SCIENCE

4. BIOSPHERE - part of the world in which life

● HYPOTHESIS - an assumption or idea that can exist
is validated and tested through an
experiment ROCKS AND MINERALS
● INDEPENDENT VARIABLES (IV) -
multiplicated or changed to have an effect
I. IGNEOUS ROCKS - formed from the
on the dependent variable. cooling magma (a very liquid found
● DEPENDENT VARIABLE (DV) - measure in underneath the Earth’s surface) Ex.
the experiment and what is affected by Rhyolite, Granite, Basalt
independent variables II. SEDIMENTARY ROCKS - formed from
● SCIENTIFIC LAW - based on repeated pre-existing rocks or pieces of once-living
experimental observation that describes organisms Ex. limestone, conglomerate,
some aspect of the world dolomite, shale
● SCIENTIFIC THEORY - tested and widely III. METAMORPHIC ROCKS - formed through
the alteration of preexisting rocks in
accepted model that helps explain and
response to changing environmental
predict natural facts and which is based on
conditions, such as variations in
observation, experiments and reason temperature, pressure, and mechanical
● MODEL - aids in the visualization of stress, and the addition or subtraction of
occurrences and objects that cannot be chemical components. Ex. marble, slate
observeddirectly
● WEATHERING - by the action of rainwater,
MEASUREMENTS : extreme of temperature, and biological
activity
Physical Quantity Unit Name (symbol) ● EROSION - earthen materials are worn
Mass Kilogram, kg away and transported by natural forces
such as wind and water
Length Meter, m ● LITHIFICATION - unconsolidated materials
are converted into coherent solid rocks, as
Time Second, s by compaction or cementation

