VOL. 3, NO.

12, December 2013 ISSN 2225-7217

ARPN Journal of Science and Technology
©2011-2013. All rights reserved.

http://www.ejournalofscience.org

An Exploration of the Ethno-Medicinal Practices among

Traditional Healers in Southwest Cebu, Philippines
1
Ramon S. Del Fierro, 2 Fiscalina A. Nolasco
1
Department of Chemistry, University of San Carlos
2
Department of Anthropology, Sociology and History, University of San Carlos

ABSTRACT
This study documents the cultural knowledge of herbal remedial measures among Cebuano traditional healers in four
municipalities of southwest Cebu, Philippines. It aims to assess the terrestrial and marine resources used by healers in
treating illnesses, similarities and differences in the methods of extraction, preparation and administration, the ailments for
which the locally available plants are used, and whether there are plants with medicinal usage which have not been
documented in previous studies. Free-listing and one-on-one interviews were carried out with eight traditional healers
(mananambal). The study shows that plants used during treatment episodes and the procedures employed for extraction,
preparation and administration do not vary significantly across sites. The ordinary ailments treated were fever, cough, cold,
stomachache, headache, hyperacidity, toothache, diarrhea, gas pain, small cuts and wounds, swelling, ascaris and skin
fungal infections. Leaves are commonly used in all four sites, and the most common methods of extraction are decoction
and expression. In general, the narratives point to actual illness episodes, herbal medication procedures, healers’
impressions regarding the efficacy of the plants used, and how they have helped the patients in pursuit of health and well-
being.

Keywords: ethnomedicine, natural products, medicinal plants, mananambal

1. INTRODUCTION modern medicine. Ethnomedical studies of health intend

Anthropologists view humans as both biological to determine the insiders’ knowledge of various systems
and cultural creatures, and are currently involved in of healing by focusing on traditional healers and
applying anthro-pological knowledge in the study of alternative medicine practices. An illustration of ethno-
health and illness. Medical anthropology, a sub-discipline medicine is the study of herbal medicines of four
of anthropology, is concerned with human health in municipalities in southwest Cebu, Philippines, a project
various environmental and cultural contexts. The concept which is part of a larger undertaking on natural products.
of culture is essential because belief systems, cultural A number of natural products, both marine and terrestrial
practices and other complex networks of variables sources, are included in the group of substances which are
account for actual behaviors. Because every medical categorized as part of complementary and alternative
system is a cultural system (Rhodes, 1996) and medical medicine practices. These encompass the use of herbal or
knowledge is available to all members of a cultural group botanical medicines which are not necessarily considered
(Fabrega, 1970), it is crucial to give cultural importance to be part of conventional medicine. Whether the
to the insiders’ perspective - what people know, believe, therapies are safe and effective for the ailments for which
and do. In determining the categories through which they are used is a concern in botanical and chemical
people create meanings in their lives, medical research. The practices of traditional healers are
anthropologists employ comparative and interdisciplinary considered a form of complementary and alternative
approaches to better understand people’s own system, in medicine (nccam.nih.gov/health).
this case, their own folk medicine. They document a wide
range of human survival strategies and the consequences In Philippine Cebuano society, a traditional
of these on health and human welfare (McElroy and healer (mananam-bal) is an indigenous medical
Townsend, 2009). Because people perceive symptoms practitioner who resorts to folk medicine to cure patients
and illnesses in many different ways, medical suffering from common or ordinary ailments, and
anthropologists try to understand people’s decisions about sometimes illnesses believed to be caused by supernatural
whether to treat an illness at home, consult a traditional forces. Traditional healers utilize a variety of remedies
healer or seek biomedical care (Simon, et al., 1996). based on indigenous beliefs and experiences which have
been acquired from their elders and handed down from
Ethnomedicine, a sub-field of medical generation to generation. Treatment may include prayer,
anthropology, deals with the study of traditional massage, medicinal herbs, or other ways not employed by
medicines and the variant medical subcultures found in modern medicine practitioners. In the countryside,
various communities. According to Hughes (1968), residents often seek the help of the mananambal for
ethnomedicine refers to health beliefs and practices which common ailments because biomedical care is relatively
are a result of indigenous cultural development and not expensive and modern medical facilities and resources are
explicitly derived from the conceptual framework of concentrated in big towns or cities. Research suggests that
belief systems and patients’ trust in herbal medications

