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3.

Explain the role of radar transmitters, receivers and modulators in radar


systems.

In a radar system, the transmitter, receiver, and modulator work together to


generate and process radio signals to detect the presence of objects and
determine their properties:
• Transmitter
Generates a radio signal using a power amplifier, such as a klystron or
magnetron, and a modulator that controls the signal's duration. The
transmitter sends the signal through a waveguide to the antenna.
• Modulator
Switches the transmitter on and off to create the desired waveform for the
transmitted pulse. The modulator manages the timing and duration of the
transmission.
• Receiver
Receives the signal reflected back from the target and processes it to
determine the target's presence, range, speed, and other properties. The
receiver compares the output to a threshold to determine if an object is
present.
4.Explain the working of Phased Array Radar and mention its applications

Phased array radar uses a phased array antenna (PAA) to electronically scan
the horizon. The PAA is a flat panel made up of many antenna elements, each
with a phase shifter that controls the phase relationship between the signals
they transmit. The phase and amplitude of the signals can be adjusted to steer
the radar beam in different directions without moving the antenna. This
process is called beamforming.
Here are some key features of phased array radar:
• Beamforming
The phase and amplitude of the signals are adjusted to create a directional
beam. This can improve the accuracy of the radar reflection signal by reducing
signal radiation in some directions and boosting it in the desired direction.
• Multiple beams
Phased array antennas can generate multiple beams simultaneously, allowing
for tracking multiple targets or establishing multiple communication channels.
• Applications
Phased array radar is used in space, ground, and airborne applications, such as
tracking spacecraft, ships, and aircraft, and in missile defence systems

5.Discuss Radar performance factors.

Radar performance can be measured by several factors, including:


• Range: The maximum range at which a radar can detect a target of a
given size
• Accuracy: How accurately a radar can measure a target's location in
range and angle
• Target discrimination: How well a radar can distinguish one target from
another
• Target detection: How well a radar can detect a target echo when it's
masked by other signals or clutter
• Target recognition: How well a radar can recognize the type of target
• Availability: How often a radar is available and operational when needed
• Reliability: How reliable a radar is
• Maintainability: How easy a radar is to maintain

6.An MTI radar operates at 5 GHz, with PRF 800 pps. Calculate the lowest three
blind speeds.
To calculate the lowest three blind speeds for an MTI (Moving Target Indicator)
radar, we can use the following formula:
Vb=n⋅λ⋅PRF/ 2
Where:
• vb is the blind speed
• n is the harmonic number (1, 2, 3, ...)
• λ lambda is the wavelength of the radar signal
• PRF is the Pulse Repetition Frequency
First, we need to find the wavelength (λ):
λ=c/f
Where:
• c is the speed of light (3×10^8 m/s)
• f is the frequency (5 GHz or 5×10^9 Hz)

λ=3×10^9/5×10^9
=0.06 meters
Now, we can calculate the blind speeds for the first three harmonics (n =
1, 2, 3):
1. For n=1:
vb1=1x0.06x800/2
=24 m/s
2. For n=2:
vb2=2x0.06x800/2
=48 m/s
3. For n=3:
Vb3=2x0.06x800/2
=72 m/s
So, the lowest three blind speeds for the MTI radar are 24 m/s, 48 m/s, and 72
m/s
7. Explain the working of conical scanning and sequential lobing in tracking radars.
Conical scanning and sequential lobing are both tracking radar techniques
that use a rotating beam to extract an angle-error signal:
• Conical scanning
In this technique, the antenna beam rotates continuously and offset
from the axis of rotation. The angle between the two axes is called the squint
angle. The echo signal's amplitude and phase are modulated by the rotation
of the beam. The radar uses a servo-control system to position the antenna
on the target based on the modulation. Conical scanning was used in early
radar units to improve accuracy and steer the antenna. It's still used by the
Deep Space Network to communicate with space probes.
• Sequential lobing
In this technique, two lobes are used to track a target in one axis. The center
point where the two lobes overlap is the antenna's boresight, which is the
tracking box that the antenna maintains. The radar achieves line-of-sight to
the target when the signal return from the target is the same in both beams.
Both conical scanning and sequential lobing require a minimum number of
pulses to extract the angle-error signal. The accuracy of the tracking can be
degraded if the echo pulse-train contains additional modulation components.

8. Explain the basic principle of a radar system. Give the limitations and applications
of the radar.
Radar, or Radio Detection and Ranging, works by transmitting electromagnetic
waves and measuring the time it takes for the echoes to return. The basic
principle of radar is:
• Transmission: A transmitter radiates high-energy electrical pulses into
space.
• Reflection: When the pulses hit a target, they scatter and are reflected
back.
• Reception: The antenna receives the scattered pulses.
• Measurement: The time it takes for the pulse to reach the target and
return to the transmitter is measured.
• Calculation: The distance, direction, and other characteristics of the
target are calculated from the time it takes for the pulse to return.
radar also has some limitations, including:
• It can take a long time to lock onto a target.
• It has a wide beam size.
• It has a limited range.
• It can interact with many objects and mediums in the air.
Radar has many applications, including:
• Air and sea navigation: Radar helps keep aircraft and ships safe.
• Weather monitoring: Radar can detect weather formations.
• Law enforcement: Radar can measure the speed of vehicles, especially in
bad weather.
• Military operations: Radar is used to track and detect satellites and
spacecraft.
9.Define the maximum unambiguous range in radars and discuss its significance.

The maximum unambiguous range of a radar is the farthest distance at which


a radar can accurately detect a target without ambiguity in range
measurement. It is determined by the time interval between successive
transmitted pulses, or the Pulse Repetition Interval (PRI).
The formula for the maximum unambiguous range is:
Rmax=CxT/2=C/2xfr
Where:
• C: Speed of light (3×10^8m/s)
• T: Pulse Repetition Interval (PRI) in seconds
• fr: Pulse Repetition Frequency (PRF) in Hz (fr=1/T)
This means the maximum unambiguous range is inversely proportional to the
PRF.
Significance of Maximum Unambiguous Range:
1. Range Ambiguity Avoidance:
o Radar systems measure the range by calculating the time taken for
a transmitted pulse to return as an echo. If a target is beyond the
maximum unambiguous range, the echo from one pulse may
return after the next pulse has been transmitted, leading to range
ambiguity. This makes it difficult to associate the echo with the
correct transmitted pulse, resulting in an incorrect range
measurement.
2. Determines Operational Limits:
o The Rmax defines the maximum range up to which the radar can
detect targets reliably without confusion. It helps in designing the
radar system for specific applications such as air traffic control,
weather monitoring, or military surveillance.
3. Trade-off Between PRF and Rmax:
o A low PRF increases Rmax, allowing detection of distant targets
but reduces Doppler resolution, making it harder to distinguish
moving targets.
o A high PRF enhances Doppler resolution and can detect fast-
moving targets, but it decreases Rmax, limiting the radar's ability
to detect far-away targets

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