Methods

Grammar Translation Method

It was the offspring of German scholarship, the object of which was to know everything about something rather than the thing
itself.
The method has two main goals :
● To enable students to read and translate literature written in the source language.
● To further students’ general intellectual development.

After the decline of Latin, the purpose of learning it in schools changed. Whereas previously students had learned Latin for the
purpose of communication, it came to be learned as a purely academic subject. When modern languages did begin to appear in school
curricula in the 19th century, teachers taught them with the same grammar–translation method as was used for classical Latin
and Greek. As a result, textbooks were essentially copied for the modern language classroom.

Main characteristics: The goal of foreign language study is to learn a language in order to read its literature or in order to
benefit from the mental discipline and intellectual development that result from foreign language study. G-T METHOD first
approaches the language first through detailed analysis of its grammar rules, followed by the application of this knowledge into
the task of translating sentences and texts to the target language. “The first language serves as system of reference in the
acquisition of the second language”.

� Reading and writing are the major focus.

� Vocabulary selection is based on the reading texts used, and words are taught through bilingual list of words, dictionary study
and memorizing.
� The SENTENCE is the basic unit of teaching and language study.
� ACCURACY is emphasized.
� GRAMMAR IS TAUGHT DEDUCTIVELY → by presentation and study of the grammar rules which then are practiced through the
translation of sentences.
� The sts native language is used to present the items and then to enable a comparison between the student’s native and the
TL

More attention is paid to the form of the sentences being translated than to their content. When students reach more
advanced levels of achievement, they may translate entire texts from the target language. Tests often consist of the
translation of classical texts. The mainstay of classroom materials for the grammar–translation method is the textbook. A
chapter in a typical grammar–translation textbook would begin with a bilingual vocabulary list, after which there would be grammar
rules and sentences to translate.
Although G-T METHOD created frustration among students, it makes few demands on part of the teacher. Nowadays this
method can be used, in a modified way, if the aims of the classes are to understand literary text and no attention being made
in gaining knowledge of the language by speaking.

In the mid-19 th century, opposition to the Grammar Translation method began to spread throughout Europe → this REFORM
MOVEMENT, laid in the foundations for the development of new ways of teaching languages. Despite all of these drawbacks, the
grammar–translation method is still the most used method all over the world in language teaching. This is not surprising as most
language proficiency books and tests are in the format of grammar–translation method.

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The Direct Method
Mid-nineteenth C → several factors contributed to a questioning and rejection to the Grammar-Translation method. Increased
opportunities for communication in Europe created a market for conversation books and language teaching specialists turned their
attention to the way modern languages were being taught in secondary schools. In some parts of Europe, new approaches to
language teaching were developed by individual language teaching specialists , each with a specific method.
� Marcel, referred to child language learning as a model for language teaching and emphasized the importance of meaning in learning.
� Prendergast, was one of the first to record the observation that children use contextual and situational cues to interpret
utterances and that they use memorized phrases and routines in speaking.
� Gouin (perhaps the best known one) developed an approach based on his observations of children’s use of lang. He believed that
lang. learning was facilitated through using language to accomplish events consisting of a sequence of related actions. His method
used situations and themes as ways of organizing and presenting oral language. His emphasis on presenting items in a context and
on using gestures are practices that later became part of such approaches and methods as Situational Language Teaching and TPR.

Educators recognized the need for speaking proficiency rather than reading comprehension or grammar as the goal of foreign lang.
programs: there was an interest in how children learn languages. However, the ideas of these 3 specialists were developed outside
the context of education and lacked acceptance and implementation → there was not sufficient organizational structure in the
lang. teaching profession.
But by the end of the 19 th C, more concerted effort arose and the interests of reform-minded language teachers and linguists
coincided. They began to write about the need for new approaches, and so the foundation for more widespread pedagogical reforms
was laid. This effort became known as the Reform Movement:

� The discipline of linguistics was revitalized.

� Phonetics was established, since linguists emphasized that speech was the primary form of language. The International Phonetic
Alphabet was designed and the International Phonetic Association was founded → one of its goals was to improve the teaching of
modern languages. Linguists too became interested in which was the best way of teaching languages. Wilhelm Vietor used linguistic
theory to justify his views on language teaching. He criticized the inadequacies of Grammar Translation and stressed the value of
training teachers in phonetics.
In general the reformers believed that:
● The spoken language is primary
● Teachers should be trained in phonetics
● Learners should hear the language before they write it
● Words should be presented in contextualized sentences
● Grammar should be taught inductively
● Translation should be avoided
These principles provided the theoretical foundations for a principled approach to language teaching. They reflected the beginning of
the discipline of applied linguistics. None of these proposals assumed the status of a method. However, parallel to these ideas there
was an interest in developing principles for language teaching out of naturalistic principles of language learning → this led to
development of what came to be known as the Direct Method :
Gouin had been one of the first to attempt to build a methodology around observation of child language learning. Other reformers
towards the end of the century tried to apply natural principles to language classes; they argued that a foreign language could be
taught without translation if meaning was conveyed directly through demonstration. According to Franke , a language could be taught
by using it actively in the classroom. Teachers must encourage direct and spontaneous use of foreign language in the classroom.

