PART A

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Q.1 What is resolution

In the context of images, videos, or displays, resolution refers to the number of pixels contained in an
image or displayed on a screen. It is often expressed as width x height.

Q.2 Write applications of computer graphics.

Entertainment and Media

Graphic Design

Architectural Design

Virtual Reality (VR) and Augmented Reality (AR)

Education and Training Simulations

Scientific Visualization

Web Design and User Interfaces

Medical Imaging

Computer-Aided Design (CAD)

Weather Modeling and Simulation

Animation and Film Industry

Virtual Museums and Exhibits

Data Visualization

Video Games

Flight Simulators
Q.3 Differentiate random and raster scan system.
Q.4 What is inside-outside test in filling algorithm?

The Inside-Outside Test is a method used in computer graphics to determine whether a point lies
inside or outside a closed geometric shape, typically a polygon. This test is often employed in filling
algorithms, where the goal is to determine which regions of the screen or polygon need to be filled
with color.

Q.5 What are homogeneous coordinates?

Homogeneous coordinates are a mathematical representation used in computer graphics and

computer vision to simplify transformations and calculations involving points in space. They extend
the concept of Cartesian coordinates by introducing an additional coordinate, typically denoted as
"w" (or "homogeneous coordinate"), to represent points in a more generalized form.

Q.6 Write advantages and disadvantages of DDA algorithm.

The Digital Differential Analyzer (DDA) algorithm is used for generating points on a line between two
given points. Here are the advantages and disadvantages of the DDA algorithm:

Advantages of DDA Algorithm:

Simplicity: The DDA algorithm is relatively simple to understand and implement. It involves basic
arithmetic operations such as addition and rounding.

Straightforward Implementation: DDA is a straightforward algorithm for drawing lines, making it

suitable for applications where simplicity is a priority.

Efficiency: In comparison to other line-drawing algorithms, the DDA algorithm is computationally

efficient, especially for lines with moderate slopes.

Widely Applicable: DDA is applicable to draw lines on both traditional 2D displays and modern
computer screens.

Linear Time Complexity: The time complexity of the DDA algorithm is linear with respect to the
number of pixels to be plotted.

------------------------------

Disadvantages of DDA Algorithm:

Rounding Errors: DDA uses floating-point arithmetic, which may result in rounding errors. Cumulative
rounding errors can affect the accuracy of the line.

Inefficiency for Vertical and Horizontal Lines: DDA may be less efficient for drawing vertical or
horizontal lines because it involves repeated calculations even when the slope is zero or infinite.

Limited Precision: The accuracy of the DDA algorithm is limited by the precision of the floating-point
arithmetic used, leading to potential errors in the generated line.
Limited to Straight Lines: DDA is specifically designed for straight lines and may not be directly
applicable for other types of curves.

Performance on Modern Hardware: On modern computer graphics hardware, algorithms like

Bresenham's Line Algorithm are often preferred over DDA due to their efficiency and ability to work
with integer arithmetic.

Q.7 What do you understand by composite transformations?

Composite transformations in computer graphics refer to the process of combining multiple

individual transformations to achieve a single overall transformation on an object or a set of objects.
In graphics, transformations are operations that alter the position, orientation, and size of objects in
a virtual space. These transformations can include translation, rotation, scaling, and shearing.

Q.8 Compare RGB colour model with CMY colour model.

The RGB (Red, Green, Blue) and CMY (Cyan, Magenta, Yellow) color models are two different ways of
representing colors in the field of digital imaging and color printing. Here's a comparison between
the RGB and CMY color models:

1. Primary Colors:

RGB: Uses additive color mixing.

Primary colors: Red, Green, Blue.

Combining all three at full intensity produces white light.

Used in electronic displays such as monitors, TVs, and cameras.

CMY: Uses subtractive color mixing.

Primary colors: Cyan, Magenta, Yellow.

Combining all three at full intensity produces black (ideally; in practice, it tends to be a dark
brown).

Used in color printing, such as inks in color printers.

2. Color Representation:

RGB: Colors are represented by combining different intensities of red, green, and blue light.

Each color component ranges from 0 to 255 in an 8-bit system, providing a total of over 16 million
possible colors.

CMY: Colors are represented by subtracting different percentages of cyan, magenta, and yellow.

Each color component typically ranges from 0 to 100%, representing the proportion of each ink
color.
3. Color Model Purpose:

RGB: Suited for electronic displays where light emission is used to create colors.

Commonly used in digital imaging, computer monitors, televisions, and digital cameras.

