Professional Psychology: Research and Practice Copyright 2008 by the American Psychological Association

2008, Vol. 39, No. 5, 529 –536 0735-7028/08/$12.00 DOI: 10.1037/0735-7028.39.5.529

School Psychology: A Specialty of Professional Psychology With Distinct

Competencies and Complexities

Deborah J. Tharinger Walter B. Pryzwansky

University of Texas at Austin University of North Carolina

Jeffrey A. Miller
Duquesne University

School psychology at the doctoral level is recognized as a specialty of professional psychology by the
American Psychological Association, with corresponding licensure as a psychologist granted by state
boards of psychology. School psychology also is regulated by state boards of education; they set the
credentialing standards for professional practice in public schools. The intent of this article is to enhance
the understanding of this distinct and multiply influenced specialty. The need for psychological services
in schools is highlighted, followed by a discussion of multiple influences and licensing/credentialing
issues. Next, the specialty is delineated, its distinctiveness highlighted, and competencies for practice in
the public schools elaborated. Finally, education/training models and mechanisms for program accred-
itation are described, as are the major professional organizations in school psychology.

Keywords: school psychology, history of psychology, professional licensing, professional organizations,

professional certification

The aim of this article is to promote the understanding of school ical services in schools is highlighted. Following this, licensing
psychology, as practiced in the United States (for a review of and credentialing issues are clarified. Next, preparation in the field
international school psychology, see Jimerson, Oakland, & Farrell, of professional psychology, with a specialty of school psychology,
2007). The article is directed to the professional psychology com- is delineated, its distinctiveness is highlighted, and its unique
munity; the school psychology community; students who are in- competencies are elaborated. Education and training models are
terested in working with children, families, and schools; and then discussed, as well as mechanisms for program accreditation.
consumers of psychological services delivered by professionals in Finally, the major professional organizations in school psychology
schools. First, the historic, current, and future need for psycholog- are described.

Psychological Services in the Schools: Historic, Present,

DEBORAH J. THARINGER obtained her PhD from the University of California and Future Needs
at Berkeley in educational/school psychology. She has been active in
American Psychological Association governance and the Division of The origin of school psychology is placed in the 1890s, with the
School Psychology for 20 years. She currently is a professor at the founding of the American Psychological Association (APA) in
University of Texas at Austin in the school psychology program and is a 1892, the establishment of the first psychological clinic at the
licensed psychologist. Her current research is examining the use of thera- University of Pennsylvania for assessing the learning differences
peutic assessment with children.
and behavioral difficulties of children in 1896, and the first school-
WALTER B. PRYZWANSKY obtained his EdD from Teacher’s College, Co-
lumbia University, and is board certified in school psychology from the
based psychological clinic founded in the Chicago public schools
American Board of Professional Psychology. He is currently professor in 1899 (Fagan & Wise, 2007). These events were accompanied by
emeritus at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. His career-long the advent of compulsory schooling in this country, the corre-
scholarship has focused on issues in professional psychology and consul- sponding need to understand individual differences in learning
tation theory and practice. among children, and the origins of special education. School
JEFFREY A. MILLER obtained his PhD in school psychology from Arizona psychological services emerged to assist with the identification
State University and is board certified in school psychology from the and placement of students. The development of individual ability
American Board of Professional Psychology. He is currently the associate and achievement tests in the early 20th century facilitated this
dean for graduate studies and research at Duquesne University. His current prominent role.
research concerns working memory and executive functions as they relate
Many of the services provided by professionals trained in school
to teaching and learning.
THE AUTHORS THANK Tom Fagan, Ron Palomares, and Frank Worrell for
psychology today reflect this history and are required through
their very helpful comments on drafts of this article. federal and state law, state board of education policy, and school
CORRESPONDENCE CONCERNING THIS ARTICLE SHOULD BE ADDRESSED TO district policy. Central at the federal level have been the Education
Deborah J. Tharinger, SXB 504, University of Texas, Austin, TX 78712. for All Handicapped Children Act of 1975, the Individuals With
E-mail: dtharinger@mail.utexas.edu Disabilities Education Act (IDEA; 1997), and the Individuals With

