Ethics even in the development of intellectual skills but in

the development of the moral qualities which lift

 Ethics is the practical science of the morality man far above brute creation.
of human actions.
 Ethics is the science of human acts with Education is the harmonious development of the
reference to right and wrong whole man-of all ma’s faculties: the moral,
 Ethics is the scientific inquiry into the intellectual, and physical powers in man. Now then
principles of morality. highest of man’s power are his reason and will.
Hence, the primary objective of education is the
 Ethics is the study of the rectitude of human
moral development of the will.
conduct
 Ethics is the human conduct from the Rules And Its Importance To Social Beings
standpoint of morality.
1. Rules protect social beings by regulating
 Ethics is the science which lays down the
behaviour.
principles of right living
2. Rules help to guarantee each person certain
 Ethics is the practical science that guides us

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right and freedom.
in our actions that we may live rightly and
3. Rules produce a sense of justice among
well.
social beings.
 Ethics is normative and practical science,
4. Rules are essential for a healthy economic
based on reason, which studies human
system.
conduct and provides norm for its natural
integrity and honesty.
 According to Socrates, ethics is the
Moral Standards versus Non-moral Standards
investigation of life.
Moral standards are norms that individuals or
groups have about the kinds of actions believed
1. Science-systematic study or a system of to be morally right or wrong, as well as the values
scientific conclusions clearly demonstrated, placed on what we believed to be morally good or
derived from clearly established principles morally bad. Moral standards normally promote
and duly coordinated “the good”, that is, the welfare and well-being of
2. . Morality – the quality of human acts as humans as well as animals and the environment.
right, wrong or indifferent, moral immoral
According to many scholars, moral standards have
or amoral.
the following characteristics, namely:
3. Human acts –acts done with knowledge,
freedom and free will or consent. 1) Moral standards deal with matters we think can
seriously injure or benefit humans, animals, and the
Importance of Ethics
environment, such as child abuse, rape, and murder;
Montemayor (1994) proclaims that the importance people is absolutely wrong;
of the study of ethics follows immediately from the
2) Moral standards are not established or changed
importance of ethics itself. His idea is manifested in
by the decisions of authoritative individuals or
the following:
bodies. Indeed, moral standards rest on the
Ethics means right living and good moral character adequacy of the reasons that are taken to support
and it is in good moral character that man finds his and justify them. For sure, we don’t need a law to
true worth and perfection. All the great teachers of back up our moral conviction that killing innocent
the ages maintain that the supreme purpose of
3) Moral standards are overriding, that is, they take
human living lies not in the acquisition of material
precedence over other standards and considerations,
good or bodily pleasures, nor in the attainment of
especially of self-interest;
bodily perfections such as health and strength; nor
 4) Moral standards are based on impartial Culture’s Role in Moral Behavior
considerations. Hence, moral standards are fair and
A culture is a ‘way of life’ of a group of people, and
just; and
this so called way of life actually includes moral
5) moral standards are associated with special values and behaviors, along with knowledge,
emotions (such as guilt and shame) and vocabulary beliefs, symbols that they accept, ‘generally
(such as right, wrong, good, and bad). without thinking about them, and that they are
passed along by communication and imitation from
one generation to the next.
Non-moral standards refer to standards by which
Moral Standards as Social Convention and the

