FIBER OPTICS

OPTICAL FIBER
Physically an optical fiber is very thin flexible medium having a cylindrical shape that consists of
three sections namely core, cladding and jacket. A thin flexible strand of transparent glass in which
light is transmitted through multiple total internal reflections (MTIR) is known as optical fiber.

CORE: It is the inner most section of the fiber which is made of glass or plastic. It has a property of
transmitting an optical beam in flashes of light. It acts like a continuous layer of two parallel mirrors.
It has the diameter of the order 8m and is surrounded by a material called cladding.

CLADDING: The core is surrounded by a material called cladding. It

is a material made up of glass or plastic but has different optical
properties than the core. Generally, the refractive index of
cladding material is less than that of core. As a result of this it
keeps the light ray within the core medium. It has the diameter of
the order of 100 – 150 m. The cladding is covered by another layer
known as Jacket.

JACKET OR SHEATH : The cladding is again covered by another

layer called Jacket, which is made of plastic, or polymer. It protects
the core against moisture, crushing and any other environmental dangers. Jacket diagram is around
300-400m. An optical fiber is very thin with its outer diameter ranges from 100mm to 150mm. The
fibers are as strong as steel but they can be easily bent unlike steel wires. They are also quite tough.

Materials

Glass optical fibers are almost always made from silica, but some other materials, such as
fluorozirconate, fluoroaluminate, and chalcogenide glasses, are used for longer-wavelength infrared
applications. Like other glasses, these glasses have a refractive index of about 1.5. Typically the
difference between core and cladding is less than one percent.

Plastic optical fibers (POF) are commonly step-index multimode fibers with a core diameter of
0.5 mm or larger. POF typically have higher attenuation co-efficients than glass fibers, 1 dB/m or
higher, and this high attenuation limits the range of POF-based systems.

PROPAGATIOBN OF LIGHT IN OPTICAL FIBERS

The propagation of light in fibers uses the concept of total internal reflection. If light wave enters
one end of fiber, under proper conditions, then most of it will be propagated through the length of
the fiber. Total internal reflection in the fiber can occur if the following conditions are satisfied.
1. Core material should have higher refractive index than the material cladding.
2. The light should be incident in such a way that the ray strikes the core-cladding interface at
an angle greater than critical angle. As a result the ray suffers total internal reflection.
Figure shows a glass fiber consisting of a central core cladded by a material of slightly lower refractive
index. Consider a ray which is incident on the entrance aperture of the fiber making an angle i with
the axis. Let the refracted ray make an angle  with the axis. According snell’s law
no sini = n1sin  => sini = [n1 /no] sin  (1)
The ray undergoes TIR at the core-cladding interface only when the angle of incidence  is greater
than critical angle. When the angle of incidence at core cladding interface is equal to critical angle
than angle of refraction is 900.
sin = n2 sin 90 0
=> Sin  = n2 / n1
When the angle of incidence is greater than critical angle then the ray suffers total internal
reflection. Sin  > n2 / n1
 Sin  (= cos  ) > n2 / n1 .
since  = ( 900 -  ) => sin( 900 -  ) = cos

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 Sini / Sin  = n2 / n1
 sin  < [ 1 - ( n 2 / n 1 ) 2 ]1/2 From equation 1
 sin i < n1 /no [1- (n2 /n1)2]1/2
 sin i < [( n12 -n22) / no2] ½

If the outside medium is air than no = 1. Then sin i< [( n12 -n22)]1/2
If ( n12 -n22) > 1 then TIR will occur for all values of i
sin iM = (n12 - n22) 1/2
when (n12 - n22) < 1
=1 when (n12 - n22) > 1