1182
 VOL. 3, NO. 12, December 2013 ISSN 2225-7217
ARPN Journal of Science and Technology
©2011-2013. All rights reserved.

http://www.ejournalofscience.org
and in the healing power of the mananambal shape their southwest of Cebu City. The topography of both Alegria
decisions in choosing a treatment action. Traditional and Badian is generally hilly and mountainous (Zosa et
healers are believed to have a special connection with the al., 2000). Another fourth class municipality is
spiritual world and that their healing power is derived Dumanjug. It is located about 74 kilometers southwest of
from their spiritual patron (Lieban, 1978). Whether he/she Cebu City, has a total population of 46,754, and a total
specializes only in treating ailments of the skeletal and land area of 8,553 hectares. Unlike Alegria and Badian,
muscle systems (manghihilot) or in spiritualist healing the topography of Dumanjug is described as moderately
(albularyo), therapy may also include the use of plants undulating/rolling land. The farthest of the four sites is
reputed to possess medicinal value. Ginatilan, another fifth class municipality situated
approximately 135 kilometers southwest of Cebu City. Of
This paper provides information on (i) herbal the four sites, Ginatilan has the least number of
and/or medicinal plants used during treatment episodes, population, 15,327 (NSO, 2010) and land area, 7,010
(ii) procedures for preparation and administration to hectares. Figure 1 shows the locations of the four study
achieve the desired results, and (iii) illnesses, ailments, sites.
and signs and symptoms for which the plants are used for.

The subject matter here is confined to the

identification and descriptions of medicinal plants used
by traditional healers for treatment in four southwest
municipalities of Cebu, an island province in Central
Philippines. It assesses whether there is a pattern or a
level of similarity of the materials used, in the method of
preparation and administration, the ailments for which
they are used, and is not overtly concerned with
developing or testing models. Analysis of the illness
episodes experienced by patients is not dealt with in this
paper. Illness is defined by Stafford (1978) as a term that
denotes the patient’s perception of a health problem, and
such perception governs the patient’s behavior including
the selection of a remedial measure. In this study, the
healers’ perception of illness will be considered. It is
believed that such recognition is derived from patients
who, over time, have come to them for help.

This undertaking also aims to determine whether

there are medicinal plants in the target sites which have
not been documented in previous studies, and whether the
signs and symptoms for which the plants are used for
vary across sites.

It is envisioned that this study will inspire other

researchers to embark on a more detailed investigation on Fig 1: Study sites in Southwest Cebu
folk medicine in Cebu. Several studies on indigenous
methods of treatment have been conducted in many parts 2. METHODS
of the Philippines but a dearth of information exists Fieldwork was conducted between December
insofar as the province of Cebu is concerned. How 2012 and October 2013. A total of eight traditional
healing skills are passed from generation to generation, healers were located and interviewed separately at
medical beliefs and practices, patients’ explanatory different occasions. The inclusion criteria for selecting
models for the illnesses and their reasons for choosing a study participants are (i) has been a mananambal for
specific herbal therapy and a therapist are interesting more than five years, and (ii) has lived in the community
concerns. for not less than seven years.

