● Retributive justice: consists in the just

What is Ethics? ethics refers to standards of imposition of punishment and penalties on

behavior that tell us how human beings ought to act those who do wrong. This is related to
in the many situations in which they find procedural justice, referring to fair decision
themselves-as friends, parents, children, citizens, procedures, practices, agreements.
businesspeople, teachers, professionals, and so on. ● Distributive Justice: involves the fair
distribution of benefits and burdens.
Ethics are not based on feelings, religion, law, 4. The Common Good Approach
accepted social practice, or science. - regards all individuals as part of larger community
- assumes a society compromising individuals whose
FIVE SOURCES OF ETHICAL STANDARDS/ own good is inextricably linked to the good of the
ETHICAL PRINCIPLE: community
QUESTION: Which option best serves the community
1. The Utilitarian Approach as a whole, not just some members?
- produces the greatest good and does the least harm 5. The Virtue Approach
for all who are affected. - ancient approach that ought to be consistent with
- the morally right action is the action that produces certain ideal virtues
the most good. - virtues are disposition and habits that enable us to
QUESTION: Which option will produce the most act according to the highest potential of our character.
good and do the least harm? -ex of virtues; honesty, courage, compassion,
● Conceived in the 19th century by Jeremy generosity, fairness, and prudence.
Bentham and John Stuart Mill QUESTION: Which option leads me to act as the sort
● Basis for the rightness of an action: of person I want to be?
consequences or effect on all persons
affected (including the agent).
ETHICS- comes from the Greek work “ethos”
2. The Rights Approach
meaning customs, usage, character.
- protects and respects the moral rights of those
- The Roman language and culture, expressed
affected
the same concept in the word “mores”,
- right to be treated as ends and not merely as means
which in turn is the root of the words
to others ends.
“morality,” “moral,” and “morals.” We see
QUESTION: Which option best respects the rights of
then that “ethics” and “morals” are
all who have a stake?
ordinarily used as equivalent terms. In
● The basis of moral rights is Immanuel
general, they mean the traditional manners,
Kant’s Categorical Imperative
customs, habits, or character of a community
● Two criteria, necessary for determining
or group, which pertains to the group’s
moral right and wrong:
UNIVERSALIZABILITYandREVERSIBILITY “system of values” which determines what is
3. The Fairness or Justice Approach considered “good,” “right,” or the “proper”
- all equals should be treated equally way of living, of acting, of doing.
- treat all human beings equally or unequally, then TYPES OF NORM/STANDARDS WITHIN THE
fairly based on some standard that is defensible. ETHOS/MORES OF A COMMUNITY:
QUESTION: Which option treats people equally or
proportionally? 1. Technical Norms
Three Categories of justice and fairness - man’s needs which comes from his bodily
● Compensatory Justice: concerns the just space-time limitations
way in compensating someone for a past - has to do with survival, health, and well
injustice or what he/she lost when wronged being
by others. - Examples; “right” things to eat, “accepted”
way to perform an appendectomy, “correct”
way of constructing the roof of the house.
 2. Societal Norms Value is that which corresponds to some need, desire
- has to do with the need for group cohesion or yearning of the human subject. Insofar as a thing
and for strengthening the bonds that keep responds to a human need, desire or yearning, it is a
the community together value or is of value.
- Examples; certain manners or attire, certain - “value” also may be differentiated into
ways of speaking or of conducting oneself, various senses or levels (material value,
certain rituals and ceremonies are societal value, aesthetic value, moral value)
considered “proper and fitting,” corresponding to the different needs and
“appropriate,” or “recommended,” because yearnings of man.
they maintain and strengthen the bonds that
keep the community together. Ethics is normative, not in the way that logic is,
3. Aesthetic Norm namely. With regard to the correctness of our
- refers to typical perceptual forms, regarding thinking, but with regard to the goodness of our
color, shape, space, movement, sound, living, the right orientation of our existence. It is a
feeling and emotion, touch and texture, practical science, not simply because it treats human
taste, scent and odor, both in the natural and action, but also because it aims at guiding this.