NUMERICAL APERTURE:
Numerical aperture, which is also called the figure of merit for optical fiber is defined as the ‘sin’ of
maximum angle of incidence. The maximum incidence angle is also called as "acceptance angle”.
It is defined as the maximum external incident angle I M coupled into the fiber and to propagate
through it.
sin iM = NA = (n12 - n22)1/2
Generally the refractive index of core n is 1.48 and refractive index of cladding n is 1.46. In this case
the numerical aperture is equal to 0.24. This results acceptance angle ‘i' as 14 degrees.NA can also
be written as [(n1 + n2) (n1 - n2)]1/2 = [2n1 (n1 - n2)]1/2 = n1 (2 )1/2,
where  = (n 1 - n2)/n1
Increasing R.I
n1
STEP INDEXED FIBER
It is the simplest type of an optical fiber consists of a thin cylindrical structure n2
of transparent material of uniform refractive index n 1 surrounded by cladding
material of uniform but slightly lower refractive index n2. In this type of fiber
the refractive index n1 abruptly changes to n2 at the core-cladding interface.
As the refractive index changes in stepwise it is known as step index fiber.

GRADED INDEXED FIBER Core

Cladding
In a graded index fiber the refractive index in the core decreases continuously
in a nearly parabolic manner from a maximum value at the center of the core Step Index Fiber
to a constant value at the core-cladding interface. GRADED-INDEX MULTIMODE
FIBER contains a core in which the refractive index diminishes gradually from the center axis out
toward the cladding. The higher refractive index at the center makes the light rays moving down the
axis advance more slowly than those near the cladding. Also, rather than zigzagging off the cladding,
light in the core curves helically because of the graded index, reducing its travel distance. The
shortened path and the higher speed allow light at the periphery to arrive at a receiver at about the
same time as the slow but straight rays in the core axis. The result is a digital pulse suffers less
dispersion.

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Types of Optical Fibers

Optical fibers based on the materials used, type of propagation of the light signals within the core
are classified as

Types of Optical Fibers

SINGLE MODE FIBERS (SMF) MULTI MODE FIBERS (MMF)

STEP INDEX

STEP INDEX (SI) GRADED INDEX (GRIN)

SINGLE MODE FIBERS (SMF)

Single Mode cable is a single stand (most applications use 2 fibers) of glass fiber with a diameter of
8.3 to 10 microns that has one mode of transmission. Single-mode fiber has a much smaller core than
multimode, through which only one mode will propagate. Carries higher bandwidth than multimode
fiber, but requires a light source with a narrow spectral width.

Single Modem fiber is used in many applications where data is sent at multi-frequency (WDM Wave-
Division-Multiplexing). Single-mode fiber gives you a higher transmission rate and up to 50 times more
distance than multimode, but it also costs more. The small core and single light-wave virtually
eliminate any distortion that could result from overlapping light pulses, providing the least signal
attenuation and the highest transmission speeds of any fiber cable type.

MULTI MODE FIBERS (MMF)

Multi-Mode cable has a bit bigger diameter, with a diameter of 50-to-100-micron range. Multimode
fiber gives you high bandwidth at high speeds (10 to 100MBS - Gigabit to 275m to 2km) over medium
distances. Light waves are dispersed into numerous paths, or modes. Typical multimode fiber core
diameters are 50, 62.5, and 100 micrometers. However, in long distance cable (greater than 3000
feet), multiple paths of light can cause signal distortion at the receiving end, resulting in an unclear
and incomplete data transmission.

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Power Losses in the Optical Fibers

The signal losses and power losses in the fiber optical cable are less. But there are number ways in
which signal is lost during the propagation through the fiber. These may be broadly can be
expressed as

Attenuation

Attenuation means loss of light energy as the light pulse travels from one end of the cable to the
other. It is also called as signal loss or fiber loss. It also decides the number of repeaters required
between transmitter and receiver. Attenuation is directly proportional to the length of the cable.
Attenuation is defined as the ratio of optical output power to the input power in the fiber of length
L.
α= [10log10 (Pi/Po)]/L db/km
where, Pi= Input Power Po= Output Power, α is attenuation constant The various losses in the cable
are due to Absorption, Scattering, Dispersion, Bending

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1. Signal Distortion

a) Modal Dispersion: In the optical fiber different light rays take various allowed paths (modes).
Large angle rays travel more distance than the low angle rays. There by there is difference between
the arrivals of light pulse at the end of fiber. The difference of arrive (0\or the distance) between
the slow mode and fastest mode is called modal dispersion.

b) Chromatic Dispersion: Chromatic dispersion is the spreading of a light pulse as it travels down a
fiber. During the propagation of light, all of its spectral components propagate accordingly. These
spectral components travel at different group velocities that lead to dispersion called group velocity
dispersion (GVD). Dispersion resulting from GVD is termed chromatic dispersion due to its wavelength
dependence. The effect of chromatic dispersion is pulse spread.

