Friction

LECTURE OUTLINE

 Introduction

 Frictional Phenomena

 Types of Friction

 Applications of Friction in Machines such as Screw, Belt drive

The effective design of a brake

system, such as the one for

this bicycle, requires efficient

capacity for the mechanism to

resist frictional forces.

 In the previous lectures we have usually assumed that the forces
of action and reaction between contacting surfaces act normal to the
surfaces

This assumption characterizes the interaction between smooth

surfaces and often involves only a relatively small error

Many problems in which we must consider the ability of contacting

surfaces to support tangential as well as normal forces

Tangential forces generated between contacting surfaces are called

friction forces

Occur to some degree in the interaction between all real surfaces

Whenever a tendency exists for one contacting surface to slide along another
surface, the friction forces developed are always in a direction to oppose this
3
tendency
 Types of machines and processes

We want to minimize the retarding effect of We wish to maximize the effects of friction
friction forces

 Bearings of all types,  Brakes,

 Power screws,  Clutches,
 Gears,  Belt drives, and
 The flow of fluids in pipes,  Wedges
 The propulsion of aircraft and
 Missiles through the atmosphere

Note: Ordinary walking depends on friction between the shoe and the ground. 4
 Minimize the retarding effect of friction forces

Bearing Power screws Gears Missiles through the atmosphere

Flow of fluids in pipe Propulsion of aircraft 5

 Maximize the effects of friction

Car Brake Clutches Belt drives

Wedge How to Split Wood with a Wedge

6
 Important points related to friction

 Friction forces are present throughout nature and exist in all machines no

matter how accurately constructed or carefully lubricated.

 In all cases where there is sliding motion between parts, the friction forces

result in a loss of energy which is dissipated in the form of heat.

7
 Important points related to friction

• Another effect of • When friction must be

friction taken into account, the
Wear machine or process is
Real
termed

• A machine or process in
which friction is small
enough to be neglected
Ideal

8
 Frictional Phenomena

Types of Friction

Dry Friction
or Coulomb Fluid Friction
friction

To problems involving rigid Contacting surfaces are

bodies which are in contact separated by a film of fluid (gas
along non lubricated surfaces or liquid)

Fluid mechanics 9
 Dry Friction or Coulomb friction
Dry friction occurs when the unlubricated surfaces
of two solids are in contact under a condition of sliding or a tendency to
slide

Friction force tangent to the surfaces of contact occurs both during

the interval leading up to impending slippage and while slippage
takes place

The direction of this friction force always opposes the motion

or impending motion

The principles of dry or Coulomb friction were developed

largely from the experiments of Coulomb in 1781

 The applied forces are such that the body is just about to slide. We say that
motion is impending. 10
 Examples of Dry Friction

Dry friction on a motorcycle occurs where Football training sled

the tires contact the road.

11
 Mechanism of Dry Friction
• Consider a solid block of mass m
resting on a horizontal surface, as
shown in Figure.
• We assume that the contacting
surfaces have some roughness.
Free-Body Diagram• The experiment involves the
application of a horizontal force P
which continuously increases from
zero to a value sufficient to move the
block and give it an appreciable
velocity.
• The tangential friction force exerted
by the plane on the block is labeled F.
12
F = Tangential force; N = Normal force
 n

• Microscopic irregularities exist between the two surfaces.

• As a result, reactive forces ∆𝑹𝒏 are developed at each of the protuberances.
• The total normal force N is the sum of the n-components of the R’s.
• The total frictional force F is the sum of the t-components of the R’s.
13
 Mechanism of Dry Friction Cont…

• The tangential friction acting on the body will always be in a direction to

oppose motion or the tendency toward motion of the body.
• There is also a normal force N which in this case equals mg, and the total
force R exerted by the supporting surface on the block is the resultant of N
and F.
• The direction of each of the reactions on the block, R1, R2, R3, etc. depends
not only on the geometric profile of the irregularities but also on the extent
of local deformation at each contact point.

14
 Mechanism of Dry Friction Cont…

 𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑃 = 0, 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑏𝑟𝑖𝑢𝑚 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑏𝑒 𝑛𝑜 𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒.

 P is increased, the friction force must be equal and opposite to P as long as

the block does not slip (During this period the block is in equilibrium).

15
 Law of Dry Friction & Coefficient of Friction
W W F Equili- Motion
brium
P Fm
A B B
A Fk
F
(b) (c) P
(a) N N
• Horizontal force is applied • If P is increased, the
• Weight of the block = friction force F also
to the block = P
W
• If P is small, the block will increases, continuing
• Forces acting on the to oppose P, until its
not move
block are its weight
• F is static-friction force, magnitude reaches a
and the reaction of the certain maximum
which balances the
surface value F
16
horizontal force
 Law of Dry Friction & Coefficient of Friction cont…

• If the force P is further increased, the friction force F cannot balance it any
more and the block starts sliding.
• As soon as the block has been set in motion, the magnitude of F drops from
Fm to a lower value Fk . No Motion
Motion
Fs
Fk

