Journal of

Imaging
Review
Contribution of Remote Sensing on Crop Models:
A Review
Dimitrios A. Kasampalis 1 ID , Thomas K. Alexandridis 1, * ID , Chetan Deva 2 ,
Andrew Challinor 2 ID , Dimitrios Moshou 1 and Georgios Zalidis 1
1 Department of Hydraulics, Soil Science and Agricultural Engineering, Faculty of Agriculture,
Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 54124 Thessaloniki, Greece; dkasampa@agro.auth.gr (D.A.K.);
dmoshou@agro.auth.gr (D.M.); zalidis@agro.auth.gr (G.Z.)
2 Institute for Climate and Atmospheric Science, School of Earth and Environment, The University of Leeds,
Leeds LS2 9JT, UK; eecd@leeds.ac.uk (C.D.); a.j.challinor@leeds.ac.uk (A.C.)
* Correspondence: thalex@agro.auth.gr; Tel.: +30-2310-991777




Received: 31 December 2017; Accepted: 20 March 2018; Published: 23 March 2018


Abstract: Crop growth models simulate the relationship between plants and the environment to
predict the expected yield for applications such as crop management and agronomic decision making,
as well as to study the potential impacts of climate change on food security. A major limitation of
crop growth models is the lack of spatial information on the actual conditions of each field or region.
Remote sensing can provide the missing spatial information required by crop models for improved
yield prediction. This paper reviews the most recent information about remote sensing data and
their contribution to crop growth models. It reviews the main types, applications, limitations and
advantages of remote sensing data and crop models. It examines the main methods by which remote
sensing data and crop growth models can be combined. As the spatial resolution of most remote
sensing data varies from sub-meter to 1 km, the issue of selecting the appropriate scale is examined in
conjunction with their temporal resolution. The expected future trends are discussed, considering the
new and planned remote sensing platforms, emergent applications of crop models and their expected
improvement to incorporate automatically the increasingly available remotely sensed products.

Keywords: crop models; earth observation; fusion; yield prediction; crop yield; vegetation indices;
spatio-temporal scale

1. Introduction and Historical Overview

Crop growth models try to translate the relationship between plants and their environment, by
simulating physiological processes in time frames, mostly daily, to estimate crop yield at harvesting.
The knowledge of the expected yield is fundamental at various scales, as it determines various
agronomical and socioeconomic decisions that could affect the livelihoods of a large percentage of the
global population [1].
In the literature, crop models are sometimes also called crop yield models or agricultural system
models. Despite how different scientists refer to crop models, all of them agree that a model is just
a representation of the real world [2]. These models play an essential role in the development of
sustainable land management for maximising sustainability goals to land managers and policymakers.
Producers and decision makers in the rural sector require reliable information about the expected
production volumes of crops [3]. In the 21st century, factors that influence crop growth and yield are
well understood. At any given point in the field, the yield is the result of several factors or variables,
genetics, plant population, crop management, climate, and the integration of stress that the crop faces
during the growing season [4].

J. Imaging 2018, 4, 52; doi:10.3390/jimaging4040052 www.mdpi.com/journal/jimaging

J. Imaging 2018, 4, 52 2 of 19

According to [5] a system is represented by a set mathematical equations, or in other words,

these equations are used to model the processes of the system. Specifically, for a crop growth model,
it simulates crop processes, up to the final step of the crop which is the harvested yield and contains
quantitative information about the growth and the development of the crop.
Since the 1960s with the pioneering work of, C. T. de Wit of Wageningen University and the
chemical engineer W. G. Duncan on crop growth models, a new age in agricultural science started to
develop. De Wit’s work [6], based on the theory that farming systems modelled by combining physical
and biological principles set the foundations of agricultural modelling was the beginning of many
studies in this new field of agricultural science. This model interpreted photosynthetic rates of crop
canopies to estimate crop yield and was used by decision-makers as a crop management tool. This
very early model was called Elementary Crop growth Simulator (ELCROS). The following years were
characterised by the introduction of micrometeorology and quantification of canopy resistance to gas
exchanges in crop models for improved simulation of transpiration, which resulted in the Basic Crop
Growth Simulator (BACROS).
In the 1970s after the United States performed a large purchase of wheat from the Soviet Union,
crop models received significant attention [7]. Thus, new research programs received funding to create
crop models that take advantage of the capabilities of remote sensing data to predict the yield of
major crops. One of the first attempts in this direction was the Large Area Crop Inventory Experiment
(LACIE) that was funded by NASA and NOAA to develop a method for estimating wheat production
worldwide by using LANDSAT data [8].
In the 1980s the International Benchmark Sites Network for Agrotechnology Transfer (IBSNAT)
sponsored by the United States Department of Agriculture developed a model for tropical
environments. The principal objective of this project was to understand how the system and its
components function [9,10]. The need to make the models of IBSNAT more compatible regarding data
inputs and applications resulted in the design of Decision Support System for Agrotechnology Transfer
(DSSAT) [11].
These complex processes and interactions of plant, soil and atmosphere could be altered by
climate change. According to Challinor et al. [12] the major challenge for future studies on the response
of crops to climate change is the accuracy of the spatial information.
Remote sensing collects geographical information systematically for large areas at low cost, and
thus has provided the means for natural and agricultural resources surveys during the last few decades.
Remote sensing solves to some degree the uncertainty of spatial information on the crop parameters
that are used for crop modelling. Several ways of incorporating remote sensing data with crop growth
models have been proposed. In this paper, we attempt to review the most recent information about
remote sensing data and their contribution to crop growth models.