In practice, it stood for the following principles and procedures:

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� Classroom instruction was conducted in the target lang.
� Only everyday vocabulary was taught
� Oral communication skills were built up in a graded progression organized around question-and-answerexchanges
� Grammar was taught inductively
� Concrete vocabulary was taught through demonstration or objects, and abstract voc by association of ideas
� Speech and listening comprehension were taught
� Correct pronunciation and grammar were emphasized
Drawbacks :
� It failed to consider the practical realities of the classroom
� It required teachers who were native speakers
� It was largely dependent on the teacher’s skill, and not all teachers were proficient enough
� The teachers were required to go great lengths to avoid using the native tongue, when sometimes a brief explanation in the
mother tongue would have been more efficient and would have saved time.

By the 1920’s, the use of the DM declined and it started to be modified into versions that combined some DM teaching with more
controlled grammar based-activities.

The situational approach

Developed from the 1930´s to the 1960´s. This approach emerged as an attempt to develop a more scientific foundation for an oral
approach than was evidenced in the Direct Method. This was seen in the development of rational principles for the selection of
vocabulary and grammar in syllabus design.
Theory of language : The theory of language underlying situational language teaching was British “Structuralism”. Speech was regarded
the basis of language, with structures underlying speaking. The grammatical structures would be word order, structural words,
inflections and content words.
British theoreticians included the notion of situation i.e oral practice of controlled sentence patterns should be given in situations
that provides the learner with enough practice. In other words knowledge of structures must be linked to situations in which they
can be used.
Theory of learning : The theory of learning underlying situational language teaching is from a behavioristic approach. This approach
emphasized the fact that learning occurs as a result of repetition and practice. Learners receive the knowledge, the learner´s minds
being a blank slate, that knowledge is fixed in the memory by repetition until it becomes a personal skill i.e until it becomes a habit.
Language learning is habit formation. The fundamental thing was correct speech habits. And these habits should be automatized.
Learning takes place as a result of analogy or generalization i.e extending structures and vocabulary to new situations. The process
of SLA was the same as FLA.
DESIGN
Objectives:
� To teach a practical command of the four basic skills of language.
� Accuracy in pronunciation and grammar is regarded crucial
� Errors are to be avoided at all cost, because they lead to bad habits.
� Repetition was a “safe way “of learning a language, since the teacher was a model and the learners repeat after him.
� Spoken language was introduced first.
� Learners were allowed to create oral composition only when the structures and vocabulary were correctly automatized.
The syllabus: Structural syllabus consisting of a list of the basic structures and sentence patterns (for e.g. Statement, question,
request/command) arranged according to their order of presentation.
� Structures are always taught within sentences. The sentence provided the context.
� Vocabulary is chosen so as to provide the material upon which to base the language practice.
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Types of learning and teaching activities: Situational language teaching employs a situational approach as a way of presenting material
and practicing the language.
� Practice is carried out by means of drill-based exercises
� The approach is situational because the situation will be controlled carefully to teach new material in which the meaning of
vocabulary and structures will be clear and the learn won´t have any doubt of what they are learning.
� Situation could also refer to the use of Concrete objects, pictures and realia, which together with gestures can be used to
DEMOSTRATE the meanings of new language items by means of examples and not through grammatical explanations.
� Situational language teaching adopts and inductive approach to the teaching of grammar. Learners will learn the structures and the
vocabulary of a language when they derive their meaning from the situation in which the language is presented and taught.
� Written form was delay because: 1) this reflects the natural order in which a child acquires their first language. 2) As a way of
delaying interference from the target language.
Learner roles:
� In the initial stages learners have a passive role.
� The learner has no control over the content of the lesson.
� They are required to produce correct habits.
� At later stages, more active participation is encouraged including learners initiating responses and asking each other questions.
Teacher roles:
� Teacher-controlled approach.
� The teacher´s function is threefold: 1) presentation stage of the lesson. The teacher serves as a model, setting up appropriate
situations for the target structures to be used. And modelling the new structures for students to repeat. 2) The teacher is
required to be a skilful manipulator using questions and commands to elicit correct sentences from learners. 3) The teacher is
reviewer. i.e. controls how learnersuse the language and if errors appear then these would be the basis of subsequent lessons.
� The teacher sets the pace.
� The teacher is ESSENTIAL to the success of the method.
The role of instructional material:
� The textbook has a secondary role since it only describes activities for the teacher to carry out in class. Teachers, at the same
time, are required to develop their OWN teaching activities.
� Textbooks contain organized lessons planned around different grammatical structures. It was a
STRUCTURAL SYLLABUS
� Visual aids consist of: wall charts, flash cards, pictures and so on.
� The textbook should serve only as a guide of the learning process. The teacher should have control over the material.
Procedure:
� The practice techniques employed consist of guided repetition and substitution activities, including chorus repetition, dictation, drills
and controlled oral -based reading and writing tasks.
� Procedures vary according to the level of the class.
� The sequence of activities consists of:
1. listening practice – in lock step
2. Choral imitation
3. Individual imitation.
4. The teacher isolates sounds or words that learners have problems with and repeats techniques 1-3
5. Elicitation: to make learners produce new examples of the pattern.
6. Substitution drilling, substitution tables.
7. Question answers drilling between students. Pair work
8. Correction. From the part of the teacher and students. What´s characteristic of this method is that correction is made at the
end of a lesson and not immediately after learners produce the erroneous form.