F=P

• This is because there is less interpenetration between the irregularities of

the surface in contact when these surface move with respect to each other.
17
 Law of Dry Friction & Coefficient of Friction cont…
• Experimental evidence shows that the maximum value 𝑭𝒎 of the static-
friction force is proportional to the normal component N of the reaction of
the surface. We have 𝑭𝒎 ∝ 𝑵
𝐹𝑚 = 𝜇𝑠 𝑁
• Similarly, 𝑭𝒌 ∝ 𝑵
𝐹𝑘 = 𝜇𝑘 𝑁
• Where 𝜇𝑠 and 𝜇𝑘 represents the coefficient of static friction and kinetic
friction respectively.
• The coefficient values depend strongly on the nature of the surfaces in
18
contact.
 Approximate Values of Coefficient of Static Friction for Dry Surfaces

Metal on metal 0.15-0.60

 The corresponding values of the

Metal on wood 0.20-0.60 coefficient of kinetic friction

Metal on stone 0.30-0.70 would be about 25 percent

smaller.
Metal on leather 0.30-0.60

Earth on earth 0.20-1.00

Stone on stone 0.40-0.70 19

 Four Different Situations: When a rigid body is in contact with a horizontal
surface
P W W
P
𝑷𝒚
𝑷𝒙

F
F=0 F = 𝑃𝑥
N=P+W 𝐹 < 𝜇𝑠 𝑁
N N
𝑁 = 𝑃𝑦 + 𝑊
(a) No friction (𝑷𝒙 = 𝟎) (b) No motion (𝑷𝒙 < 𝑭𝒎 )
 The forces applied to the
 The applied forces tend to move the body
body do not tend to move it
along the surface of contact but are not
along the surface of contact;
large enough to set it in motion.
there is no friction force. 20
 Four Different Situations: When a rigid body is in contact with a horizontal
surface cont… (b)
 The applied forces tend to move the body along the surface of contact but are

not large enough to set it in motion.

 The friction force F which has developed can be found by solving the

equations of equilibrium for the body.

 Since there is no evidence that F has reached its maximum value, the equation

𝑭𝒎 = 𝝁𝒔 𝑵 cannot be used to determine the friction force.

21
 Four Different Situations: When a rigid body is in contact with a horizontal
surface cont…
W  The applied forces are such that the
P
𝑷𝒚 body is just about to slide.

𝑷𝒙  We say that motion is impending.

𝐹𝑚  The friction force F has reached its
𝐹𝑚 = 𝑃𝑥 maximum value 𝑭𝒎 and, together with
𝐹𝑚 = 𝜇𝑠 𝑁
N the normal force N, balances the
𝑁 = 𝑃𝑦 + 𝑊
(c) Motion impending (𝑷𝒙 = 𝑭𝒎 )applied forces.
 Both the equations of equilibrium and
the equation 𝑭𝒎 = 𝝁𝒔 𝑵 can be used.
22
 Four Different Situations: When a rigid body is in contact with a horizontal
surface cont…
W
P  The body is sliding under the action of
𝑷𝒚
the applied forces, and the equations of
𝑷𝒙
𝐹𝑘 equilibrium do not apply any more.
𝐹𝑘 < 𝑃𝑥
𝐹𝑘 = 𝜇𝑘 𝑁  F is now equal to 𝑭𝐤 and the equation
N
𝑁 = 𝑃𝑦 + 𝑊
𝑭𝐤 = 𝝁𝐤 𝑵 may be used.
(d) Motion (𝑷𝒙 > 𝑭𝒎 )

23
 Q & A-Fundamental
Question 1

24
 Q&A

Solution (i): FBD

Solution (ii): FBD 25

 Q&A
Question 2

26
Q&A

27
 Angle of Friction
 It is sometimes convenient to replace the normal force N and the friction
force F by their resultant R.
 Let us consider again a block of weight W resting on a horizontal plane
surface. If no horizontal force is applied to the block, the resultant R
P W
reduces to the normal force N.

(a) No friction R=N 28

 Angle of Friction cont…

 If the applied force P has a horizontal component 𝑷𝒙 which tends to move

the block, the force R will have a horizontal component F and, thus, will
form an angle ∅ with the normal to the surface.

W
P
𝑷𝒚
𝑷𝒙
R
N ∅ < ∅𝑠
F = 𝑃𝑥
(b) No motion 29
 Angle of Friction cont…

 If 𝑃𝑥 is increased until motion becomes impending, the angle between R and

the vertical grows and reaches a maximum value.
 This value is called the angle of static friction and is denoted by ∅𝑠 .

W
𝑭𝒎 𝝁𝒔 𝑵 P
𝐭𝐚𝐧 ∅𝒔 = = 𝑷𝒚
𝑵 𝑵
𝑷𝒙
𝐭𝐚𝐧 ∅𝒔 = 𝝁𝒔
R
N ∅ = ∅𝑠
𝐹𝑚 = 𝑃𝑥
(c) Motion impending 30
 Angle of Friction cont…

 If motion actually takes place, the magnitude of the friction force drops to
𝑭𝒌 .
 Similarly, the angle ∅ between R and N drops to a lower value ∅𝐤 , called the
angle of kinetic friction.
W
𝑭𝒌 𝝁𝒌 𝑵 P
𝐭𝐚𝐧 ∅𝒌 = = 𝑷𝒚
𝑵 𝑵
𝑷𝒙
𝐭𝐚𝐧 ∅𝒌 = 𝝁𝒌
R
N ∅ = ∅𝑘
𝐹𝑘 < 𝑃𝑥
(d) Motion 31
 Force on inclined plane (a) No friction
W
 The angle of friction can be used to advantage

Block in the analysis of certain types of problems.