Amount of Substance Mole, mol

WEATHER AND CLIMATE
Temperature Kelvin, K

Electric Current Ampere, A ● METEOROLOGY - concerned with the

processes and phenomena of the
Luminous Intensity Candela, cd atmosphere, especially as a means of
forecasting the weather
● WEATHER - state of the atmosphere with
respect to wind, temperature, cloudiness,
EARTH’S SPHERE moisture, pressure, etc
● CLIMATE - the long term and average
weather conditions for a specific region
1. LITHOSPHERE - solid, outer part of the
Earth
2. HYDROSPHERE - total amount of water on LAYERS OF THE ATMOSPHERE
the planet.
3. ATMOSPHERE - layer or a set of layers of ❖ TROPOSPHERE
gases surroundings planet or other ➢ closest to the Earth’s surface.
➢ Expanding up to about 10-15 km
material body that is held in place
above the Earth’s surface
➢ 75% of atmosphere’s mass
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➢ Wider at the equator than at the
poles
SOLAR SYSTEM
❖ STRATOSPHERE
➢ Layer lies directly above the
troposphere and is about 35 km ● NEBULAR THEORY - nebula cloud made
deep from a collection of dust and gas. The sun,
➢ Extends from about 15 to 50 km planets, moons, and asteroids were formed
above the Earth's surface around the same time around 4.5 billion
➢ Warmer at the top than the bottom
years ago from a nebula
❖ MESOSPHERE
● PTOLEMAIC THEORY - state that the Earth
➢ Expanding from 50 to 80 km above
Earth’s surface lay in the centre of the universe with the
➢ cold layer where the temperature sun, the moon, and the known planets
generally decreases with increasing revolving around it in complicated orbits
altitude ● COPERNICAN THEORY - published in 1543
❖ THERMOSPHERE by Copernicus which stated that the earth
➢ Extends from 80 km above the and the planets rotated around the sun
Earth’s surface to outer space
➢ Temperature is hot and may be as
high as thousands of degrees as the CHARACTERISTICS OF A PLANET
few molecules that are present in
the thermosphere receives - It orbits a star
extraordinarily large amounts of - It is big enough to have enough gravity to
energy from the sun
force it into a spherical shape
❖ EXOSPHERE
- It is big enough that its gravity cleared
➢ most external layer of the
away any other objects of a similar size
atmosphere
➢ Least known near its orbit around the Sun
➢ Temperature exceeds 2000°C
● ASTEROIDS
- Rocky objects in space that can be a
ECOLOGY
few feet wide to several hundred
miles wide
● ECOLOGY - relation and interactions - Solar system orbit in belt between
between organisms and their environment Mars and Jupiter
● ECOLOGICAL (or environmental) ● METEOROID
FACTORS: - small chunk of rock or iron that
➔ BIOTIC - all living factors travels through space
➔ ABIOTIC - nonliving factors ● COMET
● POPULATION - number of organisms of the - Ball of frozen gases, rock and dust
same species that live in a particular that is about the size of a small
geographic area town
● COMMUNITY - group of organisms or a - Comets orbit the sun
population of different species occupying a - Jets of gas and dust from comets
particular area from long tails that can be seen
● ECOSYSTEM - all living organism in an area from Earth
as well as its physical environment ● SOLAR ECLIPSE
functioning together as a unit - Moon passes between Earth and
● BLOME - can be classified according to the the Sun, thereby totally or partially
plants and animals that live in it obscuring Earth’s view of the Sun\
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● LUNAR ECLIPSE - layer of cellulose fiber gives the cell most
- Full moon passes partially or wholly of its support and structure
through the umbra of the Earth’s - Bonds with other cell walls to form the
shadow structure of the plant
● CELL MEMBRANE
- semi-permeable membrane that is
BIOLOGY
present within the cell wall
★ Bios means life
- thin layer of protein and fat
★ Logos means study
- important role in regulating the entry and
exit of specific substances within the cell
CELLS ● CENTROSOME
- Basic unit of life - small body located near the nucleus
- All living organisms are either single cells, - has a dense center and radiating tubules
or are multicellular organisms composed of - where microtubules are made
many cells working together ● CHLOROPHYLL
- molecule that can use light energy from
I. PLANT CELL sunlight to turn water and carbon dioxide
gas into sugar and oxygen his process is
called photosynthesis), usually colored
green
● CHLOROPLAST
- an elongated or disc-shaped organelle
containing chlorophyll Photosynthesis
takes place in the chloroplasts
● CYTOPLASM
- the jellylike material outside the cell
nucleus in which the organelles are located
● GOLGI BODY
II. ANIMAL CELL - a fattened, layered, sac-like organelle that
looks like a stack of pancakes and is
located near the nucleus
- packages proteins and carbohydrates
located into membrane-bound vesicles for
"export’ from the cell
● MITOCHONDRIA
- they are the double-membrane organelles
found in the cytoplasm of a eukaryotic cells