529
530 THARINGER, PRYZWANSKY, AND MILLER

Disabilities Education Improvement Act (IDEIA; 2004). These chological assessments, family intervention programs, prevention
laws and corresponding regulations have served to charge the program planning, and other types of systemic or organizational
educational community with identifying students for special edu- consultation. These competencies are usually out of the scope of
cation services. They also have had an impact on the delivery of practice of school psychologists with specialist-level training and
educational interventions and related services (such as teacher and state board of education certification.
parent consultation, academic interventions, and counseling for Professionals licensed or credentialed in school psychology also
students in special education). Professionals in school psychology work in settings other than public schools, including private
have been central in identifying children enrolled in special edu- schools, hospitals, residential treatment centers, and private learn-
cation programs nationwide, as well as in providing interventions. ing centers. Independent practice for professionals in school psy-
Professionals in school psychology also identify students who chology is usually restricted to those with an additional license that
qualify for modified instruction based on their needs under Section allows for such practice, such as being a licensed psychologist.
504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973. Section 504 stipulates that Thus, historically and presently there has been a legislated
for students with disabilities, schools are required to provide requirement for professionals in school psychology to assess chil-
accommodations to meet students’ needs, even if they do not dren’s disabilities, how they have an impact on learning, and how
qualify under the definition of handicapped found in the IDEA. On to intervene. There also is an increasing call for the delivery of
the basis of the broader definition of disabilities used in Section mental health services in and linked to schools, as well as an
504, school districts may employ school psychologists to work enhanced understanding of the complexity of influences on a
with students who may not be eligible for special education ser- child’s learning and mental health and the interface between learn-
vices, but who nevertheless require identification and specialized ing and mental health. It is important to underscore that there is
instruction in the classroom or other forms of individualized ser- already a shortage of school psychologists (Curtis, Grier, & Hun-
vice. ley, 2004; Lahman, D’Amato, Stecker, & McGrain, 2006; McIn-
In the past decade, awareness of the need for expanded psycho- tosh, 2004), and the situation is expected to become more aggra-
logical services in the schools has grown. Numerous federal and vated, especially if the range of services requested continues to
state reports have documented that mental health problems among grow (e.g., expanded mental health services). Additional profes-
children constitute a public health crisis for our nation and have sionals with an increased repertoire of competencies are needed.
called for an organized response (New Freedom Commission on Current and future state board of education-credentialed school
Mental Health, 2003; U.S. Department of Health and Human psychologists will need to develop additional competencies in
Services, 1999). As indicated by these reports, mental health intervention in the mental health area, which at this time is limited.
problems in children are common (10% experience serious prob- At the same time, current and future professional psychologists
lems and another 10% experience moderately serious problems) who are prepared to work with children will need to develop their
and long lasting and can lead to tragic consequences, including abilities to apply their intervention competencies in the complex
poor academic achievement, failure to complete high school, sub- arena of the schools. And finally, professional psychologists with
stance abuse, involvement with the correctional system, lack of a specialty in school psychology (and likely dual licensure) will
vocational success, inability to live independently, health prob- continue to be needed, and needed in larger numbers, as they are
lems, and suicide. The human and financial costs are broad, deep, perhaps the best prepared for meeting many of the future roles,
and staggering. Schools are increasingly singled out as settings for both within and outside of public schools.
health and mental health care delivery. Most recently, the need for
mental health services to be delivered in schools was affirmed by Multiple Influences and Distinct Credentialing
the President’s New Freedom Commission on Mental Health Re-
port (2003). Goal 4 in the report specifically recommended early School psychology, recognized by the APA as a practice spe-
mental health screening and assessment, as well as improvement cialty at the doctoral level within professional psychology, was one
and expansion of school mental health programs for children and of the original specialty practice areas (along with clinical and
adolescents. counseling psychology). APA accreditation of doctoral school
In response, school psychologists with competencies in mental psychology training programs has been available since 1969
health and professional psychologists with school competencies through the Committee on Accreditation. The practice specialty
increasingly are involved in the provision of mental health services status of school psychology was affirmed and reaffirmed in 1997
in schools (Atkins, Graczyk, Frazier, & Abdul-Adil, 2003; Forness and 2005, respectively, through the Committee for the Recognition
& Hoagwood, 1993; Nastasi, Moore, & Varjas, 2004). Services of Specialties and Proficiencies in Professional Psychology
include individual and group counseling, crisis intervention (e.g., (CRSPPP) and the Council of Representatives of APA. All spe-
consultation in cases of student violence and suicide), management cialties of professional psychology recognized by APA are aligned
of high-risk students, development of schoolwide mental health with the discipline of psychology and are defined either at the
programs, collaboration on community-focused prevention work doctoral or postdoctoral level of training.
(e.g., educating the school, family, and community about strategies Education and training programs in APA-accredited school psy-
to prevent problem behaviors and promote resilience among young chology programs overlap significantly with other specialties of
people), and evaluation of program effectiveness. professional psychology because of the common education and
Furthermore, there are times when specialized psychological training core in professional psychology required by APA. Unique
services are needed within the public schools. School districts may competencies also are required, such as in-depth expertise in the
choose to employ on a full-time, part-time, or contractual basis organization of function of schools, as well as school and special
professional psychologists to provide such services as neuropsy- education law and regulations. Professionals who complete the
 COMPETENCIES AND COMPLEXITIES OF SCHOOL PSYCHOLOGY 531