1.1 The Study Sites Free-listing, an anthropological interviewing

The study sites (Alegria, Badian, Dumanjug, and technique used in cultural domain analysis, was employed
Ginatilan) are all located southwest of Cebu Island in to better understand the boundaries of what is being
Central Philippines. Alegria, classified as a fifth class studied, in this case, herbal/medicinal plants. The use of
municipality, has a population of 22,0272 (NSO, 2010), a free-listing is to ensure that the concepts are defined by
land area of 8,949 hectares, and is located approximately the informants themselves, and are, therefore, culturally
117 kilometers southwest of Cebu City. On the other relevant. The herbalists were requested to mention as
hand, Badian, a fourth class municipality has a population many herbal/medicinal plants as they could think of and
of 37,699 (NSO, 2010), and is about 97.6 kilometers as many reasons for identifying these. They were also

1183
 VOL. 3, NO. 12, December 2013 ISSN 2225-7217
ARPN Journal of Science and Technology
©2011-2013. All rights reserved.

http://www.ejournalofscience.org
requested to present samples of these plants. To further believing that lack of trust and devotion to their spiritual
explore the data obtained from the free-listing exercise, patron will make their healing power disappear. A 61
they were asked about their perceptions regarding what year old female mananambal in Alegria, however, claim
plant(s) is/are being used to cure certain types of that she had died, at age 21, as a result of a car accident
ailments, and which of the plants are frequently used in and was brought back to life miraculously by the spirits
healing. The herbalists explained why a plant or a group or gods whom she presumed to be living in the tree where
of plants are important in providing treatment or relief to her dead body was found. She narrated that her having
patients with such illness episodes. Care was taken to recovered from a fatal condition is an indication of a
focus on the exact Cebuano (the local language in Cebu) divine call. Following her recovery, she started her
terms used. healing activities using various methods including the use
of herbal medicines. She believes that she has been gifted
All medicinal plants mentioned were listed and with a healing power and it is her social and moral
photo-documentation was done on plants which can be obligation to help others. The mananambal in all the four
found in the backyard of the mananambal. The sites specialize in various forms of treating ailments. In
mananambal was also requested to perform a this paper, however, only herbal therapies are considered.
demonstration regarding the preparation of one or more
of his/her medicine. Samples of the plants were collected 3.2 Herbal/Medicinal Plants Used
so that their identity are confirmed, catalogued in the Free-listings of the plants used by the traditional
herbarium, and then turned over to a chemical laboratory healers yielded from as many as 16 items provided by one
for examination of possible bioactive compounds which healer to a low of seven, for a total of 35 medicinal
may be responsible for their medicinal properties. Using plants. It appears that the use of Mayana (Coeus blumei)
open-ended questioning, one-on-one in-depth interviews and Malunggay (Moringa oleifera) are common to the
were carried out to supplement information generated mananambal in all the four sites. Except for Ginatilan,
from free-listing as well as provide depth towards Mandalosa (Justicia gendarussa) is also used in Alegria,
understanding their healing culture. Narratives of their Badian, and Dumanjug. Dila-Dila (Pseudelephantopus
healing beliefs and practices were noted. Prior to the spicatus) is used in Badian and Dumanjug; and Lagundi
interview, a topic guide was developed to ensure that the (Vitex negundo), in Badian and Ginatilan. Sibukaw
range of important factors needed to understand their (Caesalpinia sappan) and Siko Carabao (Annona
beliefs and practices are properly documented. The muricata) are also cited in Dumanjug and Ginatilan, and
interview was lengthy and hour-long sessions were done Badian and Duman-jug, respectively. Other plants used
over several visits to the sites. Participation in the study by the mananambal are listed in Table 1.
was voluntary and the participants were interviewed
privately after obtaining their consent to participate. The 3.3 Ailments and Illnesses
interview was conducted in the local language and the Tables 2 to 5 present the specific part of the
presence of an assistant to the mananambal was crucial in plants which are used for healing, the type of extraction
providing a clear understanding to the discussion. and administration, and the ailments for which the plants
are used. Common ailments cited include fever (hilanat),
3. RESULTS cough (ubo), cold (sip-on), stomachache (sakit sa tiyan),
headache (labad sa ulo), hyperacidity (kabuhi), toothache
3.1 The Mananambal (sakit sa ngipon), diarrhea (kalibanga), gas pain
A total of eight traditional healers, four males (panuhot), small cuts and wounds (samad-samad),
and four females, were located and interviewed. Their swelling (hubag), ascaris infection (gibitok), and skin
ages range from 42 to 85 years old. Mean age is 70. On fungal infections (nuka-nuka). [The terms in parenthesis
average, the mananambal provides herbal therapies to are Cebuano translations.]
residents in the community for 44 years. Payment is left
up to the patient and usually ranges from PhP10.00 to Table 1: Medicinal plants used by the mananambal in the
PhP50.00, or sometimes, in kind. They say that the herbal different sites visited. The names indicated are in
plants they are using are as effective as any medicine Cebuano language.
recommended by doctors for common and ordinary
ailments. Because payment is not obligatory and it is up Study Sites
to the patient to offer whatever amount he/she would like Medicinal Plants Used 1 2 3 4
to donate, all eight mananambal say they are happy to be
of service to people who are in need of immediate Abokado (Persea Americana) X
medical attention. Albahaka (Hyptis suavolens) X
Ampalaya (Momordica charantia) X
Generally, they have acquired their abilities Atay-atay (Graptophyllum pictum) X
through observation and practice. Healing skills were Atis (Anona squamosa) X
learned from a parent, grandparent, or a close relative Bangkoro (Morinda citrifolia) X
who, over time, taught them the value of alternative Bila-bila (Elymus repens) X
medicine. Knowledge of indigenous medicine among Busikad (Cyperus kyllingia) X
them is used in association with religious activities Caimito (Chrysophyllum cainito) X