Board
 Consider a block resting on a board and
𝜽 =𝟎 R
subjected to no other force than its weight W and
(a) No friction
the reaction R of the board.

32
 Force on inclined plane cont…(b) No motion
Wsin 𝜃 W
𝜽  If the board is given a small angle of
Wcos 𝜃
inclination 𝜽, the force R will deviate from

the perpendicular to the board by the angle

𝑁 = 𝑊 cos 𝜃
𝜽 𝜽 and will keep balancing W.
R 𝐹 = 𝑊 sin 𝜃
𝜽 < ∅𝒔  It will then have a normal component N of

(b) No motion magnitude 𝑁 = 𝑊 cos 𝜃 and a tangential

Angle of static friction = ∅𝑠 component F of magnitude 𝐹 = 𝑊 sin 𝜃.

33
 Force on inclined plane cont… (c) Motion impending
W  If we keep increasing the angle of inclination,
𝜽
motion will soon become impending.
 At that time, the angle between R and the
normal will have reached its maximum value
𝜽 = ∅𝑠
𝑁 = 𝑊 cos 𝜃 ∅𝒔 .
R 𝐹𝑚 = 𝑊 sin 𝜃  The value of the angle of inclination
𝜽 = ∅𝒔 = 𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒍𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒓𝒆𝒑𝒐𝒔𝒆 corresponding to impending motion is called
the angle of repose.
(c) Motion impending
 Clearly, the angle of repose is equal to the
angle of static friction ∅𝒔 . 34
 Force on inclined plane cont…(c) Motion
W
𝜽  If the angle of inclination 𝜽 is further

increased, motion starts and the angle

between R and the normal drops to the lower

∅𝑘
𝑁 = 𝑊 cos 𝜃
value ∅𝐤 .
𝐹𝑘 < 𝑊 sin 𝜃
𝜽 > ∅𝒔 R  The reaction R is not vertical any more, and

(c) Motion the forces acting on the block are unbalanced.

Angle of kinetic friction = ∅𝐤 35

Q. 8.1 Determine whether the block shown is in equilibrium and find the
magnitude and direction of the friction force when 𝜃 = 25° and P = 750 N.

Answer: Given data: P = 750 N, 𝜃 = 25°

Assume equilibrium:

36
FBD 1200 N
Y

𝟐𝟓°
750 N
𝟐𝟓°
X
F

N
+ 𝐹𝑋 = 0: 𝐹 + 1200 𝑁 sin 25° − (750 𝑁) cos 25° = 0
𝐹 = +172.6 N 𝐹 = 172.6 N

37
 +
𝐹𝑌 = 0: 𝑁 − 1200 𝑁 cos 25° − 750 𝑁 sin 25° = 0
𝑁 = 1404.5 𝑁
Maximum friction force: 𝐹𝑚 = 𝜇𝑠 𝑁
Fm = 0.35 1404.5 N = 491.6 N
𝑺𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝑭 < 𝑭𝒎 , Block is in equilibrium

𝐹 = 172.6 N
𝟐𝟓°
No
Motion

38
Q. A 6.5-m ladder AB leans against a wall as shown. Assuming that the
coefficient of static friction 𝝁𝒔 is the same at A and B, determine the smallest
value of 𝝁𝒔 for which equilibrium is maintained.

39
Answer: Given data, Height of the ladder AB = 6.5 m
Smallest value of 𝝁𝒔 = ? 𝐹𝐁 = 𝜇𝑠 𝑁𝐁
Free body diagram of Ladder
B 𝑁𝐁
W

Motion impending:

6m
G

𝐹𝐴 = 𝜇𝑠 𝑁𝐴 A
1.25 m 1.25 m
𝑁𝐴
40
𝐹𝐴 = 𝜇𝑠 𝑁𝐴
𝐹𝐁 = 𝜇𝑠 𝑁𝐁

+ 𝑀𝐴 = 0: 𝑊 1.25 𝑀 − 𝑁𝐵 6 𝑚 − 𝜇𝑠 𝑁𝐵 2.5 𝑚 = 0
1.25 𝑊
𝑁𝐵 = 1
6 + 2.5 𝜇𝑠

+ 𝐹𝑦 = 0 ∶ 𝑁𝐴 + 𝜇𝑠 𝑁𝐵 − 𝑊 = 0
𝑁𝐴 = 𝑊 − 𝜇𝑠 𝑁𝐵
1.25 𝜇𝑠 𝑊
𝑁𝐴 = 𝑊 − 2
6 + 2.5 𝜇𝑠
+
𝐹𝑥 = 0: 𝜇𝑠 𝑁𝐴 − 𝑁𝐵 = 0
41
Substitute for 𝑁𝐴 and 𝑁𝐁 from Equations (1) and (2):
1.25 𝜇𝑠2 𝑊 1.25 𝑊
𝜇𝑠 𝑊 − =
6+2.5 𝜇𝑠 6+2.5 𝜇𝑠