required education and training program from an accredited doc- As illustrated, there may be little or no equivalency or “reci-
toral program and who successfully complete the required post- procity” between the state board of education and state board of
doctoral year of supervised practice (if applicable) and examina- psychology credentialing systems. This makes some sense in that
tion procedures are eligible for licensure by their state board of the two systems were established by state legislatures for different
psychology as a licensed psychologist. The state board of psychol- purposes and are influenced by different factors. However, there
ogy license is generic and not setting specific. Scope of practice is has been concern that a different (and less advanced) level of
defined as broad and encompassing, limited by the competence of education and training is required to provide school psychological
the professional (APA, 2002), as well as by applicable state laws services in the public schools versus other settings. There also has
and regulations. Services provided by psychologists trained in the been some legitimate concern and cognitive dissonance from the
specialty of school psychology occur most frequently in public larger professional psychology community that professionals at the
schools but may occur in other public sector settings (e.g., clinic, master’s and specialist levels are granted the title psychologist,
hospital, juvenile justice setting), as well as in private sector though it is preceded by the word school and granted by the state
settings (e.g., independent practice, private school). Whenever board of education, when all other psychologists are designated to
possible, when working in schools, these professional psycholo- be at the doctoral level (there may be exceptions in a few states).
gists promote a comprehensive model of psychological service That is, an individual with a master’s degree in clinical psychology
delivery, coordinated with schools and the broader community, cannot seek licensure as a psychologist or a clinical psychologist,
and strive to make psychological services available to all children. but rather obtains a license without the term psychologist. For
These psychologists hold their professional identities as being example, in Texas, such a professional would be eligible for
psychologists and, at the same time, strongly embrace their dis- licensure by the state board of psychology as a psychological
tinctive training in school practice competencies. When practicing associate, and he or she would require supervision from a licensed
in the public schools as mandated by state and federal laws and psychologist. (It also is of note that in Texas, the state board of
regulations (e.g., conducting assessments for special education psychology and not the state board of education grants the license
eligibility), these professionals, although often licensed by their to practice school psychology in the public schools. The specialist
state board of psychology, are almost always required to obtain a level of training is required, and the designated title is licensed
credential from their state board of education. The licensure/ specialist in school psychology; not school psychologist.)
credentialing pathways can be confusing and are in need of clar- Finally, there has been concern that the public may be confused
ification. State licensure of professions is typically the result of by the dual credentialing system and use of title, as well as by the
state statutes enacted to protect the public by restricting titles level of preparation and scope of practice among a state board of
and/or practice of practitioners. Credentialing of professional prac- education-credentialed school psychologist, a licensed profes-
tice within a state’s educational system is regulated by a depart- sional psychologist with a specialty in school psychology (also
ment that operates under the auspices of a state board of education. credentialed by a state board of education), and a licensed profes-
The state board of education credential usually is mandated by the sional psychologist without a specialty in school psychology (but
state’s legislature to establish the criteria for professional educa- who may hold school practice competencies). To address possible
tors and noneducators who practice in the schools. In almost all confusion, it is important for school psychologists and professional
states, school psychologists are required by a state board of edu- psychologists (and those who are both) who practice in and are
cation to be credentialed for employment in the schools, usually by linked to schools, as well as their employers, to educate the public
meeting specified educational and training requirements and suc- about their preparation, credentialing, and exacting competencies
cessfully passing an examination. Those requirements, although (see Tharinger & Palomares, 2004).
influenced by professional associations and educators/trainers in
school psychology, are subject to impact from educators and the Description of School Psychology as a Specialty of
educational establishment, as well as the state legislature and the Professional Psychology
public. Consequently, decisions regarding level of education and
training, competencies, hiring, use of title, supervisory responsi- This section was drawn from the Petition for the Reaffirma-
bility, and ethical behavior are influenced by educational profes- tion of the Specialty of School Psychology submitted to the
sional norms, which can be (and at the current time typically are) CRSPPP of the APA in 2004, as well as the Archival Descrip-
different from professional psychology norms. tion of School Psychology (available at http://www.apa.org/
Historically, the entry level to practice school psychology in the crsppp/schpsych.html) that reflects the petition and was ac-
public schools has been set by state boards of education to be at the cepted by the APA Council of Representatives in 2005.
master’s level, partially for economic and availability reasons. As a practice specialty within professional psychology, school
Through advocacy by the National Association of School Psychol- psychology is grounded in the theory and science of psychology;
ogists (NASP) over the last several decades, the level in two-thirds is concerned with the science and practice of psychology with
of the states has been raised to that of the specialist level, repre- children, youth, families, and learners of all ages; and is committed
senting the equivalent of a master’s degree plus 30 additional to the application of psychology to education and the schooling
hours of graduate training. This shift has enhanced the basic process. It is defined as a broad-based specialty that provides a
education and training of many professionals practicing school range of psychological services to infants, children, and youth;
psychology in the public schools but falls short of the doctoral families with children; adult caregivers; learners of all ages; and
level of training espoused by APA and adopted by state boards of organizations and agencies. Many of these services are provided in
psychology for licensure as a psychologist to practice in the private a broad array of educational settings (e.g., preschools; elementary,
and nonschool public sector. middle, and high schools; postsecondary educational institutions);
532 THARINGER, PRYZWANSKY, AND MILLER