As the pulses spread, or broaden, they tend to overlap and are no longer distinguishable by
the receiver as 0s and 1s. Light pulses launched close together (high data rates) that spread too much
(high dispersion) result in errors and loss of information. Chromatic dispersion occurs as a result of
the range of wavelengths present in the light source.

2. Bending Losses
Extrinsic attenuation can be caused by two external mechanisms namely macro-bending or micro-
bending. Both cause a reduction of optical power.
a) Macro bending: occurs when the fiber is bent beyond its minimum bend radius. A macro-bend is
a large-scale bend that is visible, and the loss is generally reversible after bends are corrected.
To prevent macro-bends, all optical fiber has a minimum bend radius specification that should
not be exceeded.

b) Micro Bending: caused by a nick or dent in the fiber that disrupts the mode. If a bend is imposed
on an optical fiber, strain is placed on the fiber along the region that is bent. The bending strain
affects the refractive index and the critical angle of the light ray in that specific area. As a result,
light traveling in the core can refract out, and loss occurs. Micro-bending is caused by imperfections
in the cylindrical geometry of fiber during the manufacturing process. Micro-bending might be related
to temperature, tensile stress, or crushing force. Micro-bending causes a reduction of optical power
in the glass. Micro-bending is much localized, and the bend might not be clearly visible on inspection.
Typically the micro-bends increase the fiber loss by 0.1-0.2 dB/Km.
3. Coupling Losses
There is always some type of imperfection present at fiber optic connections that causes some loss
of light. In any fiber optic connection, P o and Pi are the optical power levels measured before and
after the joint, respectively. Fiber-to-fiber connection loss is increased by the following sources of
intrinsic and extrinsic coupling loss:
• Reflection losses • Core and cladding diameter mismatch
• Fiber separation • Numerical aperture (NA) mismatch
• Lateral misalignment • Refractive index profile difference
• Angular misalignment • Poor fiber end preparation

SIGNAL DISTORTION IN FIBER

A pulse of light which enters into a step index fiber broadens in time as it propagates through it. This
phenomenon is known as pulse dispersion. The rays making larger angles with the axis have to traverse
a longer optical path length and take a longer time to reach the output. Consequently, the pulse
broadens. Hence even though the two pulses are resolved at the input they may not be so at the
output. This results into signal distortion or pulse dispersion. Smaller the pulse dispersion, the
greater will be the information carrying capacity. According to Snell's law when a ray passes from
higher refractive index to lower refractive index the ray bends away from the normal.
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In case of graded index fiber the refractive
index decreases continuously in a nearly
parabolic manner with a maximum value at the
center of the core. Therefore, a ray entering
the fiber is continuously bent towards the axis
of the fiber. This results a sinusoidal path as
shown in fig.
The rays making larger angles with the axis
traverse a larger path length. At the same time
as the ray is moving from higher to lower
refractive index they travel with greater
speed. Therefore, longer path length is
compensated by greater average speed such
that all rays take the same time in traversing
the fiber. Another source of signal distortion is
chromatic dispersion. When the light is not
monochromatic different wavelengths have
different velocities in glass. Therefore, all
portions or the input light pulse will not arrive
simultaneously at the output. This distortion
is called chromatic dispersion.

