University of engineering and technology

Peshawar, Abbottabad campus

Course no: ELE-322L

Course title: Signal and Systems

Instructor: Engr.Muhammad Ayaz

Date of conduction: 24-06-2023

Date of submission: 26-07-2023

Group no: 02
Group members

• Muhammad Hassan (21abelt0918)

• Noman Qamar (21abelt0909)
• Nawal Fatima (21abelt0905)
• Sabahat Rahim(21abelt0897)

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Task 1:
Objective:

Modified a Wien-bridge circuit to oscillate at a specified frequency.

Specifications:
Design the Wien-bridge oscillator shown in Figure 1 to oscillate at fr = 20 kHz.

Choices:
An ideal op-amp is available and standard-valued resistors and capacitors are to be
used.

Figure 1 Wien bridge oscillator

Wien Bridge Oscillator

Introduction
Oscillators are circuits that generate periodic waveforms without requiring an input
signal. They typically utilize active devices like transistors or operational amplifiers
(OPAMPs) as amplifiers, along with passive components such as resistors,
capacitors, or inductors in a feedback network. One commonly used oscillator is the
Wien bridge oscillator, which is known for its simplicity. In this configuration an
OPAMP is employed as the amplifying device, and the Wien bridge acts as the
feedback element.

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To achieve oscillations, the OPAMP is used in the noninverting mode, which
introduces a phase shift of 0 degrees. It is expected that the feedback network also
introduces a phase shift of 0 degrees at the oscillation frequency.

The frequency of oscillations can be determined by the circuit components and is

given by:

The feedback network provides a gain of 1/3. Consequently, the amplifier gain in the
inverting mode should be slightly higher than 3.

Mathematical Calculations

Given Frequency
fr=20KHz

We know that

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 Solving for R.

Let us
assume

Standard value resistor R =1K

As per condition

Now modified Wein bridge circuit with frequency 20KHz become as,

Figure 2 Modified Wein bridge Oscillator

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Multisim Implementation

Figure 3 Wein bridge oscillator multisim

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Output waveform

Figure 4 Output Wave form of Wein bridge oscillator

Output Frequency

Figure 5 Output Frequency of Wein bridge oscillator

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Task 2:
Objective:
Design and Build a Simple Monostable Multivibrator Circuit

Specifications:
Modify the given A-stable multivibrator to behave as a Monostable Multivibrator

Choices:
An ideal op-amp and diode are available and standard-valued resistors and capacitors

are to be used.

Figure 6 Op- amp astable multivibrator

Multivibrator
Multivibrators are a group of regenerative circuits commonly used in timing
applications. They function as wave-shaping circuits, producing symmetric or

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asymmetric square wave outputs. These circuits have two distinct states: stable and
quasi-stable, which depend on the specific type of multivibrator being used.

There are three main types of multivibrators: astable (free-running), monostable

(one-shot), and bistable (flip-flop). All three types utilize positive feedback to drive
the circuit into saturation, which means that the two inputs of the operational
amplifier (op-amp) cannot be assumed to be at the same potential.

Figure 7 Multivibrator basic configuration

Astable multivibrator
An astable multivibrator is a free-running oscillator that exhibits two quasi-stable
states. As a result, it oscillates between these states without requiring any external
signals to initiate the state change. In this configuration, the two states are only stable
for a limited time, and the circuit alternates between them, producing output
waveforms with positive and negative saturation values.

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 Figure 8 Astable multivibrator circuit

Monostable Multivibrator:
A monostable multivibrator has one stable state and one quasi-stable state. The circuit
remains in its stable state until an external triggering pulse causes a transition to the
quasi-stable state. After a period of time (T), the circuit returns to its stable state.
Hence, it generates a single output pulse in response to an input pulse and is
commonly referred to as a "one-shot" or "single shot" multivibrator. The transition
back to the stable state is triggered by an external signal, which is typically generated
through the charging and discharging of a capacitor.
A monostable multivibrator generates a single pulse of specified duration in response
to each external trigger signal. Initially, the circuit is in the stable state. When a
specific "event" occurs, it enters the transient state, remains in that state for a time
interval (T), and then returns to its stable state.

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 Figure 9 Monostable multivibrator circuit

Bistable multivibrator

A bistable multivibrator, also known as a flip-flop, is a type of multivibrator that has

two stable states. Unlike astable and monostable multivibrators, a bistable
multivibrator remains in its current state until it is triggered to switch to the other
state.

The bistable multivibrator circuit typically consists of two cross-coupled NAND or

NOR gates, forming a positive feedback loop. Each gate's output is connected to the
input of the other gate, creating a mutually reinforcing loop. The two stable states of
the bistable multivibrator are usually referred to as "SET" and "RESET" states.