- provide energy by breaking down
carbohydrate and sugar molecules, hence
they are also referred to as the
● AMYLOPLAST
"powerhouse of the cell
- organelle in some plant cells that store
● NUCLEAR MEMBRANE
starch.
- membrane that surrounds the nucleus
- found in starchy plants like tubers and
● NUCLEOLUS
fruits
- an organelle within the nucleus is where
● CELL WALL
ribosomal RNA is produced
- (exists in plant cell only) a thick, rigid
membrane that surrounds a plant cell
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● NUCLEUS
3. Centriole Absent Present
- spherical body containing many
organelles including the nucleus 4. Lysosome Absent Present
- controls many of the functions of the cell
5. Vacuole One / Large Many / Small
(by controlling protein synthesis) and
contains DNA (in chromosomes)
● RIBOSOME III. CELL THEORY
- small organelles composed of RNA-rich 1) All living organisms are composed
cytoplasmic granules that are sites of of cells. They may be unicellular or
protein synthesis multicellular
● ROUGH ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM 2) Cells are the fundamental building
(Rough ER) blocks used to create tissues,
- a vast system of interconnected, organs, and entire functioning
membranous infolded and convoluted organisms
sacks that are located in the cell's 3) Cells arise from pre-existing cells
cytoplasm (the ER is continuous with the
outer nuclear membranes) Rough ER is IV. BIOMOLECULES
covered with ribosomes that give it a rough ● CARBOHYDRATES
appearance. - Composed of elements
● SMOOTH ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM ( carbon, hydrogen, oxygen
Smooth ER) - building blocks of
- A vast system of interconnected. monosaccharides
membranous infolded and convoluted - Ex. Sucrose (table sugar),
tubes that are located in the cell's maltose, amylase
cytoplasm (the ER is continuous with the ● FATS/LIPIDS
outer nuclear membrane). The space within - set of chemical molecules
the ER is called the ER lumen Smooth ER resulting from fatty acids
transport materials through the cell and exhibit high solubility in
● VACUOLE apolar solvents (organic)
- a large, membrane-bound space within a and low solubility in polar
plant cell that is filled with fluid. Most plant solvents (water).
cells have a single vacuole that takes up - Ex. waxes, oils, and
much of the celt. It helps maintain the cholesterol
shape of the cell ● PROTEINS
● LYSOSOME OR CELL VESICLES - The building blocks of
- (exists in Animal Cell only) round proteins are called amino
organelles surrounded by a membrane and acids.
containing digestive enzymes. This is where - A large class of biological
the digestion of cell nutrients takes place. molecules consisting of
chains of amino acids is
DIFFERENT BETWEEN PLANT AND ANIMAL called polypeptides.
CELLS - Ex. amylase, actin and
myosin.
STRUCTURE PLANTS ANIMALS
● NUCLEIC ACIDS
1. Cell Wall Present Absent - chain of nucleotides which
stores genetic information in
2. Chloroplast Present Absent biological systems.
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-It creates DNA and RNA, more concentrated solution
which store the information (which becomes more
needed by cells to create dilute).
proteins. VII. CELL REPRODUCTION
- stored in multiple sets of ● MITOSIS
three nucleotides, known as - single cell divides resulting
codons. in generally two identical
V. CELLS ACCORDING TO COMPLEXITY cells, each containing the
● Prokaryotic cells same number of
- simple, single-celled chromosomes and genetic
organisms without content as that of the
membrane-bound - original cell.
organelles or nucleus. ● MEIOSIS
- Ex. bacteria - reduces the chromosome
● Eukaryotic cells number by half, creating four
- contain a nucleus and haploid cells, each
organelles, and are enclosed genetically distinct from the
by a plasma membrane. parent cell that gave rise to
- Ex. fungi, plants, and them.
animals
VI. CELL TRANSPORT
BOTANY
● PASSIVE TRANSPORT
- movement of ions and other - branch of biology that deals with the study
atomic or molecular of plants, including their structure,
substances across cell properties, and biochemical processes.
membranes without need of
energy input. Moves ➢ TYPES OF PLANT CELLS
particles through the
concentration gradient. A. Parenchymal
● ACTIVE TRANSPORT ★ Structure: cube-shaped, loosely
- movement of molecules packed, thin-walled, relatively
across a membrane from a unspecialized, contain chloroplasts
region of their lower ★ Functions: photosynthesis, cellular
concentration to a region of respiration, storage
their higher concentration. ★ Example: food storage tissues of
Particles move against the potatoes
concentration gradient. B. Collenchymal
● DIFFUSION ★ Structure: elongated, irregularly
- net movement of molecules thickened walls
from a region of high ★ Functions: support, wind resistance
concentration to one of ★ Example: strings running through a
lower concentration stalk of celery
● OSMOSIS C. Sclerenchyma
- process where solvent ★ Structure: very thick cell walls
