12 Post-War America “Whe the wwar closed in 1865, the South presented a spectacle of wreck and prostration probably without parallel in modern times ... The people had shared in the general wre dejected.” ‘the Scottish minister, the Rew. Day- 4 Macrae, observed about the state ofthe South ater the Civil War. The “modern times” of which he speaks ae his ‘own time, the period of the mid-19* cen- tury. The destruction ofthe South, to his < ‘mind, was unparalleled; the sufferings = cere Mae bought, oe ft o Wi fe AE k and looked poverty-stricken, eareworn and Jf the South's defeat brought with It some ore {good =the abolition ofslavery, achieved by Ss a {an amendment to the Constitution ~ the 13" Amendment, ratified on December 18, 1865. "The South,” Macrae wrote, “feels lke a man who has been subjected aginst his will to @ severe operation ~ an operation which he showght would ill him, which has terribly prostated him, from which he is doubt if he will completly recover, but which being fairly over has given him predigious relief” But if southern whites felt relief at the demise of slavery, they fet other emotions as well ~ fea, loathing, and sometimes hatred. Among southern white fears loomed the specter of black rebellion, especialy in those areas of the South where blacks outnumbered whites, Setetnthe Howse Southern whites feared that if feed blacks gained politcal power, they would of Repreenttves seit to suppress and perhaps do violence to their former masters. Southern upenthe approve st ‘whites loathed the thought of misceganation~ the mixing ofthe white and black the #3" amendment aces that they thought would degrade ther culture and their people. Feat and. loathing of freedmen ci not always descend into hate ~ at least amongst thse who were called he “ld masterclass” Hatred for blacks, however, ould be found in those egions ofthe South where there had been few or no slaves. Poor whites, faring tat freedom would make blacks their equals, (Chapter 12 Pow Ameren 17Slavery Abolished 4 we sin the last chapter, President Lincoln sued the Emancipation Prodlamation as & wear mesireto conan the South to giv up is toggle against the unin and tonsil the Nort th ew razon fo Fgh. Mary Amrcans ower, doubted that Lincoln had the consituonal right wo abelsh saver. even nthe seceded states: ad, mas pinted ov. the Emancipation reclamation di not abokh avery In those slave sates that had remained inthe Linton. Congress to people said. ould nt abolish slavery by spy passing aaw thus i could foppen that savery would continue inthe "border slater” and aight even be vestabished inthe newly conquered states. “he ey way t© abolish saver, theretore, wos by a constiutionl amandent. The ‘amendment approved by Congress and ratte by te states eas Neither story nor ineuntry servitude excepto 9 punishment for crime whereof the pry shal have Been diy conic, shales! within the Und totes oF ony ple sibject to te arson Congest sl hove power to enforce ths artic by ‘pprpate legion ould react in hatred and violence toward fredmen, “Then there was the feeling among white southerners that somehow the Backs were the cause ofthe war and the destruction that followed it. After the war, to, attempts by the federal government to “teconstruct” the South, in part by improving the condition of blacks and giving them political power, inspired whites to resistance. Whites feared the federal government was using ‘hit former slaves to reduce them to political and econoee slavery. The Era of Reconstruction “The war and its ending brought suffering to lack people inthe South. Some blacks had left their homes to follow the Federal army to freedom; these could be found living in poverty around Federal military camps in the South, Othe backs had neve let their old plantations, where they now lived {na new relationship with thee former masters. Black laborers now became wage earners, but this ‘was not always to their advantage. While some white employers would care for backs as they did "under slavery, others were wiling to pay only the lowest wages to black workers. And ifa worker ‘became sick or dsibed, he or she would be replaced Some whites were unvwiling t hie Blacks who had children, Some former slaves unused to dealing with money, wasted it. Thus poverty and even starvation became the lt for many feedimen afer the War ‘To address the evils arising out of the South's