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 The Audiolingual Method:
Audiolingualism: from army programs and the Aural-Oral Approach, adding insights taken from behaviorist psychology. This combination
of structural linguistic theory, contrastive analysis, aural-oral procedures, and behaviorist psychology led to the Audiolingual Method.
APPROACH
Theory of language : It was derived from a view proposed by American linguists in the 1950s: structural linguistics (as a reaction to
traditional grammar). The reaction against traditional grammar was prompted by the movement toward positivism and empiricism and
by an increased interest in non-European languages on the part of scholars. A new interest in phonetics, phonology, morphology, and
syntax developed. Language was viewed as a system of structural elements for the encoding of meaning: phonemes, morphemes,
words, structures, and sentence.
The term structural referred to:
a) Elements were thought of as being linearly produced in a rule-governed (structured) way.
b) Language samples could be described at any structural level of description (phonetic, morphological, etc.).
c) Linguistic/ structural levels were thought of as systems within systems.

Learning a language entails mastering the elements and learning the rules by which these elements are combined. The phonological and
grammatical systems of the language constitute the organization of language and the units of production and comprehension.
Since many languages do not have a written form and we learn to speak before we learn to read or write. It was assumed that
speech had a priority in language teaching.
This scientific approach to language analysis appeared to offer the foundations for a scientific approach to language teaching. In 1961
the American linguist William Moulton proclaimed the linguistic principles on which language teaching methodology should be based:
� Language is speech, not writing
� A language is a set of habits. Languages are different
� Teach the language, not about the language
� A Language is what its native speakers say, not what someone thinks they ought to say.

But a method cannot be based simply on a theory of language. It also needs to refer to the psychology of learning and to learning
theory.
Theory of learning: Audiolingualism was developed in a period when a school of American psychology –behavioural claimed to have tapped
the secrets of all human learning. Behaviourism, like structural linguistics, is another antimentalist approach to the study of human
behaviour. The occurrence of these behaviours is dependent upon three crucial elements in learning: stimulus (which elicits behaviour); a
response triggered by a stimulus; and reinforcement (which marks the response as being appropriate or not, and discourages the
repetition or suppression of the response in a future. Reinforcement is a vital element in the learning process, because it increases
the likelihood that the behaviour will occur again and eventually become a habit. To apply this theory to language learning is to identify
the organism as a foreign language learner, the behaviour as a verbal behaviour, the stimulus as what is taught or presented of the
foreign language, the response as the learner’s reaction to the stimulus, and the reinforcements as the intrinsic self-satisfaction of
target language use.

Learning principles:
1. Foreign language learning is a process of mechanical habit formation. By memorizing dialogues and performing pattern drills, the
chances of producing mistakes are minimized. Language is verbal behavior that is, the automatic production and comprehension of
utterances.
2. Language skills are learned more effectively if the items are presented in a spoken form.
3. Analogy provides a better foundation for language learning than analysis. It involves the processes of generalization and
discrimination. Explanations of rules are not given until students have practiced pattern in a variety of contexts and are thought to
have acquired a perception of the analogies involved. Drills can enable learners to form correct analogies. Grammar is taught inductively.
4. The meaning of words is learned in context. Teaching a language thus involves teaching aspects of the cultural system.
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 DESIGN
� The main goal of Audiolingualism was to develop oral proficiency in sts, and dismissed the study of grammar or literature as the goal
of foreign language teaching.
� They Advocated a return to speech-based instruction

Objectives:

The focus in the early stages is on oral skills, with gradual links to other skills as learning develops. Oral proficiency is equated with
accurate pronunciation and grammar and the ability to respond quickly and accurately in speechsituations. It is important the development
of oral fluency.
The syllabus : Audiolingualism is a structure-based approach to language teaching. The linguistic syllabus contains the key items of
phonology, morphology, and syntax. The language skills are taught in the order of listening, speaking, reading, and writing . The learner’s
activities must be at first confined to the audiolingual and gestural-visual bands of language behaviour. Recognition and discrimination are
followed by imitation, repetition and memorization. Only when he is very familiar with sounds, arrangements and forms does he centre his
attention on enlarging his vocabulary
Types of learning and teaching activities: Dialogues and drills form the basis of audiolingual classroom practices.
● Dialogues: provide context. They are used for repetition and memorization. After a dialogue has been memorized, specific grammatical
patterns in the dialogue are selected and become the focus of various kinds of drill and pattern-practice exercise.
● Drills and pattern practice:
a. Repetition
b. Inflection: one word in an utterance appears in another form when repeated.
c. Replacement
d. Restatement: the student rephrases an utterance and addresses it to someone else.
e. Completion: The student hears an utterance that is complete except for one word, then repeats it in completed form.
f. Transposition: A change in word order is necessary when a word is added.
g. Expansion: when a word is added it takes a certain place in the sequence.
h. Contraction: a single word stands for a phrase or clause
i. Transformation: a sentence is made negative or interrogative, changes in tense, voice, etc
j. Integration: two separate utterances are integrated
k. Rejoinder: the student makes an appropriate rejoinder to a given utterance. He is told in advance to respond in one way (eg: be polite,
agree, and express surprise).
l. Restoration:
6 the student is given a sequence of words that have been culled from a sentence but still bear it basic meaning. He uses
these words with a minimum of changes and additions to rest of the sentence.
Leaner roles:
� Learners are directed by skilled training techniques to produce correct responses.
� Learners play a reactive role by responding to stimuli, and thus have little control over the content, pace or style of the learning.
� They are not encouraged to initiate interaction, because this may lead to mistakes.
� Learners learn by listening to the teacher, follow by imitation, and responding to and performing CONTROLLED tasks. The learner may
do all this without knowing the meaning of the structures.
Teacher roles:
� The teacher´s role is central and active
� The teacher models the target language, controls the direction and pace of learning, and monitor and
controls the learners’ performance.
� The teacher must keep the learners attentive.
� The learner interacts with the teacher.
� The teacher should:
✔ Guide the student in choosing and learning vocabulary.
✔ Teach the use of STRUCTURE through PATTERN PRACTICE.
✔ Encourage learners to talk.
✔ Reward trials by the student in such a way that learning is reinforced.
� Failure to learn results only from the improper application of the method; either because the teacher dos not supply enough
practice or because learners do not memorize the patterns and structures.
The role of instructional material:
� Instructional materials assist the teacher to develop language mastery in the learner.
� Textbooks are not often used in the elementary phases of a course because exposure of the printed word may distract attention
to the aural input.
� The teacher will have access to the teacher´s book
� Textbooks provide the texts of dialogues
� Tape recorders and audiovisual equipment have a central role in the course
Procedures:
� Mainly oral activities
� Translation is discouraged (only as a literary exercise at an advanced level.)
� The learning of structure through the practice of patterns of sound, order and form, rather than by explanation.
� They repeat each line of the dialogue. The teacher pays attention to pronunciation, intonation and fluency. Correction of mistakes
of pronunciation or grammar is direct and immediate. Then the dialogue is memorized