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we judge what is good or bad and right or wrong in
Social Conditioning Theory
a non-moral way.
Theories Explained. The things we regard as
Dilemma and Moral Dilemma
moral laws (moral standards or rules) some purport
Also called ‘ethical dilemmas’, moral dilemmas are are nothing but just social conventions. By
situation in which a difficult choice has to be made convention, they mean those things agreed upon by
between two courses of action, either of which people like through their authorities. Convention
entails transgressing a moral principle. At the very also refer to the usual or customary ways through
least, a moral dilemma involves conflicts between which things are done within a group.
moral requirements.
Culture Relativism in Ethics
Three Levels of Moral Dilemma
Cultural Relativism is the most famous and
Moral Dilemmas can be categorized according to dominant form of moral relativism. Moral
these levels: Relativism fundamentally believes that no act is
good or bad objectively. It also submits that
Personal Dilemmas. Personal Dilemmas are those different moral principles apply to different persons
experienced and resolved on the personal level. or group of individuals.
Organizational Dilemma. Organizational moral Cultural Relativism defines ‘moral’ as what is
dilemmas refer to ethical cases encountered and ‘socially approved’ by the majority in a particular
resolves by social organization. culture. It maintains that an act is ethical in a
Structural Dilemmas. Structural moral dilemmas culture that approves of it, but immoral in one that
refer to cases involving network of institutions and disapproves of it.
operative theoretical paradigms. Cultural relativists claim the following:
 Different societies have different moral
Culture in Moral Behavior codes.
 The moral code of a society determines
Culture consists of patterns, explicit and what is right or wrong within that society.
implicit, of and for behaviour acquired and  There are no moral truths that hold for all
transmitted by symbols, constituting the people at all times.
distinctive achievement of human groups, including  The moral code of our own society has no
their embodiments in artefacts, the essential core of special status; it is but one among many.
culture consists of traditional ideas and especially  It is arrogant for us to judge other cultures.
their attached values, culture systems may, on the We should always be tolerant of them
one hand, be considered as products of action on
the other hand as conditioning influence upon Cultural relativism: an analysis
further action. Cultural relativism discourages analytical
thinking and independent decision-making in
Ethics as it requires unsuspecting compliance and Approach Rational Holistic and
subscription to social norms. The theory teaches Cultural
that to be ethical, folkways and cultural norms Conflict and Good must Good and Bad,
should be followed uncritically. Harmony triumph over Light and
Evil Dark all exist
Cultural Relativism is inconsistent in promoting in equilibrium
tolerance while teaching that no culture is morally
superior or more progressive than others.
Filipino Moral Character: Strength and
The theory is practicable only if people do not Weakness
belong to more than one institution.
Filipino cultural morality, especially that which
Moral relativism is fundamentality self-defeating. concerns social ethics, centers on ideally having a

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‘smooth interpersonal relationship’ (SIR) with
others. The definition of SIR in Philippine culture is
The Bad Consequences of Cultural relativism principally supported by and anchored on at least
six basic Filipino values.
If we took cultural relativism seriously, we would
be necessitated to deal with the following  Pakikisama is having and maintaining good
corollaries enumerated by Rachels (1999, pp.25-27) public relation.
 Hiya is described as a feeling of lowliness,
1. We could no longer say that the customs of other
shame or embarrassment, and inhibition of
societies are morally inferior to our own
shyness which is experienced as somewhat
2. We could decide whether actions are right or distressing.
wrong just by consulting standards of our society.  Amor propio has been characterized as the
high degree of sensitivity that makes a
3. The idea of moral progress is called to doubt.
person intolerant to criticism and causes him
ASIAN AND FILIPINO UNDERSTANDING OF to have an easily wounded pride.
MORAL BEHAVIOUR  Utang na loob is likewise a fundamental
aspects of upholding group harmony and
Because culture has an impact on morality, people relationships that demand the balancing of
from different cultures appear to have seemingly, obligation and depts.
but not essentially different sets of ethics. This is  Filipino hospitality refers to the innate
particularly apparent in ethics of groups of people ability and trait of Filipinos to be courteous
from the Eastern or Asian Culture as compared to and entertaining to their guest.
those from Western culture  Respects for Elders. Filipinos are not only
The Difference Between Western and Eastern respectful to elders, but also have unique
Ethics ways of expressing this respect.