devastation after the wat, the federal {government established the Freedmen’s Bureau. The bureau passed out emergency ratlons of food {Go whites and blacks alike) and worked to integtate blacks ito white society, n pat, by founding schools for feedman. As a branch of the war department, the Freedmens Bureau operated within ‘reas controlled by the Federal army. Outside these areas, the lot of feedien not only remained Unchanged, but grew worse, In order to keep black subservient, some whites used violence against them even murder, White hatred was not directed only against blacks but against "sclawags" (southemers who cooperated withthe Federal occupying forces), Republicans, oF members ofthe Freedmen's Bureau ‘More hated, perhaps, than the eclawags were the “earpetbaggers” ~northerners who had moved 18 Chapter 12 LIGHT TO THE NATIONS Il-The History of he ie tescouth either to help fcedmen or fo profit off southern misfortune. They were called carpetbaggen because they were sud to come south with all hee Belongings i satchel made fom two squares of carpet. President Johnson vs. the Radical Republicans “Though he was a Democrat, Andrew Johnson ha been chosen by Linol sis vice-president in 186 “Thus, when Lincoln died Johnson suceeded him 5 president As vie preside, Johnson had sid be thought thatthe secessionists should be made © sulle fr ther "treason (Jobson himselt was 3 outer, from East Tennesce, but he had been 2h aden unionist) But as president, Johnson Continued Linco’. polcy of binding, up the ‘wounds ofthe union with “chority towards al” and “malice toads non.” His gol was not o punish the South, but bring the seceded states fly Bade into the union. Johnson sai the southern states could be acted a fll members ofthe union if they called Constittionsl conventions and decared secession egal and abolished slavery. Sothern whites, 10, he decided, should be given full wong igh, ‘andr eho xcept fr those who had seved inthe Confederate government, had Been governors of seceded sats, tad served at general fers inthe Confederate itary or whose wealth was greater than $20,000 {i those aye a much larger ur than it today) Stil, members ofthese exclude categories ould obtain pardon ifthe swore oaths of allegiance othe union, ohnson insisted thi reonstrction policy without consulting Congress, which was then notin sesion ‘a group of Republican representative and seatrs in Congress opposed Present Johnson's reconstruction plan. Called “Radial Republicans” this group had been a thorn in Lineal’ side: they had attacked his conduct ofthe war and desved, moreover to punish te "arts inthe seceded state, The Radial, to, wanted fil equality fr bck in the South ad complained thatthe new tat constitutions in the southern state (established under Johnsons pla) ierely granted feedom to blacks but ‘didnot grant them vil rights oF the ight to vote (ph incidentally, which blacks didnot poses inthe rather states ab wel) The Radial pointed 1 white violence agnna blacks and laws passed bythe new southern governments (alld “back odes) that restricted the freedom of former slaves signe that the South had not leaned essen from the war Radical Repetlicas, such at Representative Thaddeus Stevens and Senator Charles Sumner wore determined Yo tach southern whites a leson. The Radicals established Joint Commitee en Recenatrcton to investigate reports coming from the South of velence agains lacs. They wen the passage ofthe Feder’ Buren Dill in Congress, which would have extended the ie ofthe bureau and given it rew powers. President Johnson vetoed the bl. Then in June 185, Congres approved the 14" Amendment to the Cortitutin. Ths amendment would not only grant fll‘The 14" Amendment ne 14” Amendment is one the most sigicnt of bite arpendments the Constuon, for it has been Used by the cours 10 give the {edert goverment ungrecedea: ted powers ver he states. The amendment. for the iat time in US. history. Tinted sate and raion cizen Ship Before, one could be a ct- itn ol the Unted States But nat the czen ofthe sata in which he ved ~ for Instance, i one rowed fro his naive tte to fncther state The 24” Arend rent however. sates that “a penons bor of naturalized in the United Sates and subject to the ition thereof are cizens ofthe United Sater and of te State APahting ne US. ‘wherein they reside” tn oer words the simple fact of being born inthe Cap pct the Utes states or