The Cognitive Code learning:

To understand how the Cognitive Code Learning method works first we have to be familiarized with Mentalism and Generative-
Transformational Grammar. Why? Because underlying any teaching theory there are psychological approaches and linguistic theories.
Mentalism: Mentalists believe that everybody learns a language because they possess an inner capacity, which permits them to acquire
a language as a normal maturational process (“Language Acquisition Device”). Since this capacity cannot be acquired socially, it must be
innate. From birth, a child is exposed to language, which acts as a trigger for the LAD. This device has the capacity of formulating
hypotheses about the structure of a language to which it is exposed. As the child gets older, the hypotheses become more complex.
In this way, the internal grammar is constructed and it is expected to be identical with the descriptive grammar linguists analyzed.
GENERATIVE-TRANSFORMATIONAL GRAMMAR
It was a turning point in the 20th Century. Noam Chomsky shifted the attention away from the detailed descriptions of the system
Structuralists gave us, and started asking questions about the nature of the system, which produces output. Chomsky claimed that
anyone who knows a language must have internalized a set of rules, which specify the sequences permitted in their language.
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 It is a grammar which consists of a set of statements or rules which specify the sequences of a lge which are possible and
impossible. How do they discover these rules, by approaching language from a transformational viewpoint, i.e. analysing language at 2
different levels: deep and surface. The surface structure is what it is observable (syntactic), the deep structure is abstract and
helps to reveal underlying meanings (semantic).

Principles underlying the CCL:

� The learning occurs through cognitive memory structures.
� The learner is active and process information. S/He is the centre of the learning process.
� S/He works out the grammar rules through inductive reasoning.
� Context, topic and practice must be meaningful.
� There is an emphasis on content over form.
� The cognitive control works as follows: phonemes are to be learned before words, words before phrases, clauses before sentences,
and simple sentences before compound, complex, and compound- complex sentences.
This approach gave the learner and the teacher a more active role than behaviourism, now the L is able to think. He is responsible for
building the knowledge of the second language and the t for providing the ls a meaningful context and helping them to connect new
information to previous one.
Strengths:
� Guide to the discovery of the rules meaningfully rather than learning them by heart.
� Language acquisition rather than habit formation.
� Change the attitude of the teacher towards errors. It enlightened the foreign language teachers in the treatment of student
errors, which were accepted as natural happenings in the process of learning foreign lges.
� It allows the students to actively use and process the information they already have. Active learners.
� It guides the students to discover rules for themselves and use what is called the guided inductive approach to teaching.
� Teachers provide the necessary tools to their students, so that they can work on their own.
� English teachers can be more didactic and creative with their students and the children can enjoy learning through no rigorous
processes.
� Errors are considered an important part in the learning process.
� Notion of competence and performance
Weakness:
� The theory attaches more importance to the learner's understanding of the structure of the foreign language
than to the facility in using that structure, since it is believed that it provided the student has a proper
degree of cognitive control over the structures of the language, facility will develop automatically with use of
the language in meaningful situations. (content over form).
� Unclear classroom implementation
� No explicit step-by-step methodology
� Too much attention to learner's errors
How students learn:
● Learner readiness : Motivation is an important part of learning, and instruction must be adapted to the l’s cognitive abilities,
experiences and contexts that make the student willing and able to learn.
● Spiral organization: Instruction must be structured such that the learner continually builds upon what he/she has already learned.
Revisiting the curriculum by teaching the same content in diff ways reinforces and extends learning at different developmental levels.
● Discovery learning : The learner learns by gathering information for himself/herself, testing the information and formulating rules.
Lessons: A lesson from the CCLT was based on learning the “rule of the day”. Present a set of sentences in context so that it
would help to clarify the meaning.

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 The Notional functional Approach:
Syllabuses used before Wilkins developed the Notional Syllabus :
� The situational syllabus : Language is always used in a social context. We should teach language necessary to perform linguistically
different real situations situations. The syllabus will consist of an inventory of language situations.
� Structural syllabus : It is defined in formal terms, as lexical items and grammatical patterns manifesting the system of English. It
seeks to teach the language by taking the learner progressively through the forms of the target language.