2. Crop Growth Models

2.1. Types of Crop Growth Models

Crop growth models are roughly classified into different types, depending on the design of the
model. Efforts to classify crop growth models have used the following categories:
Empirical models sometimes called correlative or statistical models. These models are expressed
as regression equations (with one or a few parameters) and are based on direct descriptions of the
observed data. They do not provide information about the mechanisms that give rise to response [13].
As a result, they are less data intensive than dynamic crop models. There are three main types of
statistical models, time series, panel and cross-sectional approaches [14]. These models are particularly
useful for identifying key relationships in historical data sets. Statistical models are often used to
estimate crop yield in a particular environment in order to provide useful information to policymakers
about management and production options [15]. Statistical models are not without limitations. They
often cannot describe crop yield response in locations for which historical data sets are not available
J. Imaging 2018, 4, 52 3 of 19

and environmental conditions differ from the location for which they were developed [16]. In addition,
they may not be able to simulate the response of crop yield to future climates where other drivers
are likely to change in ways that have not been observed in the past. For example, if management
practices are adapted to cope with new climates in ways that have not been observed previously,
statistical models will not be able to capture the integrated yield response of changes in both climate
and production methods [16].
Dynamic models, sometimes called process-based models, simulate the progression of the crop
through time using differential equations to describe crop development [13]. These equations are rooted
in a process-based understanding of crop development. Within this conceptual umbrella, models employ
functions which approximate the mechanistic plant and soil processes being simulated for a given time
step [17]. These models include a larger number of input parameters and require more input data than
empirical models [15]. Process-based models often require physiological data from field experiments to
parameterise the model [17]. A major advantage of dynamic models vs. statistical models, is that they can
be used by policy-makers to explore alternative futures under a range of future climates and management
practices. They can also be used to estimate yield responses to changes in climate and management
practices in regions where no previous simulations have been conducted [18].
Agricultural systems operate at several spatial and temporal scales. For example, they can be
analysed at field, farm, regional or global scales [19] and over hours, days or whole seasons. Moving
between scales requires scaling biophysical processes such as growth and yield as well as farm
management practices [19] such as irrigation and fertilizer application. Dynamic process-based models
can be classified by the scale of analysis for which they were designed. Broadly speaking, they fall
into two main categories: field scale models, which aim to comprehensively simulate plant functions
and less complex regional scale models, which often incorporate a mixture of canopy processes and
broader scale crop-climate relationships [20]. ORYZA2000 is a good example of a field scale model [21],
while the General Large Area Model (GLAM) is a good example of a regional scale model [22].
A list of common crop models is displayed in Table 1.

Table 1. List of the most common crop models.

Crop Model References Website to Access the Model (dd/mm/yy)

APSIM [23] APSIM Initiative. Available online: http://www.apsim.info (accessed on 21/03/2018)
AgrometShell (AMS). Available online: http://www.hoefsloot.com/agrometshell.htm
AgrometShell [15]
(accessed on 21/03/2018)
Aquacrop [24] AquaCrop. Available online: http://www.fao.org/aquacrop (accessed on 21/03/2018)
CERES Wheat 2.0. Available online: http://nowlin.css.msu.edu/wheat_book/ (accessed
CERES-wheat [14]
on 21/03/2018)
Ecobas. Available online: http://ecobas.org/www-server/rem/mdb/cropgro.html
CROPGRO-Soybean [4]
(accessed on 21/03/2018)
Washington State University, CropSyst. Available online:
Cropsyst [25] http://modeling.bsyse.wsu.edu/CS_Suite_4/CropSyst/index.html (accessed on
21/03/2018)
International Soil Modeling Consortium i. Available online:
DAISY [26]
https://soil-modeling.org/resources-links/model-portal/daisy (accessed on 21/03/2018)
Decision Support System for Agrotechnology Transfer. Available online: http://dssat.net/
DSSAT [9]
(accessed on 21/03/2018)
Texas A&M AgriLife Research. Available online: https://epicapex.tamu.edu/ (accessed
EPIC [15]
on 21/03/2018)
Wageningen—Models Library—FarmSim. Available online:
FarmSim [15]
http://models.pps.wur.nl/node/961 (accessed on 21/03/2018)
Farm ASSEssment Tool. Available online: http://www.fasset.dk/ (accessed on
Fasset [27]
21/03/2018)
Institute for Climate and Atmospheric Science (ICAS). Available online:
GLAM [22] https://www.see.leeds.ac.uk/research/icas/research-themes/climate-change-and-
impacts/climate-impacts/glam/ (accessed on 21/03/2018)
J. Imaging 2018, 4, 52 4 of 19

Table 1. Cont.