beng naturalized, corfers federal and tte citer, approval the Ci without raga othe state where one was born AUS. ctzen is he ct ‘ne ize of any sat wherein he deiss to lve, without ay specal act of RAM AS ‘confering sate citzenap on him "ie 14" Arsencment aise he eis weatment of al tzens, Amanda whatever thei ace ana baagroune Aormane tothe 16° No Stat hat make or enforce any lw hich shall obidge te priviges or Immunities of eters of the Unted ‘Sates or shall any State deprive any person of We, Ubery, or propery. Shout due proces ef ow nr deny fo ‘oy erin within Ws juditon the ual protection of ie laws The Radical ken that if the ates slone were empewere to enforce the provisos of this amendment. ry would nat. Thus they added an important dause ~The Congtess shall have the power t enforce, by appropote legislation the provsans of thane” This cause {gore Congress not the sats sane the autor to make sire teva protection lw would be obeyed. In the fate the couse would Be read to grant the federal government slast Unkned say over the sates Indee, te amendment would be seen to ncorporate much of he {it of Rights ~ tat spied to thet he lmttons of the Bil of Rights that were seen ‘nga a resting the feral goverment lone. For instance, the cause Congres shat ‘ake nw respecting an extabahment of elgor” ha come fo mean, no government. fede ‘ate or lca shal ental an ofl region” "Wo Chapter 12 UGHTTO THE NATIONS I—Te Hao of be Unie Sesconstitational rights except the suffrage) to blacks but empower the federal government with powers it did not clearly possess before. Ths amendment was not an immediate triumph forthe Radicals, fort stil had tobe ratified bythe stats; but the Reconstruction Act. approved by Congress in March 1867, was, frit took reconstruction out of the president's hands and gave itto Congress. Radical Reconstruction With reconstruction placed firmly in its own hands, Congress disbanded ll the southern stte governments that had been established under johnson, Instead, Congres divided the South into five military distrits, eacn under a miltary general, The five generals answered to one supreme general, Ulysses Grant ‘The Reconstruction Act gave the military the authority t0 remove “disloyal” members from the southern state governments, for Congress had decreed that ex Confederates could not serve in public office ~ even those ‘who had been granted amnesty by Johnson. Southern states had to call conventions to draw up new state constitutions that would guarantee full civil rights and the sutrage 10 blacks. Blacks, too, would have say in choosing delegates to the state conventions. Congress further ruled that no southern sate could be readmitted to the union unless it ratified the 18" Amendment ‘The fact that only “loyal” whites and blacks could ow vote in the South (and that many whites refused t0 register to vote in provest of Congres’ reconstruction) meant that in the South far more blacks than whites voted in the clections of 1867. The result wa that southem governments became predominately Republican and that a large number of blacks were elected to public office. Some ofthese black oficials were competent, but others easly fll under the Sway of "carpetbaggess” and "scalawags,” who used them 38 pawns for thelr poltical and economic power. Then, in February 1868, the House of Representatives voted to Impeach President Johnson of “high crimes and misdemeanors” —for he had refused to obey congressional law which he (ight thought unconstitutional. Tough the Senate felled to convict Johnson, the impeachment proceedings rendered him powerless for the remainder of Fis term. Southern whites thus fell completely under the sway of those whom they deemed their enemies ~ the Radial Republicans. ‘Without politcal power, some whites in the South turned to violence. They formed secret societies, sch athe ‘ku Klux Klan, to terorize backs s0 that they would not vote. The Klan and i iitators not only fightened blacks Dut beat and murdered those (including white unionists, = ‘arpetbaggers, and salawags) who would not submit t0 hares Sumerthelr demands, Bands of blacks and unionist whites cashed in bloody struggles withthe Klansmen. The southern governments were hard pt to suppress the Klan In some counties, the Klan was the de facto government, for many whites (even i they deplored violence) saw the Klan as their protectors aginst northern