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Development - the way individuals grow and change over the course of their lifespan.
Human Development - pattern of movement/ change that begins at conception and through the
lifespan.
- includes growth and decline.
- can be positive or negative.
Major Principles of Human Development
Principle 1 - development is relatively orderly.
● Proximodistal pattern
○ Muscular growth of the trunk and the arms comes earlier as compared to the
hands and fingers.
● Cephalocaudal pattern
○ greatest growth always occurs at the top (head) to bottom.
Principle 2 - pattern of development is similar but the outcome may vary.
Principle 3 - development takes place gradually.
Principle 4 - as a process, development is complex. It is the product of biological, cognitive and
socioemotional processes.
Different domains of Development:
● Biological - physical growth and developments in motor skills
● Cognitive - memory, reasoning and problem solving, imagination, creativity, and
language.
● Emotional - changes in emotional experience and understanding.
● Social - changes in our understanding of ourselves and other people, how we relate to
others.
● Socio-emotional - changes in the individual/s relationship with others, changes in
emotions, and changes in personality.
These are important in organizing our own thinking about the nature of development.
Approaches to Human Development

Traditional - extensive change from birth to adolescence, little or no change in adulthood and
decline in the old age.
Life-span - occurs all throughout the life-span of an individual.
Characteristics to Life-span Development

Life-long - does not end by adulthood and no development stage dominates the development.
Multi-dimensional - consists of biological, cognitive, and socio-emotional dimensions.
Plastic - development is possible throughout the life-span.
Contextual - individuals are changing beings in a changing world.
Growth, maintenance and regulation - goals that vary in every developmental change.
Jean Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development

● Jean Piaget is interested in the nature of thought, how it develops and how genetics is
involved in the process.
● Children think differently than adults. They go through 4 stages of Cognitive
Development.
● Development changes as the child matures.
Stage 1: Sensorimotor Stage
- Between birth and age of two.
- Main development for the child is they know that an object exists and events occur in the
world (Object Permanence).
Stage 2: Preoperational Stage
- Between 2 - 6 years old.
- Child has not yet understood concrete logic.
Stage 3: Concrete Operational Stage
- Between 7 - 11 years old.
- Children begin to think logically about concrete events, but have difficulty understanding
abstract concepts.
Stage 4: Formal Operational
- Between 11 - adulthood.
- Develop the ability to think about abstract concepts.
Piaget’s Impact on Education
- Changed the way people studied and viewed children since he proved that children think
differently than adults.
- He has helped us to communicate and connect with children easier.
- He was able to explain how children learn intellectually and how this changes as they
move through the 4 stages.
- Help teachers to create lessons and different approaches of learning.
Lawrence Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development

● Loosely based on Piaget’s stages, but he wanted to develop his ideas even further.
● Used storytelling technique that involves moral dilemmas and questions to discover how
moral reasonings change as people grow.
Stages of Moral Development
Level 1 (Preconventional Morality)
- 9 years old and under.
- Moral code is shaped by adults.
- Also influenced by what we want to gain (rewards) and to avoid punishments.
Stage 1 (Obedience and Punishment Orientation)
- The child/ individual is good (does good) to avoid punishment.
Stage 2 (Individualism and Exchange)
- Children recognized that there is not just one view handed down by the authorities.
- Different individuals have different viewpoints.
Level 2 (Conventional Morality)
- Adolescents and adults.
- Internalize the moral standards of adult role models.
- Reasoning is based on the norms the person belongs to.
Stage 3 ( Good Interpersonal Relationships)
- Individuals are good at gaining others’ approval.
Stage 4 (Maintaining Social Order)
- Becomes aware and obeys society’s rules to uphold the law and avoid guilt.
Level 3 (Post Conventional Morality)
- Judgment is based on self-chosen principles.
- Moral reasoning is based on rights and justice.
- Only 10-15% riches at this level.
Stage 5 (Social Contract and Individual Rights)
- Becomes aware that although there are rules, there will be times they need to work
against the interest of particular individuals.
Stage 6 ( Universal Principle)
- Already developed own set of moral guidelines which may or may not fit the law.
Kohlberg’s Impact on Education

● Brought a new perspective to moral development (child’s moral decisions develop with
experience).
● encouraged students and colleagues to challenge his work and bring their own opinions.
(Influenced Carol Gilligan and Erik Erikson)
● Created moral education programs for schools, prisons and community organizations.
His program, “just community approach” has the most impact because every person is
involved.
Nature versus Nurture

Nature - role of biology and genetics.
- development, a process of maturation (physical and psychological change).
Nurture - role of experience and other environmental factors.
- development, a result of learning.
Hall (1883) - Theory of Play
- Children’s play reflects the evolutionary history of human species.
Watson (1930)
- environmental experiences and learning could be used to shape the development of any
child.
- babies are born with different temperaments classed as ‘easy’ or ‘difficult’, and there is
an inherited basis for either.
Thomas and Chess (1986)
- the nature of the parenting received by babies is also important in the long-term
development of temperament
- a difficult baby will not necessarily grow into a difficult child or adult.
- Sensitive caregiving can alter the temperament of the child.
Waddington (1975)
- abilities and behavior are canalized (strongly influenced by genetic factors, or are
amenable to environmental influences).
- temperament and intelligence, while having a genetic component, are less strongly
canalized and can be altered by the environment in which the infant is raised.
Continuous development - gradual but smooth pattern of change over time.
● Change - quantitative in nature.
Discontinuous development - series of abrupt changes and with each change the child moves to
a more advanced level of functioning.
● Developmental Stages - abilities or thought processes are qualitatively different to what
they were in the preceding stage.
Psychodynamic Theories - rooted in the work of Sigmund Freud - “human development is driven
by conflict”, “sex is the most important instinct”.
Freud (1917) Human Personality Three Components

● Id (Pleasure Principle) - satisfaction of our basic urges.
- wants to satisfy desires immediately.
- seeks to reduce tension, aiod pain and obtain pleasure/
● Ego (Reality Principle) - satisfy our basic drives but in a desirable and socially
acceptable manner.
- mediator or balancer of the demands of Id and Superego.
- postpones desires and waits for the right moment for the satisfaction of desire.
● Superego - superego acts as the child’s conscience and allows them to know when they
have done wrong without the need to be told by an adult.
- it is ideal rather than real.
- represents internalized value, ideals and moral attitude of the society.
- expresses guilt, self-criticism and consciences.
The id communicates basic needs, the superego demands that we behave in a morally
acceptable manner and the ego attempts to satisfy the demands of the id but in ways that are
acceptable to the superego.
Psychosexual Theory
Stages in the Psychosexual Development
● Oral Stage (18 months) - pleasure is centered on the mouth (sucking, chewing and
biting).
● Anal Stage (1 ½ - 3 y/o) - pleasure involves anus or its eliminative functions (urination
defecation).
● Phallic Stage (3-6 y/o) - pleasure focuses on the genitals (child sexually desires
opposite-sex parent - Oedipus complex, for boys - Electra complex, for girls. Resolved
through identifying sex-role characteristic and moral standards same-sex parent).
● Latent/Latency Stage ( 6 y/o - puberty) - sexual desires are supressed channelled into
intelectual and social activity, resulting the development of superego.
● Genital Stage (puberty - onwards) - reawakening of sexual desires but the pleasure is
from outside the family (form relationships with peers, leading to marriage and raising of
children).

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EDUC001 REVIEWER

Approaches to Human Development

Characteristics to Life-span Development

Jean Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development

Lawrence Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development

Kohlberg’s Impact on Education

Nature versus Nurture

Freud (1917) Human Personality Three Components

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