Crop Model References Website to Access the Model (dd/mm/yy)

zalf. Available online:
HERMES [26] http://www.zalf.de/de/forschung_lehre/software_downloads/Seiten/default.aspx
(accessed on 21/03/2018)
International Rice Research Institute (IRRI). Available online:
ORYZAv3 [21,28] https://sites.google.com/a/irri.org/oryza2000/about-oryza-version-3 (accessed on
21/03/2018)
ROTASK [29]
INRA. Available online: http://www.inra.fr/en/Scientists-Students/Agricultural-
STICS [30] systems/All-reports/Modelling-and-agrosystems/STICS-an-agronomy-dynamo
(accessed on 21/03/2018)
Wageningen—Models Library—SUCROS. Available online:
SUCROS [31]
http://models.pps.wur.nl/node/966 (accessed on 21/03/2018)
Soil Water Atmosphere Plant. Available online: http://www.swap.alterra.nl/ (accessed
SWAP [32]
on 21/03/2018)
Wageningen—Models Library—WOFOST. Available online:
WOFOST [33] http://www.wageningenur.nl/en/Expertise-Services/Research-Institutes/alterra/
Facilities-Products/Software-and-models/WOFOST.htm (accessed on 21/03/2018)

2.2. Uses of Crop Growth Models

Crop growth models have been used since the early 1960s, and the primary purpose of using
them was to model processes at plant scale [2]. Crop growth models’ applications can be classified into
three main categories as (a) tools for decision making, (b) research tools, and (c) as tools for education
and technology transfer [1].
Crop growth models can be used in crop management and decision making as a tool to determine
optimum planting dates and evaluate weather risks. In addition, crop growth models can be used
to predict crop performance where the crop has not been cultivated before [1]. Applications like
this are critical in developing regions of the world. Crop growth models have been used to develop
prescription maps for fertiliser applications [34].
Crop growth models analyse the relationships between physiological plant processes and the
environment, mostly in a daily time step to estimate crop yield at harvest [35]. Crop models also
have many applications as tools in research hypothesis testing; many scientists develop models to
understand the various process of the crop-climate systems such as water flow and photosynthesis
and to highlight areas where knowledge is missing [36].
Crop models may also be a valuable tool in assisting plant breeding efforts as they are able to
incorporate the interactions between plant development, environment and genetic constraints [37].
The latter are introduced as model coefficients that can provide a mathematical bridge to understanding
how particular parts of plant DNA (quantitative trait loci) can influence plant outcomes [37].
An important end goal of gene-phenotype modelling is to rank the performance of different genotypes
in a wide range of environments of interest [38]. An advantage of using crop models in this pursuit
over traditional empirical methods is the ability to test different representations of genotypes across
the distribution of potential environmental conditions [38]. Messina et al. [39] demonstrated that
crop modelling can be usefully employed in the breeding process through the creation of yield-trait
performance landscapes. They also offered a tangible example of how this might work in practice
using the Agricultural Production Systems sIMulator (APSIM) crop model in the breeding cycle for
improvement of drought tolerant varieties of Maize in the US western corn belt.
Climate change is currently one of the significant threats to crop productivity. Crop growth
models were used to study the potential impacts of climate change on crop growth and yield in various
regions [22,40–42]. Early understanding of the effects that climate change has on crops may help
farmers and decision makers to minimise the risks and increase food security. Additionally, as the
effects of climate change increase, it is inevitable that in the same region some crops may have lower
J. Imaging 2018, 4, 52 5 of 19

productivity. Crop models integrate different components and can be used as tools to understand
genotype and environment interactions. These studies are essential to reduce the time required to test
new varieties.

2.3. Data Requirements

Many crop growth models require a significant amount of input data which limits their usefulness
for research. For example, WOFOST (WOrld FOod STudies) which was used by EU Joint Research
Centre’s Monitoring Agricultural Resources (MARS) Unit Mission, requires data for about 40 input
parameters [43]. Food and Agriculture Organizaions (FAO) AquaCrop model requires a relatively
smaller number of parameters and variables to run [44]. Every crop growth model requires information
regarding crop management, soil, and weather, at least data for the temperature, phasic development,
and growing degree days [45]. Input data may range in time scale between hourly, daily, or weekly
time frames [46]. Hunt and Boote [47] defined for the first time a minimum amount of input data
needed for operating crop growth models at a given location (Table 2).

Table 2. Minimum input data for crop growth models [47].

1. Site
• Latitude and longitude, elevation
• Average annual temperature
• Slope and aspect

2. Weather
• Daily global solar radiation, maximum and minimum temperatures, precipitation

3. Soils
• Soil type
• Soil depth, root growth factor, bulk density
• Organic carbon, pH, soil nitrogen

4. Initial conditions
• Previous crop, root nodule amounts
• Water, ammonium and nitrates by soil layer

5. Management
• Cultivar name and type, planting date, depth and method, row spacing and direction, plant population,
irrigation and water management (dates, methods and amounts)
• Fertilizer (inorganic) and inoculant applications
• Residue (organic fertilizer) applications (material, depth of incorporation, amount and
nutrient concentrations)
• Chemical (e.g., pesticide) applications (material, amount)
• Tillage
• Harvest schedule