oppression. By the end of 1865, Radical Republicans seemed to have achieved many of thelr goals. That year eight southern sates (North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Florida, Alabama, Lousiana, ‘Arkansas, and Tennessee) had voted to ralify the 1” Amendment and were readmitted into the ‘union. On July 9, 1868, the amendment had received the required number of stats for ratification land became a part ofthe Consist, The same year, in November, Ulysses Grant (a supporter of the Radical Republicans) was elected president, thus assuring a continuation of Radical policies for at leat four more years. The End of Reconstruction ‘The new president, Uysses Grant, belonged to that part of the Republican Farty that saw the federal fovemment, not the stats, 26 the primary futrantor of citizens freedoms. For Grant, the primary object of government was to secre “the freatest good tothe greatest number” of citizens, But the government he was refering #9 was, fist and foremost, the federal government, The states, he thought, were to function as instruments of Washington Im particular, Grant wanted to use federal power to secure equal rights for back people. For Instance, he appointed black men to poss in is ‘ministration. And he supported the ratification of the 15" Amendment. Thi amendment, approved by Congress in February 1869, said “the right of citizens ofthe United States to vote shall not be denied oF abridged by the United States or by any State on account of race, color, or previous ‘condition of servitude” Like the 14° Amendment, this amendment made Congress the guarantor of the right to vote. “The Congress” it says, “shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation,” With the ratification ofthe 15% Amendment in February 187, Congress stepped upto its newly Imposed duty ~to ensure the right to vote to every male citizen, back a wells white In 1870, 1871, and 1872, the Republicar-dominated Congress passed “force acts" to compel southern whites to ‘Tespect lack suffrage, Yet despite congressional ation and attempts to enforce Congres’ les in the South, violence against Blacks and unionist whites continued. Some black legislators were injured or wounded: some, murdered. Despite the force acts, te federal government was hard put toldefendthoee it was called to protect. “The force acs ad the effect as well falienating some Republicans from the Radical faction Ratherord 8. Hayes 162 Chapter 42 LIGHT TO THE NATIONS ~The History ofthe United Stes‘These “Liberal Republicans” declared that federal interference in the South was overthrowirg republican governmert everywhere in the union. It was high time, they sid, to reassert some measure of states’ rights! Yet despite diferences with other Republicans (who became Known as the “Stalwars”) over reconstruction policy, the Liberals were able to agree with them on an endorsement of presidential candidate in 1876 — Rutherford B. Hayes. Hayes election battle ‘with his Democratic opponent, Same J ‘Tilden, was a hard-fought one. in the end, 4 theee southern sates, Reconstraction governors threw cut thousands of Democratic votes, thes giving Hayes the victory in the electoral college, 185 votes to 184 ‘The problem vas that Hayes trlled Tilden inthe popular vote by about 250000. Tis did not ok good for Hayes, anda Republican and Democratic ‘congressional commits formed to decide ‘what to-do about the disputed results from, the South. In the end, it seems, the committee made a deal with southern Democrats: Ifthe Democrats recognised AN74 Thomas Nt cartoon hal ae fan ld ro-Conetarata Hayes’ election, Hayes would not force the ogsntromthe Non, "the Union 8 wes the Conan a” South to honor the 15° Amendment. On apdatack wie allancas that ward ovum Rconatron March 2, 1877, the commission voted to recognize Hayes asthe winner ofthe election, ‘Was such a deal mate? We are not certain. Nevertheless, Hayes that same year ordered the removal of federal troops from cites in the South This effectively ended reconstruction inthe South. In the ensuing years state governments in the South fell under the contol of men who had bein officers in the Confederate military. Such governors, however, promised to respec the cli eights of blacks, and for a time, blacks continued to vote in large numbers in the South. A few even were representatives in state legslaters. This state of affairs, however, would