RADAR

RADAR is an acronym for Radio Detection and Ranging. It is a device capable of

detecting objects at far off distances, measuring the distance or range of the object by using
electromagnetic waves.

Radar frequencies

The spectrum of the electromagnetic waves shows frequencies up to 1024 Hz. This
very large range is subdivided in to different bands of frequencies having specific properties
of propagation and absorption in atmosphere, as given below.

Radar bands and the corresponding frequency bands and wavelength

Band Designation Frequency Wavelength

HF 3 – 30 MHz 100 – 10m
VHF 30-300MHz 10-1 m
UHF 300 - 1000MHz 1 - 0.3 m

L 1-2 GHz 30-15 cm

S 2-4 GHz 15-8 cm
C 4-8 GHz 8-4 cm
X 8-12 GHz 4-2.5 cm
Ku 12-18 GHz 2.5-1.7 cm
K 18-27 GHz 1.7-1.2 cm
Ka 27-40 GHz 1.2-0.75 cm
mm or W 40-300 GHz 7.5 – 1mm

It is easier to build high-power transmitters in lower frequencies. The RF attenuation

is lower in lower frequencies than in higher frequencies. On the other hand the measurement
accuracy is reduced, because the low frequency antennas are very large insize,whichreduces
the angle accuracy and resolution. Use of these frequency-bands in other communications
and broadcasting services causes interferences with Radar Operation.

High frequency (HF) radars (3 – 30 MHz) systems measure the speed and direction
of ocean surface currents in near real time. Currents in the ocean are equivalent to winds in
the atmosphere because they move things from one location to another. These currents carry
nutrients as well as pollutants, so it is important to know the currents for ecological and
economic reasons. The currents carry any floating object, which is why Coast Guard search
and rescue operators use HF radar data to make critical decisions when rescuing disabled
vessels and people stranded in the water. These radars can measure currents over a large
region of the coastal ocean, from a few kilometres offshore up to 200 km, and can operate
under any weather conditions.
 VHF Radars (30-300MHz) are used for observing mesosphere, stratosphere and
troposphere. The Indian MST Radar is a highly sensitive VHF phased array radar operating at
53 MHz with total transmitting power of 2.5 MW ( peak ) and the phased array consists of
1024 crossed three-element Yagi antennas occupying an area of 130m x 130m. .The MST
Radar provides estimates of atmospheric parameters with very high resolution on a
continuous basis for the study of different dynamical processes in the atmosphere. It is an
important research tool in the investigation of prevailing winds, waves (including gravity
waves) turbulence, and atmospheric stability.
UHF- Radars(300 MHz to1 GHz) are used in specialized Radar for the operation of
radars for the detection and tracking of satellites and ballistic missiles over a long range.
These radars operate for early warning and target acquisition like the surveillance radar for
the Medium Extended Air Defense System (MEADS). Wind profilers work with these
frequencies for monitoring the wind and temperature patterns in the atmosphere.

L-Band Frequency (1 to 2 GHz) is used in long-range air-surveillance radars up toto

250 NM (≈400 km).Earth curvature limits the maximum range for targets flying with low
altitude. In Air Traffic Management (ATM) long-range surveillance radars like the Air Route
Surveillance Radar (ARSR) works in this frequency band. Coupled with a Mono-pulse
Secondary Surveillance Radar (MSSR) they use a relatively large, but slower rotating
antenna.

Operational weather radars (X band, C band & S band)function at 3cm, 5cm and 10
cm wave lengths for storm detection and cyclone tracking.For clouds detection millimeter
wave radars are used. Other factors being equal, the echo returns from clouds or precipitation
increases with shorter wavelengths. In addition, for the same antenna size, the beam width is
narrower in shorter wavelength, which results in greater resolution. But the attenuation of the
radar energy increases sharply as the wavelength decreases. Hence, the choice of the
operational wavelength of the radar depends on its intended use. Short wavelengths of the
order of 1 cm or less are suited for cloud detection. For detection of light to moderate rainfall
and thunderstorms, a wavelength of 3 cm is found to be suitable. At this wavelength it is
possible to obtain, a pencil beam of 1° width with an antenna of 2.5 m diameter. However, in
regions of widespread thunderstorm activity or cyclones, the use of higher wavelengths
especially 10 cm is preferred because of the severe attenuation ofradiation 3 cm wave length
in heavy rain. To obtain a beam width of 1°, an antenna with diameter of about 9 m is
required for 10 cm wavelength radiation. To strike a useful compromise between attenuation
and beam width for a light weight fixed small antenna size, wavelength of 5.7 cm in the C-
band, is used. This wavelength is particularly suitable for airborne radars and in temperate
latitudes.

In IMD different types of radar network operating in S band X band frequency for the
purpose of cyclone and storm detection & tracking were installed. Recently C band radars
also have been installed.

Doppler Weather Radars

The existing old radars of IMD’s radar network are being upgraded with modern
radars in a phased manner. Accordingly 4 S-band DWRs imported from Germany were
installed at Chennai, Kolkata, Machilipatnam and Visakhapatnam. A DWR developedby
Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) under a collaborative programme with IMD was
installed at Sriharikota. Doppler weather radars provide information of wind (radial velocity)
and its variance (spectrum width) in addition to the reflectivity. It helps to observe the
distribution of rainfall rates, accumulated rain over a period of time, vertical profile of
horizontal wind, signatures of cyclones and tornadoes, maximum wind in cyclones, wind
shear and turbulence, probability of severe weather and hail and the likely size of hailstones
are important among the products. Digital radar data are being assimilated into Numerical
Weather Prediction (NWP) models. This opens up numerous possibilities for weather
analysis and forecast and now-cast of various weather phenomena.

