OPTICAL FIBERS

INTRODUCTION:
The first experimental proof that light could be guided was given by John Tyndall
nearly 120 years ago. The first glass fabrics were made in the 1920’s. But the concept of
cladding is introduced in 1950. Optical fiber communication is mainly because of the
14
inversion of lasers by Maiman in 1960. The optical frequencies are of the order of 5x10
Hz as compared to electrical communication frequencies which are about 10 10 Hz. So
there is a increase in the signal strength. At the early time some of the best optical glasses
had attenuations of the order of several thousands dB/km. For practical, communication is
possible only when the attenuation could be of the order of 20 dB/km or less.

Type your
 By 1970, the workers of corning glass works produced the first optical fiber with
loss under 20 dB/km. By 1979, the fiber loss was brought down to just 0.2 dB/km.

The first fiber optical communication was installed in Chicago, in 1977. A 24 –

fiber optical cable less than 2.5 cm diameter in size was employed to carry 16,000 voice
circuits to serve them. Around 1980, in USA alone more than 3 million kilometers of
optical fibers were laid to replace electrical communication across the country and the
decade 1980 is referred to as decade of glass.

The fiber optics communication is also known as light wave communication or

photonics.
Photonics is the enabling technology for optical fiber communication to improve
its performance and to reduce its cost.

Optical fibers construction:

Optical fibers are essentially light guides used in optical communications as wave
guides. They are transparent dielectrics and able to guide visible and infrared light over
long distances.

An optical fiber is made of mainly two parts. One is the inner cylindrical material
made of glass or plastic called the core. The outer part is called the cladding which
envelops the inner core as a concentric cylinder. The cladding is also made of similar
material but of lesser refractive index. There is a material continuity between core and
cladding. The cladding is enclosed in polyurethane jacket.
Optical fibers as waveguides:

A waveguide is a tubular structure through which energy of some sort could be

guided in the form of waves. Since light waves can be guided through a fiber, it is called
light guide. It is also called fiber wave guide or fiber light guide.

Light
Ray

Core
Light
Ray Cladding
The cladding has always lower refractive index than that of core. The light signal
which enters into the core can strike the interface of the core and cladding only at larger
angle of incidence. The light signal undergoes multiple reflections. Since each reflection
is a total internal reflection, the signal sustains its strength and also confines itself
completely within the core during propagation. Thus, the optical fiber functions as a wave
guide.
If the fiber has sharp bends, then there is no total internal reflection occurs, so
signal fails to come out from the fiber.

Total internal reflection:

When a light travels from denser medium to rarer medium and the angle of
incidence is greater than critical angle, the total internal reflection takes place.
From Snell’s law
n1sin θ1 = n2 sin θ2
At critical angle θ1 = θc and θ2 = 90°
∴n1sin θc = n2 sin 90 = n2

n 
or θc= sin -1  2 
 n1 
In case of total internal reflection, there is absolutely no absorption of light energy
at the reflecting surface.
Numerical aperture and Ray propagation in the fiber:

Let us consider the special case of a ray which suffers critical incidence at the core
cladding interface. Let ‘AO’ be the incident ray, entering to the core at an angle ‘θo’ with
the fiber axis. Let it be refracted along OB at an angle θ1 in the core, and further proceed
to fall at critical angle of incidence (90 – θ1) at B on the interface between core and
cladding. Since it is a critical angle of incidence, the ray is refracted at 90° to the normal
drawn to the interface i.e., it grazes along BC.
If the angle of incidence is less than ‘θo’ then, the ray will gets total internal
reflections. And the rays with incidence are greater than ‘θo’ will not take total internal
reflection. Therefore the incident rays which are within the cone AOA’ will get total
internal reflections.
The angle ‘θo’ is called the waveguide acceptance angle or the acceptance cone
half – angle, and ‘sinθo’ is called the numerical aperture (N A) of the fiber. The numerical
aperture represents the light – gathering capability of the optical fiber.
Condition for propagation:
Let no, n1 and n2 be the refractive indices of surrounding medium, core of the fiber
and cladding respectively.
Now, for refraction at the point of entry of the ray AO into the core, we have by
applying the Snell’s law that,
no sinθo = n1 sin θ1
At the point B on the interface, the angle of incidence = 90 – θ1.
∴ Again applying Snell’s law, we have,
n1 sin(90 – θ1) = n2 sin 90
or n1 cosθ1 = n2
n2
or cosθ1 = --------------------(2)
n1
 n1 n1 1
from (1), Sinθo = sin  1 = (1  cos 2 1 ) 2
n0 n0

