ME305 FLUID MECHANICS - I

Chapter 1 - Introduction

M. Metin Yavuz

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 INTRODUCTION
Fluid Mechanics:
1) Fluid Statics: Deals with fluids at rest
2) Fluid Dynamics: Deals with fluids in motion

Fluid:

1) Gas: State of matter with very weak intermolecular attraction forces so

that the molecules are practically unrestricted. They have neither
definite shapes nor definite volumes.

2) Liquid: State of matter with medium intermolecular attraction forces so

that the molecules are quite free to change their relative
positions. They have definite volumes but not definite shapes.
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 INTRODUCTION
Hydrodynamics: Studies liquids in motion

Hydraulics: Studies liquids flowing in pipes and open channels

Gas Dynamics: Studies flow of gasses with high density changes

Aerodynamics: Including low speed flows, it focuses on air flow

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INTRODUCTION

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INTRODUCTION

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 INTRODUCTION - FLUID MECHANICS APPLICATIONS

✦ Meteorology ✦ Energy
✦ Aeronautical ✦ Sports
✦ Aerospace ✦ Architectural
✦ Defense ✦ Biomedical
✦ Marine/Naval ✦ Manufacturing/Production
✦ Automotive ✦ Household Appliances
✦ Construction ✦ Etc.

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INTRODUCTION - FLUID MECHANICS APPLICATIONS

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INTRODUCTION - FLUID MECHANICS APPLICATIONS

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INTRODUCTION - FLUID MECHANICS APPLICATIONS

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INTRODUCTION - FLUID MECHANICS APPLICATIONS
Cyclist Helmet

Golf Ball

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 INTRODUCTION - CONTINUUM

Continuum: The smallest element of a fluid is not a fluid molecule but rather
fluid particle which contains enough number of molecules to make
meaningful statistical averages.

Properties of a fluid particle can be defined instantaneously. Its properties

change from point to point and from time to time continuously.

In this course we will always treat fluids as continuum.

λ molecular mean free path

Knudsen Number, Kn = :
L characteristic linear dimension of the flow

molecular mean free path : average distance traveled by molecules between collisions

Continuum Assumption Valid : Kn < 0.01

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 INTRODUCTION - DESCRIPTION OF FLUID FLOW

In solid mechanics we generally focus on material motion/deformation.

In fluid mechanics, we are generally interested in a region of space.

Description of Fluid Flow

a) Material (Lagrangian) Description: Identified fluid particles are
followed in the course of time as they move in the flow field
and variation of their properties is determined.
b) Spatial (Eulerian) Description: The attention is focused at fixed
points in the flow field and the variation of the properties at
these points is determined as fluid particles pass through these
points.
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 INTRODUCTION - DESCRIPTION OF FLUID FLOW
Description of Fluid Flow
a) Material (Lagrangian) Description: Not preferred in fluid mechanics.
Space coordinates (x, y, z) of particle P are not independent
variables.
⃗
position of P : rp (t) velocity of P : Vp ⃗(t) density of P : ρp(t)

b) Spatial (Eulerian) Description: Preferred viewpoint in fluid mechanics.

Both time and space coordinates are independent variables.

⃗ y, z, t)
velocity : V (x,
density : ρ(x, y, z, t)

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 INTRODUCTION
Density: (rho) mass per unit volume (that volume satisfies the continuum
condition.) ρ = ρ(T, p)

Specific volume: volume per unit mass (reciprocal of the density)

Relative Density / Specific Gravity: (S), (SG) density of the fluid over
density of water at specified temperature.
ρ
SG =
ρH2O@4OC

Specific Weight: (gamma) weight per unit volume γ = ρg

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 INTRODUCTION - FORCES ACTING ON A FLUID ELEMENT

Forces acting on a fluid element: Body forces and surface forces

⃗ 2
F , (N, kgm/s )

a) Body forces are distributed over the volume of a fluid. (gravitational,

magnetic, electrostatic) Gravitational body force per unit mass
is gravitational acceleration, g ⃗

b) Surface forces act on the boundaries of the fluid body by the

surroundings through direct contact. Normal, Tangential
(Shear)

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 INTRODUCTION - STRESSES ACTING ON A FLUID ELEMENT
Stress acting on a fluid element: Normal Stress and Shear Stress
2
σ, τ, Pa, N/m
dFn dFt
σ : normal stress = lim τ : shear stress = lim
dA→0 dA dA→0 dA

For uniformly distributed forces

Fn Ft
σ= τ=
A A
Pressure: Pressure in a fluid at rest is defined as the normal force per unit
area exerted on a plane surface immersed in a fluid. It always acts as a
compressive force perpendicular to the surface.

