Act, which originated in the House of Representatives, was finally passed by the same on July
2,1946.
Secretary of the House

of Representatives
Approved:
President of the Philippines

Source: Philippine Trade Act of 1946
217
Exeerpt from tg4? Military Bases &gr*ereemt
As explicitly stated in the Tieaty of Manila of 1945, the US intended to continue to
,rr. ,h. Phiiippines for its military operations in the Pacific. This was openly expressed
by the US government despite granting independence to the Filipinos the previous
y.ar. While-public disclosure on an agreement pertinent to US bases was only
made
in 1947, it must be noted that negotiations for the continental presence of Americans
banned in the Philippines started in 1943, when the Commonwealth government
was
in exile in'Washington. Many believed that the preservation of US bases in the

country,
as well as the granting of parity rights to the Americans, was

inconsistent with the
idea of independence . Nevertheless, arguing along the lines of peace,

mutual defense,
and military cooperation, the Philippines under Roxas, allowed the
US to maintain
States and
military bases in ,h. .o.rrr,.y by signing the Agreement between the United
Republic of the Philippines Concerning Military Bases also known as the 1947
the
MilitaryBasesAgreement.Anexcerptoftheagreementfollows.
PrimarY Source
the war in the pacific has confirmed the mutuality of interest of the United States
of
WHEREAS,
of their respective
America and of the Republic of the Philippines in matters relating to the defense
territories and that mutuality of interest demands that the Governments
of the two countries
take the necessary measures to promote their mutual security and to defend
their territories
and areas;
WHEREAS, the Governments of the United States of America and of the
Hepublic of the Philippines
in the common defense of their two countries through arrangements

are desirous of cooperating
particularly through a grant to
consonant with the procedures and objectives of the United Natlons, and
of its title and sovereignty
the United states of America by the Republic of the Philippines in the exercise
of certain lands of the
of the use, free of rent, in furtherance of the mutual interest of both countries,
Public domain;
WHEREAS, the Government of the Republic of the Philippines has requested United States
defense effective
assistance in providing for the defense of the Phllippines and in developing for such
PhiliPPine armed forces;
has, in view'
WHEREAS, pursuant to this request the Government of the United States of America
welfare of the Philippines, indicated its intention of dispatching a military mission
of its interest in the
of the Philippine
to the philippines and of extending to her appropriate assistance in the development
defense forces;
WHEREAS, a Joint Resolution of the Congress of the United States of America of
June 29' 1944.
protection c'
authorizedthe president of the United states of Amerlca to acquire bases for the mutual
the United States of America and of the Philippines; and
WHEREAS, Joint Resolution No.4 of the congress of the Philippines, approved July 28' 1945
of the Philippines
authorized the president of the United states of America to negotiate with the President
for the establishment of bases provided for in the Joint Resolution of the Congress of the United States
Philippines, the mutua
of America of June 29, 1944, with a view to insuring the territorial integrity of the
peace in the
protection of the United States of America and the Philippines, and the maintenance of
Pacific;
THEREFORE the Governments of the Republic of the Philippines and of the United States
c'
and operatic'
America agree upon the following terms for the delimitation, establishment, maintenance
of military bases in the Philippines:
CIIAP.IL:R 12 INDEPENDENCE AND THE ESTABLISHMENT OF A NEW REPUBLIC

Article l- Grant of Bases
1. The Government of the Republic of the Philippines (hereinafter referred to as the Philippines) grants
to the Government of the United States of America (hereinafter referred to as the United States) the
right to retain the use of the bases in the Philippines listed in Annex A attached hereto.
2, The Philippines agrees to permit the United States, upon notice to the Philippines, to use such of
those bases listed in Annex B as the United States determines to be required by military necessity.
3. The Philippines agrees to enter into negotiations with the United States at the latter's request,
to permit the United States to expand such bases, to exchange such bases for other bases, to
acquire additional bases, or relinquish rights to bases, as any of such exigencies may be required
by military necessity.
4. A narrative description of the boundaries of the bases to which this Agreement relates is given
in Annex A and Annex B. An exact description of the bases listed in Annex A, with metes and
bounds, in conformity with the narrative descriptions, will be agreed upon between the appropriate
authorities of the two Governments as soon as possible. With respect to any of the bases listed in
Annex B, an exact description with metes and bounds, in conformity with the narrative description
of such bases, will be agreed upon if and when such bases are acquired by the United States.
Article lll - Description of Rights