in the man-made environment, which are Normative can be understood in two ways:
considered by the community as 1. Teleological- It puts more emphasis on
“ennobling,” “cathartic,” “heightening morality as the attainment of man’s end,
man’s existence,” or “beautiful,” because fulfillment and happiness. The terms good
they represent a certain free play and and bad has the teleological connotation of
celebration of the human spirit. that which is in conformity or not with the
4. Ethical or Moral Norm goal. Therefore good and bad signify
- combines with religion to form what is fulfillment completion, perfection or not.
sometimes referred to as the 2. Deontological- They put more stress on the
“ethico-religious” norm. aspect of moral duty and obligation. It can
- refers to some ideal vision of man, an ideal be understood as the science which is
stage or perfection of man, which serves as concerned what is worthy of a Human
the ultimate goal and norm. Being. To liver rightly will not then be the
- Because of this ideal vision of man, a equivalent of: to live happily, but: to live as
community has what it sometimes called the one should. Thus, right and wrong has a
“nonnegotiables,” deontological implications which refer to
morally binding and obligatory.
ETHICS or MORALITY- refers to that dimension of
human existence whereby man confronts or finds Assumptions of Ethics:
himself, an ideal vision of man, or an ideal state and 1. Man is a Rational Being
goal of his existence which he finds himself oriented 2. Man as Free
toward.
CONCEPT OF GOOD
Good- has an ontological bias toward that which is The Objects of Ethics:
objectively the goal or fulfillment of the being of 1. Physical: The doer of the act.
2. Non Physical: The act done by doer.
man.
CONCEPT OF RIGHT Human acts- are said to be the formal
Right- has the connotation of moral obligation or objects of ethics because they have moral
duty which imposes itself on man. value. Acts of man: Involuntary natural acts,
CONCEPT OF VALUE Voluntary natural acts, Amoral and Neutral
Value- means what an individual or a group deems to Acts.
be useful, desirable, or significant.
Classifications of Human Acts FUNDAMENTAL MORAL PRINCIPLES:
1. Moral or Ethical Acts: These are human 1. The Principle of Beneficence
acts that observe or conforms to the standards or - Always choose good in our every
norms of morality. action
2. Human Will: Moral acts stem from the - Corollary principle: Must take
human will that controls or influences the positive steps to prevent harm
internal and external actions of man. 2. The Principle of Non-Maleficence
- Obligation not to harm others
ELEMENTS OF MORAL DIMENSION - Corollary principle: where harm
1. Action: It is the moving of oneself and cannot be avoided, we are
taking concrete means in view of the goal obligated to minimize the harm we
or end, which is not yet but which somehow do.
ought to be. It requires man to take the 3. The Principle of Justice
means and to set into motion a course of - We have an obligation to provide
events, starting from himself and moving others with whatever they are
into the world, toward what ought to be , owed or deserve
toward some future state of being, which - Obligation to treat all people
eventually includes himself and the world. equally and fairly.
2. Freedom: Morality requires man to act , to - Corollary principle: Impose no
realize what he must be and what his very unfair burdens.
being ought to be. Morality therefore, 4. The Principle of Respect for Autonomy
presupposes freedom of action. Freedom of - Obligation to respect the decisions
choice of the means, Freedom of choice of of others
intermediate goals, Freedom to follow or - Also called the principle of human
not man’s ultimate end, the freedom to dignity
determine oneself to be truly he is. - Corollary principle: honesty in our
3. Judgment: Action can be judge as good or dealings with others & the
bad; right or wrong, which can be classified obligation to keep promises.
as the norms of morality, which refers to
some ideal vision of man, an ideal stage or NOTE: POSSIBLE ESSAY PART OF THE
perfection of man, which serves as the TEST IS THE CASE-BASED ANALYSIS
ultimate goal and norm.
