Assignment#3-Vertebral Column

1.
Having a vertebral column in early vertebrates provide significant effects on

their biology. Vertebral column serves as a structural support to form the
body, it provides stability and also protec=on for the spinal cord and other
internal organs as well. The evolu=on of the different designs of the vertebral
column also allowed segmenta=on and enabling a wide range of mo=on or
movements that is necessary for their survival and environment.
2. Cephaliza=on is the concentra=on of neural and sensory structures in the

head, so it means the it holds significance in enhancing the responsiveness
of an animal to its environment. Furthermore, this development or evolu=on
promotes improved sensory integra=on, enhancing an animal’s ability to
form a coherent percep=on of its environment and make informed decisions
using sensory organs such as eyes and ears. It is beGer because animals
without cephaliza=on only have simple reflexes and can only adapt to simple
environments.
3. Agnathans is known for being jawless. Naturally, they are faced against jawed
vertebrates known as Gnathostomes for several reasons. The evolu=on of
jaws for Gnathostomes provided advantages in terms of feeding and
defending making it more efficient for food manipula=on and increasing its
chances of surviving longer. The presence of Jaws in Gnathostomes make
them a predator, crea=ng a wide op=ons of food therefore outcompe=ng
Agnathans for resources. Addi=onally, Gnathostomes developed specialized
gills with arches, enhancing oxygen intake from extrac=ng more oxygen from
water and also, improving their adaptability to diverse aqua=c environment.
Furthermore, the evolu=on of jaws and paired fins has significantly improved
their mobility in water, giving them an advantage or upper hand compared
to agnathans in escaping predators and naviga=ng environments. In
summary, with Gnathostomes having a jaw, specialized gills, and paired fins,
they have been more superior compared to agnathans who lacks the
characteris=cs and capabili=es of the Gnathostomes.
4. The operculum which is a protec=ve bony flap covering fish gills, plays an
important role in their respiratory system and their survival. The operculum
is significant in most fishes because it acts as a shield, protec=ng the gill
structures from any harm poten=ally caused by predators, strong water
currents or pressure, and possibly debris. Addi=onally, the operculum aids in
breathing. It opens and closes allowing water to pass over the gills but
regula=ng the volume of water passing through, ensuring an efficient
exchange of gas. Also, maintaining water balance is another cri=cal func=on
of the operculum as it curbs excessive water loss by the way of minimizing
evapora=on from the gills. In summary, the operculum is significant to most
fishes due to its func=ons and how it helps them survive and adapt in their
aqua=c environments.
5. In my opinion, the most important structures for terrestrial vertebrates to

thrive and remain in terrestrial habitats are lungs, limbs, skeletal system, skin
with kera=nized cells, specialized sensory organs, and kidneys. (1)Lungs are
important for breathing air, which allows terrestrial vertebrates to efficiently
inhale oxygen and exhale carbon dioxide. (2) Limbs with jointed appendages
are important because it provides support for the body in locomo=on or
mobility and it enables terrestrial vertebrates to navigate their diverse
environments. (3) Skeletal system is important because it provides structural
support, framework for muscle aGachments and it protects the internal
organs. (4) Skin with kera=nized cells or skin that undergoes kera=niza=on is
important because it helps to prevent dehydra=on, keeping the skin moist
and also protect the skin against any harm from external source. (5)
Specialized sensory organs such as eyes, ears, and nose are important
because they enhance the detec=on of s=muli in terrestrial environments.
Ears detect sounds, nose facilitates smell, and eyes facilitates vision. (6)
Kidneys are important for terrestrial vertebrates because of its purpose itself.
Kidneys regulate water and electrolyte balance in the body to help manage
the water resources and excrete liquid waste called urine efficiently. These
structures and adapta=ons collec=vely contribute to their ability to move,
exchange gas, obtain and process nutrients and also respond to
environmental challenges in their corresponding terrestrial environments
making them the most important in my own opinion.
6. The most intriguing animal for me was the horse. I just like how the horse
looks good outside and was amazed by its anatomical features. Characterized
by an elongated skull and specialized den==on, the horse’s anatomy means
a precise adapta=on to efficient grazing—a unique tool for naviga=ng diverse
vegeta=on. The evolu=onary story of horses seen in the design of their
skeleton, tells a fascina=ng story of adapta=on to different eras. Their spine
or vertebral column, a biomechanical marvel, supports its heavy weight and
enables their characteris=cs gallop. In addi=on to anatomical marvels, horses
embody an enduring partnership with humans, as their skeletal and cranial
features tell stories of companionship and coopera=on. Furthermore, the
adaptability of horses to different environments reflects a saga of flexibility
and versa=lity that offers valuable insights for us.
7. Beginning with protochordates like the Pikaia, a puta=ve ancient ancestor

that survived ex=nc=on to evolve into fish, the history of vertebrates is a
fascina=ng journey through evolu=onary periods. The development of the
notochord, which served as a model for the vertebral column and laid the
groundwork for the structural framework of vertebrates, is a pivotal point in
this story. Pharyngeal slits were used for suspension feeding in early survival
tac=cs, demonstra=ng the crea=ve capabili=es of these primi=ve animals in
obtaining food.
The development of a muscular pharyngeal pump during the next agnathan

stage was a pivotal development that paved the way for the evolu=on of
jawed vertebrates called gnathostomes. When paired fins also appeared,
their ability to hunt was improved and their way of life underwent a
significant change. Simultaneously, cephaliza=on centered brain and sensory
organs at the front end, honing cogni=ve processes and sensory capaci=es
and demonstra=ng the complexity of vertebrate evolu=on.
Anatomical adapta=ons including limbs, lungs, and ribs were brought about
by the shi` from aqua=c to terrestrial environments. Rep=les emerged as a
result of this crucial change, which set the stage for the later evolu=on of
mammals, including eutherian mammals. These last phases of vertebrate
evolu=on reveal how adap=ve modifica=ons have culminated,
demonstra=ng the adaptability and durability of vertebrates in a variety of
sebngs. Vertebrates, and humans most prominently, serve as outstanding
testaments to the complexity of life's ongoing adap=on on Earth through this
mul=faceted evolu=onary narra=ve.
References:
hGps://www.quantamagazine.org/why-did-life-move-to-land-for-the-view-
20170307/#:~:text=So%20when%20the%20first%20animals,story%20of%20these
%20creatures%27%20transforma=on.
hGps://study.com/academy/lesson/operculum-defini=on-
lesson.html#:~:text=Operculum%20in%20Fish,-
In%20bony%20fish&text=The%20operculum%20protects%20the%20gills,gills%20t
hrough%20water%20current%20pressure.
hGps://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/neuroscience/vertebral-
column#:~:text=The%20vertebral%20column%2C%20also%20known,as%20a%20s
ite%20for%20haemopoiesis.
hGps://www.studocu.com/ph/messages/ques=on/4865734/how-agnathans-
were-naturally-selected-against-gnathostomes

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1.

Having a vertebral column in early vertebrates provide signiﬁcant eﬀects on

2. Cephaliza=on is the concentra=on of neural and sensory structures in the

5. In my opinion, the most important structures for terrestrial vertebrates to

7. Beginning with protochordates like the Pikaia, a puta=ve ancient ancestor

The development of a muscular pharyngeal pump during the next agnathan

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