net last. Not 20 years would ass before new politcal forces would usher in anew period of suferng for black people in the South Homesteaders, Cowboys, and Railroads Wiehe Civ War ged and the fate fe nin wasn qt, he goverment in Washingkn Dic ms ling thngh othe fre ofthe curry nthe Wes In 82 Congres posed sn impor aw aed he Homestead Ace whch guest 16) ce of nd nthe Went they puss mv fa! ved onthe land for fe years Ths generous cones brougt aey Teter ote rein of he Great Pains ate the war. These vas, many wees ah Wee Sve in estes where seers grew rans uh wheat and om Ths he Homes ‘ctstmutted mew nove ager growthBut it was not just the Homestead Act that did this. The same year Congress passed thi at it approved the constriction of Stephen Douglas’ dream — the transcontinental alroad. The rllroad ‘was to be built nto parts. One part caled the Cental Pac, began in Sacramento, Calforia and fan east nto Utah. The other, the Union cif, began in Oma, Nebraska and ran westward. On May 10,189, the construction ofeach riload ended at Promontory Pont near Salt Lake City, Ut, where workers drove in a golden spike atthe junction of the tw lines. For the frst time in story, the eastern United States was linked by rll with the far-off western coast ‘The transcontinental riload brought even more setlers into the West, and not only by providing an easier mode of traeporation than horses and horse-raven wagons. As part of is Approval ofthe railroad, Congress granted railroad companies thousands of acres of land, which companies sold to settlers. All along the rails from the Mississippi to California, new towns Sprouted, surrounded by farmland. In this way, much ofthe West began to ill with new setlers ~ ‘not only white and black natives ofthe US, but foreign iismigrans 35 wll ‘The railroads also stimulated cate rasing by making i possible for western ranches to transport ther eatle to markets in midwestern and eastern cies. Ranchers in Texas drove great herds of longhom cattle across the grass-covered Great Plains to rallheads at Dodge City and Abilene, Kansas, and Ogallaa, Nebraska. From these towns, tains transported cattle to Siaughterhouses in Kansas City and Chicago, fram which beef was shipped tothe eastern United ‘States and even Europe, ‘The growth of the cattle industry in the West spelled the end of much ofthe cate raising that had occurred in the Eat. Eastern ranchers could not compete with the large cattle ranches in the West and began to decline. Farming, too, began to change with the growth of grain cultivation in the West Except for the great plantations ofthe South, most rallhea: the farthest point o which the als fa raioad have been aid femng Aneta y eae faa been on sob Rahs wc farms tat pre | iets ‘duced crops primarily ’ s for the farmer and his ¥ family. and the, s8c- ondary, for sale on the market. Such farms grew a wide variety of cops. The western farms, by contrast, grew only 2 single crop of a few crops, uch as wheat and fom, which led to poe Pacific 7 Ocean ‘monoculture and 2 fo eq cas onthe market p= 16k Chapter 12, UGHT OTHE NATIONS The Hoy ofthe Ute Stes rather than family com sumption. The inven tion of new farm ma- chinery, too, freedfarms o become larger (o pay for the machinery), thus decreasing the number of farmers inthe gen- ral population. ‘The building of the transcontinental railroad (and, soon after of other railroads inthe Wes) slong withthe growth of farming in the West ha significant effects onthe natural environment of the Great Plans. Wheat and com replaced native grasses, on which the vast herds of buffalo had razed for centuries. This led, in turn o problems with the Indlan tees, who depended onthe bu {alo herds for their owe subsistence. The narrowing of the Buffalo's habitat led to a decline inthe size of buffalo herds, whic i return directly impacted the Indians. These tribes hid made treaties with the United Sates, giving up some oftheir lands i return for oth fers which, the government assured them, would be ‘heirs forever. When the Indians discovered that such agreements did not work in their favor, or when the government reneged cn its promises, they grew des perate and sought to regain by violence what they had lost by sometimes outright dishonesty on the part of ‘government officials and the relentless westward pr ‘gress ofthe land-hungry white people from the Eas. The Final Drama of the