Published research should be transparent about how it was conducted, results and conclusions
reached, and the data used. These data in most cases came from different sources and were used by
different scientists, often through interdisciplinary collaboration [48]. During these collaborations,
data interchange is inevitable, and due to the importance of the issues at stake to solve problems, make
decisions and affect lives, it is ethical for scientists to allow others to examine and use their data [48].
Data standards are used to provide, promote and share any kind of data by enabling transparency
and understanding of information sharing. Use of data standards is a means to achieve good
data quality and transferability across research programs. One of the most extensive efforts to use
data standards in agricultural science was the International Consortium for Agricultural Systems
Applications (ICASA) and one of its predecessors the IBSNAT, which since 1983 started to develop
data standards for documenting experiments. In their work White et al. [48] provide an overview of
J. Imaging 2018, 4, 52 6 of 19

ICASA version 2.0 standards and describe in detail how the variables must be organised and provide
emphasis on standardising vocabularies and clarifying relations among variables.

2.4. Limitations and Advantages of Crop Models

Crop modelling is a critical step towards developing and maintaining food security policies.
However, models are merely tools used by policy-makers to answer questions that cannot be solved by
addressing only regional or farm level problems. To address significant problems in agriculture, which
is facing the significant challenge of feeding 9 bn people by 2050 it is necessary to take a cross-scale
approach [49]. Boote, et al. [50] reviewed the potentials uses and limitations of crop growth models
and suggested examining whether a model is appropriate to a particular purpose and whether the
configuration of the model can be transferred to alternative environmental conditions. In their work
Palosuo et al. [26] compared eight crop growth models for winter wheat, in order to examine how
these crop models, perform at the field scale, the results showed that field-scale models could not
be applied to larger-scale applications without proper parameterisation or ignoring essential factors
about the model.
Model limitations are linked to the accuracy of the input data. Ideally, a model requires at least
information about soil composition, weather and management practices, but often these data are not
accessible. When this ideal state is not met, this causes uncertainties in the results [17,51]. Di Paola,
et al. [15] also, argue that misleading model validation may be caused by comparing model results
with the outputs of other more general models. As uncertainties in model results related to model
calibration and inputs may be high, users of these models should always refer to the conditions in
which said models were developed and tested [52].
Additionally, the lack of spatial information in crop growth models is a severe shortcoming,
especially at regional scales [29]. On the other hand, crop growth models can provide essential
information for economic impacts of different management activities and the weather [4].
To summarise, the main limitations of crop growth models are the cost of obtaining the necessary
input data to run the model, the lack of spatial information in some cases, and the input data
quality [53].

3. Remote Sensing and Crop Growth Models

3.1. Estimation of Crop Parameters from Remote Sensing

Remote sensing is the science and the art of acquiring information about an object by observing it
from a distance [54]. Sensors can acquire data remotely while being on board different platforms, such
as satellites, aeroplanes, UAVs or handheld devices [52].
Over the past few years, satellite images have been proved to be a useful tool for many agricultural
applications. Healthy vegetation is very reflective in the near-infrared (NIR) but absorbs the red
wavelengths. Thus, combinations of these two bands give a number of vegetation indices (VI) helpful
to understand vegetation vigour [55]. VIs are mathematical equations or ratios of spectral bands and
are designed to identify functional relationships between crops and other vegetation types [56,57].
An extensive review of the majority of VIs was conducted by Bannari et al. [58], and more recently
by [59]. These indices have been created to minimise the effect of external factors in vegetation
monitoring, to extract useful data for the canopy, such as leaf area index (LAI) and fraction of absorbed
photosynthetically active radiation (fAPAR) [60]. LAI represents the surface area of leaves available for
the exchange of energy between the plant and the atmosphere and is an important variable when used
to model evapotranspiration, biomass production and yield [61]. fAPAR corresponds to the fraction of
photosynthetically active radiation absorbed by the canopy and is essential for primary productivity
models [62].
Remote sensing data provide timely, non-destructive, instantaneously and accurate estimations
of the earth’s surface over different areas. Since remote sensing techniques and data availability have
J. Imaging 2018, 4, 52 7 of 19