1 . lt is mutually agreed that the United States shall have the rights, power and authority within the bases
which are necessary for the establishment, use, operation and defense thereof or appropriate for
the control thereof and all the rights, power and authority within the limits of territorial waters and air
space adiacent to, or in the vicinity of, the bases which are necessary to provide access to them,
or appropriate for their control.
2. Such rights, power and authority shall include, inter alia, the right, power and authority:
a. to construct (including dredging and filling), operate, maintain, utilize, occupy, garrison and
control the bases;
b. to improve and deepen the harbors, channels, entrances and anchorages, and to construct
or maintain necessary roads and bridges affording access to the bases;
c. to control (including the right to prohibit) in so far as may be required for the efficient operation
and safety of the bases, and within the limits of military necessity, anchorages, moorings,
landings, takeoffs, movements and operation of ships and waterborne craft, aircraft and other
vehicles on water, in the air or on land comprising or in the vicinity of the bases;
d. the right to acquire, as may be agreed between the two Governments, such rights of way, and
to construct thereon, as may be required for military purposes, wire and radio communications
facilities, including sub-marine and subterranean cables, pipe lines and spur tracks from
railroads to bases, and the right, as may be agreed upon between the two Governments to
construct the necessary facilities;
e. to construct, install, maintain, and employ on any base any type of facilities, weapons,
substance, device, vessel or vehicle on or under the ground, in the air or on or under the
water that may be requisite or appropriate, including meteorological systems, aerial and water
navigation lights, radio and radar apparatus and electronic devices, of any desired power,
type of emission and frequency.
ln the exercise of the above-mentioned rights, power and authority, the United States agrees that
the powers granted to it will not be used unreasonably or, unless required by military necessity
determined by the two Governments, so as to interfere with the necessary rights of navigation,
aviation, communication, or land travel within the territories of the Philippines. ln the practical
219
application outside the bases of the rights, power and authority granted in this Article there sl-:
be, as the occasion requires, consultation between the two Governments.
t.l
Article Xlll - Jurisdiction
1. The Philippines consents that the United States shall have the right to exercise jurisdiction over the
following offenses:
a.
b,
Any offense committed by any person within any base except where the offender and offended
parties are both Philippine citizens (not members of the armed forces of the United States on
active duty) or the offense is against the security of the Philippines;
Any offense committed outside the bases by any member of the armed forces of the United States
I:
in which the offended party is also a member of the armed forces of the United States; and
c. Any offense committed outside the bases by any member of the armed forces of the Unitec
States against the security of the United States.
2. The Philippines shall have the right to exercise jurisdiction over all other offenses committed outside
the bases by any member of the armed forces of the United States.
3. Whenever for special reasons the United States may desire not to exercise the jurisdiction
reserved to it in paragraphs 1 and 6 of this Article, the officer holding the offender in custody
shall so notify the fiscal (prosecuting attorney) of the city or province in which the offense has
been committed within ten days after his arrest, and in such a case the Philippines sha
exercise jurisdiction.
Whenever for special reasons the Philippines may desire not to exercise the jurisdiction reserveo A
to it in paragraph 2 of this Article, the fiscal (prosecuting attorney) of the city or province where
the offense has been committed shall so notify the officer holding the offender in custody within
ten days after his arrest, and in such a case the United States shall be free to exercise jurisdiction
lf any offense falling under paragraph 2 of this Article is committed by any member of the armec
forces of the United States
a. While engaged in the actual performance of a specific military duty, or
b. Durlng a period of national emergency declared by either Government or the fisca
(prosecuting attorney) so finds from the evidence, he shall immediately notify the offrce'
holding the offender in custody that the United States is free to exercise jurisdiction. lr
the event the fiscal (prosecuting attorney) finds that the offense was not committed in the
