TR335 Foundation Engineering II - Deep Foundations

02/04/2015 1
TR 335: FOUNDATION ENGINEERING II

(2.0E CORE)
University of Dar es Salaam
College of Engineering and Technology
Department of Transportation & Geotechnical Engineering
2014/ 15
02/04/2015 2
Course contents
1) Foundations: Design and construction considerations.
2) Deep foundations: Types, analysis, design and construction

considerations.
3) Retaining walls: Types, design and construction aspects.
4) Excavations: Design and methods of excavation.
5) Dewatering of soils: Methods of dewatering and pressure relief,

design of dewatering systems, filter requirements.
6) Embankment dams: Types of earth dams, design principles,

construction of earth dams.
7) Ground improvement techniques Drainage methods, pre-loading and

soil replacement, compaction processes and erosion control.
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Chapter 2: Deep Foundations – Contents

 Types of deep foundations and pile foundations
 Design of single piles
 Negative skin friction
 Designing for lateral loading on piles
 Pile driving formulae
 Introduction to cyclic loading behaviour of pile foundations
 Axial pile load testing and results
 Pile groups
 Construction supervision
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Chapter 2: Deep Foundations – Types

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Chapter 2: Deep Foundations – Types of piles

Piles can be classified into various types according to;
1) Method of installation; Driven, Bored/ Drilled, Jacked.
2) Material; Timber, Steel, Concrete (reinforced or unreinforced and

pre-cast or cast in-situ concrete).
3) Size; Small diameter, large diameter, under-reamed, mini-piles.
4) Their effects during installation, i.e. Displacement or Replacement.
5) Their load carrying provision i.e. End-bearing, friction piles, uplift

piles, raking piles.
02/04/2015 6
Chapter 2: Deep Foundations – Driven

Driven piles are installed from the
ground surface by hammering a ready-
made pile with special pile driving
equipment/ rig.
There are two main categories of

hammers;
a) Impact hammers and
b) Vibratory hammers
There are four variable types of impact

hammers;
a) Drop hammer
b) Diesel hammer
c) Hydraulic hammer
d) Air hammer
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Chapter 2: Deep Foundations –

Driven Piles
02/04/2015 8
Chapter 2: Deep Foundations – Driven Piles

Advantages of driven piles;
a. Piles can be inspected before
installation.
b. Pile installation is not affected by
high water tables.
Disadvantages of driven piles;

a. Pile length can’t be easily adjusted
to varying soil profiles.
b. Pile can be damaged during driving.
c. Pile driving operation can result into
heaving in near by ground or
generation of very high pore water
pressures.
d. Piles driving causes excessive noise
(inappropriate in densely populated
areas).
02/04/2015 9
Chapter 2: Deep Foundations – Bored/ drilled Piles

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Advantages of bored/ drilled piles
a. Big diameter piles possible for
concentrated loads.
b. Possible in initially bad soil

conditions (low bearing capacity).
Disadvantages of bored/ drilled piles

a. Underground water level
difficulties may occur with the
stability of the borehole.
b. No possibility of visual inspection

of cast-in-situ piles (necking).
02/04/2015 12
Chapter 2: Deep Foundations – Definitions of load carrying provisions

02/04/2015 13
Chapter 2: Deep Foundations – Design of single piles

Static analysis for axial loading
For undrained behaviour at limiting equilibrium also
known as total stress method or Alpha Method;
Pf
�
� ��
��
l d As = Surface area of the embedded pile shaft.

Qsf
α = Empirically determined shaft adhesion factor.
Su = Undrained shearing strength.
W
��
Qbf Ab = Area of pile base = Saturated unit weight

��
sc = Shape factor d = depth of pile embedment
dc = depth factor Nc = N–factor
02/04/2015 14

For undrained behaviour at limiting equilibrium
cont…
Pf � � �
��
l d � � � � � ��

Qsf
For the cases shear strength or/ and pile shaft
perimeter, ps, varies with depth z;
W
� � � � � ��

Qbf
�� = Unit weight of pile material.
�� = Volume of pile.
02/04/2015 15

 For undrained behaviour at limiting equilibrium cont…
It is important to note α is not a constant rather a purely empirical

quantity which has been evaluated from a large number of pile tests.
02/04/2015 16