4. Universality: The law of universality: GENERAL PHASES OF THE
“Act only on that maxim through which CASE-BASED ANALYSIS:
you can at the same time will that it should
become a universal law, that is: Action is Step 1. Recognize an Ethical Issue
moral in so far as one can say that any man - Identify the issue.
in one’s place should act in the same way. - Must be in statement form, one to two
Morality therefore, of its very nature, is sentence/s.
infinitely open and inclusive of any and Step 2. Get the facts
every human person, placing man in the - What facts are already known?
context of the community of all fellow - These are usually stated in the case
human beings. For this reason, equality and Step 3. Identify the Alternative Actions
justice are the direct corollaries of moral - Look for both extremes. Can be subjective
experience. or objective.
5. Obligation: The state of being bound or - Provide options for solutions
required to do or not to do, a categorical Step 4. Evaluate Alternative Actions
imperative. In this sense, the good is - Evaluate the options and pick the best
universally binding and obligatory on man approach to answer the case.
so that his being is an “ought-tobe” and an Step 5. Act and Reflect on the Outcome
“ought to act” in view of his very being. - Provide similar experiences and what have
That is the “good”. I learned from this similar experience.
Components of Moral Acts:
1. Intention: or motive of the act
2. The means of the act
3. The end
STAGES OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT POSTCONVENTIONAL- moral reasoning
based on personal ethics
Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development: Stage 5. Social Contract- Rules and laws
can be overruled.
Lawrence Kohlberg formulated a theory Stage 6. Universal Principles- Moral
asserting that individuals progress through six reasoning is based on ethical principles and
distinct stages of moral reasoning from infancy justice.
to adulthood. Kohlberg suggested that people
move through these stages in a fixed order and ➢ Postconventional morality is when
that moral understanding is linked to cognitive people decide based on what they think
development. is right rather than just following the
rules. This means that people at this
PRECONVENTIONAL- moral reasoning level of morality have their own ethical
based on reward and punishment principles and values and don’t just do
Stage 1. Avoiding Punishment- moral what society tells them to do.
reasoning is based on direct consequences.
Stage 2. Self- Interest- Actions are seen Giligan’s Stages of Moral Development
in terms of rewards rather than moral value.
Carol Giligan named her theory the Ethics of
➢ Preconventional morality is when Care, which she suggests happens in three
people follow rules because they don’t stages. Gilligan did not attach ages to the stages,
want to get in trouble or they want to get declaring that only a woman's evolving
a reward. This level of morality is self-perception and interpersonal reasoning can
mostly based on what authority figures move her through each stage.
like parents or teachers tell you to do
rather than what you think is right or PRECONVENTIONAL STAGE
wrong. - This stage is when a woman is focused
on herself, meaning only her needs and
CONVENTIONAL- moral reasoning based o n self-interests are of any importance.
external ethics
Stage 3. Good boy attitude- Behavior is Transition 1. From selfishness to responsibility
about living up to social expectations and roles. to others
Stage 4. Law & Order Morality- Moral
reasoning considers the law. CONVENTIONAL
- where women begin to consider their
➢ Conventional morality is characterized responsibilities towards others. Moving
by accepting social rules and the into this stage means that a female is
expectations of others concerning right experiencing selflessness and is
and wrong. Authority is internalized but orienting herself to the feelings of
not questioned, and reasoning is based others.
on the group’s norms to which the
person belongs. Transition 2. From goodness to the truth that
➢ she is a person too
POSTCONVENTIONAL Mature Conscience Characteristics:
- where a woman fully understands the 1. It is sensitive to all the moral demands that
are there in a concrete situation.
interdependence that exists between Ex. It makes me aware that in my life, I
herself and others. This is the highest have legitimate obligations to myself, to
stage that a woman can reach. A female others, to God and to the world.
makes a decision on a universal level as 2. Its ability to make a personal moral
evaluation.