Indian Wars Trouble between the Indian tribes ofthe Great Plaine and the United States predated the building of the Transcontinental Rallrc2d, Gold had been discovered in Montana, and miners and sellers had been fllowing, the Bozeman Tra west, trespassing on Indian lands, enroute tothe gold fds. The US. government began bullding forts along the rail to protect travelers. To halt rogress on the forts, which they saw as an intrusion, Oglala Sioux, Chit Red cious gh wth ‘under the leadership of Chief Red Cloud, began to altack the workers Chit Amerean Hore 601 constructing. them. Then, In December 1866, Sioux massacred a contingent of US. tops under the command of Captain Willam Fetterman. The slaughter ef Fetterman and his troops shocked people in the East, and moved General William Tecumseh Sherman, commander ofthe military onthe Great Plains, to cal forthe extermination ofthe Sioux, Indian Wars on the Great Plains ‘The US. government dd not opt for extermination but was uncertain what to do about the Sis, ‘One man, however, thought he had the answer. This was the Jesuit priest, Father Pierre Jean De Smet a Belgian who had been working as a missionary among Indians for over 44 yeas. In alter © the govemment, De Smet said the Sioux and other Indian peoples had not been treated justly. For ‘one thing they had buen robbed and cheated by dishonest government agents. De Smet said the jovernment had to appoint only honest agents and scrupulously keep the promises t had made > the Indians In 1868, the government asked De Smt to convince the Sioux to attend a peace conference, to be held at Fort Laramie (Wyoming). The Sioux cies, Siting Bul, Four Hors, Black Moon, ant[No Neck, trusted De Smet and came tothe conference. The US. government guaranteed thatthe Sioux would possess their ancestral lands ~ thousands of acres surrounding the Black Hil (sacred to the Sioux) in the Dakota Territory — and promised yeuly allotments of food and clothing forthe Indians. ‘The government would also provide schools and {guaranteed that white men could not setleon Sioux lands, In ‘etur, the Sioux sid they would permit the construction of Tallroads ouside Indian lands. Similar agreements were made ‘with other tribe, and i looked like peace would prevall at ast, between the white man and the Indians. Blood on the Little Bighorn ‘But peace between the Piss Indians and the United States did rot last long. The intrusion of railroads into the Indians Ancestral hunting grounds began to have dire effects on the Dbutfalo population. The noisy trains seared off the buffalo, and the train brought hunters from the East who, just for sport killed buffalo by the thousands. With the decline ofthe buffalo population, tribes in the southern plains (the Arapaho, Cheyenne, Commanche, snd Kiowa) went on the warpath, halting fora time the movement of setlers across the plains. Indians treatment oftheir enemies could be crue, but so was the response at times of the US. military: For instance, in 1870, Colonel EM. Baker led his men n an attack on an Indian village killing 173 Indian men, women, and children ‘People inthe East were divided as to what shouldbe done about the westein Indians. Some called for ‘extermination, but others thought Indiane should be pacified and helped to become part of American society. President Grant, though he was willing to use force against recalcitrant tribes, nevertheless favored ‘sablshing reservations on which Indians ight live and become civilized. Christan ministers, not govecament agents, were to direct these reservations. Gran's plan ‘became a reality bt i filed in atleast one respect ~ the 43 ministers were chosen without any rear forthe flth of thore Indians who had already become Chistian. ‘Almost all the ministers were Protestant only four were Catholic Grant's peaceful intentions, however, faced a serious challenge when gold was discovered in the Black His ~ the heart of the Sioux reservation. Some 800 miners lgally moved ito the Black Hil, while others began to demand that the government open the area for prospecting. In 1875, the government offered the Sioux ‘money forthe Black Hila; an though these lands ‘were sacred to them, several Sioux ches agreed to eorae Armtrong Custer -Achayonne sapcton of he Bat fe Lite Bighom We Chapter 12. LIGHT TO THENATIONSIt-The Hr ofthe Utd Statethe sale. However, teSiout leaders, Siting Bull and