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 havior is consistent with the definition of a fluid—that is, if a shearing stre
it will deform continuously. A closer inspection of the fluid motion betwee
INTRODUCTION - VISCOSITY
reveal that the fluid in contact with the upper plate moves with the plate ve
Viscosity:
in contact with the bottom fixed plate has a zero velocity. The fluid betwee
Solid
withbody between
velocity 1y2 parallel
u " utwo platebe
that would under thetoaction
found vary of shear force
linearly, P !b, as
u " Uy
Thus, a velocity gradient, du !dy, is developed in the fluid between
Hooke’s law of solid mechanics states that the shear strain is directly the plates
the velocity gradient is a constant since du !dy " U !b, but in
proportional to the applied shear stress as long as the elastic limit of more comple
the material is not exceeded.
δa
P P
B B' τA
P
δβ : shear strain τ = = Gδβ
b A
δβ G : modulus of elasticity
A F I G U R E
Fixed plate
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material placed betw
 INTRODUCTION - VISCOSITY

Same experiment for a fluid between two parallel plates, the plate will
move at a constant velocity of U. Meanwhile, the fluid starts to deform
and continuous to deform as long as this shear force is applied.

Fluid: A substance which deforms continuously under the action of a

shear stress of any magnitude.
A fluid in contact with a solid surface does not slip. It has the same
velocity as the surface. NO SLIP CONDITION

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INTRODUCTION - VISCOSITY

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 1.6 Viscosity 1
INTRODUCTION - VISCOSITY
δa
U
δa
P u = u(y) tanδβ =
B B' b
u
δa = uδt
b
uδt
y

tanδβ =
A δβ F I G U R E b1.5 Behavior of a fluid
Fixed plate placed between two parallel plates.

tanδβ ≈ δβ : for small angles (in a small time increment)

= u(y) as that shown by the photograph in the margin, this is not true. The experimental observation t
the fluid “sticks” to the solid boundaries is a very important one in fluid mechanics and is usua
uδt δβ u du δβ du δβ
tanδβ ≈ δβ
referred to = ⟹ condition.
as the no-slip = = All fluids, both = liquids and gases,
: shear strain rate
satisfy this condition.
In a smallbtime increment,
δt bdt, andyimaginary
δt vertical
dy line ABδtin the fluid would rotate throu
an angle, db, so that
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 INTRODUCTION - VISCOSITY
For certain fluids, Newtonian Fluids, the shear stress on a surface
tangent to the flow direction is proportional to the rate of shear strain
or to the velocity gradient.
du
Newton’s Law of Viscosity ⟹ τ = μ
dy
du du
τ=μ τ : shear stress : shear strain rate
dy dy
μ : absolute viscosity, coefficient of viscosity, dynamic viscosity, viscosity
The viscosity of a fluid is a measure of its resistance to shear and
angular deformation.
μ μ : Pa . s
Newtonian fluids, μ is constant. ν = : kinematic viscosity 2
ρ ν : m /s
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INTRODUCTION - VISCOSITY
 1.6 Viscosity

U
INTRODUCTION
δa
- VISCOSITY
P

B B'
u
Linear velocity profile
b
y (no pressure gradient is
assumed)
A δβ F I G U R E 1.5 Behavior of a fluid
Fixed plate placed between two parallel plates.