CMY: Suited for color printing where inks absorb light to create colors.

Commonly used in color printing processes, such as in color printers and traditional offset printing.

4. Black Color:

RGB: To represent black, all RGB components are set to 0.

Black is not typically part of the additive RGB color model.

CMY: To represent black, all CMY components are set to their maximum (100%).

In practice, a separate black (K) ink is often used to enhance the depth and quality of black in
printing (resulting in the CMYK model).

5. Applications:

RGB: Electronic displays, digital media, web graphics, photography, computer-generated imagery
(CGI).

CMY: Color printing, including magazines, brochures, posters, packaging, and various printed
materials.

Q.9 What is morphing?

"Morphing" in computer graphics refers to a technique used to create a smooth, seamless transition
between two images or objects. It involves transforming one image gradually into another, creating
the illusion of continuous change. This process is commonly used in animations, visual effects, and
digital art.

Q. 10 What is ray tracing? Give an example.

Ray tracing is a rendering technique used in computer graphics to simulate the way light interacts
with objects in a virtual environment. It simulates the path of rays of light as they travel through a
scene, interact with surfaces, and contribute to the formation of the final image. Ray tracing
produces highly realistic images by accurately modeling the behavior of light, shadows, reflections,
and refractions.

A classic example of ray tracing involves the rendering of a reflective surface, such as a mirror. When
a ray hits a mirror surface, it reflects off at an angle determined by the laws of reflection. The
reflected ray can then be traced to see if it hits other surfaces, generating additional reflections.

PART B

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Q.1 Scan convert a straight line using DDA Algorithm, where end points of line are (5, 10) and

(15, 35).
Q.2 What is Aliasing? Explain any two Anti-Aliasing techniques

Aliasing:

Aliasing is a phenomenon in computer graphics and signal processing where high-frequency

information is misrepresented or distorted when sampled at a lower resolution. This often results in
visual artifacts such as jagged edges or moiré patterns in images. Aliasing occurs when there is
insufficient sampling or representation of high-frequency details, leading to the loss of fine details in
the reconstructed image.

Two common types of aliasing in computer graphics are spatial aliasing (jagged edges) and temporal
aliasing (flickering in animations).

Anti-Aliasing Techniques:

Supersampling:

Explanation: Supersampling is a straightforward technique that involves rendering the scene at a

higher resolution and then downsampling the image to the desired display resolution. By taking
multiple samples per pixel and averaging the values, supersampling helps reduce jagged edges and
provides a smoother representation of the scene.

Process:

For each pixel, multiple samples are taken within the pixel area.

The color values of these samples are averaged to determine the final color of the pixel.

Advantages:

Effective in reducing spatial aliasing.

Produces high-quality images.

Disadvantages:

Computationally expensive, as it requires rendering the scene at a higher resolution.

Multisampling:

Explanation: Multisampling is a more optimized version of supersampling. It involves taking samples

only at certain locations within each pixel, typically at the pixel center. The samples are used to
determine coverage, and the final color is computed based on both covered and uncovered samples,
reducing jagged edges.

Process:

Samples are taken at specific locations within each pixel, often at the pixel center.
Coverage information is determined, indicating how much of the pixel is covered by geometry.

The final color is computed based on the combination of covered and uncovered samples.

Advantages:

Offers a good compromise between quality and computational cost.

Reduces spatial aliasing.

Disadvantages:

May not eliminate all aliasing artifacts.

Q.3 What is viewing pipeline? Explain window - to - viewport transformation.

The viewing pipeline, also known as the graphics pipeline or rendering pipeline, is a series of stages
that a graphical system goes through to transform 3D objects into 2D images on a computer screen.
The pipeline includes several stages, each responsible for a specific aspect of the rendering process.
One important aspect of the pipeline is the transformation from a world-coordinate system to screen
coordinates, which involves the window-to-viewport transformation.

Window-to-Viewport Transformation:

The window-to-viewport transformation is a crucial step in the viewing pipeline that maps the
normalized device coordinates (NDC) to the actual screen coordinates or pixels on the display. The
process involves transforming the coordinates from a user-defined window in the world or
normalized device space to the specific viewport or screen space where the image will be displayed.

Here's a step-by-step explanation of the window-to-viewport transformation:

1. Normalization: First, the coordinates of the objects in the world space are normalized to the
NDC space. In NDC, the x, y, and z coordinates typically range from -1 to 1.