between settings, such as schools and hospitals or schools and consultation, administration and supervision, research and inquiry,
employment settings; and in medical, social service, and correc- consumer protection, and professional development.
tional facilities. As a specialty of professional psychology, school
psychology is committed to providing consumers with access to Distinctiveness of the Specialty of School Psychology
professional psychologists with needed areas of competence in all
settings and advocates for education and training programs and School psychology is differentiated from the other specialties in
internships that meet APA standards. professional psychology by its focus on the application of psycho-
Professional psychologists trained in the specialty of school logical knowledge and methods to solve problems or improve
psychology strive to address the needs of all children by enhancing processes and outcomes within educational institutions or with
the scope of practice and offering a comprehensive array of ser- individuals involved in the learning process. Thus, school psychol-
vice. The extensive education and training of these psychologists ogy is distinguished by the recognition of schools as a crucial
prepares them to provide a range of psychological diagnosis, context for student development. Furthermore, within this spe-
assessment, intervention, prevention, health promotion, and pro- cialty psychologists understand schools as organizations in and of
gram development and evaluation services with a special focus on themselves, in reciprocal interaction with their local communities.
the developmental processes of children and youth within the Professional psychologists prepared in school psychology are
context of schools, families, and other systems (Phelps, 2001). versed in school law, as well as specific law and regulation
They are equipped to intervene at the individual and system level concerning children with disabilities and make the determination
and develop, implement, and evaluate preventive and early inter- of eligibility for special education services. They also know effec-
vention programs. In these efforts, they conduct ecologically valid tive instructional processes and understand classroom and school
assessments and intervene to promote positive learning environ- environments. They apply principles of learning to the develop-
ments for children and youth from diverse backgrounds. The goal ment of student competence and know how to consult effectively
is to ensure that all children have equal access to effective educa- with educators and other professionals regarding cognitive, affec-
tional and psychological services that promote healthy develop- tive, social, and behavioral performance of children. They provide
ment. This is accomplished by synthesizing information on devel- and coordinate educational, psychological, and behavioral health
opmental mechanisms and contexts and translating it for adults services by working at the interface of these systems. Finally, they
who are responsible for promoting children’s and youths’ healthy strive to intervene to improve the organization of schools, as well
growth and development. Thus, professional psychologists with as to develop effective partnerships between parents and educators
competence in school psychology are devoted to promoting and other caretakers. For a further discussion of the distinct com-
healthy development through creating contexts appropriate to and petencies in practicing psychology in schools, see Illback (1999).
consistent with the developmental needs of children.
Education and Training in School Psychology
Content and Competencies in the Specialty Professional training in school psychology still can be found at
three levels: the master’s, specialist, and doctoral levels. Both
The competencies of individuals trained in school psychology specialist and doctoral training are guided by standards prepared
programs from an APA professional psychology training model and maintained by professional school psychology organizations.
overlap significantly with those of psychologists trained in clinical The APA accredits only doctoral training programs, whereas
and counseling programs, although there are significant areas of NASP approves both specialist and doctoral-level training pro-
distinctiveness (discussed in an upcoming section). Similarities grams. APA’s training standards are published in the Guidelines
include competencies in basic and applied psychological science, and Principles for Accreditation of Programs in Professional
research and evaluation, psychological assessment and diagnos- Psychology (G&P; APA, 2005). If a doctoral program is accred-
tics, and clinical interventions on the individual, group, and sys- ited by APA, upon request, NASP awards their approval following
temic level, informed by multiple theoretical perspectives. Com- a folio review. NASP’s training standards are documented in the
petencies stem from a core of training, further developed through Standards for Training and Field Placement Programs in School
practica and other experiences. This core includes course work in Psychology (NASP, 2000).
the substantive content areas of the discipline of psychology (i.e.,
biological bases of behavior, cognitive–affective bases of behav-
Training Sequence
ior, social bases of behavior, and individual bases of behavior), as
well as course work in the history and systems of psychological Matriculation into a graduate training program is followed by
thinking. In addition, the core preparation includes course work in didactic and field-based training including required and individu-
scientific ethics and standards, research design and statistics, psy- alized practica in areas of advanced competencies. Training at the
chological measurement, and developmental bases of behavior. specialist level typically spans 3 years, and therefore necessarily
Similar to education and training in clinical child and adolescent focuses on basic competencies needed to deliver federally and
psychology, there is a special focus on children, youth, and fam- state-mandated psychological services in public schools. Doctoral-
ilies, as well as advanced knowledge of theories and empirical level training tends to span 4 to 6 years and allows for a broad and
findings in developmental psychology, developmental psychopa- in-depth foundation in psychology and the development of ad-
thology, and family psychology. This core, advanced, and unique vanced competencies in professional psychology, as well as the
knowledge is combined with professional competencies that can distinct competencies to practice in the schools. Both specialist and
be organized into the practice areas of assessment, intervention, doctoral-level training include an internship that is typically one
 COMPETENCIES AND COMPLEXITIES OF SCHOOL PSYCHOLOGY 533