6𝜇𝑠 + 2.5𝜇𝑠2 − 1.25𝜇𝑠2 = 1.25

1.25 𝜇𝑠2 + 6𝜇𝑠 − 1.25 = 0
𝜇𝑠 = 0.2

And 𝜇𝑠 = −5 (𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑑)

𝜇𝑠 = 0.2
42
 Q&A
Q. 6/3 The designer of a ski resort wishes to have a portion of a beginner’s
slope on which the skier’s speed will remain fairly constant. Tests indicate the
average coefficients of friction between skis and snow to be 𝝁𝒔 = 0.10 and 𝝁𝒌 =
𝟎. 𝟎𝟖. What should be the slope angle of the constant-speed section?
Answer: mg

𝜽
N
𝐹𝑥 = 0 ; 0.08𝑁 − 𝑚𝑔 sin 𝜃 = 0
𝑚𝑔 sin 𝜃 𝐹𝐲 = 0 ; 𝑁 − 𝑚𝑔 cos 𝜽 = 𝟎
N=
0.08
N = mg cos 𝜽
𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝜽 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟖, 𝜽 = 𝟒. 𝟓𝟕° 43
Q. 6/25 Determine the range of weights W for which the 100-kg block is in
equilibrium. All wheels and pulleys have negligible friction.

44
 y
Answer: 𝐹𝑦 = 0: 𝑇 − 𝑊 cos 10° =0
100 kg T 𝟏𝟎°
𝑇 = 𝑊 cos 10° 1 𝟐𝟎° T
y
100 kg block:
T
𝐹𝑦 = 0: 𝑁 − 100 cos 20° = 0
𝐍𝐖
N = 94.0 kg (throughout) 𝐚
𝐛 𝐅𝐌𝐚𝐱 x W
𝐅𝐌𝐚𝐱
(a) Motion impends down incline:

𝐹𝑥 = 0: 2𝑇 − 100 sin 20° + 𝐹𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 0

𝐹𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝜇𝑠 𝑁 = 0.3 94.0 45

 100 sin 20° − 28.2
𝐹𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 28.2 𝑘𝑔 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑇 =
2
𝑇 = 3.00 𝑘𝑔
𝑇 3.00 𝑘𝑔
From equation (1), 𝑊 = = = 3.05 𝑘𝑔
cos 10° 0.9848

(b) Motion impends up incline:

𝐹𝑥 = 0: 2𝑇 − 100 sin 20° − 𝐹𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 0

100 sin 20° +28.2

𝑇= = 31.2 kg
2
𝑇 31.20 𝑘𝑔
Again from equation (1), 𝑊 = = = 31.7 𝑘𝑔
cos 10° 0.9848

Hence the allowable range is 𝟑. 𝟎𝟓 ≤ 𝐖 ≤ 𝟑𝟏. 𝟕 𝐤𝐠 46

Q.6/1 The 400-N force P is applied to the 100-kg crate, which is stationary
before the force is applied. Determine the magnitude and direction of the
friction force F exerted by the horizontal surface on the crate.

Crate

y
Solution: Assume equilibrium
𝑾 = 𝒎𝒈 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎 × 𝟗. 𝟖𝟏 = 𝟗𝟖𝟏 𝑵
x
P = 400 N
N F 47
 𝑭𝒙 = 𝟎; 𝐅 = 𝟒𝟎𝟎 𝐍

𝑭𝒚 = 𝟎 ; 𝑵 = 𝟗𝟖𝟏 𝑵

𝑭𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝝁𝒔 𝑵 = 𝟎. 𝟓𝟎 𝟗𝟖𝟏

𝑭𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝟒𝟗𝟎. 𝟓 𝑵

∵ 𝑭 < 𝑭𝒎𝒂𝒙

‫؞‬ Assumption is valid.

𝑭 = 𝟒𝟎𝟎 𝑵 Left 48
Q. 6/2 The 700-N force is applied to the 100-kg block, which is stationary before
the force is applied. Determine the magnitude and direction of the friction force
F exerted by the horizontal surface on the block.