molecules move through a containing lignin
semipermeable membrane ★ Functions: support, strength
from a dilute solution into a
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★ Example: tough fibers in jute (used ➢ DIFFERENT PLANT PARTS
to make rope) ROOT
- part of a plant which attaches it to the
➢ PLANT TISSUES ground or to a support
- conveying water
A. Meristematic tissues - mass of young, - nourishment to the rest of the plant via
immature and undifferentiated cells, which numerous branches and fibers.
remain young forever and divide STEM
throughout the life of the plant. - main body or stalk of a plant or shrub
a. Eumeristems - formed from pre - rising above ground but occasionally
formed meristems; always keeps subterranean
dividing and never loses its power LEAF
of division. - flattened structure of a higher plant
b. Psuedomeristems - formed from - green and blade-like
differentiation of permanent tissues - attached to a stem directly or via a stalk.
like cambium and cork cambium. FLOWER
B. Permanent tissues - seed bearing part of a plant
a. Epidermis - outermost, - reproductive organs (stamens and carpels)
protoderm-derived layer of cells - surrounded by a brightly coloured corolla
covering the stem, root, leaf, flower, (petals) and a green calyx (sepals).
fruit, and seed parts of a plant. Its FRUIT
waxy cuticle provides a protective - fleshy product of a tree or other plant that
barrier against mechanical injury, contains seed and can be eaten as food.
water loss, and infection.
b. Periderm - outer covering that ➢ PHOTOSYNTHESIS AND TRANSPIRATION
replaces the epidermis of certain
plants - Photosynthesis - is the process by which green
c. Vascular tissues - arrangement of plants and certain other organisms transform light
multiple cell types in vascular plants energy into chemical energy. During
which allows for the transport of photosynthesis in green plants, light energy is
water, minerals, and the products of captured and used to convert water, carbon
photosynthesis to be transported dioxide, and minerals into oxygen and energy-rich
throughout the plant. It has 2 types organic compounds.
namely: - Transpiration - is the process in which plants
1) Xylem - specialized type of release the water inside it in the form of moisture
vascular tissue created in or water vapor. Parts of plants like stems, small
vascular plants to transport pores on leaves, flowers evaporate the water to
water and nutrients from the the atmosphere.
roots of a plant to the tips of - Respiration - constitutes a series of
the leaves. enzyme-driven reactions that allow plants to turn
2) Phloem - responsible for the stored energy of carbohydrates made via
transporting organic food photosynthesis into a form of energy they can use
materials (e.g. sucrose) from to power growth and metabolic processes.
the photosynthetic organ
(leaf) to all the parts of the
Photosynthesis: 6CO2 + 6H2O → C6H12O6 + 6O2
plant.
Respiration: C6H12O6 + 6O2 →6CO2 + 6H2O
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➢ PLANT TAXONOMY present in a living thing, and both are
A. Taxonomy - is the science of expressed. Instead of one trait being
naming, describing and classifying dominant over the other, both traits appear.
organisms and includes all plants, ● Law of Incomplete Dominance - refers to
animals and microorganisms of the a circumstance in which the two copies of a
world. gene for a particular trait, or alleles,
B. Classification - is the arrangement combine so that neither dominates the
of plants into categories that have other. This creates a new phenotype or set
similar characteristics. These of observable characteristics caused by the
categories called taxa are arranged interaction of genetics and environment.
into a hierarchy to form a
classification system. The smallest
Mendel's law
taxonomic unit is the species.
C. Botanical nomenclature - is the
➔ Law of Independent Segregation-states
formal, scientific naming of plants.
that the two alleles for each trait segregate,
A plant's scientific name is a
or separate, during the formation of
binomial, that is, it is composed of a
gametes, and that during the formation of
generic name (genus) and a specific
new zygotes, the alleles will combine at
epithet.
random with other alleles. The law of
segregation ensures that a parent, with two
GENETICS copies of each gene, can pass on either
allele.
● GENETICS - is the study of how traits are ➔ Law of Independent Assortment - states
passed from parents to their offspring. that different genes and their alleles are
● HEREDITY - is the passing of genetic inherited independently within sexually
factors from parent to offspring (or from reproducing organisms. During meiosis,
one generation to the next) chromosomes are separated into multiple
● VARIATION - is the differences between gametes. Genes linked on a chromosome
organisms caused by alternate forms of can rearrange themselves through the
DNA. process of crossing-over