Crazy Horse refused to abandon ther sacred lands. When Sitting Bull and Crazy Horse would not back dovin, General Philip Sheridan, who commanded US. troops in the region, declared the Sioux leaders enemies ofthe United States, Crazy Horse and Siting Bull were confident they could defeat the white man's army. On June 16, 1876 they atacked American troops under the command of General George Crook, but ‘were repulsed. But later that same month, on the Lite Bighorn River, Crazy Horse attacked 3 mall contingent of troops under General George A. Custer and slaughtered them, The bodies of Castr tnd his men were found the nextday ~all had been stripped naked and mutilated, except Cuser's ‘The news ofthe massacre of Custer and his men inspired demands fr revenge in the United State. During the winter of 1576-1877, Crook pursued Crazy Horse ‘until in May, when his people were wom out and starving, Crazy Horse surrendered. Sitting Bull and his followers, however, had fled to Canada. There they remained forfour years until, faced withthe starvation of his people, Sitting ‘Bull surrendered his gun at Fort Buford in North Dakota Tales of Struggle and Defeat ‘The last 40 years ofthe 19° century witnessed struggles between white stirs and the native Indians al! throughout the West. Though thenans fought to keep thei ands and maintain their ancient modes of living they could nat drive back the relentless march of white Americans flooding in i \ from the Fast. The Indians had not the numbers nor the technology t9 match fe whites, 20 thet cause was doomed from the star. Settlers inthe region of northeastern California and southwester Oregon wanted the native Modoc removed from thei homeland on the shores of Tule Lake and the banks of the Lost River. The US. government agreed tothe demand and moved the Modoc to a reservation on the Klammath River But the reservation was inhabited by the Klammath tribe, enenies tothe Modoc. Thus, under their leader Kienipoos (called "Captain Jack” by whites) the Modoc returned tothe Lost River. In 1872, the government again ordered the Modoc to return tothe reservation: but when violence ensued, the Modo led by Kintpoos, fed For over aix months the Modoc fought a running war with US. troops, until Kiestpos surrendered himself on June 1, 1873. Kientpoos was hanged on October 3, 1673, fr the murder ofan Amerian general. His Modoc fllowers wee forced tosetleon a reervation in far-off Indian Territory. ike those on the Lot River, setles ofthe Wallowa Valley in Oregon demanded the removal ofthe native people there ~ the Nez Peré. However, the Nez Percés chil Joseph, refused wher the government offered to buy the valley fom him. A Christian. Chiet Joseph thought the ‘ht Jou Nintpooe (Captain Jet)Wallowa Valley sired, for it held the bones of his ancestors. And though Chiet Joseph kept peace with the whites, US, General liver Otis Howard commanded the Nez Percé to depart. Knowing he ‘Could not resist the power ofthe whites, Joseph agreed to stile ona reservation in Idaho. Yet as the Nez Percé entered Idaho, some of the young warriors, angry over the loss of thelr native {round killed 20 white ster. General Howard, leading TO solders, set out in pursuit of Chet Joseph and his people. Joseph, for his part, hoped to reach Canada. Purued by Howard, the Nez Percé fled into Montana, until by October 1875, they were within 40 miles ofthe Canadian border. It was here, in sight of freedom, that Joseph and his people were tacked by 600 soldiers under the command of General Nelson Miles. The Indians beat back Miles’ men, but a fee days later, when General Howard joined Miles, Joseph saw his struggle was hopeless. His people were hungry and sick, and ‘many of them dead. “Heat me, my chet." Joseph said, “Lam tired, My hearts ad and sick. From where the sun ‘ow sands, [wil ight no more forever” ‘The army divided the defeated Nez Peré, sending some to Idaho and others to Washington state and the Indian Tervtory. Chief Joseph went to a reservation in Washington, where he ded in 1904. Inthe Southwest, n Arizona, the Chiricahua Apache had been on the warpath since 1860, Under the chieftain, Cochise, the Chiricahua seemed unconquerabe, fr many U.S. soldiers had gone east to fight inthe Civil War. The Apaches attacked white stiement in raids, to pillage and kl Filly in 1872 the government agreed to allow the Chiriabua to remain on ther ancestral