actual performance of a specific military duty, the offenderls commanding officer sha
have the right to appeal from such finding to the Secretary of Justice within ten days
from the receipt of the decision of the f iscal and the decision of the Secretary of Just ce
shall be final.
ln all cases over which the Philippines exercises jurisdiction the custody of the accused, pending
trial and linal judgment, shall be entrusted without delay to the commanding officer of the neares:
base, who shall acknowledge in writing that such accused has been delivered to him for custod\i
pending trial in a competent court of the Philippines and that he will be held ready to appear and
will be produced before said court when required by it. The commanding officer shall be furnishec
by the fiscal (prosecuting attorney) with a copy of the information against the accused upon the
filing of the original in the competent court.
Notwithstanding the foregoing provisions, it is mutually agreed that in time of war the United States
shall have the right to exercise exclusive jurisdiction over any offenses which may be committed by
members of the armed forces of the United States in the Philippines.
CI'IAP-IIR
.]2 INDEPENDENCE AND THE ESTABLISHMENT OF A NEW REPUBLIC
7. TheUnitedstatesagreesthatitwillnotgrantasyluminanycft:e:2>=::'-"':''"
: a'' -
'1:= =
philippines. Should any such person be fouTo -=
the lawful jurisdiction of the
authorities of the Philippines'
surrendered on demand to the competent
IneverycaseinwhichlurisdictionoveranoffenseisexercisedbytheUniledStates,theoffended
partymayinstituteaSeparatecivilactionagainsttheoffenderinthepropercourtofthePhiIippines
toenforcethecivilliabilitywhichundertheIawsofthePhiIippinesmayariselromtheoffense'
Article XIV - Arrest and Service of Process
l.Noarrestshallbemadeandnoprocess,civilorcriminal,shallbeservedwithinanybaseexcept
withthepermissionofthecommandingofficerofSuchbase;butshouldthecommandingof{icer
refusetograntsuchpermissionheshall(exceptincasesofarrestWheretheUnitedStateshas
jurisdictionunderArticleXlll)forthwithtakethenecessaryStepstoarrestthepersonchargedand
surrenderhimtotheappropriateauthoritiesofthePhilippinesortoservesuchprocess,asthecase
maybe,andtoprovidetheattendanceoftheserverofsuchprocessbeforetheappropriatecourtin
thePhllippinesorprocuresuchservertomakethenecessaryaffidavitordeclarationtoprovesuch
service as the case maY require'
2'lncasesWheretheservicecourtsoftheUnitedStateshavejurisdictionunderArticleXlll,the
appropriateauthoritiesofthePhilippineswill,onrequest,givereciprocalfacilitiesasregardsthe
surrender of alleged offenders'
service of process and the arrest and
il
Article XIX - Commercial Concerns
ltismutuallyagreedthattheUnitedStatesshallhavetheright,withtheconsentofthePhilippines'
togranttocommercia|ConoernsownedorcontrolledbythecitizensoftheUnitedStatesorofthe
PhilippinessuchrightstotheuseofanybaseorfacilityretainedoracquiredbytheUnitedStatesaSmay
bedeemedappropriatebybothGovernmentstoinSUrethedevelopmentandmaintenancefordefense
purposes of such bases and facilities'
tl
Articlexxvll-VoluntaryEnlistmentofPhilippineCitizens
ltismutuallyagreedthattheUnitedStatesshallhavetherlghttorecruitcitizensofthePhilippinesfor to
term of years' and to train them and
states armed forces for a fixed
voluntary enlistment into the united
exercisethesamedegreeofcontrolanddisciplineoverthemasisexercisedinthecaseofothermembers of
to be accepted by the armed forces
The number of such enlistments
of the United states armed forces
the two Governments'
time be limited by agreement between
the United states may from time to
tl
Article XXIX - Term of Agreement
ThepresentAgreementsha|lenterintoforceUponitsacceptancebythetwoGovernmentsandshalI
remaininforceforaperiodofninety-nineyearssubjecttoextensionthereafterasagreedbythetwo
Governments
SignedinManila,Philippines,induplicatethrsfourteenthdayofMarch,nineteenhundredandforty-Seven,
United States of America:
On behalf of the Government of the
PAUL V MCNUTT
AmbassadorExtraordlnaryandPlenipotentiaryoftheUnitedStatesofAmericatotheRepub|icofthe
PhiliPPines
221
On behalf of the Goverr^menl c':-=:=: -: : :---= :-
MANUEL ROXAS
President of the Philippines
Annex A
Clark Field Air Base, Pampanga.
Fort Stotsenberg, Pampanga.
Mariveles Military Reservation, POL Terminal and Training Area, Bataan.
Camp John Hay Leave and Recreation Center, Baguio.
Army Communications System with the deletion of all stations in the Port of Manila Area
United States Armed Forces Cemetery No. 2, San Francisco Del Monte, Rizal.
Angeles General Depot, Pampanga.
Leyte-Samar Naval Base including shore installations and air bases.
Subic Bay, Northwest Shore Naval Base, Zambales Province, and the existing naval reservation at
Olongapo and the existing Baguio Naval Reservation.
Tawi-Tawi Naval Anchorage and small adjacent land areas.
Caflacao-Sangley Point Navy Base, Cavite Province.

