5/23/2021

Chapter 3. Solar energy

3.1. Solar radiation
Optical windows of the atmosphere

Visible spectrum
(Martin Kaltschmitt, Renewable Energy: Technology, Economics and Environment, 2007)

Due to energetic reasons only window I is relevant for the technical use of solar
energy. The most important part of the optical window I covers the range of
visible light between 0.38 and 0.78 μm.

Due to the weakening of the radiation within the atmosphere of the earth,
the energy distribution spectrum of sunlight is changed

Energy distribution spectra of solar radiation before

and after passing through the atmosphere of the earth
− The energy maximum is within the
visible spectral range between 0.5 and 0.6
μm (green to yellow light).
− With a decreasing wave length (i.e. in
the ultraviolet spectrum) the radiated
power decreases rapidly.
− With an increasing spectral range (i.e. in
the infrared spectrum) the radiation
decreases more slowly.
− Some specific wave lengths show deep
cuts in the energy distribution curve ("dark
ranges"). They are caused by selective
absorption of the sunlight by selected
elements within the atmosphere.

1
 5/23/2021

3.2. Utilization of Active and Passive Solar Energy

Both are capable of converting the sun’s energy to electricity, but the setup
and performance happen to be a little different, although they perform the
same function.

- Active solar systems use hot water pumps or fans to pump fluids. One
of the main benefits of using them is that they can be used to increase
the effectiveness of your solar system.

- Passive solar systems convert solar radiation into heat by means of the
building structure itself, i.e. by the transparent building envelope and
solid storage elements.
Utilisation of passive solar energy (often also referred to as passive
solar architecture) is thus characterised by the use of the building
envelope as absorber and the building structure as heat store.

Main energy flows within a building

2
 5/23/2021

Active solar systems

Positives
+ The main construction material
includes flat-plate PV panels. This kind
of panel uses advanced designs which
are formed by connecting all the
panels with each other.
+ The common practice is to use liquid
or air in solar collectors as a conductor.
Mainly, the solar collectors are used to
store and conduct energy. (https://gosmartbricks.com/active-and-passive-solar-energy-systems/)

+ The conductors that use liquid are normally known as hydronic collectors. The ones
that use air are called air collectors.
+ Liquid conductors are more commonly used as compared to air based conductors.
Though air based conductors only have one drawback i.e they don’t freeze.

Negatives
+ The required equipment is expensive.
+ Equipment maintenance can also be heavy on your pockets.
+ Fluids that store heat in the solar panel have the potential to release toxins in the air.

Passive solar systems

Positives

+ No external equipment is required, so

automatically the entire setup is cheap.
+ Eventually, all your energy expenditure
costs are down by 14%
+ It doesn’t cause allergies or dry out
your mucous membranes, so it's good
for your health too. (https://gosmartbricks.com/active-and-passive-solar-energy-systems/)

Negatives

+ The efficiency directly depends on the weather. Particularly if you’re living in a hot
area, your buildings have a potential to overheat.
+ Its efficiency is directly dependent on the weather. If you’re living in a particularly hot
area, there are chances that your building would overheat.
+ You would have to choose the right kind of windows for maximum success
6

3
 5/23/2021

Depending on their form and arrangement, four different functional systems

are distinguished; however, the borderline between the systems remains fluid.
Direct gain systems Indirect gain systems (solar wall)

Decoupled systems Sunspaces

3.2. Solar Thermal Heat Utilisation

Part of the solar radiation energy can be converted into heat by

using absorbers (e.g. solar collectors). The absorbers together
with the other necessary components are the solar system. Solar
systems are installations converting solar radiation into heat in
order to heat swimming pools, produce domestic hot water,
cover the demand for space heating or supply other heat
consumers.

The basic principle of solar thermal utilisation is the conversion

of short-wave solar radiation into heat. This energy conversion
process can also be described as photo-thermal conversion.

4
 5/23/2021

- Absorption, emission and transmission

If radiation incidences on material a certain part of the radiation is

absorbed. A body’s capacity to absorb radiation is called absorbing
capacity or absorption α, where α reflects the share of absorbed
radiation as part of the entire radiation on matter.
The reflection coefficient ρ describes the ratio of the reflected to the
incident radiation.
The transmission coefficient τ defines the ratio of the radiation
transmitted through a given material to the entire radiation incident.
The sum of absorption, reflection and transmission is one:

α + ρ +τ = 1
The emission ε represents the power radiated by a body.
9

Optical features of absorbers

Absorbers have to absorb radiation and partially convert it into heat. The
absorber is, amongst other things, characterised by being opaque for
radiation (τ = 0): α + ρ =1
An ideal absorber does not reflect any short-wave radiation and completely
absorbs solar radiation within this wave range (α = 1). For long-wave
radiation above a certain boundary wavelength, the situation is exactly the
opposite. Absorption (α) and reflection coefficient (ρ) of an ideal (ideal)
and a standard real absorber (real)

10

5
 5/23/2021

Optical features of absorbers

αS is the absorption coefficient in the spectrum of solar irradiance, εI is the

emission coefficient in the infrared radiation spectrum. Such surfaces are
thus also called α/ε-surfaces.
For the selective absorbers described in Table above, the ratios αs/εI are
between 9 and 19. Titanium oxide with 19 for example shows a
particularly high αs/εI -ratio.