Western Ethics Eastern Ethics Universal Values

Focus Finding the Protocol and By Universal values, we mean those values
Truth Respect
generally shared by cultures. The existence of the
Basis Rational Religious
so-called universal values is a strong proof that
Thought Teachings
cultural relativism is wrong. If certain values exist
Emphasis Logic, Cause, Respect
and Effect Towards both in Western and Eastern cultures (including
Family Filipino culture) despite the distance, then cultural
Roots in Athens, Rome Hinduism, relativism’s claim that culture’s moralities radically
and Judeo Buddhism, differ from each other is mistaken.
Christianity Confucianism
and Taoism
Developing Virtue as A Habit Moral Characters as Dispositions
Moral Character and Virtues The term “character” is The moral characters that constitute a person’s
derived from the Greek word “charakter”, which moral character are characteristically understood as
was initially used as a mark impressed upon a coin. behavioral and affective dispositions. Generally
It means a distinct mark or qualities by which one speaking dispositions are particular kinds or
thing was distinguished from others. At the characteristics that objects can possess. Among
beginning of Book II of the Nicomachean Ethics, human beings, moral character traits-either virtue or
the Greek philosopher Aristotle tells us that there vices are also considered as dispositions. Moral
are two distinct of human excellences: character traits are those dispositions of character
for which it is suitable top hold agents morally
1. Excellences of Thought
responsible. A moral character which a person is

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2. Excellences of Character
deserving of a positive reactive attitude such as
Excellences of Character praise or gratitude is a virtue. On the other hand, a
vice is amoral character trait for which the agent is
Excellences of character is often translated as deserving of a negative reactive attitude such as
‘moral virtue(s)’ or ‘moral excellence(s)’. ‘Ethikos’ resentment or blame.
(ethical) is the adjective cognate with ‘ethos’
(character). So when we speak of ‘virtue’ or Six Stages of Moral Development
excellence of moral character, the highlight is on the
The American psychologist Lawrence Kohlberg is
blend of qualities that make a person the sort of
best known for his theory of stages of moral
ethically admirable individual that he/she is.
development. In Heinz dilemma, Kohlberg found a
Moral Character pattern in how people justified whether or not they
would steal the drug as people age. By analyzing
Moral character refers to the existence or lack of the answers from various children, Kohlberg
virtues such as integrity, courage, fortitude, honesty, discovered that the reasons tend to change as the
and loyalty. If one lacks virtue, he/she may have children got older.
any moral vices, or he/she may be marked by a
condition somewhere in between virtue and vice Kohlberg’s Theory consist of 3 levels and 6 stages
of Moral Development
The Circular Relations of acts and character
Level Age Range
There are some ACTS THAT BUILD character and Level 1: Pre – school children,
moral character itself. But not all acts helps to build PreConventional Elementary, Some HS
moral character. A person’s actions determine Morality students
his/her moral character, but moral character itself Level 2: Conventional Seen in a few older
generates acts that help in developing either virtue Morality Elementary and many
or vice. Habitual practice of moral and intellectual high school students
excellences, or ‘virtues.’ Level 3: Post - Rarely seen before
Conventional Morality college (Stage 6 is
For Aristotle, the function of human being consists extremely rare even in
in activities which manifest the best states of his adults)
rational aspects, that is , the virtues. To determine
regularity and reliability, what individual acts are
appropriate and reasonable in certain situations. It is Stage
not easy to define in rules which acts deserve moral Stage 1: Obedience and Punishment Orientation
praise and blame, and that, these matters require the Stage2: Individualism and Exchange
judgment of the victorious person, that is , someone Stage 3: Good Interpersonal Relationships
Stage 4: Maintaining Social Order
with good moral character.
Stage 5: Social Contract and Individual rights

 Stage 6: Universal Principles Human acts are either elicited or commanded acts.
Elicited acts are those performed by the will and are
not bodily externalized. Paul Glenn enumerated the
Ethics deals with the study of man and particularly
following elicited acts:
with his actions. But not every act which proceeds
from man is a human act, as used and understood in  Wish is the tendency of the will
ethics. By human act acts in ethics, we mean: towards something, whether this this
be realizable or not. The object of
• The free voluntary acts of man
wishing may include the impossible,
• The acts with knowledge and or that which is remotely possible
consent such as winning the sweepstakes. 37
• Acts which are proper to man as • Intention is the tendency of the will
man; because, of all animals, he towards attainable but without
alone has knowledge and freedom of necessarily committing oneself to
will. attain it. Such is our intention to
• Acts which, we are conscious are study the lesson, to attend a party, or