n1 n2 n n12  n 22 n12  n 22
or sinθo = 1  22 = 1 =
n0 n1 n0 n12 no

If the medium surrounding the fiber in air, then no = 1

Or sin θo = n12  n22

If θi is the angle of incidence of an incident ray, then the ray will be able to propagate

If θi < θo or Sinθi < sin θo

or sin θ i < n12  n22

Thus the condition for propagation is sin θ i < N A
Fractional index change (Δ):
The fractional index change Δ is the ratio of the refractive index difference of the
core and cladding to the refractive index of core of an optical fiber.
(n1  n2 )
∴Δ= --------------- (3)
n1
Relation between N A and Δ:
From equation (3)

(n1 – n2) = n1 Δ

we have N A = n12  n22

= (n1  n2 ) (n1  n2 )

= (n1  n2 ) n1 

since n1 ≈ n2, ( n1 + n2) = 2 n1

∴ N.A. = 2n12 

or N.A = n1 2
 As Δ increases, N.A. increases and thus enchances the light gathering capacity of
the fiber. But we cannot increase ‘Δ’ to a very large value. Since it leads to ‘intermodal
dispersion’, which causes signal distortion.
Types of optical fibers and modes of transmission:
In any optical fiber, the whole material of the cladding has a uniform refractive
index value. But the refractive index of the core materials may either remains constant or
subjected to variation in a particular way. The curve which represents the variation of
refractive index with respect to the radial distance from the axis of the fiber is called
refractive index profile. The optical fibers are classified under three categories based on
geometry, refractive index profile and the number of modes that the fiber can guide.
a) single mode fiber
b) step-index multimode fiber
c) Graded index multimode fiber.
a) Single mode fiber:
A single mode fiber has a core material of uniform refractive index value.
Similarly cladding also has a material of uniform refractive index but of lesser value. This
results in a sudden increase in the value of refractive index from cladding to core. Thus its
refractive index profile takes the shape of a step. The diameter value of the core is about 8
to 10 μm. Because of its narrow core, it can guide just a single mode as shown in fig.
Hence it is called single mode fiber.

Single mode fibers are the most extensively used ones and they constitute 80% of
all fibers that are manufactured in the world today. They need Lasers as the source of
light. Though less expensive, it is very difficult to splice (join) them. They find particular
application in submarine cable system.
 Geometry

Refractive Index
Profile

Ray Propagation

Fig: single mode fiber

b) Step – index multimode fiber:
Here core has larger diameter, so it is possible to propagate a large number of
modes as shown in fig. Its refractive index profile is similar to that of a single mode fiber
but with a larger plane regions for the core.
The step-index multimode fiber can accept either a laser or an LED as source of
light. It is the least expensive of all. Its typical application is in data links which has
lower band width requirements.
 Geometry

Refractive Index
Profile

Ray Propagation

Fig. Step index multi mode fiber

c) Graded – index multimode fiber:
It is also called GRIN. The geometry of GRIN is same as that of step index
multimode fiber. Its core material has a special feature that its refractive index value
decreases in the radially outward direction from the axis and becomes equal to that of the
cladding at the interface. But the Refractive index of cladding remains constant. Either a
Laser or LED can be the source for the GRIN multimode fiber. It is most expensive of all.
Its splicing could be done with some difficulty. Its typical application is the telephone
trunk between central offices.
 Geometry

Refractive Index
Profile

Ray Propagation

Fig.: Graded index multi mode fiber

Modes of propagation:
V – number:
The number of modes supported for propagation in the fiber is determined by a
parameter called V – number and is given by
d d
V  no n12  n22 or V  no ( N . A)
 
for v >>1, the number of modes supported by the fiber (approximately) is given by
V2
number of modes ≈
2
here d ⇒ core diameter
λ ⇒ wavelength of light propagating in the fiber.