school year in length. Specialist programs approved by NASP practice typically is required (although recent APA policy defines
require at least 1,200 hr of internship training with 600 of those the postdoctoral year as optional—this policy change will have to
hours in a school setting. Doctoral candidates must have a 1,500-hr make its way, or not, through each state legislature). This addi-
internship, with NASP requiring that 600 of those hours be in a tional year may take the form of supervised postdoctoral employ-
school setting. The remaining hours can be in another appropriate ment in a K–12 school district or a postdoctoral residency in a site
setting, such as a child mental health clinic. A dissertation is that primarily serves children (e.g., Children’s Hospital of Phila-
required as a culminating experience for doctoral programs in delphia’s Postdoctoral Fellowship Training Program). There are
school psychology. specialty-specific postdoctoral training guidelines developed and
endorsed by the School Psychology Synarchy (SPS). The guide-
Education and Training Models lines are to be used to develop school psychology postdoctoral
residencies for programs interested in applying for APA Accred-
The doctoral-level education and training model in professional itation. The guidelines define postdoctoral training as an extension
psychology in the specialty of school psychology from the APA of the doctoral specialty in school psychology; they recommend
perspective was addressed comprehensively in previous sections. the experiences focus on areas of practice given less emphasis in
Central to the APA perspective is training in the core substantive doctoral training or emerging trends.
content areas of the discipline of psychology and generic training
in professional psychology, as well as training experiences unique Accreditation
to the specialty of school psychology. The G&P requires training
programs to articulate a specific training model from which goals, Although accreditation is a regulatory process reserved for ed-
objectives, and methods of training emanate. The G&P intention- ucation and training programs, it has become increasingly linked to
ally allows training programs latitude to define their own model of the successful pursuit of credentials by individual professionals.
training, a characteristic that is quite distinct from the NASP Accreditation is available for doctoral programs through APA and
approval standards, which at the specialist level are very prescrip- the Committee on Accreditation, the authority for which is granted
tive. Most doctoral school psychology programs identify with the through the U.S. Department of Education. This process entails the
scientist-practitioner model. This model can be contrasted with the preparation of a thorough self-study document and a 2-day site
practitioner model established at the Vail Conference (1973; Vail, visit by a three-member accreditation team (the chair and one
Colorado) and newer models such as the practitioner-scholar member must be school psychology trained). Currently, 58 doc-
model, designed to bridge the gap between the scientist- toral school psychology programs are accredited, and an additional
practitioner and practitioner models. Although these are also the 11 are part of combined programs (APA, 2006). Increasingly, state
dominant training models for APA-accredited internship training boards of psychology require graduation from an APA-accredited
(Merrell, Ervin, & Gimpel, 2006), other training models include program or the equivalent. Thus, the regulatory process in profes-
developmental and local clinical scientist (Rodolfa, Kaslow, Stew- sional psychology is moving toward a seamless model wherein the
art, Keilin, & Baker, 2005; Stricker & Trierweiler, 1995). tie between accreditation and credentialing is evident. This is
The education and training models espoused by NASP have further evident when considering that the American Board of
developed over the years and have focused on specialist-level Professional Psychology (ABPP) diploma requires generic psy-
training. Doctoral training is recognized by NASP as being more chology licensure for eligibility to pursue a specialty examination.
in-depth than at the specialist level, but it does not stem from a Finally, doctoral internships in school psychology can also apply
distinct education and training model. Historically, there has been to be accredited by APA, as can postdoctoral residencies in school
a close relationship between the NASP education and training psychology.
models and requirements by state boards of education for creden- NASP, through its affiliation with National Council for the
tialing. It is of note that the NASP training model as proposed in Accreditation of Teacher Education, has established a program
the third edition of School Psychology: A Blueprint for Training approval process. NASP can extend its approval at both the spe-
and Practice (Blueprint III; NASP, 2006) is substantially more cialist and doctoral level. Similarly, if the program awards the
comprehensive than earlier proposed models, and as such calls for doctoral degree and that program is APA accredited, NASP is in a
preparation to deliver mental health services and extensive systems position to offer its program approval at that level through an
interventions. The authors of Blueprint III acknowledge the con- abbreviated folio review. The state boards of education are ap-
cern voiced by university trainers that it will be difficult if not proaching the same level of regulatory integration evident in other
impossible to provide the education, training, and practice deemed professions and mentioned above for professional psychology. For
necessary in the new model at the specialist level. The Blueprint III more information on the topics of credentialing and accreditation
model proposes that the additional practice competencies are to be in school psychology, see Pryzwansky (1999).
gained over time once the professional is in the field. The chal-
lenge for education and training programs will be to provide Professional Organizations in School Psychology
adequate foundation in specialist-level programs from which these
further competencies can be developed. School psychology is represented by a variety of organizations.
The following briefly discusses the functions and representation of
Postdoctoral Training the major school psychology organizations, as well as a final
coordinating organization.
For individuals seeking licensure by a state board of psychology The Division of School Psychology (Division 16) within APA is
after receiving a doctorate, 1 year of supervised postdoctoral one of 56 divisions of the APA, represents doctoral school psy-
534 THARINGER, PRYZWANSKY, AND MILLER