Notional-Functional syllabuses: They began to grow when meaning had moved to the centre of the stage. Notional-functional
syllabuses attended to functions as organizing elements of a foreign language curriculum. Grammar was relegated to a secondary focus.
“Notions” referred both to abstract concepts such as space, time and to what we also call “contexts” or “situations,” such as travel,
education, and free time (specific notions). The “functional” part of the notional-functional syllabus corresponded to what we have
defined as language functions. The placement of items in the syllabus usually corresponded to real world lge.
When designing a lesson, teachers often choose a real-world situation as their "notion," and choose corresponding functions to teach.
Priority is given to (a) sentences in combination instead of the sentence as the basic unit in language teaching, (b) meaning (or
communication) over form which reduces the attention given to grammar and the importance assigned to grammatical accuracy, (c)
participation in authentic language use, (d) fluency and appropriateness in learner performance over formal accuracy, (e) speaking and
listening skills in class.

Structural and notional syllabuses : differences and similarities

They differ most obviously in the manner in which language content is defined. In the structural syllabuses it is defined in formal
terms, as lexical items and grammatical patterns manifesting the system of English. In the notional syllabus, language content is
defined in functional terms, as notions, which are realized by formal items.
Proponents of the structural syllabus will argue that what has to be taught is knowledge of the language system: its exploitation for
communicative purposes can be left to the learner.
Proponents of the notional syllabus will argue that communicative competence needs to be expressly taught: the learner cannot be
left to his own devices in developing an ability to communicate.
Both types of syllabus recognize that the learner’s goal should be the ability to communicate. They differ in the assumption of what
needs to be actually taught for this ability to be acquired.

Critiques :
� Widdowson noted that while the notional syllabus claims to develop communicative competence within the actual design of the
syllabus itself, such is not necessarily the case, since the notional syllabus still presents language as an inventory of units--functional
rather than structural units, but still isolates.
� The notional syllabus does not represent language as discourse, and therefore it cannot possibly account for communicative
competence--because communicative competence is not a compilation of items in memory but a set of strategies or creative
procedures for realizing the value of linguistic elements in contexts of use. The focus of attention is on items, not strategies, on
components of discourse, not the process of its creation,
�There is no demonstration of the relationship between form and function, of the meaning potential in the language forms which are
presented.
According to Widdowson, the notional syllabus can be seen as a way to develop the structural syllabus by incorporating communicative
properties into it. Not different from inventories of grammar items; for example, instead of learning “the simple past”, learners
might now be required to “talk about the things you did last weekend”.
� The lists are simply random selections of functions, topics and exponents.
� A single language function,
� There are also difficulties of selecting and grading function and form.
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 Humanistic approaches
Suggestopedia
:It was a method for learning developed by Georgi Lozanov (1926 – 2012) which made emphasis on relaxed states of minds for
maximum retention of material. Lozanov claimed that people are capable of learning more if their minds are clear of other things and
free of anxiety.
Lozanov acknowledges ties in tradition to yoga and Soviet psychology. From yoga, Lozanov has borrowed and modified techniques for
altering states of consciousness and concentration, and the use of rhythmic breathing. From soviet psychology, he has taken the
notion that students can be taught at the same level of skill.
It describes how attentiveness is manipulated to optimize learning and memory. Lozanov believes that most learning takes place in a
relaxed but focused state.
� It’s based more firmly on psychology than on linguistics
� It considers affective aspects of learning and language as important
� It’s concerned with treating the learner as a whole and with a whole-person involvement in the learning process
� It sees the importance of a learning environment which minimizes anxiety and enhances personal security
Some characteristics:
� Decoration, furniture, and arrangement of the classroom
� Use of music and musical rhythm was central
� It is related with other functional uses of music, particularly therapy
� Authoritative behaviour of the teacher
� Experimentation with presentation of vocabulary, readings, dialogs, role-plays, drama,
Approach
Theory of language: The emphasis is on memorization of vocabulary pairs – a TL item and its native translation. Lozanov refers to
the importance of experiencing language material in “whole meaningful and interesting texts” and notes that the suggestopedic course
directs “the students not to vocabulary memorization and acquiring habits of speech, but to acts of communication”. Lozanov refers
to the language to be learned as “the material”
Theory of learning:
� Authority.
� Infantilization.
� Double-planedness.
� Intonation, rhythm, and concert pseudo-passiveness.
Design
Objectives: Suggestopedia aims to deliver advanced conversational proficiency quickly. It suggests to the students that it is
appropriate that they set such goal for themselves. Lozanov emphasizes that increased memory power is not an isolated skill but is a
result of “positive, comprehensive stimulation of personality”. Lozanov states categorically, “The main aim of teaching is not
memorization, but the understanding and creative solution of problems”.
The syllabus: The central focus of each unit is a dialogue with an accompanying vocabulary list and grammatical commentary.
On the first day, a test is given to check the level of student knowledge and to divide students into 2 groups (new beginners and
modified beginners) The unit study is organized around three days (day 1 - half a day, day 2 - full day, day 3 - half a day)
● Day 1: the teacher discusses the general content of the dialogue. The learners receive the printed dialogue with a native language
translation. Then the dialogue is read at least 3 times.
● Days 2-3: Spent in “primary elaboration” (imitation, question and answer, reading) and the “secondary elaboration” (encouraging
students engage in conversation and take small roles in response to the text read)

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Physical surroundings and atmosphere in classroom are vital factors to make sure that "the students feel comfortable and confident"
1. Oral review session “Pre-session phase”: It deals with previously learned material and participants sit in a circle.
2. Discussion “Seminar”: The teacher introduces the grammar and lexis of the content. In most materials the foreign language text is
on the left half of the page with a translation on the right half, i.e. meanings are conveyed via L1.
3. Concert session (active and passive) - heart of the method. In the active session, the teacher reads the text at a normal speed,
sometimes intoning some words, and the students follow. In the passive session, the students relax and listen to the teacher
reading the text calmly. Music is played in the background.
4. Elaboration: The students finish off what they have learned with dramas, songs, and games.