When a triggering signal is applied to the circuit, it causes the bistable multivibrator
to switch from one stable state to the other. For example, if the circuit is in the SET
state, a trigger signal will cause it to transition to the RESET state. Once in the new
state, the bistable multivibrator remains in that state until it receives another
triggering signal to switch back.

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The bistable multivibrator is commonly used in digital circuits and memory elements.
It can store a bit of information, representing a logical "1" or "0," depending on its
current stable state. The state of the bistable multivibrator can be changed and read
by applying appropriate triggering signals.

Overall, the bistable multivibrator provides a means of storing and retaining binary
information, making it a fundamental building block in digital electronics and
sequential logic circuits.

Figure 10 Bistable multivibrator circuit

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 -

Figure 11 Op-Amp Astable and Monostable Multivibrator

Working
By introducing a diode in parallel with the capacitor in the astable multivibrator
circuit, we can convert it into a monostable circuit. In the modified circuit, the
triggering signal is applied at the node where resistors R1 and R2 are connected.

Let's assume that the output of the circuit is at positive saturation voltage, or the
output of the op-amp is positive. In this case, the voltage at node A can be calculated
as (R2/(R1+R2)) * Vsat. When the output voltage is at positive saturation, diode D1
becomes forward biased, and the voltage across capacitor C1 becomes the forward
voltage drop across the diode. Since the output voltage is higher than the voltage at
the inverting node, the output of the op-amp remains at positive saturation voltage.
Next, we apply a negative trigger pulse at node A. When this trigger signal is applied,
the voltage at the non-inverting node becomes lower than the voltage at the inverting
node. As a result, the output of the op-amp switches from positive saturation voltage
to negative saturation voltage, and the circuit enters the quasi-stable state. Since the
output voltage is at the negative saturation voltage, the diode becomes reverse biased,
and the capacitor begins to charge towards the negative saturation voltage. By adding
a diode to the astable multivibrator circuit and applying a trigger pulse at the

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appropriate node, we can create a monostable circuit that generates a single output
pulse in response to each trigger signal.

Mathematical Calculations
The period ‘T’ is determined by the values of the resistor R3, the capacitor C1, and
the values of the Feedback resistors, and for the given circuit, the time-period can be
calculated by

With the formula sorted outlets design a monostable multivibrator that has a time
period of 100ms. For simplicity, we are going to be using two 10K resistors for 𝑅1
𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑅2 . By doing so, the expression becomes,

Let us assume capacitor value of 10uF So

T=100ms

C=10uF

100ms=0.693*R*10uF

R=15K

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Multisim Implementation

Figure 13 Multisim Implementation of Multivibrator Circuit

Output waveform:

Figure 12 Output Waveform

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 Figure 14 Output Frequency

Task 3:

Objective:
Design a simple function generator

Specifications:
it should be capable of generating square, Triangular and sinusoidal waves.
Choices:An ideal op-amp is available and standard-valued resistors and capacitors
are to be used. Use +/- 9V dual supply for powering the circuit.

Function Generator:
In the field of modern electronic systems, wave generators serve as versatile tools for
generating electrical waveforms. They can be used as standalone signal sources or as

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integrated components within sensing systems to provide excitation and control
signals. The ability to tune the amplitude and frequency independently adds flexibility
to the system, making them essential in various applications such as micromachined
resistive and capacitive sensors. A function generator is a common piece of electronic
test equipment or software used to generate different types of electrical waveforms
across a wide range of frequencies. The function generator can produce waveforms
such as sine waves, square waves, triangular waves, and more.

Figure 15 working of function generator

Sine wave Generator

One example of a wave generator is the sinusoidal-wave generator, which utilizes op-
amp based active circuits. The canonic sinusoidal oscillator, known as the WienBridge
Oscillator, is a classic application of this approach. It typically consists of one op-amp,
four resistors, and two capacitors. The Wien-Bridge Oscillator generates an oscillatory
output signal without requiring an external input source. It is commonly used in low-
frequency oscillating circuits. The basic configuration of a Wien-Bridge Oscillator is
shown in Figure 1. It employs two RC networks connected to the positive terminal to
form a frequency-selective feedback network, which facilitates the occurrence of
oscillations. The signal is amplified through the use of negative feedback resistors.

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This oscillator design has found wide application due to its simplicity and
effectiveness in generating sinusoidal waveforms at low frequencies.

Multisim Implementation

Figure 16 Sine wave implementation

Hand Calculations:
For frequency:
Let us assume capacitance value is 1000nF, and take resistor 10K then,
The frequency of oscillations for a Wien Bridge Oscillator is given as:

Where:

fr is the Resonant Frequency in Hertz

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 R is the Resistance in Ohms

C is the Capacitance in Farads

Finding Value of resistor and capacitor:

To find the value of R & C, fixed one circuit element and find

other,Forexample, let us assume C=1nF. Frequency is given that is

f=15KHz

𝑹 = 𝟏𝟎𝑲Ohm

To achieve desirable frequency, vary RC values to get different range of frequencies.