Bagobantay Transmitter Area, Quezon City, and associated radio receiving and control sites, Ma- i
Area.
Tarumpitao Point (Loran Master Transmitter Station), Palawan.
Talampulan lsland, Coast Guard #354 (Loran), Palawan.
Naule Point (Loran Station), Zambales.
Castillejo, Coast Guard #356, Zambales.
GUIDE QUE$TIONS Annex B

o According to the text, what are Mactan lsland Army and Navy Air Base.
the justifications specified by
Florida Blanca Air Base, Pampanga.
the US and the Philippines for
entering the agreemenf Aircraft Service Warning Net.
. What are the rights given to the Camp Wallace, San Fernando, La Union.
US?
Puerto Princesa Army and Navy Air Base; including Navy Section Base and Air Warning Sites, Palawa:
Tawi-Tawi Naval Base, Sulu Archipelago.
Aparri Naval Air Base.
Source: Military B:=..
Proclarnation No. 51 by President Manuel Hsxas

\X/hile struggling to heal its citizens, rebuild its public works and economy, and negotia::
its relations with the US, the Philippines was also confronted with a highly sensiri',.
m211s1-6hs issue of collaboration with the Japanese. \7hen the Commonweak-.-
government was about to go on exile in December i941, President Quezon left son:.
prominent members of his government so they could provide necessary protection fl:
the Filipinos and deal with the advancingJapanese troops. These included Secretan- ,-,:
JusticeJoseAbadSantoswhowas briefymade the actingPresidentofthe Commonweali
former senator and acting ChiefJustice Jose P Laurel, Secretary of Agriculture Benign:
S. Aquino Sr., and the City Mayor of Manila Jorge Vargas.
After the Americans had successfully regained the Philippines and granted ir,
independence, the Commonwealth government, through Act No. 682, set up a Peop.i
(IHAPIIF1 12 INDEPENDENCE AND THE ESTABLISHMENT OF A NEW REPUBLIC

Court, asked to investigate alleged war crimes. Leading Filipino figures during the
arrested and charged with treasonable collaboration' In
Japanese Occupation were then
To a courtroom
September 1946,Laurel appeared before the court to plead not guilry.
full of seasoned lawyers ,.rd j.rdg.r like himself Laurel eloquently proclaimed, "I am
neither pro-Japanese nor pro-American, I am pro-Filipino' There is
no law that
and above that ofAmerica'
.orrd.*., me for having placed the welfare of my people over
justice
I am not expecring a decoration. I do not claim to be a hero. . . Although human
may err, *hrt -"tt.rs is that I am innocent before my conscience and
my God. ' ' I shall
face my Creator in full confidence that I had dedicated
my powers, talents, and energies
to the service of my country at a time when she needed me most."2
from
To solve the collaboration issue, and especially to prevent the government
losing some of its sharpest minds such as Laurel and Claro M. Recto, a blanket
-Ihe text of this
was proclaim.d by President Manuel Roxas in 1948. Jose P Laurel was born on
1891 in Tanauan, Batangas
"-.rJrry
proclamation follows. to Jacoba Garcla and Sotero
Laurel, a signatory to the Malolos
Constitution. Laurel was educated
Primary Source at the University of the Philippines
Proclamation No. 51 (UP), University of Santo Tomas
(UST), and Yale UniversitY He
A PROCLAMATION GRANTING AMNESTY
served ditferent Positions in the
WHEREAS, the occupation of the Philippines by the Japanese armed
forces during the last war and
government upon his return from
the organization by them of a government administered by citizens of
the Philippines but subject to their the States, but was PerhaPS
best-known for being the president
direction and control havegiven rise to charges of collaboration with the enemy against such citizens
of the Japanese-sPonsored
as against those who traded with
of the Philippines who occupied positions in that government, as well Philippine Republic: then later'
as an associate justice to the
the enemy;
Supreme Court and senator during
WHEREAS, as a result of those charges, indictments have been filed against
a large number of
the postwar Period. He also held
for alleged treasonable collaboration with the enemy before the People's court,
which teaching positions at UP, UST,
Filipino citizens
the Far Eastern University, and
was established especially to hear and try those cases; Adamson University,
WHEREAS, these trials have been held for more than two
years now, but no final judgments
convicting any one of the accused have been rendered;