lands, and Cochise surrendered. ‘After Cochis’s death in June 1874, white settlers complained that the Apache had been stealing their horses and cae, When at lst the government ordered the Chiricahua to leave their ‘reservation forthe San Carlos reservation, situated ina barten desert region, a medicine man named ‘Geronimo led them in revolt Fr six years Geronime attacked white settlements and killed settles. He surrendered in 1884 and agred to five on the San Carlos reservation, Living on the San Carlos reservation was a Wal for Geronimo, and in May 1883 he fled with some 35 men eight boys, and 101 women. General George Crook pursued Geronimo into Mexico. ‘Geronimo again surrendered, but then escaped, This time, it was General Neon Miles who pursued Geronimo ito Mexico. It was not until September 1886 that Geronimo surrendered to Miles, who promised to send him to Florida, where, Miles said, Geronimo’ wife and children were waiting fr ‘im. Miles sid that eventually Geronimo could retur to hishomeland, ‘The government, however, did not honor Milss promise. Geronimo went indeed to Flrids, ‘where he remained until 1894 ~ when he was moved to Indian Tenitoy, where he died in 1908. Last Battle at Wounded Knee “The wars we have recounted were but afew ofthe Indian wars nthe West. The natives struggled to ‘maintain their ancient cultures and waye of life, but by the 1880s, i had become clear that they could 168 Chapter 12, UGHT TO THE NATIONSI-The isto of he Unie States‘ot ress the forces ofthe triumphant people that had come from the East, The fare looked bleak for the Indians. Defeated tribes went to live on reservations where, the govesnment hoped, they ‘would be weaned from their ancient ways. But the prospect that this would happen looked dim, ‘Those US. citizas who wanted to help the Indians welcomed a plan that purported to improve their lot. In 1887, Congress approved this plan called the Dawes Act after Senator Henry L Dawes of Massachusets, who had proposed it. The at allowed the president to authorize the breaking-up of resavation# into ‘individual homesteads of 160 acres per family when there was assurance that a significant number of the members of Ime desied i, The tbal lands that remained were to be sold to white settlers, with the proceeds from the sale tobe held in trast forthe tribe. The Dawes Act, however, didnot help the Indians. ‘Though they received homesteads, they easily lost ther 10 land speculators, who took advantage of Indian ignorance of and values. By 1832 (Wo years before Congress repealed the Dawes Ad), Indians had Tost tworthirds ofthe ands they had Iheld in 1887. The Dawes Act left the Indians in a greater sat of destitution than it had found ther in In their despair Indians began to turn toa ritual called the Ghost Dance. Those who practiced the Ghost Dance believed that the Great Spirit would come and destroy the white man and return the world to what i was Before he came. The Ghost Dance, t ‘was believed, would give Indians power over the white men. The bullets of the white ‘man could not harm these who performed the dance ‘Setlers wt te Gren Pais were frightened by the Obst Dane ~ they feed it would ead to anew Indian war. In December 180, Indian police on the Standing Rock Reservation in Sout ‘Dakota were sent to arsst Sitting Bull who, it was feared, was using the Ghost Dance to incite the ‘Sioux to war When, on December 15 the police tried to arrest Siting Bull a fight broke out between them and Sioux who sought to defend him, Siting Bull himself was killed inthe fighting ‘When the Sioux on Standing Rock Reservation heard of Siting Bulls death, many of them (men, women, and chikren) fled the reservation. An army of several thousand pursued the Sioux and atlas surrounded them, moving them to camp at Wounded Knee Creek, Montana. The Sioux ‘were ordered to surrender ther rifles, and most of them did. When one warrior refused, however, fight broke out in the camp. The soldiers opened fre; the warriors returned it When te short bate was over, ove 300 Sioux warrots, women, and children ly dead, “Though some lighting continued after Wounded Knee, the Sioux could not long resist the army's might. ‘Within two weeks, all the Sioux had returned to the reservation. After Wounded Koce, nether the Sioue nor any other native people dared to challenge the power of the United States and its military.oe ee