1184
 VOL. 3, NO. 12, December 2013 ISSN 2225-7217
ARPN Journal of Science and Technology
©2011-2013. All rights reserved.

http://www.ejournalofscience.org
Study Sites
Medicinal Plants Used 1 2 3 4

Dalapot/Gabon (Blumea balsamifera) X

Dapdap (Erythrina variegata) X
Dila-dila (Pseudelephantopus spicatus) X X
Dulau (Puti) (Curcuma zedoaria) X
Escobilla (Sida acuta) X
Hilbas (Artemesia vulgaris) X
Kamansili (Pithecolobium dulce) X
Kamias (Hedychium coronarium) X
Kipi-kipi/Hibi-hibi (Biophytum X
sensitivum)
Kwachichao (Orthosiphon aristatus) X
Lagnob (Ficus hauli) X
Lagundi (Vitex negundo) X X
Mahogany (Swietenia macrophylla) X
Malunggay (Moringa oleifera) X X X X
Mandalosa (Justicia gendarussa) X X X
Mayana (Coleus blumei) X X X X
Nangka (Artocarpus heterophyllus) X
Noog-noog (Solanum verbascifolium) X
Palad (Eleusine indica) X
Salingkapaw/Mangagaw (Euphorbia X
hirta)
Sibukaw (Caesalpinia sappan) X X
Siko Carabao (Annona muricata) X X
Tabing (Abutilon indicum) X
Tanglad (Andropogon citratus) X
Tuba-tuba (Jatropha curcas) X
Tubo (Pula) (Saccharum officinarum) X
Total 7 15 11 14
Study Sites: 1-Alegria; 2-Badian; 3-Dumanjug; 4-Ginatilan

Table 2: Medicinal plants used by the mananambal in Badian –

by specific part, method of extraction, administration and ailment.

Plant Material/ Extraction Administration Ailment

Specific Part
Ampalaya, leaves Expression Ingestion Cough
Bangkoro, leaves Expression Skin penetration Hyperacidity
Dapdap, trunk Expression Skin penetration Hemorrhoids
Dila-dila, sprout Infusion Ingestion Abdominal pain
Dulau, rhizome Decoction Ingestion Arthritis
Gabon, leaves Decoction Skin penetration Pasmo sa kusog*
Hilbas, sprout Decoction Ingestion Pasmo sa kaon**
Lagundi, leaves Decoction Ingestion Swelling, cough,
kidney
Mandalosa, leaves Expression Skin penetration Gas pain, back pain
Mayana, leaves Expression Skin penetration Swelling
Noog-noog, leaves Expression Skin penetration Hyperacidity
Palad, sprout & Expression Skin penetration Back pains,
stem fractures
Mangagaw, leaves Decoction Ingestion Dengue
Siko Carabao, Decoction Ingestion Diabetes,
leaves hypertension
Siko Carabao, Expression Skin penetration Ascaris infection
leaves
Tubo (Pula), stalk Decoction Ingestion Hypertension