2. Window Coordinates: The user defines a window in the NDC space. The window is a
rectangular region that represents the portion of the scene that will be displayed on the
screen. The window is defined by specifying its minimum and maximum x and y coordinates
in NDC.

3. Viewport Coordinates: The viewport is the actual rectangular region on the screen where
the final image will be displayed. The user also defines the viewport by specifying its size (in
pixels) and position on the screen.

4. Mapping: The window-to-viewport transformation involves mapping the coordinates from

the window space to the viewport space. This is done using a linear transformation that
scales, translates, and possibly flips or rotates the coordinates to fit the viewport.

Let's denote the window coordinates as (xw, yw) and the corresponding viewport coordinates as (xv,
yv). The transformation can be represented as follows:
Q.4 Prove that two successive translations are additive
Q.5 Explain parametric function. Discuss properties of Bezier curves.

Parametric Function:

A parametric function is a mathematical expression that defines a relationship between one or more
independent parameters and a dependent variable. In computer graphics and computer-aided
design (CAD), parametric functions are often used to describe curves and surfaces. These functions
allow the generation of complex shapes by varying parameters over a certain range.

A parametric function is typically represented as follows

P(t)=[x(t),y(t),z(t)]

where P(t) is a vector representing a point in 2D or 3D space, and t is the parameter that varies. By
changing the values of t over a specified range, different points are generated, forming a curve or a
surface.

Properties of Bezier Curves:

Bezier curves are a type of parametric curve that is widely used in computer graphics and design.
They are defined by a set of control points, and the shape of the curve is determined by how these
control points influence the curve. Here are some key properties of Bezier curves:

1. Degree of the Curve:

 • Bezier curves can be of any degree, where the degree is one less than the number of
control points. For example, a quadratic Bezier curve has three control points, and a
cubic Bezier curve has four.

2. Convex Hull Property:

• The curve is always contained within the convex hull of its control points. This
property ensures that the curve does not go outside the region defined by its control
points.

3. Interpolation:

• A Bezier curve interpolates its first and last control points. This means that the curve
passes through the first and last control points.

4. Affine Invariance:

• Bezier curves are invariant under affine transformations, such as translation,

rotation, and scaling. Applying these transformations to the control points results in
an equivalent transformation of the Bezier curve.

5. Local Control:

• Modifying the position of one control point only affects the local portion of the curve
near that control point. This property makes Bezier curves suitable for interactive
design, as changes can be made locally without affecting the entire curve.

6. Variation Diminishing:

• Bezier curves do not oscillate wildly, and as the parameter t varies, the curve
smoothly changes. This property is beneficial for stable and predictable curve
manipulation.

7. De Casteljau's Algorithm:

• Bezier curves can be efficiently evaluated and divided into segments using De
Casteljau's algorithm. This recursive algorithm simplifies curve manipulation and
visualization.

Q.6 What are halftone patterns? Explain dithering techniques.

Halftone Patterns:

Halftone patterns are a technique used in printing and image processing to simulate continuous-tone
images with only two colors (typically black and white) or a limited set of colors. The idea is to use
patterns of dots to create the illusion of different shades of gray or colors when viewed from a
distance. Halftoning is commonly employed in the reproduction of photographs, illustrations, and
other continuous-tone images in print media.

In a halftone pattern, the density of dots varies to represent different levels of gray or color intensity.
Areas with more dots appear darker, while areas with fewer dots appear lighter. The patterns can be
arranged in various ways, such as grids, spirals, or clusters, to achieve different visual effects.

Dithering Techniques:
Dithering is a method used in halftoning to create the illusion of additional colors or shades by
strategically placing dots of different colors or intensities. There are various dithering techniques, and
here are a few commonly used ones:

1. Ordered Dithering:

• Ordered dithering involves using a fixed matrix (usually a small grid) of threshold
values. Each pixel in the image is compared to the corresponding threshold value in
the matrix. If the pixel value is greater than the threshold, a dot is placed; otherwise,
it is left blank. This process repeats for each pixel, creating a halftone pattern.

2. Random Dithering:

• Random dithering introduces randomness into the dot placement process. Instead of
using a fixed matrix, random threshold values are generated for each pixel. This
helps reduce the visibility of fixed patterns in the resulting halftone image.

3. Error Diffusion:

• Error diffusion dithering is an algorithmic approach where the error from one pixel is
distributed to neighboring pixels. This helps in achieving a more visually pleasing
result by diffusing errors across the image. The Floyd-Steinberg algorithm is a
popular error diffusion technique.