position in the government
WHEREAS, the Supreme Court has declared that the mere holding of a
the laws of the Philippines;
established by the enemy does not perse constitute the crime of treason under
WHEREAS, with respect to those who are at present indicted for alleged trading with the
rule in treason trials,
enemy, it appears that because aside from the requirements of the two-witness
trading were
it has been declared necessary to prove specifically that the materials involved in the
have been entered so far The People's Court was set uP after
essential to the prosecution of the war, no final judgments of conviction
Commonwealth Act no. 682 was
rendered and orders of
in such cases and, on the contrary, several verdicts of acquittal have been enacted on September 1945. The
people's court was comPosed of a
dismissal issued;
presidlng iudge and 14 associate
acts attributed to political
WHEREAS, the majority of the Filipino people now realize that the alleged justices whose duty was to decide
performed by them in the sincere
collaborators either were not voluntary on their part or, in effect' were on all 'cases of crimes against
and well-being of their national security" done during the
belief that it was their patriotic duty to execute them in the interest of the safety
Japanese period.
countrymen who were then at the mercy of the enemy;
part of the Filipino
wHEREAS, with the lapse of time there has come a better understanding on the
government'
people of the motives which actuated the persons who held positions under the occupation
convinced that
and there is evidence that a majority of the people have fully vindicated the accused'
in their power to minimize the
in the discharge of their functions as public officials they did everything
or compel the Filipino
atrocities of the enemy and to prevent the carrying out of his purpose to induce
people to arm themselves against the allied nations;
223
WHEREAS, under the laws of the Philippines and the doctrines laid
down by our courts the
prosecution of the cases now pending appears unjustified with
regard to alleged political collaborators
and futile as to those charged with economrc collaboration;
WHEREAS, the question of collaboration has divided the people of
the philippines since liberatlon
in a manner which threatens the unity of the nation at a time when the public
welfare requires that sajd
unity be safeguarded and preserved;
WHEREAS, the question of collaboration is essentially political in nature
and should be settled in
accordance with the conscience of the majority of the people;
WHEREAS, it appears that the overwhelming sentiment of the people
of this Republic is now in
favor of resolving this question as speedily as possible by the grant of amnesty
to all persons who have
been accused or may hereafter be accused of treason through alleged collaboration
with the enemy;
WHEREAS, this public sentrment does not extend to persons who voluntarily
took up arms against
the alleged nations or the members of the resistance forces, or acted as spies
or informers of the
enemy, or committed murder, arson, coercion, robbery, physical injuries or any
other crime defined and
punished in our penal laws, for the purpose of aiding and abetting the
enemy in the war against the allied
nations, or in the suppression of the resistance movement in the phirippines;
NOW, THEREFORE, l, Manuel Roxas, President of the Philippines by virtue of the power in me
vested by Article Vll, section .10
(6) of the Constitution, so hereby proclaim and grant full and
complete
amnesty to all persons accused of any offense against the national security for
acts allegedly committed
to give aid and comfort to the enemy durrng the last war; provided, however, That
this amnesty shall
not extend to persons who are now or may hereafter be accused of treason
for having taken up arms
against the allied nations or the members of the resistance forces, for having
voluntarily acted as spies
or informers of the enemy, or for having committed murder, arson, coercion,
robbery, physlcal injuries, or
any other crime against person or property, for the purpose of aiding
and abetting the enemy in the war
against the allied nations or in the suppression of the resistance movement in
the philippines.
GUIDE frTJESTE*ruS All cases now pending before the courts for alleged offenses coming within the terms of the
. How did Manuel Roxas justify amnesty herein granted shall be dismissed by the respective courts on
their own motion or upon petitior
the granting of amnesty
by the prosecution or the accused.
according to the proclamation?
o Based on what you know This proclamation shall take effect upon the concurrence therewith
by the congress.
about the Japanese period,
especially the Second
Philippine Repubtic, do lN WITNESS WHEREOF, I have hereunto set my hand and caused
the seal of the Bepublic of the
you think the so-called Philippines to be affixed.
"collaborators" deserved the
amnesty? Why or why not?
Done in the City of Manila, this 28th day of January, in the year of
Our Lord, nineteen hundred anc
forty-eight, and of the lndependence of the philippines, the second.
(SGD.) MANUEL ROXAS