dτ
( τ +
dy )
dy dx
y u = u(y) ⟶
as that shown by the photograph in the margin, this is not true. The experimental observat
the fluid “sticks” to the solid boundariesdτ
is a very important one in fluid mechanics and is
→
Pdy
←
Pdy
referred to as the no-slip∑ Fx = 0 All fluids,
condition. = 0 both
⟹ liquids
τ = C, and
shear stress
gases, is constant
satisfy this conditio
dy
In a small time increment, dt, an imaginary vertical line AB in the fluid would rotate t
⟵
an angle, db, so that
τdx
d body da
tan db ! db "
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 INTRODUCTION
Viscosity can be measured using:
• Capillary tube viscometer
• Concentric cylinder viscometer
• Saybolt viscometer
Dilatant fluids become thicker under increased shear stress. (printing ink)
Bingham plastics do not flow below a certain amount of shear stress.
(toothpaste)
Pseudoplastics become thinner under increased shear stress. (wall paint,
blood)
Inviscid fluids ⟶ μ = 0, ideal fluids
Viscous fluids ⟶ real fluids
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 small and the apparent viscosity is large. Howeve
layer of paint between the wall and the brush caus
1 ■ Introduction INTRODUCTION - VISCOSITY

Crude oil (60 °F) Bingham plastic

tyield

Shearing stress, τ
µ
Shearing stress, τ

Shear thinning

1 Newtonian
Water (60 °F)

µ ap
Water (100 °F)
1
Air (60 °F) Shear thickening F
F I G U R E 1.6 Linear stress
Rate of shearing strain, __
du variation of shearing stress with rate of du types
Rate of shearing
shearing strain for common fluids. strain,
dy dy fluids
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INTRODUCTION - VISCOSITY

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 INTRODUCTION - VISCOSITY
μ = μ(T, p) μ = μ(T) : usually pressure dependence is negligible
As T increases cohesion decreases and collision increases. For liquids
cohesion is dominant type of interaction, for gasses collision is dominant
type of interaction
Temperature Dependency : T

μ μ = μ(T)
Gas For liquids Andrade’s Equation μ = Ae(B/T)

1.5
CT
For gases Sutherland’s Equation μ =
T+D
Liquid

T 27
 INTRODUCTION - VISCOSITY
Thixotropic fluids: Viscosity decreases with time (lipstick)

Rheopectic fluids: Viscosity increases with time (bentonite solution)

Time Dependency : t

μ μ = μ(t)
Rheopectic

Thixotropic

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t
 INTRODUCTION - CLASSIFICATION OF STRESSES ON A FLUID
τxy ⟹ y : direction of the force

⟶
x : direction of the surface normal

Which direction does stress act? ⟹ Depends on Surface

(−)
y (−)
(+)
(+) Stress Component Plane Direction

x + + +
(+)
(+) + - -
- + -
Fluid
- - +
(−)
(−) 29
 INTRODUCTION - VISCOSITY:EXAMPLE

A concentric cylinder viscometer may be formed by rotating the inner

cylinder of a pair of closely fitting cylinders. The viscometer has an inner
cylinder of 0.1 m in diameter and 0.2 m in height with a clearance width
of 0.0005 m. A torque of 15 Nm is required to turn the inner cylinder at
10 rad/s. Determine the viscosity of the Newtonian liquid in the
clearance gap of the viscometer. Assume that the pressure is constant
and the velocity distribution is linear.

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 INTRODUCTION - VISCOSITY:EXAMPLE

ω = 10 rad/s

h = 0.0005 m L = 0.2 m

Di = 0.1 m
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 INTRODUCTION - EXAMPLE:VISCOSITY
The torque, Tside , exerted on the cylinder due to the presence of the liquid in the
annular space can be evaluated as follows:

du Δu Vθ ωri
τ=μ =μ =μ =μ ,( − ) Vθ
dr Δr ro − ri ro − ri ri

2
ωri 2πμωri L
F = τA = μ 2πriL = ,( − )
ro − ri ro − ri
3
2πμωri L
Tside = Fri = ,( − )
ro − ri

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 INTRODUCTION - EXAMPLE:VISCOSITY

The torque, Tbottom, exerted to the bottom of cylinder can be evaluated as follows:

Vθ = Az + B Vθ = 0, at z = 0 Vθ = ωr, at z = h
ωr ωr
∬ ∬ ∫
A= , B = 0, ⟹ Vθ = z dA = rdrdθ = 2πrdr
h h

dVθ μωr μω
∫ ∬ ∫ ∫ h
2
τ=μ = ,( + ) dF = τdA = τ2πrdr = 2πr dr, ( − )
dz h

μω ri 4
μωπri
∫ ∫ ∫ h
μω
∫0 h
3
dT = rdF = 2πr dr, ( − ) Tbottom = 3
2πr dr = ,( − )
2h
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 INTRODUCTION - EXAMPLE:VISCOSITY

3 4
2πμωri L μωπri
T = Tside + Tbottom = + = 15 Nm
ro − ri 2h

3 4 3 4
2πμωri L μωπri 2πμ(10)(0.05 )(0.2) μ(10)π(0.05 )
15 = + = +
ro − ri 2h 0.0005 (2)(0.0005)

μ = 4.493 Pa . s

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 tween%
INTRODUCTION - SURFACE TENSION
Surface Tension:
t%in%a%
At the interface between a liquid and a gas or between two immiscible liquids,
rane)%forces develop on the liquid surface which cause the surface to behave as if it
Surface%Tension%
were a skin or membrane over the fluid mass.

Unbalanced cohesive forces acting on the liquid molecules at the fluid surface
e%
enever%there%is%a%density%
%
quid%and%another%liquid%or%a%gas%or%a%
een%

n%a%
e)%
ut%surface%tension%at
un3_en/exper2/exper2.htm%% 35
 blade or a razor blade will float on water if placed gently on the su
oped in the hypothetical skin supports it. Small droplets of mer
INTRODUCTION placed on a -smooth SURFACE surfaceTENSION
because the cohesive forces in the
Free body diagram of ecules
drop of together
fluid / cut in
in a compact
half shape. Similarly, discrete bubble
068_ch01_001-037.qxd 8/19/08 8:34 PM Page 25
photograph at the beginning of Chapter 1.)
Force developed around the edge These due to thetypes
various surface tensionphenomena
of surface balanced by are due to the
pressure force ing on the liquid molecules at the fluid surface. Molecules in
surrounded by molecules that are attracted to each other equal
2 2σ
2πRσ = ΔpπR Δp = pare
surface i − p o =
subjected to a net force toward the interior. The appa
unbalanced force along R the surface is to create the hypothetical
−3 1.9
× 10 may be considered to be acting in the plane of the surface alon
6
Surface tension, lb/ft

tensity of the molecular attraction per unit length along any lin
4 Water faceσ tension R and is designated by the Greek symbol s 1sigma2.
sion depends on temperature as well as the other fluid it is in
2 "1
dimensions of surface tension are FL with BG units of lb!ft an
face2 tension forσsome common liquids 1in contact with air2 are g
0 ∆ pπ R F I G U R E 1.9 Forces acting on one-half
0 50 100 150 200 Appendix B 1Tables B.1 and B.22 for water at various temperatu
Temperature, #F the margin, the value of the surface tension decreases as the te
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 gR
R
The angle of contact is a function of both the liquid and
INTRODUCTION - CAPILLARY RISE/DROP
glass u ! 0°. It is clear from Eq. 1.22 that the height is in
Capillary Rise/Drop: therefore, as indicated by the figure in the margin, the ri
Capillary action in lary action becomes increasingly pronounced as the tube
small tubes, which
When a glass tube is immersed into a liquid, which wets the
If adhesion surface,
of molecules such
to the assurface is we
solid
involves a liquid– ecules, the liquid will not wet the surface and the level i
water, adhesive forces between
gas–solidthe glass and
interface, water exceed cohesive forces in
actually be depressed, as shown in Fig. 1.10c. Mercury
water, and water rises (capillary
is causedrise)
by sur-in the glass tube. For non wetting fluid,
when it is in contact with a glass tube. For nonwetting
face tension.
such as mercury, capillary drop happens. 90°, and for mercury in contact with clean glass u ! 1

2 θ
γπR h = 2πRσ cos θ 2π Rσ

θ
2σ cos θ
h= γ π R2h
γR h h

F
action
that w
2R
ing co
(a) (b) (c) nonw
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