For drained behaviour at limiting equilibrium also
known as effective stress or Beta method;
Pf
�
� ��
��
l d
Qsf ��
�
W Kf = Coefficient of horizontal earth pressures on pile
shaft at failure loading.
Qbf σ'v = Mean vertical (overburden) effective stress along
the pile shaft.
= Pile interface shearing resistance
02/04/2015 17

For drained behaviour at limiting equilibrium cont…
� �
��
For the cases shear strength or/ and pile shaft perimeter, ps, varies with
depth z;
�
� � � � � � � � � � ��
02/04/2015 18

Allowable pile capacity, Pallowable;
Pf
The allowable pile capacity can be determined by the
equation;
��
��
or
��
��
l d �
Qsf
Taking the lesser of the two as the allowable pile

loads.
W
F is the overall factor safety against pile failure, and Fb

Qbf
is the factor of safety against base/ end-bearing failure
(full mobilisation) assuming failure (full mobilisation) of
shaft capacity.
02/04/2015 19

Negative skin friction
 Negative skin friction is the shear stress applied to the surface of a
pile shaft by a soil undergoing settlement.
 This additional load applied is an adverse action because it acts

downwards on the pile (hence sometimes termed down drag) and it is
a permanent action that the pile must always support in addition to the
structural load.
 It may be caused by;

1) Dissipation of pore pressures set up during driving.
2) Installation of piles into a clay stratum that is still consolidating

example due to recent placement of fill.
3) Increase of vertical stress after driving piles.

02/04/2015 20

Negative skin friction
 The maximum value of negative

friction can be estimated using
effective stress theory with β = 0.2
or 0.25.
 The use of bitumen coatings has

proved very effective in overcoming
negative friction.
02/04/2015 21

Designing for lateral loading on piles
 Lateral loads can be carried by;
a) Horizontal components of raking piles.
b) Lateral resistance of vertical piles.
c) Independent means, e.g. shear key in pile
cap.
Raking piles are often used by structural
engineers as they can see a positive
resistance to lateral loads provided by a
triangle of forces in a truss like arrangement.
However raking piles may have the following
shortfalls;
a) They are difficult and expensive to install.
Sometimes it is better to provide more
robust vertical piles.
b) Greater risk of defective piles.
c) Due to settlement of underlying ground
edge raking pile are subject to severe
bending.
02/04/2015 22

Pile driving formulae
 In theory it is possible to calculate driven pile capacity based on the
amount of energy delivered to the pile by a hammer and the
resulting penetration of the pile.
 Intuitively, the greater the resistance required to drive the pile the
greater its load carrying capacity.
 Several attempts have been made to develop pile-driving formulas

by equating energy delivered by the hammer to the work done by
the penetrating pile against a soil offering a certain resistance (with
allowance for energy losses).
 Generally no pile driving formula has been developed that gives

accurate results for pile capacity as soil resistance does not remain
constant during and after pile-driving operations.
02/04/2015 23

Pile driving formulae cont…
 Pile-driving formula give varying
results.
 Although not generally used for

determining pile capacity they
are useful in monitoring when to
terminate pile driving so to
estimate a certain capacity.
 Typically piles are driven until

the number of blows required to
drive the last inch is the same
as that of the test piles that
furnished the information for
evaluating the design load.
02/04/2015 24

Introduction to cyclic loading behavior of piles
Axial cyclic interaction diagram
Exemplar cases of piles

foundations enduring axial or
lateral cyclic loading
Cyclic loading definition

02/04/2015 25
Chapter 2: Deep Foundations – Axial pile load tests

Pile load tests are performed on site with the following main objectives;
1) To determine the load-settlement relationship particularly at working

load.
2) Proof test to ensure that failure does not occur below some multiple of
the chosen working load.
3) To determine the ultimate pile bearing capacity so as;

a) To check calculated values.
b) To calibrate dynamic driving formulae.
c) For the design of prototype piles.
d) To test for defects.

02/04/2015 26
Chapter 2: Deep Foundations – Axial pile load tests cont…
Several different methods for performing pile load tests are in use the
common ones being;
a) Maintained Load Test; this can be done by Slow Maintained Load or

Constant Rate of Penetration Load Test.
b) Dynamic Load Testing.
c) Osterberg Cell (O-Cell) Load Test.
d) Statnamic Load Test.