49
 y
Answer: 𝑾 = 𝒎𝒈 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎 × 𝟗. 𝟖𝟏 = 𝟗𝟖𝟏 𝑵
P = 700 N
Assume equilibrium 𝟑𝟎°
x

𝑭𝒙 = 𝟎 ; 𝟕𝟎𝟎 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟑𝟎° − 𝑭 = 𝟎 F No

Motion
𝑭 = 𝟕𝟎𝟎 × 𝟎. 𝟖𝟔𝟔𝟎 = 𝟔𝟎𝟔 𝑵 N ∵ 𝑭𝒎𝒂𝒙 < 𝑭
𝑭 = 𝟔𝟎𝟔 𝑵
Assumption invalid, Motion occurs.
𝑭𝒚 = 𝟎 ; 𝑵 − 𝟗𝟖𝟏 + 𝟕𝟎𝟎 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟑𝟎° = 𝟎
𝑭 = 𝝁𝒌 𝑵 = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟎 × 𝟔𝟑𝟏 = 𝟑𝟕𝟗 𝑵
𝑵 = 𝟔𝟑𝟏 𝑵
𝑭𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝝁𝒔 𝑵 = 𝟎. 𝟖𝟎 𝟔𝟑𝟏 𝑭 = 𝟑𝟕𝟗 𝑵 Left direction
𝑭𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝟓𝟎𝟒. 𝟖 𝑵 50
 : Wedge
• Wedges are simple machines used to raise large stone blocks and other
heavy loads.
• These loads can be raised by applying to the wedge a force usually
considerably smaller than the weight of the load.

51
 : Wedge

Figure: FBD of wedge Figure: FBD of wedge Figure: Force triangle

52
 : Wedge
Problem: 1

53
 Figure: FBD of block

Figure: FBD of wedge

54
Figure: FBD of wedge
Figure: Force triangle for block Figure: Force triangle for wedges

55
56
57
 Frictional Forces on Flat Belts
 Whenever belt drives or band brakes
are designed, it is necessary to
determine the frictional forces

Flat Belt developed between the belt and its

contacting surface.

Band brake

58
Frictional Forces on Flat Belts

59
 Frictional Forces on Flat Belt cont…
Although the analysis of other types of belts, such as the V-belt, is based on
similar principles.
 Consider a flat belt passing over a fixed

cylindrical drum.

 The belt is wrapped around a portion of a

V-belt
drum, with the amount of wrap indicated by

angle 𝜷.

 The angle 𝜷 is called the angle of wrap.

60
Derivation

Assume that the drum is stationary

and tensions 𝑇1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑇2 are such that
motion is impending between the belt
and the drum.

61
 Frictional Analysis of Flat Belt
 Figure (a) shows a
drum subjected to the
two belt tensions 𝑇1 and
𝑇2 , the torque M
necessary to prevent
rotation, and a bearing
(a) (b) FBD reaction R.
 With M in the direction shown, 𝑇2 is greater than 𝑇1 .
 The free body diagram of an element of the belt of length 𝒓 𝒅𝜽 is shown in
62
part b of the figure.
 Frictional Analysis of Flat Belt cont…
 The tension increases from T at the angle 𝜽 to 𝑻 + 𝒅𝑻 at the angle 𝜽 + 𝒅𝜽.
 The normal force is a differential 𝒅𝑵, since it acts on a differential element of
area.
 Likewise the friction force, which must act on the belt in a direction to
oppose slipping, is a differential and is 𝛍𝒅𝑵 for impending motion.
 Equilibrium in the t-direction gives
𝒅𝜽 𝒅𝜽
𝑻 𝐜𝐨𝐬 + 𝝁 𝒅𝑵 = 𝑻 + 𝒅𝑻 𝐜𝐨𝐬
𝟐 𝟐
 Since the cosine of a differential quantity is unity in the limit.

or 𝝁𝒅𝑵 = 𝒅𝑻 (1) 63
 Frictional Analysis of Flat Belt cont…
 Equilibrium in the n-direction requires that

𝒅𝜽 𝒅𝜽
𝒅𝑵 = 𝑻 + 𝒅𝑻 𝐬𝐢𝐧 + 𝑻 𝐬𝐢𝐧
𝟐 𝟐
or 𝒅𝑵 = 𝑻𝒅𝜽 (2)
𝒅𝜽 𝒅𝜽 𝒅𝜽
• Since 𝒅𝜽 is of infinitesimal size, 𝐬𝐢𝐧 and 𝐜𝐨𝐬 can be replaced by
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐
and 1 respectively.
• The product of two differentials must be neglected in the limit compared
with the first-order differentials remaining.

• Combining the two equilibrium relations (1 & 2) gives

𝒅𝑻
= 𝝁𝒅𝜽
𝑻
64
 Frictional Analysis of Flat Belt cont…
• Integrating between corresponding limits yields
𝑻𝟐 𝒅𝑻 𝜷
𝑻𝟏 𝑻
= 𝟎 𝝁𝒅𝜽

or 𝑻𝟐
𝒍𝒏 = 𝝁𝜷
𝑻𝟏
𝑻𝟐
Where the 𝒍𝒏 is a natural logarithm (base e). Solving for 𝑻𝟐 gives
𝑻𝟏

𝑻𝟐 = 𝑻𝟏 𝒆𝝁𝜷 (3)

Note that 𝜷 is the total angle of belt contact and must be expressed in radians.

65
 Frictional Analysis of Flat Belt cont…Observation

 Equation (3) should be used only if the belt, rope, or brake is about to slip.

 If a rope were wrapped around a drum n times, the angle 𝜷 would be 𝟐𝝅𝒏

radians.

 If the belt, rope, or brake is actually slipping, formulas similar to (3) but

involving the coefficient of kinetic friction 𝝁𝒌 , should be used.