11

Optical features of covers

In order to reduce the convective thermal losses of the absorber to the

environment, in many cases absorbers used in solar thermal systems
have a transparent cover.
Ideal covers have a transmission coefficient of one in the range of solar
radiation, whereas reflection and absorption coefficient equal zero in
this spectrum.

12

6
 5/23/2021

Collectors
Collectors are part of solar thermal systems, partly converting solar
radiation into heat. Part of this heat is subsequently transported by a heat
carrier flowing through the collector.
Main components and materials as well as the schematic design of a flat-
plate liquid-type collector

13

14

7
 5/23/2021

Absorber. The absorber converts short-wave radiation into heat (photo-

thermal conversion).

Cover. The transparent cover of collectors ought to be as transparent for

solar radiation as possible and retain the long-wave thermal reflection of the
absorber. At the same time it has to reduce convective thermal losses to the
environment.

Collector box. The collector box holds the components required for
radiation transmission, absorption, heat conversion and insulation

Other components. Thermal insulation made of standard insulation material

(e.g. polyurethane, glass fibre wool, mineral wool) belongs to the group of
other components.
On the outside of the box, one inlet pipe for heat carrier charging and
one outlet pipe for heat carrier discharging are installed. Furthermore, the
necessary components to attach the collector are outside of the box.
15

Installation:
Collectors are mainly installed on pitched roofs (integrate into the roofing or
to be on top of the tiles). Independent of the type of installation
− the static’s of the roof have to carry the collector load (in-roof collectors are
often lighter than the tiles that are generally intended to the used),
− the coupling to the roof has to ensure that the collectors are not separated
from the roof (e.g. by wind) and
− the heat expansion of the collectors and pipes must not be obstructed.
Integration into the roof is less visible and cheaper than the on-roof
installation. It is preferably used for new buildings or larger collector arrays on
already existing roofs.
If retrofitted, collectors are often installed on top of the roof tiles.
Installation of collectors on flat areas (e.g. on flat roofs, in gardens)
facilitates optimal adjustment and incline when compared to the installation on
pitched roofs. It can be useful to build the collectors with a comparatively low
incline (e.g. 20°).
16

8
 5/23/2021

Collector designs and practical applications

The different collector designs can be differentiated according to
the heat carrier and the way they absorb radiation.
According to this method, four basic collector designs can be
identified:
− Non-concentrating swimming pool liquid-type collectors
− Non-concentrating glazed flat-plate liquid-type collectors
− Non-concentrating glazed air collectors,
− Radiation-concentrating liquid-type collectors and
− Radiation-concentrating air collectors.
Within these five basic designs there are a number of variations,
however, only very few have been successful as standard solutions
in the market.

17

Overview of different collector types

18

9
 5/23/2021

Further system elements

- Heat store: heat stores are part of most solar thermal installations. The
reason is the general non-correlation between the solar radiation supply and
the demand for heat. Heat stores can be distinguished by Liquid storage
(Water storage), Solid storage, Latent heat store.
-Sensors and control systems: The number and the type of sensors and
control instruments are largely dependent on the concept of the system.
-Heat transfer medium: Some of the requirements of a heat transfer medium
are: high specific heat capacity, low viscosity, i.e. good flow capability, no
freezing or boiling at operating temperature, non-corrosion in the conduit
system, non-flammable and non-toxic and biologically degradable.
- Pipes: The collector and the storage are connected by pipes.
- Heat exchanger: Heat exchangers serve to transfer heat from one medium
to another while separating the media physically. They have to be used if the
storage is charged or discharged indirectly.
- Pumps: In solar thermal systems with a forced circulation a pump is
required to operate the collector circuit.
19

Energy conversion chain of solar thermal heat utilisation

Energy losses in relation to insulation on collector area

20

10
 5/23/2021

System design concepts

21

Some applications

Solar heating of open-air swimming pools

22

11
 5/23/2021

Solar thermal forced flow-through system with flat-plate

collector to support the domestic hot water supply

23

Closed natural circulation system to cover domestic hot water (DHW)

24

12
 5/23/2021

3.3 Solar Thermal Power Plants

Solar thermal power plant: power plants which first convert solar radiation
into heat, the resulting thermal energy is subsequently transformed into
mechanical energy by a thermal engine, and then converted into electricity.