chology, and has approximately 2,000 members. APA is the larg- both specialist and doctoral school psychology practitioners and
est organization representing psychologists in the United States, educators and trainers in specialist and doctoral programs. Al-
representing over 150,000 psychologists and associates. The divi- though NASP was established for many reasons, one of these was
sion is a highly organized group within the infrastructure of APA that many professionals in school psychology, primarily those not
charged with representing scientist-practitioner psychologists prepared at the doctoral level, felt disenfranchised by professional
whose research and practice interests have to do with children, psychology as represented by APA, where psychology was the
families, and schooling. The Division of School Psychology is foundation and the doctoral level became the standard, and where
interested in promoting quality education and training of psychol- it was mandated that professionals in psychology or school psy-
ogists and school psychologists, increasing effective and collabo- chology at the nondoctoral level be supervised by those at the
rative psychological practice in schools, supporting ethical and doctoral level. Thus, founded primarily to represent nondoctoral
socially responsible practices, and encouraging scholarly publica- school psychology practitioners and their trainers, NASP success-
tions in school psychology. The Division of School Psychology fully developed a professional template to represent both nondoc-
publishes the APA journal School Psychology Quarterly, as well toral and doctoral members of the field. NASP has developed
as the quarterly newsletter The School Psychologist. It also spon- Standards for Training and Field Placements for Programs in
sors a book series, Applying Psychology to the School, and has a School Psychology and Standards for the Credentialing of School
website at www.indiana.edu/⬃div16. Through representation on Psychologists (NASP, 2000), a Professional Conduct Manual
the Ethics Code Task Force, Division 16 contributes to the devel- (NASP, 2000), which includes Principles for Professional Ethics
opment and revisions of the APA Ethical Principles of Psycholo- and Guidelines for the Provision of School Psychological Services,
gists and Code of Conduct (APA, 2002), regarded by most state and the Blueprint III (NASP, 2006). Further, NASP approves
boards of psychology as the standard ethics code for practice. training programs, and NASP grants an entry-level credential, the
Through representation and leadership on the APA Committee on National Certificate in School Psychology. In addition, NASP
Accreditation, Division 16 influences program accreditation policy publishes a journal, School Psychology Review, and a newsletter,
and engages in the accreditation of programs. Division 16 sponsors Communiqué, and has a website at www.nasponline.org. NASP
its part of the APA Convention each year and sponsors the active also offers many books and products through NASP Publications
student organization, Student Affiliates in School Psychology. The
and holds an annual convention.
Division of School Psychology also annually recognizes distinc-
The Council of Directors of School Psychology Training Pro-
tion through its Senior Scientist, Bardon Distinguished Service,
grams (CDSPP) is comprised of programs from North American
Witmer Early Career, Outstanding Dissertation, and the Henkin
doctoral training programs in school psychology. Membership is at
Student Travel awards.
the program level, and representation is provided by the program
APA also has committed significant resources to school psy-
director. However, all program faculty are encouraged to be in-
chology by creating the Office of Policy and Advocacy in the
volved in CDSPP initiatives, as well as to attend annual meetings.
Schools (OPAS) within the Practice Directorate in 1988. This
Accreditation by APA is not required for membership, although
office was established to strengthen and expand access to innova-
attending to accreditation issues is of primary interest in CDSPP’s
tive, integrated, and comprehensive psychological health care ser-
leadership of the field.
vices provided by doctoral school psychologists and other doctoral
health care psychologists practicing in schools. Initially focused on A similar organization, the Trainers of School Psychologists
representing school psychology to the APA practice community, (TSP), is comprised of both specialist and doctoral training pro-
OPAS primarily engaged in the formation and staffing of relevant grams as institutional members. TSP provides collaborative net-
APA task forces and working groups, as well as activities specific works among trainers through sponsoring annual trainers’ work-
to supporting school psychology. OPAS has since expanded to shops held during the NASP annual convention. In addition, TSP
developing integrated policy and advocacy initiatives across APA, publishes a quarterly newsletter titled Trainers’ Forum.
Division 16, and state psychological associations. Since 1993, The Society for the Study of School Psychology (SSSP) is
OPAS has organized and managed the annual Institute for Psy- devoted exclusively to promoting, recognizing, and disseminating
chology in the Schools, which focuses on topical issues relevant to scholarship and research in school psychology, as well as promot-
psychology and schools. OPAS actively engages in the direct ing the profession of school psychology. SSSP evolved from the
advocacy for doctoral school psychology within federal and state group that established the Journal of School Psychology (JSP).
legislation/regulations, such as IDEA, No Child Left Behind, State The conversion to a not-for-profit society enabled SSSP to distrib-
Children’s Health Insurance Programs, and other child-related ute resources to benefit the profession. The current membership
initiatives through the coordinated efforts of APA’s public policy consists of members from the original JSP corporation and mem-
staff. OPAS also provides staff support for school- and youth- bers elected to society membership.
oriented committees, task forces, and work groups of APA. OPAS The American Board of School Psychology recognizes profes-
works closely with Division 16 and represents the APA school sional psychologists with a specialty in school psychology through
psychology perspective on national issues. In addition, this office a board certification evaluation process. Available to state board of
of APA collaborates with all school psychology organizations. psychology-licensed psychologists, the process for earning the
NASP is the largest national organization serving exclusively diplomate credential requires an educational and training review,
the interests of school psychology, reporting on their website that review of work samples, and a face-to-face examination that
they have approximately 22,000 members comprised of school covers the work samples, ethics, research, and practice issues. This
psychologists, trainers, and students. NASP was founded in 1969 voluntary competency-based credential is governed by the Amer-
and has a focus on advocacy for children’s needs and represents ican Board of Professional Psychology (ABPP), which also over-
 COMPETENCIES AND COMPLEXITIES OF SCHOOL PSYCHOLOGY 535