she has learned that she has to take full Ex. When I was young, I accepted the
responsibility for her actions, while also moral judgments of my family and my
choosing to take care of others. culture and I was guided by them. I looked
upon certain actions as good or bad because
others told me so. But there came a time
KOLHBERG vs GILIGAN when it became fitting that I should begin
- Gilligan's theory included research to make my own moral decisions.
findings from women whereas Kohlberg 3. It is balanced. It is able to judge which are
the more important moral obligations and
did not address the pattern of behavior which are the less important ones.
of women. Gilligan also suggested that Ex. A student has the obligation to study,
decisions are made based on experience parents have the obligation to care for their
and care, not just right or wrong families, a doctor has the obligation to give
his patients good care.
justice-based thinking.
TRUE GUILT
CONSCIENCE For there to be TRUE guilt:
- is the inner sense of what is right or 1. There must exist a valid
wrong in one’s conduct or motives, obligation which truly applies to
impelling one toward right action. me. And I must judge that this
- derived from three Latin words: cum obligation applies to me.
2. The act must be intended. There
alia scientia, meaning the “application
can be no true guilt when
of knowledge to a specific individual”
something was done or said which
-
was not intended.
2 Main Parts of Moral Conscience 3. I must be responsible for it. I must
somehow have caused it. I cannot
a. In relation to past actions be guilty for something I did not
- it is said to excuse, accuse, torment, or cause.
cause remorse. Many people refer to this 4. I must be obliged to perform that
when they speak of guilt. action. I frequently find myself
confronted by expectations.
b. In relation to present or future actions
- it is said to direct, instigate, induce, or HEALTHY VS SICK GUILT
bind
Healthy guilt:
According to St Thomas Aquinas: 1. Leads to a richer, fuller life and greater
freedom. Healthy morality leads us forward
● Conscience is act of intellectual along a path of human development. When
judgment guilt appears, it is a sign that we are not
● Synderesis is the habit or disposition of acting in a way that leads to growth.
the practical intellect by which man is in 2. Is put behind us. It is part of living, it leads
possession of the first principles of good us forward. We leave it behind and forget
and bad intuitively. about it.
3. Does not destroy our self-respect. A healthy
attitude is motivated by love for ourselves
and a deep sense that our lives are
worthwhile and should be treasured.
 4. The self is in control, making its own Some examples here of guilt. Which are healthy, and
rational judgments. The self is strong and in which are sick?
control. It rationally evaluates what has - I asked forgiveness from my friend because I was
happened, accepts its own guilt and decides cruel to her. (HEALTHY)
what the appropriate response will be. - I am ashamed of making mistakes in class. I will
5. Leads ultimately to joy. never again speak out in class. (SICK)
6. Healthy guilt is outgoing. - I cannot forget the sins I have committed in the
past. (SICK)
Sick Guilt: - I hate myself for having premarital sex or having
1. Leads toward a paralyzing of our energies, an abortion. (SICK)
toward a withdrawal from life. - I feel bad for not studying class and will now try to
2. Stays with us for many years. do better. (HEALTHY)
3. Leads to self-hatred.We do not trust - I fear that my parents will find out that I stole
ourselves. We reject and punish ourselves, money from them or that I lied to them. (SICK)
making us miserable. - I am ashamed not to cheat when everyone else is
4. Is controlled by fear, the fear of making cheating. (SICK)
mistakes, the fear of rejection by others, the - I am afraid to be honest because everyone will
fear of what is deep within us. think I am trying to attract attention. (SICK)
5. Leads to sadness and depression. Sadness - I do not give alms to beggars because people will
that can take many forms. It can be stare at me. (SICK)
self-hatred or self-rejection. It can be the
sadness of despair, when we no longer try
and we give up on life. It can be the sadness
of being entrapped in the past and being
unable to go forward.
6. Is self-centered. We are absorbed in our
own private selves, using much energy to
deal with our private feelings. We make
much of our fears and shame.

-Stephenie Lominoque <3