Solar thermal power plants

Concentrating system Non-concentrating systems

Solar tower power Dish/Stirling Parabolic trough Solar updraft Solar pond
plants systems as point and Fresnel trough tower power power plants
(i.e. central receiver focussing power power plants as plants.
systems) as point plants line focussing
focusing power power plants.
plants

25

Energy conversion chain of solar thermal power generation

26

13
 5/23/2021

Radiation concentration: is necessary if higher temperatures than those

generated by flat-plate collectors are required.
Radiation concentration is aimed at increasing the possible absorber
temperature and consequently the exergy of the concentrated heat. In
addition, absorber surfaces may be of smaller design due to the concentrated
solar radiation. It is thus easier to reduce the inevitable thermal losses due to
radiation, convection and heat conduction

Parabola profiles for radiation concentration

(a) parabola profile with

ray path
b) segmented parabola
profile (Fresnel) with ray
path
c) and d) profiles
extruded from
profiles a) and b)
e) and f) rotational solids
of profiles a) and b)

27

Radiation absorption

All materials absorb part of the incident solar radiation. The absorbed
incident radiation causes atoms of the material to vibrate, whereby heat is
generated. This heat is either transferred within the absorbing material by
heat conduction and/or released by heat radiation or convection back to
the atmosphere.
High-temperature heat storage

28

14
 5/23/2021

Solar tower power stations

Solar power plant using molten salt as heat transfer and heat storage medium

29

Dish/Stirling systems
Dish/Stirling systems mainly consist of the parabolically shaped concentrator
(dish), a solar receiver and a Stirling motor as thermal engine with interconnected
generator.
Stirling motor

30

15
 5/23/2021

3.4. Photovoltaic Power Generation

Photovoltaic cells

- All PV cells have at least two layers of such semi-conductors, one positively charged
and one negatively charged.
- When light shines on the semiconductor, the electric field across the junction between
these two layers causes electricity to flow generating DC current.
- The greater the intensity of the light the greater the flow of electricity.

31

Photovoltaic moduls
- A Photovoltaic (PV) module consists of individual PV cells electrically connected
together to increase their power output. To achieve a required voltage and current, a
group of PV modules are wired into large array that called PV array.
- They are packaged so that they are protected from the environment and the user is
protected from electrical shock.
- The most important effects in PV modules are:
• losses due to the interconnection of mismatched cells.
• the temperature of the module.
• failure modes of PV modules.

32

16
 5/23/2021

Electrical Characteristics
Isc: Short Circuit Current, no load is
applied.
Voc: Open Circuit Voltage (no load),
no current

The influence of external parameter

The characteristic curve changes as a function of:
1. radiation; 2. temperature.

33

- Because the output of a PV module is varying mainly on the solar irradiance

and depends also on the temperature and spectrum, manufacturers provide
the electrical output characteristics of PV module under a set of defined
conditions the Standard Test Conditions (STC): 1000 W/m2, 25 0C, AM 1.5 G.

- An individual silicon cell has a voltage of about 0.6 V under 25 0C and AM

1.5 illumination. Most modules contain 60 PV cells in series.

34

17
 5/23/2021

Photovoltaic system
- A photovoltaic system is an integrated assembly of one or more PV
modules or cells and other items (balance of systems or BOS
components).
- Aim of this is to convert solar energy into electricity to provide a
particular service either alone or in conjunction with another source for
energy.
- There are two types of PV systems:
• Stand-Alone PV system
• Grid connected PV system

35

Photovoltaic system components

Typical utility interactive PV system components

PV modules/array
Mechanical BOS components
PV arrays are mounted on a
Balance of System framework or rack of aluminium
(BOS) components

Electrical BOS components

Diodes, Cables, Fuses, Earthing - Lighting protection,
Battery, Charge regulators, Inverters 36

18
 5/23/2021

Environmental impacts of photovoltaic technology

Advantages of Photovoltaics (based on the operation of PV systems,

which does not include all lifecycle phases into consideration):
✓ The fuel is free.
✓ No moving parts.
✓ Minimal maintenance required to keep the system running.
✓ Modular systems can be quickly installed anywhere.
✓ Produces no noise, harmful emissions or polluting gases

Most environmental issues with solar power system from the production
process. This begins with quartz mining and refining to metallurgical-grade
silicon, involving the high consumption of fossil fuel. Further refinement
involves the use of hydrochloric acid, and the final products include liquid
silicon tetrachloride and polysilicon.

37

The major environmental impacts of solar power are associated with:

1.The use of land 4.The use of hazardous materials
2.The use of water 5.The life-cycle global warming emissions
3.The use of natural resources 6.The visual impact
(https://www.labri.fr/perso/billaud/travaux/Helios/Helios2/resources/en15/Chapter_15_EN.pdf)

However, the environmental impact of the PV energy system on air quality

and climate change is significantly lower than traditional power generation
system. Nonetheless, strategies to mitigate the environmental impact of
hazardous materials involved in the manufacturing of PV should be
implemented. Recycling of these materials is a challenging process due to
the variations in the materials used and the need for several step-
processing.
The carbon footprint of PV solar systems’ was estimated in the range (14 –
73 g CO2-eq/kWh), which is lower than gas (607.6 CO2-eq/kWh) oil
(742.1CO2-eq/kWh), and coal-fired (975.3 g CO2- eq/kWh) power plants.
Up to 50% lower GHG emissions can be achieved using new materials
and/or recycled silicon material.
(https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.143528) 38

19