The laws above can be illustrated using

GENE SEGREGATION AND INTERACTION
monohybrid and dihybrid cross:

● Dominant Allele - An allele or a gene that

a. Monohybrid cross
is expressed in an organism's phenotype,
- cross determines the allele combinations of
masking the effect of the recessive allele or
offspring for one particular gene only.
gene when present.
● Recessive Allele - is a variety of genetic
Monohybrid crosses can be calculated according
code that does not create a phenotype
to the following steps:
● Law of Dominance - states that when two
alleles of an inherited pair is heterozygous,
Step 1: Designate characters to represent the
then, the allele that is expressed is
alleles. Capital letter for the dominant allele, lower
dominant whereas the allele that is not
case letter for recessive allele
expressed is recessive
● Law of Codominance - occurs when two
versions, or "alleles," of the same gene are
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Step 2: Write down the genotype and phenotype
of the parents. This is the P generation (parental
generation)
Step 3: Write down the genotype of the parental
gametes These will be haploid as a result of
meiotic division
Step 4: Use a Punnett grid to work out the
potential gamete combinations As fertilization is
random, all combinations have an equal
probability
Step 5: Write out the genotype and phenotype
ratios of potential offspring This is the F,
generation (first filial generation) Subsequent
generations through interbreeding labeled F₂, F₁,
etc.