sees 12 other psychology specialties. Individual practitioner board permitted to practice in public and private settings, and (b) being
certification in School Psychology has been available since 1968. what appears to be close to a profession in and of itself, designated
The American Academy of School Psychology (AASP) is com- by the educational community at the master’s and specialist levels
prised of all psychologists who are board certified in school and entitling its professionals to credentialing from state boards of
psychology by the ABPP. The AASP is dedicated to the applica- education to practice in the public schools. It is hoped that this
tion of the science and profession of psychology to issues related article has enhanced the understanding of school psychology for
to the protection and promotion of children and youth. The AASP the professional psychology and school psychology communities,
provides an opportunity to work closely with other fellows on the as well as for potential graduate students and consumers of psy-
promotion of the specialty practice of school psychology at its chological services delivered by professionals in schools.
highest level.
The International School Psychology Association (ISPA) is an References
organization of psychologists working to promote the spread of
school psychology, particularly in countries where school psychol- American Psychological Association. (2002). Ethical principles for psy-
chologists and code of conduct. American Psychologist, 57, 1060 –1073.
ogy is not fully established. The ISPA is recognized by the United
Available also from the APA website at http://www.apa.org/ethics/
Nations as an important nongovernmental organization. Member- code2002.html
ship is open to individuals, and there are ISPA affiliates or ISPA American Psychological Association. (2005). Guidelines and principles for
mission partners for organizations that share a similar mission. accreditation of programs in professional psychology. Washington, DC:
ISPA publishes a newsletter titled World*Go*Round and a schol- Author. Retrieved October 30, 2006, from http://www.apa.org/ed/
arly journal, School Psychology International. In addition, ISPA accreditation/
has produced a code of ethics and international guidelines for the American Psychological Association. (2006). Accredited doctoral pro-
preparation of school psychologists. grams in school psychology. American Psychologist, 62, 431– 435.
The School Psychology Synarchy (SPS) was established as a Atkins, M. S., Graczyk, P. A., Frazier, S. L., & Abdul-Adil, J. (2003).
forum for the major school psychology organizations to coordinate Toward a new model for promoting urban children’s mental health:
Accessible, effective, and sustainable school-based mental health ser-
and collaborate on cross-cutting tasks important to school psychol-
vices. School Psychology Review, 32, 503–514.
ogy. Members include most of the school psychology organiza- Curtis, M. J., Grier, E. C., & Hunley, S. A. (2004). The changing face of
tions described above. school psychology: Trends in data and projections for the future. School
Psychology Review, 33, 435– 444.
Summary Education for All Handicapped Children Act of 1975, Pub. L. No. 94 –142.
Fagan, T. K., Gorin, S., & Tharinger, D. J. (2000). The National Associ-
School psychology has long been recognized as a specialty of ation of School Psychologists and the Division of School Psychology—
professional psychology by APA (all specialties are defined at the APA: Now and beyond. School Psychology Review, 29, 525–535.
doctoral level), with corresponding licensure as a psychologist Fagan, T. K., & Wise, P. S. (2007). School psychology: Past, present, and
granted by state boards of psychology. School psychology also has future (3rd ed.). Bethesda, MD: National Association of School Psy-
chologists.
been influenced and regulated by the educational community,
Forness, S. R., & Hoagwood, K. (1993). Where angels fear to tread: Issues
through state boards of education, who set their own standards and in sampling, design, and implementation of school-based mental health
requirements for credentialing professionals for practice in public services research. School Psychology Quarterly, 8, 291–300.
schools. NASP has been the organizing professional force for Illback, R. J. (1999). Practice expansion and school-based service delivery
advocating school psychology as regulated by the educational issues, considerations, and self-assessment for professional competence.
community. Thus, for over 35 years, school psychology has had, The School Psychologist, 53, 98 –101.
and likely will continue to have, two professional homes: APA and Individuals With Disabilities Education Act, Pub. L. No. 101– 476, 20
NASP (for a further discussion, see Fagan, Gorin, & Tharinger, U.S.C. Chapter 33, amended by Pub. L. No. 105–17 (1997).
2000). This dual professional heritage, history, and identity has Individuals With Disabilities Education Improvement Act, Pub. L. No.
resulted in distinct yet overlapping and at times integrated devel- 108 – 446, 20 U.S.C. 1400 – 87 (2004).
Jimerson, S. R., Oakland, T. D., & Farrell, P. T. (2007). The handbook of
opmental pathways for professionals desiring to practice in
international school psychology. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
schools. The duality has been beneficial. Those who have ad- Lahman, M. K. E., D’Amato, R. C., Stecker, S., & McGrain, E. (2006).
vanced school psychology from the APA perspective as a specialty Addressing the shortage of rural school psychologists via technology:
of professional psychology have benefitted from the resources and Using candidate qualitative interviews to inform practice. School Psy-
advocacy efforts of NASP on behalf of children and for expanded chology International, 27, 439 – 461.
services in the schools. Further, those who have advanced the McIntosh, D. E. (2004). Addressing the shortage of school psychologists:
NASP perspective of school psychology have benefitted from Introduction. Psychology in the Schools, 41, 411– 413.
school psychology being recognized as a specialty of professional Merrell, K. W., Ervin, R., & Gimpel, G. A. (2006). School psychology for
psychology by APA, from the association with the broad scientific the 21st century: Foundations and practices. New York: Guilford Press.
study of psychology represented in APA, and from the comprehen- Nastasi, B. K., Moore, R. B., & Varjas, K. M. (2004). School-based mental
health services: Creating comprehensive and culturally specific pro-
sive scope of practice associated with professional psychologists.
grams. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
However, this history also has contributed to challenges in National Association of School Psychologists. (2000). Professional conduct
school psychology being understood. It is important to recognize manual. Retrieved from the National Association of School Psychologists
school psychology as (a) a doctoral specialty of professional Web site: http://www.nasponline.org/standards/ProfessionalCond.pdf
psychology within APA, entitling one holding the title to licensure National Association of School Psychologists. (2000). Standards for train-
as a psychologist from a state board of psychology and to being ing and field placement programs in school psychology; Standards for
536 THARINGER, PRYZWANSKY, AND MILLER