66
Find the angle of contact cont…

67
68
69
 Q&A
Q. 6/97 What is the minimum coefficient of friction between the rope and the
fixed shaft which will prevent the unbalanced cylinders from moving?
𝑻𝟐
Answer: = 𝒆𝝁𝜷
𝑻𝟏

𝐓𝟐 > 𝑻𝟏

𝟏𝟎𝟎
= 𝒆𝝅𝝁
𝟓𝟎

𝐥𝐧 𝟐 = 𝟑. 𝟏𝟒𝝁
𝐥𝐧 𝟐
𝝁=
𝟑. 𝟏𝟒
Source: Meriam & Kraige 7th Edition 𝝁 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟐𝟎𝟕 70
 Q&A
Problem 1

71
72
Unsolved Problems
73
Q. 6/101 A 50-kg package is attached to a rope which passes over an irregularly
shaped boulder with uniform surface texture. If a downward force 𝑷 =
𝟕𝟎 𝑵 is required to lower the package at a constant rate, (a) determine the
coefficient of friction 𝝁 between the rope and the boulder. (b) What force 𝑷′
would be required to raise the package at a constant rate?

74
Answer: 𝑻𝟐
= 𝒆𝝁𝜷
𝑻𝟏

(a) A downward force 𝑷 = 𝟕𝟎 𝑵 is required to lower the package

50 9.81
= 𝑒 𝜇𝜋
70
𝜇 = 0.620
(b) For force 𝑷′ would be required to raise the package

𝑷′
= 𝑒 𝟎.𝟔𝟐𝟎𝜋
50 9.81

𝑷′ = 3440 N
75
 Frictional Analysis of Band Brake
• A band brake is a simple mechanism for power absorption in a rotating
drum.
• A flexible band passes over a drum and its free ends are connected to a
lever, which is hinged at a point.
• Unlike the belt drive, here the drum rotates and the band stationary.
• By applying a force P at the end of the lever, the band gets tightened and
due to friction developed between the band and the drum, the drum is
brought to a stop.

76
 Frictional Analysis of Band Brake cont..

Fig. (a)

(a) Free-body diagram of drum (b) Free-body diagram of band

77
Frictional Analysis of Band Brake cont..

Free-body
diagram
78
of
Q.3 A band brake is used to control the speed of a flywheel as shown. The
coefficients of friction are 𝝁𝒔 = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟎 and 𝝁𝒌 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟓. Determine the magnitude
of the couple being applied to the flywheel, knowing that P = 45 N and that the
flywheel is rotating counter clock-wise at a constant speed.

79
Solution: Given data, The coefficients of friction are 𝝁𝒔 = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟎 and 𝝁𝒌 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟓
The flywheel is rotating counter clock-wise at a constant speed.
The magnitude of the torque being applied to the flywheel = ?
Free body diagram of Cylinder and Lever ABC
Since slipping of band comparative to
360 mm 𝑫𝒚 cylinder is clockwise, 𝑻𝟏 and 𝑻𝟐 are
located as shown in the figure. 𝟏𝑴
𝟏𝑴
M
𝑫𝒙 D + 𝑀𝐶 = 0: 45 0.48 − 𝑇2 0.12 = 0
𝑻𝟐
𝟐𝑴
𝑻𝟏 𝑇2 = 180 𝑁
𝑻𝟐
A B C 𝑪𝒙
360 mm 120 mm 𝟏𝑴
P = 45 N 𝑪𝒚 80
𝝁𝒌 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟓
° 𝟑𝛑
𝛽= 𝟐𝟕𝟎 = radian
𝟐

𝑻𝟐
= 𝒆𝝁𝜷
𝑻𝟏

𝑇2 𝟑𝝅 𝟑𝝅 𝟏𝟖𝟎
=𝒆
𝟎.𝟐𝟓× 𝟐
=𝒆 𝟖 = 3.2482 𝟏𝑴
𝑇1
𝑇1
𝑇𝟏 = 𝟓𝟓. 𝟒𝟏𝟓 𝑁

𝑀𝐃 = 0: 𝟓𝟓. 𝟒𝟏𝟓 0. 𝟑𝟔 − 𝟏𝟖𝟎 0. 𝟑𝟔 + 𝐌 = 0 𝟐𝑴

+
𝑀 = 44.9 𝑁. 𝑚 81
Q. A flat belt is used to transmit a couple from pulley A to pulley B. The radius
of each pulley is 60 mm, and a force of magnitude P = 900 N is applied as shown
to the axle of pulley A. Knowing that the coefficient of static friction is 0.35,
determine (a) the largest couple that can be transmitted, (b) the corresponding
maximum value of the tension in the belt.