Attenuation:
The loss of power suffered by the optical signal as it propagates through the fiber is
called attenuation. It is also called the fiber loss.
The three mechanism through which attenuation takes place are
1. Absorption 2. Scattering 3. Radiation losses

 10 P 
 log 10  out  dB / km Where L is in km
L  Pin 
1. Absorption:
In this case, the loss of signal power occurs due to absorption of photons associated with
signal. Photons are absorbed.
a) By impurities in the silica glass of which the fiber is made of.
b) By intrinsic absorption by the glass material itself.
2. Scattering Losses:
While the signal travels in the fiber, the photons may be scattered because of sharp
changes in refractive index values inside the glass (non – crystalline) over long distances.
The sharp variation in refractive index value inside the fiber glass is induced by localized
structural in homogeneity in the material.

Scattered Photon

Scattering Center

3. Radiation losses:
Radiation losses occur due to bending of fiber. There are two types of bends.
a) Macroscopic bends: This refers to bends having radii that are large as compared
to the fiber diameter, such as ones which occur while turning it around a corner.

Escaping ray
b) Microscopic bends: These are repetitive small scale fluctuations in the linearity of
the fiber axis. Microscopic bending occurs due to non - uniformities in the
 manufacturing of the fiber or by non uniform lateral pressures created during the
cabling of the fiber.

Advantages of optical communication system:

Escaping ray
1. Optical fibers can carry very large amounts of information in either digital or
analog form.
2. The raw materials used to make optical fibers are easily available at low cost.
3. Because of their compactness and light weights, fibers are much easier to transport.
4. Optical fibers are totally protected from interference between different
communication channels.
5. There is no signal disturbance in optical fibers.
6. The common grounding is irrelevant in optical fibers.
7. There is no energy radiation from a fiber.
8. Optical fibers are protected from corrosive and flammable environments.
9. Cost / meter/ channel for fiber would be lesser than that of metallic cable.
Limitations of optical communication system:
a. The optical connectors which are used to connect (splicing) two fibers are highly
expensive.
b. The fibers will not bent to smaller radius of curvature, which leads to breaking of
fiber.
c. The fibers undergo expansion and contraction with temperature, which leads to
loss in signal power.
d. Optical fibers facing maintenance costs.
Applications of fiber optics:
1. Optical fibers used for long distance transmission or communication of sound signals.
2. Optical fibers are used in Fiber – optic endoscope.
3. Optical fibers are used as sensing device.
4. Optical fibers are used for data link purpose.
5. Optical fibers are used as a communication device in Local Area Networks (LAN).
Point to point optical fiber communication system

The optical fiber consists of three main elements:

1. Transmitter: An electric signal is applied to the optical transmitter.
▪ The optical transmitter consists of driver circuit, light source and fiber
flylead.
▪ Driver circuit drives the light source.
▪ Light source converts electrical signal to optical signal.
▪ Fiber flylead is used to connect optical signal to optical fiber.
2. Transmission channel: It consists of a cable that provides mechanical and
environmental protection to the optical fibers contained inside.
Each optical fiber acts as an individual channel.
➢ Optical splice is used to permanently join two individual optical fibers.
➢ Optical connector is for temporary non-fixed joints between two
individual optical fibers.
 ➢ Optical coupler or splitter provides signal to other devices.
➢ Repeater converts the optical signal into electrical signal using optical
receiver and passes it to electronic circuit where it is reshaped and
amplified as it gets attenuated and distorted with increasing distance
because of scattering, absorption and dispersion in waveguides, and this
signal is then again converted into optical signal by the optical
transmitter.
3. Receiver: Optical signal is applied to the optical receiver. It consists of photo
detector,
amplifier and signal restorer.
▪ Photo detector converts the optical signal to electrical signal.
▪ Signal restorers and amplifiers are used to improve signal to noise ratio of
the signal as there are chances of noise to be introduced in the signal due
to the use of photo detectors.
For short distance communication only main elements are required.
➢ Source- LED
➢ Fiber- Multimode step index fiber
➢ Detector- PIN detector
For long distance communication along with the main elements there is need for
couplers, beam splitters, repeaters, optical amplifiers.
➢ Source- LASER diode
➢ Fiber- single mode fiber
➢ Detector- Avalanche photo diode (APD