improved over the last decade, this development has led to new advances in agricultural applications,
such as yield prediction by processing biophysical quantities from remote sensing data, as well as
high-throughput plant phenotyping with proximal sensors [63–65]. Yield forecasts used to be based
on samples from farms, i.e., field work and written enquiries. Considering large-scale forecasts on
regional, national or international scales, processing all these data is a costly and time-consuming
task [31]. Hence the need for a fast, objective and standardised method to estimate yield, turned the
attention of scientists to the possibilities of crop growth models and remote sensing.
The near parallel development of remote sensing and crop growth models has driven some
scientists to recognise the usefulness of remote sensing in crop management, which lead to the
development of combined applications [66]. Low-resolution remote sensing data have been broadly
used in crop yield forecasting and monitoring. High temporal frequency combined with broad
spatial coverage and low cost, has made these data a preferred choice for national and regional scale
applications. Since the beginning, many scientists have used the available satellite data to retrieve
canopy state variables over large areas. Among them, LAI is being monitored frequently across various
scales and resolutions, and together with actual evapotranspiration and soil moisture estimations
from thermal satellite images [67,68], they have been used with crop models. Remote sensing data are
mostly used to determine light interception (e.g., LAI or fAPAR), and provide the spatial information
of the actual growth status of the crop. Most of the studies examine the assimilation of LAI as a variable
for crop yield estimation but there are other factors affecting crop development, such as water stress,
nutrient supply and pests [32]. Neiring et al. [69] assimilated remotely sensed LAI and soil moisture
into DSSAT-CERES model and their results showed that in order to combine remote sensing data
with crop models for estimating yield at single-season time scales, it will be necessary to modify our
interpretation of crop development. They suggest the investigation of methods and other ancillary
data for correlating leaf development with grain development directly. LAI and Evapotranspiration
(ET) express two important crop processes, LAI simulates crop canopy development, which affect light
interception and photosynthesis and ET reflects the available water to support crop growth. Improving
the simulation of these variables is essential for accurate crop yield estimations [32]. Furthermore, these
variables could be used to spatially calibrate the model by locally estimating the missing information
in model parameters [70].
Hyperspectral remote sensing data, offer more spectral information and thus improved estimation
of a wide range of plant biophysical properties [66]. Some studies have assimilated satellite
hyperspectral data with crop models to estimate the potential yield or crop growth. For example,
PROMET model (PROcess of Radiation Mass and Energy Transfer) was enhanced with CHRIS
(Compact High Resolution Spectrometer) PROBA I satellite hyperspectral images to estimate spatial
heterogeneity of winter wheat yield, in two fields in Germany [71]. The results showed an increase
of accuracy of yield estimation by 20% which was attributed to the fields’ spatial heterogeneity that
was described with the hyperspectral satellite images. Mariotto et al. [72], compared hyperspectral
data (Hyperion EO-1 satellite, field spectrometer) and multispectral reflectance data (Landsat, IRS,
IKONOS, Quickbird) to estimate yield of various annual crops using empirical models. The results
showed that hyperspectral models explained about 25% greater variability than multispectral models.
At the plant level, proximal hyperspectral imaging and field spectroscopy has been used extensively to
estimate plant biophysical properties and as phenotyping tool in agricultural research [73–75]. In an
effort to assimilate these data to crop models, Li et al. [76] used two assimilation variables (LAI and
canopy nitrogen accumulation, CNA) derived from a field spectrometer, in DSSAT-CERES crop model
to improve yield prediction of winter wheat in an area in Beijing China. The results showed that both
variables were accurately estimated with spectral indices and the integration of two state variables in
the model was more robust than single variable integration.
The recent developments in technology resulted in the advanced use of Unmanned Aerial Vehicles
(UAVs) in agriculture. The UAVs used in agriculture combined with lightweight and low-cost remote
sensing sensors, are providing low-cost, timely and high spatial resolution data. But due to the small
J. Imaging 2018, 4, 52 8 of 19

size of these devices and the limited battery capabilities, they are mostly used in precision farming
applications to provide the within farm variability of factors influencing crop growth. Their operational
use of small UAVs in regional scale is questioned [77], thus medium-altitude long-endurance (MALE)
UAVs have been developed [78,79]. Several studies have examined the use of UAVs to obtain crop
status, health and to provide effective support to crop management in general [80–82]. For example,
Yao et al. [83] used UAVs to estimate LAI under varying growing conditions and different growing
stages in order to provide technical support for nitrogen fertilization. In another study Vega et al. [84]
examine the capability of the unmanned aerial vehicles to acquire multitemporal images during the
growing season of sunflower in Spain at different temporal resolutions to estimate NDVI. The results
of the study showed that linear regression between NDVI and grain yield were significant. Miniature
hyperspectral sensors are becoming lighter and smaller and more suitable to be loaded on UAV
platforms for earth observation applications in agriculture and forestry [82]. However, their usability
is still limited due to high costs of associated with data acquisition and processing complexity.
In addition to raw satellite images, there are products available for a wide range of biophysical
parameters that can be monitored operationally with remote sensing [85]. These products are generated
regularly with automated algorithms based on image composites, which is a method for filling in gaps
due to cloud cover. For instance, the available products for LAI include those from Terra MODIS that
is composited every 8 days and has 1 km resolution, with an accuracy of 0.69 (m2 /m2 ) [86], and the
product GEOV01 derived from the SPOT-VEGETATION sensor, which is available every 10 days with
1 km spatial resolution worldwide with a reported RMSE of 0.5 (m2 /m2 ) [87].
Vegetation indices are easily computed and thus widely used canopy state parameters. NDVI
(Normalised Difference Vegetation Index) is one of the most commonly used since the 70s. Numerous
studies have used NDVI to analyse crop growth [88–90] and to estimate crop yield [88,91–94]. In the
majority of these studies, the core strategy is to use linear regression models to predict the yield
based on remotely sensed indices obtained during the growing season [90,95], as well as to use VIs to
calibrate the model by estimating input model parameters, such as LAI [70].
In some locations, optical sensors cannot be used, due to the persistent cloud coverage, or to the
limits of their capabilities to provide information of the lower levels of canopy [96]. Synthetic Aperture
Radar (SAR), has some advantages for monitoring crop status, when compared with optical sensors
because these sensors are not affected by atmospheric conditions, can acquire data either day or night
and of course due to fact that SAR sensors can penetrate crop canopies [96]. Additionally, Near-infrared
reflectance is not sensitive to LAI and biomass of some crops such as winter wheat at medium to high
canopy cover, and most of the vegetation indices demonstrate saturation phenomenon, nevertheless
LAI and biomass at medium to high canopy cover could be estimated from remote sensing radar data
which have stronger penetration capabilities [97,98]. Many studies have successfully demonstrated
that SAR data can be used to monitor crop parameters. In a recent study conducted by Maki et al. [99]
they used LAI derived from SAR images of COSMO-Sky-Med satellite and integrate it in a crop model
(SIMRIW) to successfully estimate rice yield at regional scale.