b. Dihybrid cross
- A cross between two parents that differ by
two pairs of alleles (AABB x aabb) MOLECULAR BASIS OF HEREDITY

Let's look at a dihybrid cross that Mendel ● Chromosome - is a string of DNA wrapped
performed. around associated proteins that give the
Parental Cross: Yellow, Round Seed x Green, connected nucleic acid bases a structure.
Wrinkled Seed ● DNA - also known as deoxyribonucleic
F1 Generation: All yellow, round acid. is a molecule that contains the
F2 Generation: 9 Yellow, Round, 3 Yellow, instructions an organism needs to develop,
Wrinkled, 3 Green, Round, 1 Green, Wrinkled live and reproduce. These instructions are
found inside every cell, and are passed
Let's diagram the cross using specific gene down from parents to their children.
symbols. ● RNA - also known as ribonucleic acid, are
Seed Color: Yellow G; Green = g single-stranded nucleic acids composed of
Seed Shape: Round W, Wrinkled = w - nucleotides. RNA plays a major role in
protein synthesis as it is involved in the
The dominance relationship between alleles for transcription, decoding, and translation of
each trait was already known to Mendel when he the genetic code to produce proteins.
made this cross. The purpose of the dihybrid cross
was to determine if any relationship existed “CENTRAL DOGMA OF MOLECULAR BIOLOGY “
between different allelic pairs.
Replication is the process of making an identical
copy of a section of duplex (double-stranded)
DNA, using existing DNA as a template for the
synthesis of new DNA strands. In humans and
other eukaryotes, replication occurs in the cell
nucleus.
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The steps in translation are:
The process of DNA replication can be
summarized as follows: 1) The ribosome binds to mRNA at a specific
area.
1) DNA unwinds at the origin of replication. 2) The ribosome starts matching tRNA
2) New bases are added to the anticodon sequences to the mRNA codon
complementary parental strands. One new sequence.
strand is made continuously, while the 3) Each time a new tRNA comes into the
other strand is made in pieces. ribosome, the amino acid that it was
3) Primers are removed, new DNA nucleotides carrying gets added to the elongating
are put in place of the primers and the polypeptide chain.
backbone is sealed by DNA ligase. 4) The ribosome continues until it hits a stop
sequence, then it releases the polypeptide
Transcription - is the process of RNA synthesis, and then RNA.
controlled by the interaction of promoters and 5) The polypeptide forms into its native shape
enhancers. Several different types of RNA are and starts acting as a functional protein in
produced, including messenger RNA (mRNA). the cell.
which specifies the sequence of amino acids in the
protein product, plus transfer RNA (IRNA) and Reverse transcription - is a technique used by
ribosomal RNA (rRNA), which play a role in the researchers to generate a complementary strand
translation process. of DNA (cDNA) from RNA. The technology is based
on a retroviral mechanism whereby the enzyme
Four Steps of Transcription reverse transcriptase can reverse transcribe RNA
into DNA. This is especially helpful when scientists
1) Initiation - the DNA molecule unwinds and only have tissue and want to study gene sequence.
separates to form a small open complex.
RNA polymerase binds to the promoter of
MUTATION
the template strand.
- changes in the genetic sequence, and they
2) Elongation - RNA polymerase moves along
are a main cause of diversity among
the template strand, synthesizing an mRNA
organisms. These changes occur at many
molecule.
different levels, and they can have widely
3) Termination- in prokaryotes there are two
differing consequences.
ways in which transcription is terminated.
In Rho-dependent termination, a protein
Types of Mutation
factor called "Rho" is responsible for
disrupting the complex involving the
1. Substitution - is a mutation that exchanges
template strand, RNA polymerase and RNA
one base for another (i.e., a change in a
molecule
single "chemical letter" such as switching
4) Translation- after transcription the RNA
an A to a G). Such a substitution could:
molecule is processed in a number of ways:
● change a codon to one that encodes
introns are removed and exons are spliced
a different amino acid and causes a
together to form a mature mRNA molecule
small change in the protein
consisting of a single protein-coding
produced. For example, sickle cell
sequence.
anemia is caused by a substitution
in the beta-hemoglobin gene, which
alters a single amino acid in the
protein produced.
SCIENCE
● change a codon to one that encodes 3) Nervous tissue- made up of nerve cells
the same amino acid and causes no (neurons) that together form the nervous
change in the protein produced. system, including the brain and spinal cord.
These are called silent mutations. 4) Connective tissue is made up of many
● change an amino-acid-coding different types of cells that are all involved
codon to a single "stop" codon and in structure and support of the body. Bone,
cause an incomplete protein. This blood, fat, and cartilage are all connective
can have serious effects since the tissues. Connective tissue can be densely
incomplete protein probably won't packed together, as bone cells are, or
function. loosely packed, as adipose tissue (fat cells)
are.
2. Insertion -are mutations in which extra
base pairs are inserted into a new place in II. Stages of Animal Development
the DNA
3. Deletion - are mutations in which a section 1) Gamete formation (n + n) - eggs and
of DNA is lost, or deleted. sperm are produced in specialized tissues
4. Frameshift - since protein-coding DNA is
divided into codons three bases long, 2) Fertilization - the plasma membrane of the
insertions and deletions can alter a gene so egg and sperm fuse; then the nuclei fuse =
that its message is no longer correctly 2n
parsed. These changes are called ● Zygote (2n) - the first cell of the
frameshifts. new animal