Absorption due to
impurities like OH-
ions

Advantages of Optical Fibers over conventional copper wires:

• Less Expensive: Several meters of optical cable can be made cheaper than equivalent length
of copper wire
• Higher Bandwidth: Used to transmit more information
• Thinner: Small diameters than copper wire.
• Less signal degradation: The loss of signal in optical fiber is less than in copper wire.
• No cross talk: Unlike electrical signals in copper wires, light signals from one fiber do not
interfere with other.
• Digital signals: Optical fibers are ideally suited for carrying digital information.
• Low power: Low power transmitters can be used instead of the high-voltage electrical
transmitters needed for copper wires.
• Non-flammable: No electricity is passed – there is no fire hazard or shocks.
• Light weight: Weighs less and occupy less space
• Flexible: Highly flexible than copper wires and it is also temperature sensitive
• More life span: 20 to 25 years

Disadvantages:
• Need more expensive optical transmitters and receivers
• More difficult and expensive to splice than wires.

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Fiber Optic Cable Splicing
Two optical fiber splicing methods are available for permanent joining of two optical fibers. Both
methods provide much lower insertion loss compared to fiber connectors.
1. Fiber optic cable fusion splicing – Insertion loss < 0.1dB
2. Fiber mechanical splicing – Insertion loss < 0.5dB
Fiber optic cable fusion splicing
Fiber optic cable fusion splicing provides the lowest-loss connection. Special equipment called
fusion splicer is used to perform the fiber fusion splicing. The fusion splicer performs optical fiber
fusion splicing in two steps.
1. Precisely align the two fibers
2. Generate a small electric arc to melt the fibers and weld them together
High precision fusion splicers are usually bulky and expensive. With proper training, a fiber splicing
technician can routinely achieve less than 0.1dB insertion loss splicing for both single mode and
multimode fiber cables.

Applications of Optical Fibers:

1. Optical fiber communication
Optical fiber can be used as a medium for telecommunication and networking because it is flexible
and can be bundled as cables. It is especially advantageous for long-distance communications,
because light propagates through the fiber with little attenuation compared to electrical cables. the
light signals propagating in the fiber can be modulated at rates as high as 40 Gb/s. Both multi-mode
and single-mode fibers are used in communications, with multi-mode fiber used mostly for short
distances (up to 500 m), and single-mode fiber used for longer distance
2. Fiber optic sensors
Fibers have many uses in remote sensing. In some applications, the sensor is itself an optical fiber.
In other cases, fiber is used to connect a non-fiberoptic sensor to a measurement system.
Optical fibers can be used as sensors to measure strain, temperature, pressure and other quantities
by modifying a fiber so that the quantity to be measured modulates the intensity, phase, polarization,
wavelength or transit time of light in the fiber. Sensors that vary the intensity of light are the
simplest, since only a simple source and detector are required.
3. Illumination
Fibers are widely used in illumination applications. They are used as light guides in medical and other
applications where bright light needs to be shone on a target without a clear line-of-sight path.
4. Endoscopy:
Optical fiber is also used in imaging optics. A coherent bundle of fibers is used, sometimes along
with lenses, for a long, thin imaging device called an endoscope, which is used to view objects
through a small hole. Medical endoscopes are used for minimally invasive exploratory or surgical
procedures. Industrial endoscopes (fiberscope or borescope) are used for inspecting anything hard to
reach, such as jet engine interiors.
5. Optical Fiber Lasers:
An optical fiber doped with certain rare-earth elements such as erbium can be used as the gain
medium of a laser or optical amplifier. Rare-earth doped optical fibers can be used to provide signal
amplification by splicing a short section of doped fiber into a regular (undoped) optical fiber line.
The doped fiber is optically pumped with a second laser wavelength that is coupled into the line in
addition to the signal wave. Both wavelengths of light are transmitted through the doped fiber, which
transfers energy from the second pump wavelength to the signal wave. The process that causes the
amplification is stimulated emission.

Questions:

1. Define the terms Numerical aperture and acceptance angle and derive an expression for
numerical aperture
2. Describe double crucible method to fabricate an optical fiber. Mention the applications of
optical fibers.
3. Mention advantages and disadvantages of optical fibers.
4. Discuss various types of loss in signal propagation through optical fibers.
5. A silica optical fiber has a core refractive index of 1.49 and a cladding refractive index of 1.47.
Determine the critical angle at the core cladding interface, numerical aperture, and acceptance
angle in air for the fiber.
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