3.2. Linking Remote Sensing with Crop Growth Models

Remote sensing can provide valuable information combined with crop growth models for yield
assessment. In the 1970s Wiegand et al. [48] put forward that information derived from remote sensing
data may increase the accuracy of crop modelling. There are three main methods through which remote
sensing data is combined with crop models. The first is an indirect approach where remote sensing
data is assimilated with a simulation model, either by calibrating the model or in a feedback loop used
to adjust the model [100]. This method can provide canopy measurements as variables used by the crop
growth model, as well as spatial and temporal information about these data. The other two methods
are integrating remote sensing data in crop growth models by forcing or recalibration [101]. During
forcing, model variables are replaced or adjusted using remote sensing data, while in recalibration
model parameters or initial conditions are adjusted based on remote sensing data. An extensive recent
J. Imaging 2018, 4, 52 9 of 19

review on data assimilation of remote sensing and crop models showing the potential to improve
estimation accuracy of canopy variables, soil properties and yield have been conducted by Jin et al. [77].
Clevers et al. [29] used a semi-empirical approach (CLAIR model) for estimating LAI of a wheat
field, in southern France using both ground-based and SPOT data. In this method, a weighted
difference vegetation index (WDVI) was derived as a weighted difference between the measured
NIR and red reflectance assuming that the ratio of NIR and red reflectance of bare soil is constant.
Then, WDVI was used for estimating LAI. The results showed that remote sensing data proved to be
a valuable tool for model run-time calibration, and thus improved regional estimates of crop yield,
providing an essential tool for policymakers and trade.
Maas [100] described four alternative techniques for incorporating remote sensing data in crop
growth models. Crop growth models consist of three parts, state variables, driving variables and
parameters. The simplest way proposed, was to use remote sensing to evaluate one or more driving
variables. Another way was to update a state variable of the model which was derived from remote
sensing. The other ways were to re-initialise and/or re-calibrate the model, which were also called
assimilation approaches, where remote sensing was used directly to re-calibrate the model.
Data assimilation fails to acknowledge errors observed on modelled values. Thus, a new
assimilation strategy was developed to minimise the difference between observation and simulation
by adapting either the vague model parameters, the initial conditions or the model state variables.
Ensemble Kalman filter is a frequently used algorithm that relies on the assumption that the posterior
density of every time step is a Gaussian distribution parameterised by a mean and a covariance [102].

3.3. Scale Considerations

Remote sensing data are available at scales from sub-meter to estimate within field variability for
precision farming applications, to more than a kilometer for regional applications such as monitoring
Africa for food security. Thus, the issue of identifying the appropriate scale for monitoring the
phenomena under consideration has emerged [103,104], as well as issues of aggregating remotely
sensed vegetation information to avoid insertion of errors [105].
Remote sensing satellites that offer a high spatial resolution (finer than 10 m) usually have
a low temporal resolution (repeat cycle) due to their narrow swath (coverage of a single image).
Moreover, these satellites usually operate on demand, i.e., images are not acquired unless a customer
or application orders them. SPOT, IKONOS and Quickbird are some high and very high-resolution
satellites that fall into this category. On the contrary, low spatial resolution satellites (coarser than
300 m) have wide enough swath to cover the globe in a single day. Terra MODIS, Sentinel-3 and
NOAA AVHRR are examples of low resolution satellites. Data from low resolution satellites are
preferred in crop modelling, as they can easily provide a time series of images to cover the crop growth
season. A graphical overview of spectral, spatial, temporal and radiometric resolution of various
optical satellite systems per application is presented in Figure 1.
The selection of the scale of the system being modelled depends on the questions being asked and
who asks those questions [18]. For example, if the questions refer to the best management practices,
how to make more profit from the land and how to protect the environment, the system to be modelled
is at the field scale. Field-scale modelling assumes that the conditions in the field are similar and only
soil may vary. Models run at field scale are also called point models. At farm and larger scales, the
question that needs to be answered is how weather, soil, socioeconomic factors and crop management
practices affect crops and how the answer to these questions can become a decision for policymakers.
At this scale, models include biophysical responses, socioeconomic, environmental and business
parameters. The same parameters are also used for models run at national or global scale.
J. Imaging 2018, 4, 52 10 of 19

Figure 1. Relation of spatial, temporal and spectral resolution of satellite images [106].