President of the philippines
Source: Proclamation No. S1, s, 194E
CIjAPIIR ] 2 INDEPENDENCE AND THE ESTABLISHMENI OF A NEW REPUBLIC

Chapter Summmry
Philippine independence from the US was formally recognized after the Treaty of Manila
had been signed on July 6, 1946. While this could be considered afealfor the Filipinos
and an absolute watershed in the history of the country, independence came at an
extremely troubled time. Fresh from the war, the Philippines was extremely destroyed.
Thousands of lives had been lost; public works had been rendered inutile; and the
country was plagued by the issue of collaboration
The country also had to confront issues pertinent to its relations with the US. With its
heavy losses from the war, the US tried to continue utilizing the Philippines in various
ways to the former's advantages. Economically, the Philippines was tied to US as seen
in the provisions of the Bell Trade Act. Likewise, the armed forces of the US continued to
have the military presence in Philippine soil through lhe 1947 Military Bases Agreement.
The collaboration issue was resolved by the granting of amnesty by President Manuel
Boxas.
&gsessffi?#ffie
politician
1. Group Work. Form a group of three to five members and research on a Filipino
who held a position in the Second Philippine Republic. ldentify his/her actions during
the period and relate these to the issue of collaboration. Discuss your findings and
insights to the class.
Essay. The Bell Trade Act and lhe 1947 Military Bases Agreement both
gave certain
2.
rights to the Americans which others deem inconsistent or incongruent with the idea of
the philippines being an independent country. Nevertheless, both were ratified by the
philippines for they gave some advantages to the Filipinos. ln this light, wri te an essay
explaining these rights and benefits. Dlscuss whether the benefits compensate for the
rights granted to the Americans or not.
3. Research. To get a fuller understanding of the destruction brought by the War to the
philippines, search for more photographs that depict the situation in the country during
the postwar period. ldentify the structures in the photographs that you will find. Share
.yourfindingstothe.class.:..,:..:]i....:..
Suggested ffi*m#$m6*
'Aooncillo.
'w- '-" - Teodoro. ifhe Fatefu! Y.ears; Japan's Advenlure in the Philippines, 1941-45.
Quezon City: Universitl4'o,ft Pl ls Press, 200li
The Burden::at
Unlversity of the, ,
Friend, Theodsrs t
; Yale Uni
iij!
. ii'"Golay, Frffi of the
,r
'no, 1 (waffit 11. I
Recto, CIarb. Political
, ,.1
946.
States and the PhiliPPines:
.the Study of Human lssues, 1981

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Chapter 2 Spiritual Beliefs of the Early Filipinos 12

Chapter 3 ffiarly Pitilippine Society and Culture 24

UNIT TWO Spanish Colonization

Early FiliPino HevcEts 68

3hapter 7 The Propaganda Movement BO

The 1896 PhiliPPine fiev*lutfi*m 96

UNIT THREE The Quest for Sovereignty 126

Chapter 11 Japar:*se #ccuPatEmn 190

Chapter 12 *md*p*xtdsffi*e *cld ttrT€ Establlshreterrt

UNIT FOUR The Challenges Faced

Chapter 14 H**n*cH ie F€*ti*et** Esmt 242

Chapter 15 An lndependeftt For*ign Folicy 252

Chapter 16 Naticr*a! ftSim*rltfi** 264

Chapter 17 M*rtial Laqr€; *ltafilemge tc ffermocraey 282

Proclaiming a State of Martial Law in the Philippines

Chapter 18 lSgB People Fower ffievslution 308

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