02/04/2015 27

Maintained Load Test
The pile is statically loaded in
increments of 25% the total test load
and the total test load could be 200% of
the proposed design load, (ASTM D-
1143).
Time settlement data are obtained for

each load increment and the increment
is maintained until the rate of
settlement becomes less than 0.25mm
(0.01in) per hour.
In the Constant Rate of Penetration the

pile is loaded continuously at a rate of
0.5mm (0.02in) per minute until a
certain displacement of the pile,
typically 10% pile diameter (0.1D).
02/04/2015 28

Dynamic Load Test
 Data from the pile driving resistance can be used to determine the
pile capacity through a process called wave equation signal
matching technique.
 As the top of a pile is struck with the pile driving hammer, the force of
the blow causes a stress wave to be transmitted through the length
of the pile.
 Some of the force of the transmitted wave is absorbed by the soil

surrounding the pile shaft while some is imparted at the soil on the
pile tip.
 The wave equation method applies wave transmission theory to

determine the carrying capacity developed by a pile and the
maximum stresses that result within the pile during driving.
02/04/2015 29

Dynamic Load Test cont…
 The wave equation analysis assumes that

the pile and its behaviour when embedded
in soil can be represented by a series of
individual spring-connected weights and
spring-damping resistances.
 The various weight values W correspond

to the weight of incremental sections of
pile.
 The spring constants, K, relate to the

elasticity of the pile. The spring damping,
R, represents the frictional resistance of
soil surrounding the shaft of the pile and
the soil resistance at the pile tip.
02/04/2015 30

02/04/2015 31
 Practical application of the wave equation to produce information on

pile capacity is now known as CAPWAP (Case Pile Wave Analysis
Program) from Case Western Reserve University US.
 Information required for its implementation include;

a) Data on pile-driving hammer system.
b) Force transmitted by the drive hammer onto the pile.
c) The pile velocity from the hammer blow.
 Values of force and velocity are calculated from measurements of

strain and acceleration when the pile is struck by the drive hammer.
02/04/2015 32

 Osterberg Load Cell Test
 The Osterberg Load Cell (O-Cell) is

an expanding piston-type hydraulic
jack located near the bottom of an
installed pile. It applies the load by a
bottom-load procedure.
 The pile unit is tested by pressuring

the O-cell and the piston extends
downward into earth using the pile
itself as the resisting reaction.
 The downward force into the earth

under the pile tip equals the upward
force transmitted into the pile shaft
and soil surrounding the shaft.
02/04/2015 33

Statnamic Test
 It is a rapid load procedure where
the test equipment is attached to
and acts on top of a pile.
 It requires use of a solid fuel that

will rapidly generate gas pressure
that functions to impose a rapidly
applied impulse loading onto the
test pile.
 The test procedure includes

obtaining and recording a great
number of load cell reading and
related pile head movements using
high-speed electronic data
equipment; this information is then
used to determine the load
capacity of the tested pile.
02/04/2015 34
Chapter 2: Deep Foundations – Axial pile load tests results
a) Maintained pile load tests results

02/04/2015 35
Chapter 2: Deep Foundations – Axial pile load tests results
b) Statnamic load test results c) Osterberg load test results

02/04/2015 36
Chapter 2: Deep Foundations – Pile Groups

 Piles are almost always arranged in group of two or more as
structural loads are rarely simple vertical loads. Often there are
overturning effects, moments and lateral loading and there is the
difficulty of transferring the load axially down one pile.
 A group of piles is tied together by a pile cap which is attached to

the head of individual piles and causes the several piles to act
together as a pile foundation.
 If two piles are driven close together the soil stresses caused by the
piles tends to overlap and the bearing capacity of the pile group is
typically less than the multiple of the capacity of the single piles.
 If two piles are moved farther apart so that individual stresses do

not overlap the bearing capacity would not be reduced significantly
from the sum of the individual capacities however unduly large pile
caps would be required for the wider spacing.
 The centre to centre distance between piles in a group is referred to