4. Clustered Dot Dithering:

• Clustered dot dithering groups pixels into clusters and adjusts the intensity of the
entire cluster based on the average intensity of its pixels. This technique helps
reduce the visibility of individual dots and provides a smoother appearance.

5. Blue Noise Dithering:

• Blue noise dithering generates patterns with a frequency spectrum that mimics the
characteristics of blue noise, which closely resembles the distribution of frequencies
found in natural images. Blue noise dithering aims to distribute dots in a way that
minimizes visual artifacts.

Q.7 What are key frames'? Explain Tweening.

ChatGPT

ChatGPT

Keyframes:

In animation and computer graphics, keyframes are specific frames that define the starting and
ending points of any smooth transition. They are crucial in the animation process as they mark the
significant changes in the animation timeline. Keyframes represent the poses or states of an object or
character at specific moments in time, and the frames in between keyframes are filled in through a
process called interpolation.
Keyframes store the state of various parameters at a particular time, such as position, rotation, scale,
and other attributes. The animation software then calculates the in-between frames, known as
"tween frames" or "interpolated frames," to create a smooth transition between the keyframes.

Tweening:

Tweening, short for "in-betweening," is the process of generating intermediate frames between two
keyframes to produce a smooth animation. These intermediate frames are computed using
interpolation techniques to smoothly transition from one keyframe to the next. Tweening allows
animators to create fluid and realistic motion without having to manually draw or specify every
frame.

There are several types of tweening:

1. Linear Tweening:

• In linear tweening, the interpolation between two keyframes is performed using a

straight line. This results in a constant speed between the keyframes.

2. Ease-In and Ease-Out:

• Ease-in and ease-out tweening introduces acceleration and deceleration to the

animation, creating a more natural and appealing motion. The object starts slowly,
accelerates in the middle, and then decelerates towards the next keyframe.

3. Bezier Tweening:

• Bezier tweening uses Bezier curves to define the path of the interpolation. This
allows for more complex and curved motion paths between keyframes.

4. Spline Tweening:

• Spline tweening uses mathematical spline functions, such as B-splines or Catmull-

Rom splines, to define the interpolation. Splines provide more flexibility in shaping
the motion curve.
 PART C

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Q.1 What is frame buffer? Calculate size of frame buffer for a display device (CRT) supporting true
colors and has 1024 x 1024 pixels on the screen, if size of screen is 9" x 12", calculate resolution and
aspect ratio also.

Frame Buffer:

A frame buffer, also known as a framebuffer, is a part of the computer's memory that is dedicated to
storing a representation of the pixels displayed on a computer monitor or screen. It holds the
information about each pixel's color and position. The frame buffer is crucial for rendering graphics
and displaying images on the screen.

Calculating Frame Buffer Size:

To calculate the size of the frame buffer, we need to consider the color depth or bit depth of the
display. True color typically refers to a color depth of 24 bits, where each pixel is represented by 8
bits each for the red, green, and blue color channels.

The formula for calculating the size of the frame buffer in bytes is:
Q.2 What is projection? Explain parallel and perspective projection in detail.

Projection:

Projection is a fundamental concept in computer graphics that involves transforming three-

dimensional (3D) objects into a two-dimensional (2D) representation for display on a computer
screen. The purpose of projection is to simulate the way our eyes perceive objects in the real world.
In computer graphics, two common types of projections are parallel projection and perspective
projection.

1. Parallel Projection:

In parallel projection, lines of sight are parallel, meaning that objects are projected onto the 2D plane
without converging towards a common vanishing point. This type of projection is commonly used in
technical drawings, engineering, and architectural illustrations. There are two main types of parallel
projection:

• Orthographic Projection:
 • In orthographic projection, the projection lines are perpendicular to the projection
plane. This results in a 2D representation where all parallel lines in the 3D scene
remain parallel in the projection. There is no foreshortening or depth perception.

• Oblique Projection:

• Oblique projection is a type of parallel projection where the projectors are not
perpendicular to the projection plane. This results in a distorted representation
where depth is not accurately portrayed.

2. Perspective Projection:

In perspective projection, lines of sight converge towards a single vanishing point, simulating how
objects appear in the real world when viewed from a specific vantage point. This type of projection is
more realistic and is often used in computer graphics to create lifelike images. Perspective projection
introduces foreshortening, where objects that are farther away appear smaller than closer objects.

• Vanishing Point:

• The vanishing point is the point on the horizon where parallel lines appear to
converge. In a one-point perspective, all lines converge to a single vanishing point. In
two-point perspective, lines converge to two vanishing points.