1185
 VOL. 3, NO. 12, December 2013 ISSN 2225-7217
ARPN Journal of Science and Technology
©2011-2013. All rights reserved.

http://www.ejournalofscience.org

Table 3: Medicinal plants used by the mananambal in Dumanjug – by specific part,

method of extraction, administration and ailment.

Plant Material/ Specific Part Extraction Administration Ailment

Dila-dila, sprout Decoction Ingestion Hyperacidity,
stomachache, pasmo**
Kamias, leaves Decoction Ingestion Stomach ulcer
Kipi-kipi, leaves Decoction Ingestion Nervousness
Kwachichao, leaves Decoction Ingestion Kidney problems
Malunggay, leaves Decoction/ Ingestion Kidney problems
Expression
Mandalosa, leaves Expression Skin penetration Stomachache
Mayana, leaves Expression Skin penetration Wounds, swelling
Mangagaw, leaves Decoction Ingestion Dengue, measles
Sibukaw, tree bark Decoction Ingestion Anemia
Siko Carabao, leaves Expression Skin penetration Stomachache
Siko Carabao, leaves Decoction Ingestion Cyst, cancer
Tanglad, leaves Decoction Ingestion Hypertension

Table 4: Medicinal plants used by the mananambal in Alegria – by specific part,

method of extraction, administration and ailment.

Plant Material/ Specific Part Extraction Administration Ailment

Abokado, leaves Decoction Ingestion Kidney stones
Atay-atay, leaves Infusion Ingestion Liver problems
Mahogany, bark Decoction Ingestion Fever, diarrhea
Malunggay, roots Decoction Ingestion Cancer
Mandalosa, leaves Expression Skin penetration Body pain, hyperacidity
Mayana, leaves Expression Skin penetration Swelling, bruises, sprains
Nangka, leaves Decoction Ingestion Stomachache

Table 5: Medicinal plants used by the mananambal in Ginatilan – by specific part,

method of extraction, administration and ailment.
Plant Material/ Specific Part Extraction Administration Ailment
Albahaka, leaves Decoction Skin penetration Skin fungal infection
Atis, leaves Expression Skin penetration Fracture
Bila-bila, leaves Expression Skin penetration Fever
Busikad, leaves Expression Ingestion Toothache
Busikad, leaves Decoction Ingestion Cough, fever, headache
Caimito, peel Expression Ingestion Toothache
Escobilla, leaves Expression Skin penetration Relapse (bughat)
Kamansili, leaves Expression Ingestion Cyst, cancer
Lagnob, sprout Expression Skin penetration Headache
Lagundi, leaves Infusion Ingestion Cough
Malunggay, leaves Decoction Ingestion Stomach ulcer
Mayana, leaves Infusion Skin penetration Cyst
Sibukaw, tree bark Infusion Ingestion Cyst, cancer
Tabing, leaves Decoction Ingestion Goiter
Tuba-tuba, leaves Decoction Ingestion Arthritis, mild stroke,
hypertension

1186
 VOL. 3, NO. 12, December 2013 ISSN 2225-7217
ARPN Journal of Science and Technology
©2011-2013. All rights reserved.

http://www.ejournalofscience.org

*symptoms are hand tremors, numbness and pains, may be due to extensive use of the hand and quickly
bringing this contact with water.
**sickness felt after missing a meal or for not eating a meal on time.