At regional scale applications for monitoring crop growth and yield encounter some complications.
One of them is the difficulty in obtaining data for crop parameters and management practices, it is also
hard to validate modelling results, and additionally it can be difficult to simulate changes in crop yield
forecasting caused by extreme weather conditions [102].

3.4. Limitations and Advantages of Using Remote Sensing Data with Crop Models
It should be clarified that crop models are not expected to provide spatial information per se; they
might however use input spatial information to operate. Thus, a significant advantage provided by
using remote sensing data with crop models is the addition of the spatial information, often absent
from non-dimensional models [29,70,107,108]. Remote sensing data can provide spatial information,
and as a result, it can be used for expanding their coverage in two-dimensional space [70]. This spatial
information is very important for several applications including site-specific agriculture and food
security that faces one of the most difficult challenges to monitor and provide reliable crop yield
information, both temporally and spatially consistent [29,109]. Furthermore, monitoring crops and
providing yield predictions at varying scales, before harvest time, is important for decision making in
applications such as trading, logistics and insurance.
J. Imaging 2018, 4, 52 11 of 19

Basso et al. [110] used remote sensing data assimilated with crop modelling to identify spatial
patterns of crop growth variability in soybean. The results combining remote sensing data and the
CROPGRO-Soybean model showed that it was able to identify management zones and to predict
the yield across the field, providing a potential use in site specific agriculture. In the same context
Guo et al. [111] used simulation zone partitioning using soil nutrient indices and remotely sensed
spatial characteristics of wheat growth. The aim of their study was to accurately predict wheat growth
parameters and yield spatially by partitioning a large area into smaller zones that have relatively
similar crop growth characteristics and environment. The crop model was run on partitioning clusters,
reducing the number of calculations required during the coupling of remote sensing data with a
crop model.
In their work, Jin et al. [112] used FAOs’ AquaCrop model and calibrated using spectral-based
biomass values generated from fifteen spectral indices and particle swarm optimization (PSO). The
primary goal of their work was to improve yield and biomass prediction of winter wheat yield in
China, by assimilating field spectroscopic data into AquaCrop model with PSO algorithm. According
to the writer, PSO is much easier to apply in and has high precision and rapid convergence. The
results showed that the NDMI (Normalized difference matter index) is highly correlated with biomass
because it does not contain red edge or short NIR data because these are profoundly influenced by
chlorophyll content and canopy structure. Their results pointed out also that, AquaCrop model with
PSO data assimilation algorithm could be used to simulate winter wheat biomass, by assimilating field
spectroscopy data into the model, to improve winter wheat yield. The data assimilation method was
used to minimise errors between the observed values from the field and the simulated values from
AquaCrop model, and errors in the remote sensing data were reduced in data assimilation.
According to the literature, a reported disadvantage of using remote sensing data is the low
spatial resolution of the satellites that offer ready-to-use products of high temporal resolution for easy
operation with crop models [113]. They had proposed the use of higher resolution satellite data, such
as from MODIS of PROBA-V.
Another advance of incorporating time series of remote sensing data in crop growth models is that
the former provides quantification of the condition of the crop along the growing season [100]. Indeed,
as crop models may often appear to fail when growing conditions deviate from optimum (e.g., due to
biotic or abiotic stresses), frequent remote sensing data may provide the missing information of actual
growing conditions [114]. However, as mentioned at the beginning, a model is only a representation of
the real system and the quality of the results are linked heavily with the quality of the data used by
the model.

4. Future Trends and Challenges

Climate change research is expected to drive the increased application of crop models. As the
global circulation models produce future climate scenarios, the production of current agricultural
systems is in question. The future of the current agricultural systems is being tested using crop
growth models fed with projected meteorological data. Thus, an early warning could be issued for
global food security to take appropriate mitigation and adaptation measures [12]. Among others, the
newly launched project “AfriCultuReS—Enhancing Food Security in African Agricultural Systems
with the Support of Remote Sensing” (European Union, Horizon 2020) is expected to benefit from
this development.
Future integration of crop modelling and plant breeding is not without challenges. In particular,
gene–phenotype modelling requires quantitative knowledge of genetic influences on physiological
processes, which is not always available [35]. Further, the flow of information from genetically relevant
parameters to physiological traits to production is not necessarily a straightforward one, since traits
interact with each other to determine productivity [35]. Nevertheless, the potential to increase the scale
of hybrid assessment both spatially and within the target population environment suggests that crop
modelling will be an important addition to multi environment trials in future breeding cycles [115].
J. Imaging 2018, 4, 52 12 of 19