• Field of View:

• Perspective projection also considers the concept of a field of view, which

determines how much of the 3D scene is visible in the 2D projection. A wider field of
view captures more of the scene, while a narrower field of view results in a more
zoomed-in view.

• Depth Cueing:

• Perspective projection introduces depth cueing, where objects closer to the viewer
appear larger and more detailed, while objects farther away appear smaller and less
detailed.

Q.3 Explain Cohen-Sutherland line clipping algorithm.

ChatGPT

ChatGPT

The Cohen-Sutherland line clipping algorithm is a computer graphics algorithm used for line clipping
against a rectangular clipping window. This algorithm was developed by Danny Cohen and Ivan
Sutherland and is widely used due to its efficiency and simplicity. The idea is to eliminate portions of
a line that are outside the viewing area or window.

Cohen-Sutherland Algorithm Steps:

The algorithm uses a region code system to quickly identify the location of the endpoints of a line
with respect to the clipping window. The window is divided into nine regions, and each region is
assigned a 4-bit binary code based on the positions of the endpoints. The regions and their codes are
as follows:
1001 | 1000 | 1010

-----------------

0001 | 0000 | 0010

-----------------

0101 | 0100 | 0110

The four bits in the region code represent whether the point is above, below, to the left, or to the
right of the window.

Here are the main steps of the Cohen-Sutherland algorithm:

1. Assign Region Codes:

• Assign a 4-bit binary region code to each endpoint of the line based on its position
with respect to the clipping window.

2. Check Trivial Acceptance/Rejection:

• If both endpoints have a region code of 0000 (inside the window), the line is
completely inside and is trivially accepted.

• If the bitwise AND of the two region codes is not 0000, the line is completely outside
and can be trivially rejected.

3. Clip Against Window Boundaries:

• For each endpoint, if the bitwise AND of its region code and the window code is not
0000, clip the line against the corresponding window boundary.

• Update the endpoint coordinates based on the intersection point with the window
boundary.

4. Repeat Steps 2 and 3:

• Repeat the above steps until the line is either completely inside or outside the
window.

Example:

Consider a line with endpoints (x1, y1) and (x2, y2). The algorithm is applied as follows:

• Assign region codes to both endpoints.

• Check for trivial acceptance or rejection.

• Clip the line against the window boundaries if needed.

• Repeat until the line is completely inside or outside the window.

The Cohen-Sutherland algorithm efficiently eliminates portions of the line that are outside the
clipping window, providing a clipped line that lies entirely within the specified window.
Q.4 Show rotation of a 2D box represented by (5, 5) to (10. 15) with respect to (5, 5) by 900 in
anticlockwise direction.
Q.5 Write the limtations of 4-connected fill method. How it is removed in 8-connected fill method?
Why these methods are called seed-fill methods?

ChatGPT

ChatGPT

Limitations of 4-Connected Fill Method:

The 4-connected fill method is a flood-fill algorithm used in computer graphics to fill closed regions
with a specified color. However, it has some limitations:

1. Diagonal Gaps:

• The 4-connected fill method only considers pixels that share a common edge with
the current pixel. This can lead to issues when filling regions with diagonal gaps or
holes, as the algorithm may not fill them correctly.

2. Disconnected Regions:

• When dealing with regions that are not completely connected by horizontal or
vertical edges, the 4-connected fill method may leave some parts of the region
unfilled.

3. Edge Bleeding:

• The algorithm might cause edge bleeding, where the fill color spills over the
boundaries and affects neighboring regions.

Improvements in 8-Connected Fill Method:

To address the limitations of the 4-connected fill method, the 8-connected fill method considers
pixels that share either a common edge or a common vertex with the current pixel. This means that
diagonal pixels are also considered, leading to more accurate and connected filling of regions.

In the 8-connected fill method, each pixel has eight neighbors: four along the edges and four along
the diagonals. This allows the algorithm to fill regions more effectively, especially in cases involving
diagonal gaps or disconnected parts.

Seed-Fill Methods:

Seed-fill methods, including both 4-connected and 8-connected fill algorithms, are called so because
they start filling a region from a user-specified seed point. The seed point is a starting point within
the region that needs to be filled with a specific color. The algorithm then recursively or iteratively
fills adjacent pixels until the entire region is filled.

The term "seed" is used to represent the initial point from which the filling process begins, much like
planting a seed to grow a plant. Seed-fill methods are commonly used for tasks like flood filling, area
filling, and boundary filling in computer graphics applications.