Types of learning and teaching activities: the listening activities, which concern the text and vocabulary.
Students’ roles: Students are expected to be committed to the class and its activities. Students’ mental state is critical to success.
They must maintain a pseudo-passive state, in which the material surrounds them.
Teachers’ roles: Not act in a directive way, although this method is teacher-controlled. They should participate in the activities such
as games and songs "naturally"
Teachers must:
● Show confidence and be a highly-regarded professional, reliable and credible.
● organize properly and observe the initial stages of the teaching process
● respond tactfully to poor papers
● stress global rather than analytical attitudes towards the material
● maintain a modest enthusiasm
● The teacher should love his/her students and teach them with personal participation through games, songs, classical arts, and
pleasure.

The role of instructional materials: There are:

Direct support materials: texts, dialogues and tape. They should have emotional force, literary quality and interesting characters.
Indirect support materials: classroom environment and music.
Conclusion/Criticism:
● The students only receive input by listening.
Suggestopedia - Lesson Plan: Based on the idea learning takes place through a combination of different types of right and left brain
functions.
A "concert" is basically a story read out loud by the teacher. Students concentrate on understanding the story and
not on "learning" new vocabulary, grammar etc. An important principle applied to this exercise is the repeated exposure to new
material
A CONCERT
● Step 1: Read the concert. Make sure to not introduce the new material before the concert.
● Step 2: Have students split up into teams. Read the concert back with pauses, the focus information being presented, for the
students to fill in. Each correct answer gets a point
● Step 3: Have students, in their respective teams, take cards with the new words/phrases on them. Students then place the cards
in the correct order of usage, or combine them with other cards to make sense.
● Step 4: Have students make up sentences in turn using the paired up cards.

The silent way:

Caleb Gattegno: It is based on the premise that the teacher should be silent as much as possible in the classroom and the learner
should be encouraged to produce as much language as possible.
Elements are the use of colour charts and the coloured Cruisenaire rods.
The learning hypothesis:
� Learning is facilitated if the learner discovers or creates rather than remembers and repeats what is to be learned.
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Related to Bruner’s two traditions of teaching: expository mode (teacher as expositor, student as a listener) and hypothetical mode
(teacher and student in a more cooperative position, the student takes part in the formulation and may play the principal role in it).
Gattegno claims similar benefits.
� Learning is facilitated by accompanying (mediating) physical objects.
The rods and the color-coded pronunciation charts provide physical foci for student learning and also create memorable images to
facilitate student recall. That is to say, visual devices serve as associative mediators for student learning and recall.
� Learning is facilitated by problem solving involving the material to be learned.
The learner’s memory benefits from creatively searching out and discovering. The teacher’s strict avoidance of repetition forces
alertness and concentration on the part of the learners. The silent way student is expected to become” independent, autonomous
and responsible”, in other words, a good problem solver in lge.
Theory of Language: Gattegno views language itself “as a substitute for experience, so experience is what gives meaning to language”.
The Silent Way takes a structural approach to the organization of language to be taught.
Gattegno sees vocabulary as a central dimension of language learning, the choice of vocabulary is crucial. He distinguishes between several
classes of vocabulary items:
� “Semi-luxury vocabulary” : consists of expressions common in the daily life of the target language culture, this refers to food,
clothing, travelling, etc
� “Luxury-vocabulary” : is used in communicating more specialized ideas, such as political or philosophical opinions.
� “Functional vocabulary”: is the most important vocabulary for the learner, deals with many functional words, many of which may not
have direct equivalents in the learner’s native tongue. It provides a key to comprehending the “spirit” of the lge.
For Gattegno, the processes of learning a second language are “radically different” from those involved in learning a first language. The
second language learner “cannot learn another language in the same way because of what he now knows”
The “natural” or “direct” approaches to acquiring a second language are misguided, and a successful second anguage approach will “replace a
natural approach” by one that is very “artificial” and, for some purposes, strictly controlled. The “ Artificial approach” that Gattegno
proposes is based on the principle that successful learning involves commitment of the self to language acquisition through the use of
silent awareness and then active trial.
Gattegno’s repeated emphasis on the primacy of learning over teaching places a focus on the self of the learner, on the learner’s
priorities and commitments.
The self consists of two systems:
� The learning system is activated only by way of intelligent awareness. Silent is considered the best vehicle for learning, because
students concentrate on the task to be accomplished and the potential means to its accomplishment.
� The retaining system allows us to remember and recall at will linguistic elements and their organizing principles and makes linguistic
communication possible. Gattegno speaks of remembering as a matter of “paying ogdens”. An “ogden” is a unit of mental energy required
to link permanently two mental elements. Retention by way of mental effort, awareness, and thoughtfulness is more efficient in
terms of ogdens consumed than is retention attained through mechanical repetition. Retention links are formed in the most silent
periods, that of sleep.
Awareness is educable. Silent way learners acquire “inner criteria”. These inner criteria allow learners to monitor and self-correct their
own production. It is in the activity of self-correction through self-awareness that the Silent Way claims to differ most notably
from other ways of language learning.
Design
Objectives:
1. To give beginning level students oral and aural facility in basic elements of the target language.
� The general goal: near-native fluency
▪ Correct pronunciation.
▪ Mastery of the prosodic elements (related with rhythm and intonation).
2. To provide the learner with a basic practical knowledge of grammar.
� This is the basis for independent learning on the learner’s part.
The Silent Way teaches how to learn a language and how the skills developed through this process of learning a second language can be
employed in dealing with “unknowns” of every type. The method can also be used to teach reading and writing, its usefulness is not
12 to beginning level students.
restricted
The syllabus: Structural syllabus. Lessons are planned around grammatical items and related vocabulary. Even though there isn’t a general
Silent Way syllabus, it is clear from observations of programs that language items are introduced according to:
● Their grammatical complexity.
● Their relationship to what has been taught previously.
● The ease with which items can be presented visually.
“Function vocabulary” (named as that because of their high utility) is introduced early in the course since they refer to oneself and to
others in the numerous relations of everyday life.
Types of learning and teaching activities: Learning tasks and activities have the function of encouraging and shaping student oral
response without direct oral instruction from the teacher. This can be the case when in a simple linguistic task the teacher models a
word or sentence and then elicits a learner response. Learners then go on to create their own utterances by putting together old
and new information. Teacher modelling is minimal, although much of the activity may be teacher directed.
Gattegno: language learning is a process of personal growth resulting from growing student awareness and self-challenge.