In all the four sites, Mayana is used for The traditional healers included in this study are
immediate treatment of wounds, swelling, bruises, popular in the locality and are the most sought after
sprains, and cysts. On the other hand, Malunggay is mananambal. The way they prepare their ingredients for
believed to be an effective cure for cancer (Alegria), treatment regimen follow the general principles of
kidney problems (Dumanjug), and stomach ulcer (Alegria extraction, i.e., decoction, expression and infusion. Even
and Ginatilan). A third commonly used plant is with their simple methods, it is presumed that the
Mandalosa and it is used for hyperacidity (Alegria), bioactive compounds from the plant sources which are
stomachache (Dumanjug), and gas pain and body/back responsible for the curative effects have been extracted.
pains (Badian). The mananambal explained that when an The study did not deal with questions on whether the
ailment persists, biomedical care is advised to patients. In healers are certain about the illnesses for which the plants
most cases, however, they say that common illnesses are are used. Responses obtained are recorded at face value
relieved after giving herbal medication. because qualitative researchers are expected to observe
and record what the people they study say and do. The
While the mananambal in Badian use Lagundi to mananambal are respected healers in their community
cure cough, kidney problems, and swelling; in Ginatilan, and questioning their knowledge on the validity of their
it is simply used diagnoses is not being culturally-sensitive. Hahn (1995:
103-104) notes that anthropologists seek to interpret the
For cough. Both the Badian and Dumanjug world of others as the world appears to them. Hence,
healers use Mangagaw to cure dengue and measles. researchers must remain open to new ideas emerging
Similarly, Dila-Dila is also used in Badian and Dumanjug from the local setting, and their task is to use the
for hyperacidity, stomachache, and pasmo (pain universal framework of observation in order to achieve an
experienced by a patient due to irregular eating habits). understanding of the local framework.
Cure for anemia in Dumanjug is Sibukaw while in
Ginatilan, the plant is used for cancer and eradicating Health is a fundamental right for men, women,
cyst. Siko Carabao in Badian is an effective cure for and children, and is influenced by a combination of
diabetes, hypertension, and ascaris infection; while in several interrelated factors. Limited financial resources
Dumanjug, it is used for stomachache, cancer, and cyst. influence treatment choices and actions of residents in the
four study areas. In the face of poverty, they have the
3.4 Procedures for Preparation and Application tendency to resort to affordable means even if the
In most cases, leaves of the plants are condition requires the attention of biomedically-trained
commonly used. The usual methods of extraction are health professionals. Systems of beliefs and cultural ideas
decoction (25 mentions) and expression (22 mentions); about healing also influence people’s decisions regarding
while infusion (5 mentions) is the least. Decoction (hot the type of ailments and symptoms they consult with
aqueous extract) entails boiling in water to extract the traditional healers. Given this reality, it is therefore
medicinal properties from the plant material, allowing the recommended that support for indigenous healers should
mixture to concentrate, and giving the resulting mixture be extended given their role in the medical system. They
for the patient to drink (ingestion). On the other hand, the must be provided with appropriate knowledge of the
method of expression involves extracting the essential symptoms of biomedically-viewed ailments, proper
medicinal properties from the plant material by pounding medica-tion for them, and a referral system for ailments
or squeezing and applying the extracts to the affected for which they are regularly consulted. Further study of
area, or applying the directly as poultice (skin the relationship between the patient and the mananambal
penetration). Infusion entails the immersion of the plant must be explored to better understand the context of folk
material in water for a certain period of time before medicine in Cebu. Above all, a study on the isolation,
application. purification, and characterization of the bioactive
metabolites that are responsible for the medicinal
4. DISCUSSION properties of the plants must be conducted. This may
The data show that several of the plants used by strengthen the use of these plants as medicinals.
traditional healers are those which have been proven to
possess a medicinal value. Traditional healers’ extensive ACKNOWLEDGMENT
knowledge of the medicinal usage of plants and where This research was made possible through a
these can be grown, and their skills in the preparation and generous grant from the Philippines’ Commission on
administration are remarkable. The use of Mayana in the Higher Education (CHED) - Philippine Higher Education
four study sites is an indication that swelling, wounds, Research Network (PHERNET); and the University of
bruises, and sprains are illnesses and symptoms San Carlos.
frequently occurring in the study areas.