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under our control and for which we to spend a vacation in Baguio
are responsible.  Consent is the acceptance of the will
• Human acts are those which man is of those needed to carry out the
master, which he has the power of intention. Thus a woman is said to
doing or doing as he pleases. show consent when she consciously
Acts therefore, in order to be truly human, attract attention to herself.
must be done willfully, knowingly and freely.  Election is the selection of the will of
Without will or consent, knowledge and freedom, those means effective enough to
there can be no human act properly so called. Only carry out the intention. A salesman
human acts have moral significance. When one shows election when he opts to visit
shoots and kills another by a revolver, the act is a client instead of just writing him a
morally wrong, but the moral evil is not in the letter.
action of the revolver but in the act of the one who  Use is the command of the will to
pulled the trigger that released the bullet. make use of those means elected to
carry out the intention. It is this act
of the will which moves the
salesman to dress up and take a ride
The biological or physiological functions or
to see his client.
processes which occur in man’s body, such as the
 Fruition is the enjoyment of the will
circulation of the blood, the growth of hair and
derives from the attainment of the
nails, the opening and closing of the valves of the
thing he had desired earlier. The joy
hear, breathing, etc., are not human acts and have no
of the woman on being
moral bearing or significance. They are instinctive
complimented for her attractiveness,
and are not within the control of man. They are
or the satisfaction of the salesman in
called acts of man. As such, they are not wilfully
closing a deal with his client is
done, knowingly done and freely. Examples of acts
fruition.
under this category: acts of person asleep or under
hypnosis, reflex actions where the will has no time Commanded acts are those done either by
to intervene and acts performed under serious man‘s mental or bodily powers under the command
physical violence such as hostage obliged to do an of the will. Commanded acts are either internal or
evil action. external actions. Examples of internal actions are
conscious reasoning, recalling something,
encouraging oneself, controlling aroused emotions
and others. Examples of external actions are positive efforts in order to escape responsibility. It is
walking, eating, dancing, laughing, listening, affected ignorance when an employee refuses to
reading and others. Some actions are combinations read a memo precisely so that he may be exempted
of internal and external actions such as listening, from its requirements.
studying, reading, driving a car, writing a letter or
Principles:
playing chess.
1. Invicble ignorance renders an involuntary, A
person cannot be held morally liable if he is not
aware of his state of ignorance. A waiter who is not
aware that the food he is serving has been poisoned
Acts as knowingly Done
cannot be held for murder.