as the pile spacing, s.
02/04/2015 37

02/04/2015 38

 A pile group efficiency is the average load per pile at failure of the
group divided by the failure load of single isolated pile.
 The pile group ultimate capacity in clays should be taken as the
lesser of;
1) The sum of the failure loads of the individual piles in the group;
or
2) The bearing capacity of a block of soil bounded by the perimeter
of the pile group.
02/04/2015 39
Chapter 2: Deep Foundations – Pile group settlements
A convenient method of estimating settlement of a pile group is to

assume that the group is represented by an equivalent raft at some
depth below ground level and then to determine settlements using
conventional methods.
The settlement of a pile group divided by the settlement of a single pile

carrying the same average load is termed as the settlement ratio.
02/04/2015 40
Chapter 2: Deep Foundations – Construction Supervision

 Since deep foundations are completely buried soon after
construction it is important to have the works supervised by
personnel with geotechnical engineering training.
 The personnel has to match the soil and groundwater condition

observed in construction to those indicated by borings used for the
design.
 Depth to, or bearing in, a proper soil stratum should be verified.

Proper location, dimensions, and installation of required reinforcing
steel should also be verified.
 Driving records should be kept for all driven piles with the size and
length of piles verified as well as details of pile driving equipment.
 Daily written logs and reports of activities, observations and

decisions regarding the foundation work should be kept and
forwarded to the designer’s office.

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02/04/2015 1

TR 335: FOUNDATION ENGINEERING II

College of Engineering and Technology

Department of Transportation & Geotechnical Engineering

2) Deep foundations: Types, analysis, design and construction

3) Retaining walls: Types, design and construction aspects.

4) Excavations: Design and methods of excavation.

5) Dewatering of soils: Methods of dewatering and pressure relief,

6) Embankment dams: Types of earth dams, design principles,

7) Ground improvement techniques Drainage methods, pre-loading and

Chapter 2: Deep Foundations – Contents

 Design of single piles

 Negative skin friction

 Designing for lateral loading on piles

 Pile driving formulae

 Introduction to cyclic loading behaviour of pile foundations

 Axial pile load testing and results

Chapter 2: Deep Foundations – Types

Chapter 2: Deep Foundations – Types of piles

1) Method of installation; Driven, Bored/ Drilled, Jacked.

2) Material; Timber, Steel, Concrete (reinforced or unreinforced and

3) Size; Small diameter, large diameter, under-reamed, mini-piles.

4) Their effects during installation, i.e. Displacement or Replacement.

5) Their load carrying provision i.e. End-bearing, friction piles, uplift

Chapter 2: Deep Foundations – Driven

There are two main categories of

There are four variable types of impact

Chapter 2: Deep Foundations –

Chapter 2: Deep Foundations – Driven Piles

Disadvantages of driven piles;

Chapter 2: Deep Foundations – Bored/ drilled Piles

Chapter 2: Deep Foundations – Bored/ drilled Piles

Chapter 2: Deep Foundations – Bored/ drilled Piles

b. Possible in initially bad soil

Disadvantages of bored/ drilled piles

b. No possibility of visual inspection

Chapter 2: Deep Foundations – Definitions of load carrying provisions

Chapter 2: Deep Foundations – Design of single piles

l d As = Surface area of the embedded pile shaft.

Qbf Ab = Area of pile base = Saturated unit weight

Chapter 2: Deep Foundations – Design of single piles

l d � � � � � ��� ���� ����

� � � � � ��� ���� ����

Chapter 2: Deep Foundations – Design of single piles

It is important to note α is not a constant rather a purely empirical

Chapter 2: Deep Foundations – Design of single piles

Chapter 2: Deep Foundations – Design of single piles

Chapter 2: Deep Foundations – Design of single piles

Taking the lesser of the two as the allowable pile

F is the overall factor safety against pile failure, and Fb

Chapter 2: Deep Foundations – Design of single piles

 This additional load applied is an adverse action because it acts

 It may be caused by;

2) Installation of piles into a clay stratum that is still consolidating

3) Increase of vertical stress after driving piles.

Chapter 2: Deep Foundations – Design of single piles

 The maximum value of negative

 The use of bitumen coatings has

Chapter 2: Deep Foundations – Design of single piles

Chapter 2: Deep Foundations – Design of single piles

l d � � � � � ��

� � � � � ��