Out of 12 S band DWRs procured from M/s Beijing Metstar, China. Eight numbers
are installed at Delhi, Hyderabad, Nagpur, Agartala, Patna, Lucknow, Patiala, and
Mohanbari; and one is nearing installation at Bhopal.

Two DWRs, from M/s BEL, Bangalore based on ISRO technology, are being
installed at Mumbai and Bhuj. These are S-band DWRs and will be used for detection&
trackingof cyclones from Arabian Seaand other weather events.

Two C-band Polarimetric DWRs procured from M/s Vaisala Oyj, Finland are
installed at Delhi and Jaipur. Polarimetric radars are capable of providing realistic estimates
of Rainfall measurements, automatic classification of hydrometeors in addition to the
capabilities of DWRs.

Fig. 1.1 Radar network of Cyclone Fig. 1.2 Radar network of MMR and
Detection Radars.(Radars at Chennai, windfinding radars
Kolkata, Machilipatnam and Visakhapatnam
have Doppler Capability)
 Fig. 1.3 Radar network of 55 DWRs after completion of
modernization programme of India Meteorological Department.

Chapter 2

Doppler Weather Radar Principles

1. Doppler Principles

“Doppler” radar makes use of the Doppler Effect to measure velocity of moving
targets it detects. It works by detecting the change in the frequency of the transmitted and
returned signal arising due to the movement of the target. The velocity component of a target
relative to the radar beam is known as the "radial velocity".

2. Working of a Pulsed Doppler Weather Radar

 A Doppler Weather Radar (DWR) consists of a RF transmitter that generate high
power microwave radiation in pulses, an antenna to send the signal out to space and to
receive scattered energy (echoes) from targets around, a servo system to move the antenna in
a planned schedule scan, a receiver to detect and process the received echo signals and a
display unit to graphically present the signal in user understandable form. Magnetrons,
klystrons and travelling wave tubes still continue to be the main RF oscillators of most radar

transmitters.
 Transmitter:The transmitter generates the RF energy either in oscillator mode, or in
Amplifier mode from a stable RF Source (STALO). Klystrons are used for this purpose most
of the time in DWRs for the purpose of coherence to detect the phase differences in the
transmitted and received frequencies. RF Power transmitters of the order of 500 KW are
common, where as transmitter with 1000 KW power is also used in a IMD radar. Though
general working voltages are of the order of 1KV, some transmitters use high voltages of the
order of 70KV.

RF Oscillator Tubes: Magnetrons, Klystron, Thyratron are the popularly used tubes
in weather radars. Magnetrons are mostly used in conventional non Doppler radars. After
improved technology Magnetrons are also being used in DWRs .Klystrons are used in DWRs
particularly to achieve high coherence between the transmitted and received pulses. These
Klystrons are used as Amplifiers where the output power& pulse repetition frequency is
controlled by modulator circuits.

Wave guides: RF power is transmitted to the antenna using wave guides which are
also known as travelling wave tubes. Wave guides are hollow metal tubes with rectangular
cross section, made from aluminum or gun metal. In the waveguide chain where ever bends
are required L-bends and U-bends are used. Flexible wave guides are also used where-ever
links are to be negotiated slightly, during installation.

Antenna and duplexers: A Radar antenna is generally a parabolic dish antenna that
is very sensitive with high gain. It is generally designed to generate beam of about 1 degree
beam-width for generating high resolution data sets. The same antenna is used for
transmitting and receiving the RF Signals. The switching is done by duplexers. Duplexers
allow the receiver to be cut-off from antenna during transmission to safe guard the receiver.
Circulators are one type of duplexers and when ferrite materials are used as core of these
circulators, they are known as ferrite circulators.

Receivers:Receivers are divided into two types basically. RF Front end amplifiers
are RF booster amplifiers that increase the signal strength of received energy. Mixer-
amplifier actually mixes the Received energy with STALO frequencies and the generated
Intermediate Frequency IF is used for further processing. In general 10 MHz or 30 MHz are
the IF frequencies. Some radars use two-stage IF mixing.
 Signal Processors: Signal processing is the most complicated of all radar hardware.
It involves deriving the echo properties/radar base parameters from the received signals.
Algorithms like Pulse pair and Fast Fourier Transformation (FFT) techniques are used for
this. The basic output of the Receiver consists of information on Amplitude and Phase of the
received signal. From amplitude information we deduce the intensity of the back-scattered
signal and from Phase information we deduce the radial velocity of the moving targets.

Servo System:The Servo system is the hard ware part of remote control of antenna.
It consists of antenna gear assembly, motor systems, position encoders, servo controllers and
a control console. Modern servo systems are operated based on computer programs/scan
schedule stored in workstation of radar controller.

Radar Controllers: A modern DWR needs coordinated operation between

transmitter, receiver, servo, antenna, data collection, signal processing and display systems.
This needs a central monitoring and control of all the operations flawlessly. A Radar
controller is a programme that takes care of all these operations, based on the inputs from the
operator either in manual (immediate) mode or in automatic (pre-programmed) mode. Most
of the modern radars are generally operated in fully automatic mode that takes care of the
operation, calibration, data acquisition, product generation and data dissemination.