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Another essential attribute for human act is
2. Vincible ignorance does not destroy but lessens
knowledge. It means that you should be sure that
the voluntariness and the corresponding
you know what you are doing. To will something,
accountability over the act. A person who becomes
one has to know beforehand. Man cannot choose or
aware of the state of ignorance he is in has the
act unless he know which is a better good. When a
moral obligation to rectify it by exercising
person chooses to act according to what he knows,
reasonable diligence in seeking the needed
he acts freely. What can make man know what he is
information. To act with vincble ignorance is to act
doing is his reason. . But the intellect does not
imprudently. A waiter who suspects that the food he
always determine the will.
is serving has been laced with poison has the moral
Modifier Of Knowledge: Ignorance We are obligation to ascertain the fact or at least forewarn
familiar with the saying, “Ignorance of the law the guests about the suspicion.
excuses no one”. This implies that one should not
3. Affected ignorance though it decreases
act in the state of ignorance and the one who has
voluntariness, increases the accountability over the
done wrong may n0ot claim ignorance as a defense.
resultant act. Insofar as affected ignorance interferes
Ignorance is the absence of knowledge which a with the intellect, it decreases voluntariness. But
person ought to possess. A lawyer is expected to insofar as it willed to persist, it increases
know his law, the doctor his medicine; and the accountability. Certainly, refusing to rectify
manager, his business operations. In the realm of ignorance implies malice. And the malice is greater
morals, every one of age and reason is expected to when ignorance is used as an excuse for not doing
know at least the general norms of good behavior. the right thing. Thus a child who refuses to be
guided by his parents has only himself to blame for
Ignorance is either vincible or invincible. Vincible his wrongdoing.
ignorance can easily be reminded through ordinary
diligences and reasonable efforts. The ignorance of Reason and Impartiality
a visitor regarding a particular address in a certain
Reason plays a vital role in Ethics as moral truths
place is vincible, since he can easily ask for
are truths of reason; a moral judgment is true if it is
information from a policeman or pedestrian.
espoused by a better reason than the alternatives. If
Invincible ignorance is the type which a person someone tells us that a certain action is immoral, we
without being aware of it, or having awareness of it, may ask why it is so and if there is no reasonable
lacks the means to rectify it. The ignorance answer, we may discard the proposition as absurd.
regarding missing persons or objects is often
Impartiality
invincible. Thus a cook might be unaware that the
food he is cooking is contaminated. It involves the idea that each individual’s interests
and point of view are equally important. It is a
Under the category of vincible ignorance is
principle of justice holding that decisions ought to
affected. This is the type which a person keeps by
be based on objective criteria, rather than on the
basis of bias, prejudice or preferring the benefit to Habit as defined by Glenn “is a lasting readiness
one person over another for improper reason. and faculty, born of frequently repeated acts, for
acting in a certain manner. Habits are acquired
inclinations towards something to be done. They
Acts as Willfully Done assume the role of a second nature, moving one who
has them to perform acts with relative ease.
One essential attribute of an act to be truly human is
the willingness to do the act; you like doing it, you The word habit forming that we use to refer
love doing it and your mind, your heart, your soul to certain experiences shows how easy it is for one
and your whole self is with. Whether it be elicited to acquire a habit. It also implies that a habit is not
or commanded, the willingness should be present to easy to overcome or alter. It requires a strong willed
be truly human and to have moral significance. By person to correct a habit successfully within a
moral significance, we mean such act can be judged limited period of time. Thus alcoholics and smokers
as moral or right as it conforms to the norms of find it almost impossible to reform
morality, immoral or wrong as it does not conform

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with the norms of morality or, amoral or indifferent
as it cannot be determined as to whether it conforms Feelings and Moral Decision-Making
or not to the norms of morality.
Feelings As Instinctive Response to Moral
Modifiers of the Will: Dilemmas
Passions and Habits As the moral Ethics is also a matter of emotion; moral
significance of a human act is very important, it judgments at their best should be emotional;
good to know that there are instances when the feelings are deemed as instinctive and trained
presence or absence of such essential attribute can response to moral dilemmas. Ethical judgments are
make a difference in the determination of its moral highly emotional as people emotionally express
distinction as to whether moral immoral or amoral. strong approval or disapproval of different acts.
Let us look into tow modifiers of the will which can Being good involves both thinking and feeling
have important effect in the moral distinction.
Passion or concupiscence
Feelings as obstacles to Making the Right
Passion or concupiscence, are either tendencies Decisions
towards desirable objects or tendencies away from
Feelings/Emotions can become obstacles or
undesirable or harmful things. The former are called
impediments to becoming ethical. Especially when
positive emotions; the latter negative emotions.
feeling’s roles in ethics are misinterpreted or
Passions are psychic responses. As such they are
exaggerated.
neither mortal nor immoral. However, man is bound
to regulate his emotions and submit them to the
control of reason. Passions are either antecedent or
consequent. Antecedent passions are those that Ethical Subjectivism
precede an act. It may happen that a person is Ethical subjectivism is a meta-ethical
emotionally aroused to perform an act. Antecedent theory, It holds that the truth or falsity of ethical
passions predisposed a person to act. Thus, love propositions is dependent on the feelings, attitude,
may induce one to make numerous and lengthy or standards of a person or group of persons. It
phone calls to his sweetheart or to plot the murder denies that there is objectivity in morality. Moral
of a rival. judgments are not about objective facts, but are
simply about our personal feelings. Subjectivists
hold that there is no such thing as objective right or
Habit real wrong.
 2. . 2. Don't always rely on your gut. Intuition,
more commonly known as “gut feeling”, is
Emotivism
one of our most basic instincts. It helps us
Emotivism is an improved version of Subjectivism; identify cues in the environment so we avoid
actually the most popular form of non-cognitivism, danger and survive. But avoid trusting this
the meta-ethical theory that claims that ethical human sense when it comes to games of
sentences do not convey authentic propositions. It chance (i.e. circumstances that rely on a
based on Logical Positivism that states that all truth 50/50 probability). The best examples would
claims must be empirically verifiable. It denies be gambling and the stock market. So when
moral truth and knowledge, because of the absence can you rely on your gut? When there are
of scientific or empirical evidence. Moral skills or experience involved.
judgments according to Emotivism are not 3. 3. Put it in writing. You’re not going to feel
statements of fact but are mere expressions of he better right away – however, keeping notes
emotions of the speaker, especially since they are about your day is a tried-and-tested form of
usually feelings based. therapy. It’s free, it gives you some alone