82
Solution: 𝑻𝟐 𝑇2
= 𝒆𝝁𝜷 =𝒆 𝟎.𝟑𝟓×𝛑 𝜷 = 𝟏𝟖𝟎° = 𝝅 𝒓𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒂𝒏𝒔
𝑻𝟏 𝑇1 𝑻𝟐
60 mm
𝑻𝟐 = 𝟑. 𝟎𝟎𝟐𝟖𝑻𝟏 𝟏 P = 900 N
A M

+ 𝑭𝒙 = 𝟎: 𝑻𝟏 + 𝑻𝟐 − 𝟗𝟎𝟎 𝑵 = 𝟎
𝑻𝟏
𝑻𝟏 + 𝟑. 𝟎𝟎𝟐𝟖𝑻𝟏 − 𝟗𝟎𝟎 𝑵 = 𝟎 𝑻𝟏 = 𝟐𝟐𝟒. 𝟖𝟑 𝑵

From equation (1), 𝑻𝟐 = 𝟔𝟕𝟓. 𝟏𝟔 𝑵 = 𝑻𝑴𝒂𝒙

From Pulley A:
+ 𝑀𝐀 = 0: 𝟐𝟐𝟒. 𝟖𝟑 0. 𝟎𝟔 − 𝟔𝟕𝟓. 𝟏𝟔 0. 𝟎𝟔 + 𝐌 = 0

83
𝑀 = 𝟐𝟕. 𝟎𝟐 𝑁. 𝑚
 Frictional Forces on Screws
• Screws are used as fasteners.
• Many types of machines they are
incorporated to transmit power or motion
from one part of the machine to another.
• A screw may be thought of simply as an
inclined plane.
Reactive
forces The reactive forces of the jack to load W are
distributed over the circumference of the screw
thread in contact with the screw hole in the jack,
i.e. within the region h as shown in figure.
84
 Frictional Forces on Screws cont…
The rise L for a single
Screw revolution is referred to as the
lead of the screw.

Nut

𝒂 𝒃
• A nut initially at position A on the screw as shown in figure (a) will move up
° −𝟏
𝑳
to B when rotated 𝟑𝟔𝟎 around the screw. 𝜽 = 𝑳𝒆𝒂𝒅 𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒍𝒆 = 𝐭𝐚𝐧
𝟐𝝅𝒓
• This rotation is equivalent to translating the nut up an inclined plane of
height L and length 𝟐𝝅𝒓 , where r is the mean radius of the thread as shown
in figure (b). 85
 Frictional Forces on Square-Threaded Screws
• Square-threaded screws are frequently used in
jacks, presses, and other mechanisms.
• Their analysis is similar to the analysis of a block
sliding along an inclined plane.
• The screw carries a load W and is supported by
the base of the jack.
• Contact between screw and base takes place along
a portion of their threads.
• By applying a force P on the handle, the screw can
Base of the jack
be made to turn and to raise the load W. 86
 Frictional Forces on Square-Threaded Screws
Analysis can be done similar to block on inclined plane
• The lead L of the screw, i.e., The distance through which the screw advances in

one turn.

• The pitch is the distance measured between two consecutive threads.

• Since the force of friction between two surfaces in contact does not depend

upon the area of contact.

• A much smaller than actual area of contact between the two threads can be

assumed, and the screw can be represented by the block shown in Fig.
87
Lead and Pitch of a Screw

88
 Analysis can be done similar to block on inclined plane cont..
W W = Load of the block
R = The reaction of the base thread
Q Q = Equivalent horizontal force
L which is use to raise the load W
R P = Force on the handle
𝜽 = Lead angle
𝜽 𝜽 ∅𝒔 L = Lead of the screw
𝟐𝝅𝒓 ∅𝒔 = Friction angle
(a) Impending motion upward • A horizontal force Q having the same effect
Solve for 𝑸 × 𝒓 as the force P exerted on the handle.
• The force Q should have the same moment
The screw can be represented by the as P about the axis of the screw and its
block magnitude should thus be 𝑸 × 𝒓 = 𝑷 × 𝒂
89
 Block on inclined plane cont.. Impending motion downward ∅𝒔 > 𝜽
W • If the friction angle ∅𝑠 is larger than the lead
Q angle 𝜽, the screw is said to be self-locking; it
will remain in place under the load.

Solve for 𝑸 × 𝒓 𝐭𝐨 𝐥𝐨𝐰𝐞𝐫 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐥𝐨𝐚𝐝

𝜽 𝜽

R ∅𝒔

(b) Impending motion downward with ∅𝒔 > 𝜽

90
Block on inclined plane continue cont.. Impending motion downward ∅𝒔 < 𝜽
W
Non-locking, Solve for 𝑸 × 𝒓 𝐭𝐨 𝐡𝐨𝐥𝐝 𝐥𝐨𝐚𝐝

𝜽 ∅𝒔
R
𝜽
(c) Impending motion downward with ∅𝒔 < 𝜽

91
Screw Jack cont..

92
 Effort required to raise a load cont..

Figure: Inclined plane problem Figure: Force triangle

 Effort required to lower the load cont..

Figure: Inclined plane problem Figure: Force triangle

94
Q.1 A single-threaded screw jack has a pitch of 12 mm and a mean diameter of
75 mm. The coefficient of static friction between the screw and nut is 0.2 and
that of kinetic friction is 0.1. Determine the force P to be applied at the end of a
500 mm long lever (i) to just lift a weight of 25 kN, and (ii) to keep the screw
jack turning.