New and expected satellite launches promise higher quality data on vegetation. ESA’s Sentinel-2a
is a recently launched satellite that carries the Multispectral Imager (MSI) with spatial resolution of
10–60 m, designed amongst other things for monitoring vegetation parameters and together with
Sentinel-2b satellite provide a temporal resolution of 5 days. This is expected to provide unprecedented
usefulness for continuous coverage of high-resolution products at a temporal resolution which is
more than adequate for monitoring vegetation conditions [104]. A future launch from European
Space Agency (ESA) is FLEX (Fluorescence Explorer), which is expected to provide global coverage
of photosynthetic activity of vegetation through monitoring chlorophyll fluorescence. The latter is
considered a more accurate indicator of plant growth and stress than others used (LAI, fAPAR), but is
harder to measure [116].
A recent trend in satellite remote sensing are the constellations of nanosatellites (mass <10 kg).
These are designed as low-cost orbiting satellites with simple monitoring and communication
instruments that can be launched in dozens, each following a consecutive orbit from the previous
in order to provide frequent coverage at very high spatial resolution. Their low construction and
launch cost promises easy replacement and long-term maintenance of the constellation. An operational
example is the constellation of Planet Lab’s ‘Doves’, which are designed to operate in tandem and cover
the globe daily at 3–5 m spatial resolution [117]. A different trend is the development of High Altitude
Pseudo Satellites (HAPS) for applications in environmental monitoring and other non-defence uses.
HAPS are remotely operated aircrafts positioned above 20 km altitude in the stratosphere, for very
long duration flights and have the potential to stay over a fixed point on Earth from weeks to months.
However, it yet to be proven that these systems could provide an operational and cost-effective
source of information, considering the temporal requirements of crop models to cover at least a
cropping season.
Coordinating crop model improvement and projection across spatial scales is a major challenge
for crop modelling [118]. At global scales, the trend towards inclusion of crop models within integrated
assessment models [119], and the increasing ability to run multi-model gridded studies [120], are
resulting in an increased capacity for prediction. However, assimilation of data at global scales is
difficult, which makes regional-scale risk assessments [121] an easier target for incorporation of satellite
data. In this context, the increasing use of “big data” and smart sensors for agriculture [121] provides
an opportunity for multiple sources of information, including remotely sensed data, to be combined
into one predictive system.
Linking across spatial scales is not the only challenge facing greater integration of crop models
and remotely sensed data. Agriculture globally is now being conducted in changing climates and with
ongoing, often autonomous, adaptations occurring [122]. Remote sensing may have a role in tracking
these changes, as well as the land use changes that they imply. These land use changes are the result of
a complex set of drivers, including, inter alia, climate policy [123] and food demand [124]. Land use
changes can also have implications for the skill of crop models [125].
The combination of crop models with data derived from UAVs is recently gaining more attention.
With the expanding technology of UAVs and newly and more sophisticated light sensors being
available on the market the assimilation of UAV remote sensing data and crop models for field scale
applications is expected to boom [82]. For example, Bendig et al. [126] combined Vis derived from
UAV, and ground based hyperspectral data and plant height information to estimate biomass in
barley. Another example is the work from Zhou et al. [127] where multispectral images and digital
images acquired at critical growth stages and used to correlate with grain yield and LAI to identify
the appropriate period and optimal Vis for rice yield prediction and to assess the possibility of
multi-temporal VIs for yield prediction by using UAV images. The results showed that multispectral
and digital images are both reliable for rice yield and growth prediction.
Satellite hyperspectral data have been mainly used for research, thus their availability, spatial
coverage, and timeliness of delivery hinders their use in operational applications with crop growth
models. A boom is expected in the field of hyperspectral UAV, which may provide the solution that is
J. Imaging 2018, 4, 52 13 of 19

needed for operational integration of hyperspectral data with crop models. This may be achieved due
to the technological advances in miniature hyperspectral imaging cameras that capture high quality
data from low cost UAV systems, and the development of faster artificial intelligence algorithms which
allow near real-time processing of “big data”.

5. Conclusions
Crop models and remote sensing have had parallel development courses. This paper describes the
background and the efforts of linking the two for improved crop modelling. It also examines the main
methods of combining remote sensing data and crop models, and includes issues of scale, the effect
of climate change and applications in early warning systems for food security and crop breeding.
It discusses the future trends, considering planned remote sensing satellite missions, alternative sources
of remote sensing data and the expected improvements of crop models.
The main advantages from incorporating remote sensing data into crop models are the
representation of the missing spatial information of the latter and the more accurate description
of the crop’s actual condition along various stages of the growing season. The reported disadvantages
refer to the accuracy of remotely sensed information and the potential appearance of clouds that
obstruct satellite data acquisition.
Crop models are expected to adapt to facilitate climate change research as well as the requirements
of gene-phenotype modelling. They should benefit from the future trends of remote sensing, including
new platforms (UAVs, nanosatellites and planned satellite missions) and more sensitive imaging
sensors (e.g., hyperspectral).
Considering the advantages and the wide applicability of the combination of the two, it is certain
that the collaboration of remote sensing data with crop models will increase, hopefully by incorporating
automated procedures that will improve their performance. The so-called big data revolution is the
context in which this collaboration will doubtless unfold. Techniques for data assimilation and quality
checking will need to be at the heart of this promising avenue of research if it is to deliver reliable and
skillful predictions.

Acknowledgments: This work was supported by the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation
programme under grant agreement No. 774652 “AfriCultuReS—Enhancing Food Security in African Agricultural
Systems with the Support of Remote Sensing”.
Author Contributions: D.A.K., T.K.A. and A.C. conceived and designed the work; D.A.K. and C.D. analyzed the
literature; D.A.K., T.K.A., C.D. and A.C. wrote the paper; D.M. and G.Z. reviewed and corrected the paper.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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