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time, and you can review your thoughts later
Feelings Can Help in Making the Right Decisions for more clarity.
There are situations in which our feelings 4. 4. Narrow your options. Narrowing your
and likings are relevant to the rightness of our selection will not only save 60 you a lot of
decisions and actions. Christian Philosophy of love stress, science says you’ll be happier with
is basically a string of liking, desire, or emotion. the choice you’ve made, too!
Moral compasses are strongly influenced by the 5. 5. Ask the majority. One of the best tricks to
fleeting forces of disgust, fondness, or fear. choosing the right decision – especially if it
Emotions like our love for family and friends play involves big risks – is to ask for a second
crucial part in giving meaning to life. Feelings opinion.
should not be removed in the sphere of morality. 6. 6. Avoid burnout. Feeling stressed,
There are times when feelings are relevant to the confused, or anxious? Get some rest. Not
rightness of decisions and actions. Ethics-without- only will you feel refreshed after waking up,
feeling goes against Christian philosophy’s your mind will be clearer to pick a better
emphasis on love, in which we should serve God option.
with a joyful heart or feeling. Sometimes, rational
thinking is not the only proper way to make an Act as Freely Done
ethical decision.
Freedoms as a Foundation of Morality One
Nonetheless, feelings and emotions of the reasons animals cannot be truly ethical is that
involved in moral thinking should be anchored on they are not really autonomous or free. Likewise, a
careful deliberations. It ought to mesh with an robot no matter how beneficial its functions may be
emotional instinctive reaction that provides a cannot be said to be moral, for it has no freedom or
motivation to act ethically and correct injustices. choice but to work according to what is commanded
based on its built-in program.

Six ways to Control Your emotions and Make Basically, morality is a question of choice.
Better Decisions Morality, practically is choosing ethical codes,
values or standards to guide us in our daily lives.
1. Pause and assess the situation. This simple Philosophically, choosing is impossible without
act can save you headaches down the road. freedom.
Give your brain enough time to evaluate the
current situation so you can make the right Morality requires and allows choice, which
choice means, the right to choose even differently from our
fellows. In their daily lives, people make the choice means doing the right thing even at the risk
to give to charities, donate time and money to of inconvenience, ridicule, loss of job or security or
schools, mentor children, open businesses, or social status, etc. It requires that we rise above the
protest against animal cruelty. apathy, complacency, hatred, cynicism, and fear
mongering in our political systems, socioeconomic
Everyone who wishes to function morally, and