1187
 VOL. 3, NO. 12, December 2013 ISSN 2225-7217
ARPN Journal of Science and Technology
©2011-2013. All rights reserved.

http://www.ejournalofscience.org
The authors are also indebted to the following Mexican-American female. In Bauwens, E. E.
members of the USC Natural Products Research Group (ed). 1978. The anthropology of health. Saint
(NPRG): Queenie Marie A. Maquilang, Maricel E. Louis: The C.V. Mosby Company.
Judilla, Ma. Ligaya S. Suico, Val S. Salares, Bong C.
Caballero, and Rio B.Valdez [8] Simon, A., et al. 1996. Caretakers’ management of
childhood acute respiratory infections and the use
REFERENCES of antibiotics,Bohol, the Philippines. Human
[1] Fabrega, H. 1970. On the specificity of folk illness. Organization 55: 76-83.
Southwestern Journal of Anthropology 26: 305-
314. [9] What is complementary and alternative medicine?
http://www.nccam.nih.gov/health.
[2] Hahn, R. A. 1995. Sickness and healing. An
anthropological perspective. New Haven and [10] Zosa, A. R., Zosa, V., Gultiano, S., & Cusi, D.
London: Yale University Press. 2004. Cebu: A demographic and socioeconomic
profile based on the 2000 census. Cebu City,
[3] Hughes, C. C. 1968. Ethnomedicine. In Philippines: San Carlos Publications and Office of
International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences. Population Studies.
New York: The Free Press.
AUTHOR PROFILES
[4] Lieban, R. W. 1978. Sex differences and cultural
dimensions of medical phenomena in a Philippine Ramon S. del Fierro received the B.S. degree in
setting. In Morley, P. and Wallis, R. (eds.). Culture chemistry from the University of San Carlos in 1980;
and curing. Anthropological perspectives on M.S. in Biochemistry from the University of the
traditional medical beliefs and practices. Great Philippines-Manila in 1983; and Ph.D. in Biomedical
Britain: Peter Owen Limited. Chemistry in 1997 from The University of Tokyo, Japan.
He had post-graduate research trainings at the Tokyo
[5] McElroy, A., and Townsend, P. 2009. Medical Institute of Technology, and the Yamanashi Medical
anthropology in ecological perspective. 5th University. He specializes on Bioassays, Chemical
edition. USA: West view Press. Toxicology, Mutagen Research, Natural Products
Chemistry, Perturbation of Neurotransmitter Release,
[6] Quisumbing, Eduardo. Medicinal Plants of the Chemical Education, Curriculum/Course Development
Philippines. 1978: Katha Publishing Co., Inc.,
JMC Press, Inc.,Quezon City, Philippines Fiscalina A. Nolasco received the A.B. degree in
sociology and anthropology from the University of San
[6] Rhodes, L. A. 1996. Studying biomedicine as a Carlos in 1983; M.A. and Ph.D. in Anthropology from the
cultural system. In Medical anthropology: same university in 1993 and 2005, respectively.
Contemporary theory and method. Carolyn Sargent Currently, she is Full Professor at the Department of
& Thomas Johnson (eds.). Westport, CT: Praeger. Anthropology, Sociology and History, College of Arts
system. In Medical anthropology: Contemporary and Sciences, University of San Carlos, Cebu City,
theory and method. Carolyn Sargent & Thomas Philippines. Her research interests include women and
Johnson (eds.). Westport, CT: Praeger. health, ethnomedical knowledge, HIV and AIDS,
environment and water, and other development-related
[7] Stafford, A. M. 1978. The application of clinical studies
anthropology to medical practice: Case study of
recurrent abdominal pain in a preadolescent

1188