Maximum and Minimum frequency:

Theoretical Values:
At C=1000nF

𝒇𝒎𝒊𝒏 = 𝟏𝟓. 𝟗𝑯𝒛

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 At C=1nF

𝒇𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝟏𝟓. 𝟗𝑲𝑯𝒛

Same is for, to vary resistance value and C kept constant to get different range of
frequencies.

Figure 17 Output of sine-wave generator with max frequency

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 Figure 18 Output of sine-wave generator with min frequency

Simulated Values:

𝒇𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝟏𝟓𝟎𝟖𝟓𝑯𝒛

𝒇𝒎𝒊𝒏 = 𝟏𝟔. 𝟕𝑯𝒛

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2) Square-wave generator
When the anode of a zener diode is connected to the inverting (-) input of an
amplifier, it creates a virtual ground that is approximately at 0V. As a result, when
the output voltage reaches a positive value equal to the zener voltage, the zener diode
starts to limit the voltage at that value. This means that the output voltage cannot
exceed the zener voltage in the positive direction. On the other hand, when the output
voltage switches to a negative value, the zener diode behaves like a regular diode and
becomes forward-biased at around 0.7V. This forward-biased condition limits the
negative output voltage to approximately 0.7V. In this way, the zener diode prevents
the output voltage from dropping below this value. By reversing the orientation of
the zener diode, the voltage limiting effect can be achieved in the opposite direction.
The zener diode will limit the output voltage in the same manner, but now in the
opposite polarity.
Overall, by utilizing the zener diode in this configuration, the output voltage of the
amplifier is restricted and clamped within specific voltage limits, depending on the
zener diode's characteristics and orientation.

Figure 19 operation of a bounded comparator

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Two zener diodes arranged as in Figure 5 limits the output voltage to the zener
voltage plus the forward voltage drop (0.7V) of the forward-biased zener, both
positively and negatively, as shown.

Multisim Implementation:

Figure 20 Square wave generator software

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Output waveform:

Figure 21 Output waveform of sqaure wave generator

3) Triangular-wave generator

The capacitor voltage :

As the input current (Iin) remains constant, the collector current (IC) of the transistor
also remains constant. This constant IC results in a linear charging of the capacitor
(C), leading to a linear voltage increase across the capacitor. Due to the virtual ground
created by the op-amp, the positive side of the capacitor is held at 0V. Meanwhile,

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 Figure 22 voltage in an integrator

negative side of the capacitor, which is equivalent to the output voltage of the op-
amp, decreases linearly from zero as the capacitor charges. the constant IC drives
a linear charging of the capacitor, resulting in a linearly increasing voltage across
the capacitor. The virtual ground established by the opamp keeps the positive side
of the capacitor at 0V, while the output voltage of the op-amp decreases linearly
as the capacitor charges.
Figure 22 Voltage in an integrator

The output voltage

Vout is the same as the voltage on the negative side of the capacitor. When a constant
positive input voltage in the form of a step or pulse (a pulse has a constant amplitude
when high) is applied, the output ramp decreases negatively until the op-amp
saturates at its maximum negative level.

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 -

Figure 23 An op- amp integrator

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Multisim Implementation:

Figure 24 Triangular wave Generator software

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Output waveform:

Figure 25 Output waveform of triangular wave generator

Overall Function Generator Circuit

To sum up, use a RC Wien Bridge to generate sinusoidal-wave, use a comparator to
achieve square wave, and use an integrating circuit to obtain triangular-wave.

Figure 26 Overall Function generator

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Figure 27 Overall function generator software

Figure 28 Output wave form

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At 15KHz :

Figure 29 Output Waveform at 15kHz

At 15Hz

Figure 30 Output Waveform at 15Hz

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Conclusion
In conclusion, this lab report explored the construction and analysis of three different
electronic circuits: a Wien bridge oscillator, a monostable multivibrator, and a
function generator.The Wien bridge oscillator was designed to generate a sinusoidal
waveform at a specific frequency determined by the values of its resistors and
capacitors.
The monostable multivibrator, was utilized to produce a single pulse of a
predetermined width in response to a triggering input. The monostable multivibrator
proved to be a versatile circuit for generating precise and controlled pulses. The
function generator allowed us to generate a wide range of periodic waveforms with
adjustable frequency, amplitude, and waveform shape. By utilizing a combination of
op-amps, resistors, capacitors, and potentiometers, we were able to create sine,
square, and triangular waveforms. This versatile circuit provided us with a valuable
tool for signal generation in various applications.

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