3) Cleavage-mitotic cell divisions begin,

Animal Development
converting the zygote to a multicellular
organism
I. Animal Tissue
● Morula - solid ball of cells
- is a tissue is a group of connected
● Blastula- hollow, fluid-filled ball of
cells that have a similar function
cells
within an organism

4) Gastrulation - major cellular reorganization

The four basic types of animal tissue are:
into 2 or 3 tissue (germ) layers:
● Ectoderm: skin, nervous system
1) Epithelial tissue - made up of layers of
● Endoderm: lining of gut and
tightly packed cells that line the surfaces of
internal organs
the body for protection, secretion, and
● Mesoderm: muscles, bones, heart
absorption. Examples of epithelial tissue
● Gastrula: Early embryo with 3 tissue
include the skin, the lining of the mouth
layers. All cells have the same DNA;
and nose, and the lining of the digestive
however, different cells now begin
system.
to "turn on" (or "express") different
2) Muscle tissue made up of cells contain
genes:
contractile filaments that move past each
other and change the size of the cell. There
Cell differentiation - different cells begin
are three types of muscle tissue, smooth
to express tissue-specific or organ-specific
muscle which is found in the inner linings of
genes to make heart, brain, etc.
organs; skeletal muscle, which is attached
to bone and moves the body; and cardiac
muscle which is found only in the heart.
SCIENCE
Morphogenesis - these cells then undergo a. Climate is the nonliving parts of the
cell divisions, cell migration, or environment that can often have a
programmed cell death (PCD), for example, major influence on living organisms.
to allow fingers to form. Abiotic factors include water,
1. Organ formation - sets of cells sunlight, oxygen, soil and
become specialized for a specific temperature.
function: heart, liver, brain. b. Water all living organisms need
2. Tissue specialization - cells within water. Plants must have water to
organs rearrange and specialize into grow.
tissues. c. Atmosphere is the main source of
energy on Earth, which makes it an
extremely important abiotic factor.
Ecosystem and Ecology
Sunlight is necessary for
photosynthesis, the process by
Ecology-branch of biology that studies how
which plants convert carbon dioxide
organisms interact with their environment and
(CO2) and water to oxygen (O2) and
other organisms. Every organism experiences
sugar - food for the plants that later
complex relationships with other organisms of its
becomes food for animals.
species, and organisms of different species.
d. Soil mostly made up of small
particles of rock (sand and clay)
Ecosystem - describes a single environment and
mixed with decomposed plants and
every living (biotic) organism and non-living
animals. Plants use their roots to
(abiotic) factor that is contained within it or
get water and nutrients from the
characterizes it. An ecosystem embodies every
soil.
aspect of a single habitat, including all interactions
e. Temperature strongly influenced by
between its different elements.
sunlight. Temperature plays an
important role for animals that
COMPONENTS OF THE ECOSYSTEM cannot regulate their own body
temperature, such as reptiles.
A. Biotic - the living things that shape an
ecosystem. BIOME
a. Autotrophs (Producers) - convert
Biome is a large geographical area of distinctive
energy into food, some using
plant and animal groups which are adapted to that
photosynthesis.
particular environment.
b. Heterotrophs (Consumers) - rely
upon autotrophs (producers) for
Terrestrial Biomes
food.
c. Decomposers - also called
1) Tropical rainforest - a forest with a high
detritivores, break down chemicals
rate of precipitation and high humidity,
from consumers and producers into
usually located near the equator.
simpler forms that are used again.
2) Temperate forest - most notable because
they go through four seasons. Leaves
B. Abiotic - are the nonliving parts of the
change color in autumn, fall off in the
environment that can often have a major
winter, and grow back in the spring; this
influence on living organisms. Abiotic
adaptation allows plants to survive cold
factors include water, sunlight, oxygen, soil
winters.
and temperature.
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3) Desert - extremely dry area of land with
ECOLOGICAL RELATIONSHIPS
sparse vegetation. It is one of Earth's major
types of ecosystems, supporting a
● Symbiosis - the close relationship of two
community of distinctive plants and
dissimilar organisms
animals specially adapted to the harsh
● Mutualism - a symbiotic relationship where
environment.
both organisms benefit
4) Grassland wide expanses of land filled
● Commensalism - a symbiotic relationship
with low growing plants such as grasses
where one organism benefits and one does
and enough to not form a desert.
not benefit but is unharmed
wildflowers. The amount of rain is not
● Parasitism - a symbiotic relationship where
enough to grow tall trees and produce a
one organism benefits and one is harmed
forest, but it is enough to not from a desert
● Competition - when two or more
5) Taiga - is a forest of the cold, subarctic
organisms rely on the same environmental
region. The subarctic is an area of the
resource
Northern Hemisphere that lies just south of
● Predation behavior of one animal feeding
the Arctic Circle. It is one of the three main
on another
forest biomes. The other two are the
temperate forest and the tropical
rainforest. The taiga is the driest and FOOD CHAIN
coldest of the three.
6) Tundra treeless regions found in the Arctic The food chain is the feeding relationship
and on the tops of mountains, where the between the different organisms that make up our
climate is cold and windy, and rainfall is ecosystem.
scant. It is the coldest of all the biomes.
Levels of Food Chain:
FIVE BIOLOGICAL KINGDOMS
1. Primary Producers - organisms that are
capable of producing their own food from
01. -Monera prokaryotic; unicellular and
such substances as carbon dioxide and
colonial, including the true bacteria
turning it into energy with the help of
(eubacteria) and cyanobacteria (blue-green
sunlight. These are plants and algae.
algae).
2. Primary Consumers those who feed on the
02. Kingdom Protista - unicellular protozoans
first trophic level, the autotroph biomass,
and unicellular & multicellular
form the second trophic level.
(macroscopic) algae with 9+ 2 cilia and
3. Secondary Consumers animals that eat
flagella (called undulipodia).
herbivores; these are called secondary
03. Kingdom Fungi - haploid and dikaryotic
consumers. An example is a snake that eat
(binucleate) cells, multicellular, generally
rabbits. So, snakes are secondary
heterotrophic, without cilia and eukaryotic
consumers.
(9+ 2) flagella (undulipodia).
4. Tertiary Consumers carnivores that
04. Kingdom Plantae - haplo-diploid life
consume other carnivores are called
cycles, mostly autotrophic, retaining
tertiary consumers like Killer whales. Killer
embryo within female sex organ on parent
whales hunt seals and sea lions. These are
plant..
carnivores that kill fish, squid, and octopus.
05. Kingdom Animalia - multicellular animals,
5. Quaternary Consumers - typically
without cell walls and without
carnivorous animals that eat tertiary
photosynthetic pigments, forming diploid
consumers. Also known as apex predator
blastula.
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or alpha predator or apical predator, they
are predators residing at the top of the
food chain upon which no other creatures
prey.
6. Decomposers - break down dead plants
and animals. They also break down the
waste of other organisms. They are an
important element in the food chain
because they keep up a continuous flow of
nutrients for the primary producers.

Energy Transfer - how the energy is transferred

from one trophic level to another
Food Web - a network of food chains or feeding
relationships by which energy and nutrients are
passed on from one species of living organisms to
another.