95
 Keep the following in mind when solving a problem
involving a square-threaded screws
The analysis of a square-threaded screw is equivalent
to the analysis of a block sliding on an incline

Draw the appropriate incline, you should unwrap the thread of the
screw and represent it by a straight line
The pitch of a screw is the distance between two consecutive
threads
The lead of a screw is the distance the screw advances in one
full turn

Screws used in jacks and clamps are usually self-locking; that is, the screw
96
will
remain stationary as long as no couple is applied to it, and a couple must be
applied to the screw to loosen it
Q.1 A clamp is used to hold two pieces of wood together as shown. The clamp
has a double square thread of mean diameter equal to 10 mm with a pitch of 2
mm. The coefficient of friction between threads is 𝝁𝒔 = 0.30. If a maximum
couple of 40 N-m is applied in tightening the clamp, determine (a) the force
exerted on the pieces of wood, (b) the couple required to loosen the clamp.

Solution:
𝑳 𝟒
𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝜽 = = = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟐𝟕𝟑 𝜽 = 𝟕. 𝟑°
𝑳 = 𝟐 𝟐 𝒎𝒎 𝟐𝝅𝒓 𝟏𝟎𝝅
𝐭𝐚𝐧 ∅𝒔 = 𝝁𝒔 = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟎 ∅𝒔 = 𝟏𝟔. 𝟕°
97
• Using the block and plane analogy with impending motion up the plane.
Calculate clamping force with force triangle

(a)

𝑸 𝟖 𝒌𝑵
𝑸 × 𝒓 = 𝟒𝟎 𝑵. 𝒎 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝜽 + ∅𝒔 = =
𝑾 𝑾
𝟒𝟎 𝑵. 𝒎 𝟖 𝒌𝑵
𝑸= 𝑾=
𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 𝒎 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝟐𝟒°
𝑸 = 𝟖𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝑵 = 𝟖 𝒌𝑵 𝑾 = 𝟏𝟕. 𝟗𝟕 𝒌𝑵 98
(b) Torque required to loosen the clamp

𝑸
𝐭𝐚𝐧 ∅𝒔 − 𝜽 = 𝑻𝒐𝒓𝒒𝒖𝒆 = 𝑸 × 𝒓 = 𝟐. 𝟗𝟕𝟓𝒌𝑵 𝟓 𝒎𝒎
𝑾
𝑸 = 𝟏𝟕. 𝟗𝟕 𝒌𝑵 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝟗. 𝟒° 𝑻𝒐𝒓𝒒𝒖𝒆 = 𝟏𝟒. 𝟖𝟕 𝑵. 𝒎

𝑸 = 𝟐. 𝟗𝟕𝟓 𝒌𝑵 99
Q.2 The square-threaded worm gear shown has a mean radius of 400 mm and
a pitch of 12.5 mm. The large gear is subjected to a constant clockwise torque
of 1100 N-m. Knowing that the coefficient of static friction between the two
gears is 0.12, determine the torque that must be applied to shaft AB in order to
rotate the large gear clockwise. Neglect friction in the bearings at A, B, and C.
1100 N-m

400 mm

100
Solution: 𝟏𝟏𝟎𝟎
W = 𝟎.𝟒 raised or lowered
Q

L = 12.5 mm Worm gear face

𝜽 𝜽 = 𝟐. 𝟐𝟕° 1100
𝑊= 𝑁
0.4
∅𝒔 = 𝟔. 𝟖𝟒°
𝟐𝝅𝒓 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝝅 M
𝑳 𝟏𝟐. 𝟓 1100 N-m torque applied
𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝜽 = = = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟑𝟗𝟏𝟖 𝜽 = 𝟐. 𝟐𝟕° upward to this worm gear
𝟐𝝅𝒓 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝝅
101
𝐭𝐚𝐧 ∅𝒔 = 𝝁𝒔 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟐 −𝟏
∅ = 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝟎. 𝟏𝟐 = 𝟔. 𝟖𝟒 °
• With impending motion down the plane. Calculate force and torque required

𝑸 Force triangle
𝐭𝐚𝐧 ∅𝒔 − 𝜽 = ∅𝒔 − 𝜽
𝑾
1100 R
Q= tan 6.84° − 2.27° W
0.4

𝑸 = 𝟐𝟏𝟗. 𝟖 𝑵
Q

𝑻𝒐𝒓𝒒𝒖𝒆 = 𝑸 × 𝒓 = 𝟐𝟏𝟗. 𝟖 𝑵 𝟎. 𝟒 𝒎

𝑻𝒐𝒓𝒒𝒖𝒆 = 𝟖𝟕. 𝟗𝟐 𝑵. 𝒎

102
 Reference books:

• J L Meriam and L G Kraige, Engineering Mechanics, Wiley India

• F P Beer and E R Johnston, Vector Mechanics for Engineers

• S P Timoshenko and D H Young, Engineering Mechanics, McGraw Hill Education Pvt.

Ltd.

• R. C. Hibbeler, Engineering Mechanics Statics & Dynamics, Pearson

• A. Nelson, Engineering Mechanics Statics & Dynamics, Tata McGraw Hill Education

Pvt. Ltd.