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divisions and cultural/religious differences. Will
rationally in a society has to make choices virtually
refers to that faculty of the mind which chooses at
every minute of the day. Practically, the sum of our
the moment of making decision, the strongest desire
choices can be said to define our specific morality.
from among the various desires present. Will does
Applicably, using the government or one’s culture
not refer to any particular desire, but rather to the
to coerce people to behave in a certain way is not
capacity to act decisively on one’s desires. Moral
morality but the antithesis of morality. This
courage demands us to make judgments about what
principle in ethics applies even when the motive is
behavior or acts are supportive to our ethical
pure.
ideologies or highest ideals, and which ones are
The Modifier Of Freedom: Fear and Violence destructive. Moral courage and will require us to
recognize our responsibilities and be accountable to
Fear the consequences of our own actions.
Fear is the mind of a person who is
confronted by an impending danger or harm himself
or loved ones. Distinction is made however between The Human Act : Its Determinants of Morality
an act done with fear and act done out or because of
Determinants of the Morality of Human acts
fear.
Morality consists in the conformity and non-
conformity of an act with the norm. But how does
an act relate to the norm? How do we know that a
given act is morally objectionable or not Human
Violence acts relate to the norm under the following aspects:
a) the object in itself, that is the deed or act itself, b)
Violence refers to any physical force exerted .in its motive, and in its circumstance. These are
on a person by another free agent for the purpose of referred to as the object, the end and the
compelling said person to act against his will. circumstances. These three aspects are called
Bodily torture, maltreatment, isolation and determinants of morality because they determine
mutilation are examples of violence against person how An act is rendered good, bad or indifferent on
the basis of its relation with the norm.

Moral Courage
We have learned that in morality, over reliance on 1. The Object or The Act Itself
feelings, to say the least is disadvantageous in To consider an act in itself is to regard its nature. An
resolving moral dilemmas. We are thus advised to act of course is not simply a mental or bodily
guide 66 emotions with reason if not tonally activity requiring an expenditure of energy. An act
suppress them. But reason for many ethicists is also is a physical tendency towards a definite result. This
not enough in carrying out moral decisions. Moral result is identified as the end of the act as
courage is also important. distinguished from the end of the agent or the end of
the doer of the act.

The Importance of Will and Moral Courage 2. The Motive or end of the Act.
Moral Courage a. End of the act- is the natural termination or
completion of an act. It determines whether
 an act is intrinsically or extrinsically good or 6 Ws And H
evil. An act that is intrinsically good is any
1. WHO
act which is consistent with the natural
Refers either to the doer of the act or the
tendencies of human nature. And an act that
recipient of the act. It has to do with the age,
is Intrinsically Evil is -acts which are
status, relation, schooling, social standing,
contrary to reason. Extrinsically Good or
an economic situation of those involved in
Evil actions are those which are neutral or
an act.
indifferent to the norm of morality; actions
2. WHAT
that are either good or bad, not on account of
Refers to the act itself, or to the quality and
their nature, but because of factors or
quantity of the results of such act
circumstances concomitant to them.
3. WHERE
Refers to the place where the act is
b. End of the Doer or agent is the purpose or
committed
motive which the doer wishes to accomplish
4. WITH WHOM
by his actions. Without a motive, an act is
Refers to the companion or accomplices in

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accidental or involuntary. “The END does
an act
not justify the MEANS” BUT “The MEANS
5. WHY
will always justify the END”.
Refers to the motive of the doer.
6. How
Motive and Action: the correlation between motive Refers to the manner the act is perpetrated.
and act is defined in the following principle(Glenn: 7. When
111-113) Refers to “the time of the act”
1. An evil act which is done on account of an
evil motive is grievously wrong.
1. Circumstance may either increase or
2. A good action done on account of an evil
decrease the wrongfulness of an evil act.
motive becomes evil itself
e.g .The killing of innocent people in the
3. A good action done on account of a good
case of terrorists exploding a bomb in public
purpose acquires an additional merit.
places constitutes a serious crime against
4. An evil action done on account of a good
humanity. On the other hand, killing a tyrant
motive does not become good in itself.
who has long oppressed the assailant accepts
5. An indifferent act may either become good
a mitigating factor and, therefore is less evil.
or bad depending on the motive.
2. Circumstances also may either increase or
decrease the merits of good act.
3. Circumstances may alter the nature of the
Circumstances of the Act
act.
Circumstances of the act re the historical 4. Circumstances do not prove the guilt of the
elements surrounding the commission of an act, person
such as the status of the doer, the place, the
time, or the intensity of an act. The
circumstances are hinted by the interrogative
pronouns - who, what, where, with whom, why,
how and when.