● At first the learner feels puzzled until he finds one or ● Teacher silence the unique and the most demanding aspect
more bases to build on the knowledge the carry out an of this method.
activity. ● They have to resist the commitment to model, remodel,
● Systematic analysis: assist, and direct so as to elicit students’ responses.
● Trial and error ● T’s tasks: teach, test and get out of the way (even leaving
the room)
● Directed experiment with practice of the acquire subareas
until mastery follows. ● Teaching consists of: (a) Presentation of an item once (b)
Testing follows immediately
● Expected to develop independence, responsibility and
autonomy. ● The teacher silently monitors learner’s interactions.
● Students develop inner criteria and able to correct ● Responsible for designing sequences and creating individual
themselves due to the absence of correction and repetition lessons and lesson element (manuals are unavailable).
from the teacher. ● Teacher’s learning goals should be clear and attainable. (at
● The absence of explanations requires learners to (a) Make hand)
generalization (b) come to their own conclusion (c)Formulate ● In Silent way classes it is important: (a) Sequence and
whatever rules they themselves think they need.
timing. (b) Teacher’s sensitivity.
● Learners must learn to work cooperatively
● The teacher should create an environment that encourage
● Learners have to play varying roles so as to be productive student’s risk taking
member. ● The teacher uses gestures, charts and manipulative so as
to elicit and shape student responses.

The role of instructional materials: in this teaching method, materials are used to illustrate the relationships between sound and
meaning; and they are to be manipulated by both students and the teacher.
� Fidels: pronunciation charts with symbols in both the native and the target language for every sound (the same sounds are coloured
in the same way. If the sound in the target language doesn’t exist in the native language, the teacher will provide an audible example)
� Coloured Cuisenaire rods: they link words and structures with their meanings in the target language, so as to avoid translation. Their
use is intended to promote inventiveness, creativity and interest in forming communicative utterances.
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� Vocabulary charts: words are colour coded, and their colours correspond to a conceptual grouping of words (adjectives, nouns,
adverbs, etc.). These words are selected according to their function, ease of application and importance in illustrating basic grammatical
structures.
� Other less important materials: books, worksheets for reading and writing skills, tapes, films and further visual aids. Reading and
writing are taught from the beginning and then students are given tasks and do them at home at their own pace. (more importance
to speaking)