the credentialing of school psychologists. Retrieved from the National Rodolfa, E. R., Kaslow, N. J., Stewart, A. E., Keilin, W. G., & Baker, J.
Association of School Psychologists Web site: http://www.nasponline (2005). Internship training: Do models really matter? Professional Psy-
.org/standards/FinalStandards.pdf chology: Research and Practice, 36, 25–31.
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A blueprint for training and practice (3rd. ed.). Retrieved from National between science and practice. American Psychologist, 50, 995–1002.
Association of School Psychologists Web site: http://www.nasponline Tharinger, D., & Palomares, R. (2004). An APA-informed perspective on
.org/resources/blueprint/ the shortage of school psychologists: Welcome licensed psychologists
New Freedom Commission on Mental Health. (2003). Achieving the prom- into the schools (and did we mention xeriscape gardening together?).
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Pryzwansky, W. B. (1999). Accreditation and credentialing systems in
school psychology. In C. R. Reynolds & T. B. Gutkin (Eds.), The Received March 5, 2007
handbook of school psychology (pp. 1145–1158). New York: Wiley. Revision received May 17, 2007
Rehabilitation Act of 1973, Pub. L. No. 93–112, 29 U.S.C. 794. Accepted May 22, 2007 䡲

Members of Underrepresented Groups:

Reviewers for Journal Manuscripts Wanted
If you are interested in reviewing manuscripts for APA journals, the APA Publications and
Communications Board would like to invite your participation. Manuscript reviewers are vital to the
publications process. As a reviewer, you would gain valuable experience in publishing. The P&C
Board is particularly interested in encouraging members of underrepresented groups to participate
more in this process.

If you are interested in reviewing manuscripts, please write to the address below. Please note the
following important points:

• To be selected as a reviewer, you must have published articles in peer-reviewed journals. The
experience of publishing provides a reviewer with the basis for preparing a thorough, objective
review.

• To be selected, it is critical to be a regular reader of the five to six empirical journals that are most
central to the area or journal for which you would like to review. Current knowledge of recently
published research provides a reviewer with the knowledge base to evaluate a new submission
within the context of existing research.

• To select the appropriate reviewers for each manuscript, the editor needs detailed information.
Please include with your letter your vita. In the letter, please identify which APA journal(s) you
are interested in, and describe your area of expertise. Be as specific as possible. For example,
“social psychology” is not sufficient—you would need to specify “social cognition” or “attitude
change” as well.

• Reviewing a manuscript takes time (1– 4 hours per manuscript reviewed). If you are selected to
review a manuscript, be prepared to invest the necessary time to evaluate the manuscript
thoroughly.

Write to Journals Office, American Psychological Association, 750 First Street, NE, Washington,
DC 20002-4242.