Procedure: The first part of the lesson focuses on pronunciation. Later, the teacher will silently point at the symbol and students
should utter it properly. After practise with the sounds; sentences patterns, structures and vocabulary are practiced: the teacher
models an utterance and then has a student attempt to produce it. If he/she is wrong, the teacher will reshape the utterance or
have another student do it. This process is carried on until the class gets to produce a structure. Afterwards, the teacher will
create a situation in which the students get to practice the structure.
Community Lge Learning:
Background:
� Developed by Charles Curran, specialist in councelling and professor in psychology
� It came as a reaction against behaviourism/ conductism
� It’s based on pshychology rather than linguistics
� Derived from a humanistic approach. Techniques should engage the whole-person, including emotions and feelings. It also emphasized
the person’s natural freedom to get expressed one’s opinion (Rogers)
� It takes into account Councelling, as rogerians see it, is one person giving advice, support and assistance to another who has a
problem.
Approach
Theory of language: Curran’s studen, La Forge, focused on the language behind the method. He stated that sts should learn the sound
system first, then meaning and then to construct grammar of the L2. CLL sees language as a social process. La Forge is against the
unidirectional transfer of information to another. Communication is an exchange which is incomplete without feedback reaction.
Theory of learning: Learning is a cognitive and affective process. The Teacher-learner relationship is central and goes through
different stages which are related and maturation of a child. At the last stage, the learner will have become self-confident and will be
able to assist other learners. Succesful learning requirements are collected under the acronym SARD
� S: security (otherwise the sts won't learn)
� A: attention/ aggression (lack of attention means that the learner is not involved) (aggression is the way in which a learner seeks
an opportunity to show his strength)
� R: retention/ reflection (in the st is involved he will retain the material) (reflection is a period of silence after seeing new material)
� D: discrimination (once they’ve internalized the new material, they can relate all and apply it outside the classroom)
Design
Objectives: there’re not clear objectives but we can infer that one is to encourage learners to be members of a community inside the
classroom (they will be intrinsically motivated as they want to take part and avoid isolation) and the other is to attain near-native
like mastery of the TL.
Syllabus: this method does not use a conventional syllabus. The course progression is topic based, with learners nominating things they
wish to talk about. The syllabus emerges from the interaction between learners and the teacher.
Types of learning and teaching activities: translation, group-work, recording, transcription, reflection and observation, listening and
free conversation.
Learner roles: they have become members of a community and learn through interacting. Learning is achieved collaboratively. Their
learning is compared to the human growth:
1. The learner is like an infant dependent on the teacher. He repeats utterances he overhears-
2. He achieves a measure of independence. He uses simple phrases and expressions
3. Learners begin to understand others in the TL directly
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4. He is like an adolescent; he functions independently and often resists assistance of the teacher.
5. The learner has reached independence; he can become counsellor to less advanced sts.
Teacher roles: the teacher is like a counsellor in a supportive manner, responsible for providing a safe environment in which sts can
learn and grow.
The role of materials: these may be developed by the teacher as the course develops. A textbook is not a necessary component since
lessons are topic based. Tape recorders are recommended for rote-drill and practice.
Procedure: the sts sit in a circle all facing each other. The 1 class begins with a period of silence. The awkwardness of silence will make a
st volunteer. The volunteered comment may be used as a way of introducing discussion. The knower encourages learners to address
questions to one another, the teacher translates the question in the TL and the st repeats it and reflects about it. Discussions may
be tape recorded for later use.
Criticisms: It places unusual demands on the teacher as they must be highly proficient and sensitive in both L1 and
L2, they must resist the pressure to teach. Objectives are unclear as well as the syllabus and it does not take into account linguistic
dimensions.
TPR: total physical response
Background: Developed by James Asher. It is a “natural method” inasmuch as Asher sees L1 and L2 learning as parallel processes. It is a
lang teaching method built around the coordination of speech and action; it attempts to teach lang through physical activity. It is linked
to the “trace theory” of memory: the more often a memory connection is traced, the more likely it will be recalled. Combining verbal
retracing with motor activity increases the probability of successful recall. Asher feels adults should recapitulate the processes by
which children acquire their L1. His emphasis on developing comprehension before talking and the use of physical actions to teach a lang
has a long tradition in language teaching.
Approach
Theory of language: Asher does not directly discuss the nature of language, but the labelling of TPR classroom drills seem to be built on
assumptions that owe much to structuralism or grammar-based views of language.
Verb in the imperative � central linguistic motif around which lag use and learning are organized Abstractions should be delayed until the
students have internalized a “detailed cognitive map” � but are tense and articles abstractions?
Asher does not elaborate on the relation btw comprehension, production and communication; although in advanced lessons imperatives
are used for diff speech acts, such as requests and apologies. He also claims that lang can be internalized as chunks, and not as single
lexical items (but he does not elaborate on this view).
Theory of learning: Asher’s theories are reminiscent of the views of other behavioural psychologists; he still sees a stimulus-response
view as providing the learning theory underlying language teaching pedagogy. In addition, he has elaborated an account of what he feels
facilitates or inhibits L2L:
1. There exists a specific innate bio-program for language learning, which defines an optimal path for
L1 and L2 development
2. Brain lateralization defines diff learning functions in the left and right hemispheres
3. Stress intervenes btw learning and what is to be learnt
Design
Objectives:
� To teach oral proficiency at a beginning level: comprehension is a means to an end, and the ultimate aim is to teach basic speaking
skills
� To produce learners who are capable of an communication that is intelligible to a native speaker
Syllabus: Sentence-based syllabus, with grammatical and lexical criteria being primary in selecting teaching items. TPR requires initial
attention to meaning rather than to form. Grammar is taught inductively. Grammatical features are selected according to the
situations in which they can be used in the class and the ease in which they can be learned.
Types of learning and teaching activities : Imperative drills are the major classroom activity. Conversational dialogues are delayed since
for Asher everyday conversations are abstract. Other classroom activities include role plays or presentations, while reading and writing
mostly function as follow-ups.
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Learner roles: They are mainly listeners and performers (individually and collectively). They have little influence in the selection of
content, since it is determined by the teacher. They are also required to produce novel combinations of their own, and they monitor
their own progress. They are encouraged to speak when they feel prepared to.
Teacher’s roles: She has an active and direct role. She decides what to teach, presents material and selects supporting material and
initiates the interactions. Asher recommends detailed lesson plans. The T’s role is not so much to teach but to provide opportunities
for learning.
In giving feedback, the T should follow the example of parents: first, they correct very little but as the child grows up they tolerate
fewer errors in speech.
The role of instructional materials: There is generally no basic text.
Beginners: the T’s voice, actions and gesture may be sufficient
More advanced: materials and realia.

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