1.

density

Density = Mass / Volume

2. Relative density: is the ratio of the density (mass of a unit volume) of a substance to the density of a
given reference material

3.specific gravity :

4. Measurement of density/Sp gravity

 M/V if the geometry is high

 Archimedes wet/dry
 Sink float
 Pycnometry
 Density gradient
5. When a solid neither rises nor falls through a liquid in which it is submerged, what will be
its density? Give arguments in favor of your answer.

Answer: When a solid neither rises nor falls through a liquid in which it is submerged, its
density is equal to the density of the liquid.

Arguments in favor of the answer:

• If the density of the solid is greater than the density of the liquid, the solid will sink.

• If the density of the solid is less than the density of the liquid, the solid will float.

• Only when the density of the solid is equal to the density of the liquid will the solid
neither rise nor fall.

If the solid is more dense than the liquid, it will sink. If the solid is less dense than the liquid,
it will float. If the solid is exactly as dense as the liquid, then it will neither rise nor fall.
6. The weight of a food in air is 15g and in pure water is 9g at room temperature. Determine
the density and specific gravity of the food.

To determine the density of the food, we can use the following equation:

Density = Mass / Volume

We know that the mass of the food is 15g, but we need to determine its volume. To do this,
we can use the fact that the weight of an object in water is equal to its weight in air minus
the buoyant force. The buoyant force is equal to the weight of the water displaced by the
object.

Buoyant force = Weight in air - Weight in water

Buoyant force = 15g - 9g = 6g

The volume of the food is equal to the volume of water displaced, which is 6g.

Density of food = 15g / 6g = 2.5g/cm3

To determine the specific gravity of the food, we can use the following equation:

Specific gravity = Density of food / Density of water

Specific gravity of food = 2.5g/cm3 / 1g/cm3 = 2.5

Therefore, the density of the food is 2.5g/cm3 and its specific gravity is 2.5.

Density of food: 2.5g/cm3 Specific gravity of food: 2.5

.
7. A refractometer is an analytical device used to measure the refractive index (n) of a
substance. Refractometer consists of a light source, a prismatic system, a container where the
sample is placed; and a detector to measure the intensity of the light beam.

 A small drop of the food sample is placed on the prism of the refractometer.
 Light from a light source is passed through the prism and the sample liquid.
 The light is refracted at an angle that depends on the refractive index of the liquid.
 The angle of refraction is measured by the scale of the refractometer.

8. What is Refractive Index?

Refractive Index n is the speed of light in vacuum relative to the speed of light in the
considered medium:
n = speed of light in vacuum / speed of light in medium
Example:
Water has a refractive index of 1.33 which means that the light travels 1.33 faster in
vacuum than in water.

9.Refractive indexes depending on their concentration in water.

With a low concentration solution, the refractive index of the prism is much greater than
that of the sample, creating a large refraction angle and a low reading ("A" on diagram). The
reverse would happen with a high concentration solution ("B" on diagram

10.Factors affecting RI measurement

Temperature of the liquid

• Inverse relation
• For organic liquid, for every 10°C RI decreases 0.00045 & for water
 Wavelength of radiation source

• Inverse relation
• RI of transparent medium decreases with increase in wavelength
• Shorter wavelength are reflected more than the longer

Pressure

• Direct relation

11. Types of refractometer

Two types of instruments are used to determined RI

1. Refractometer

• ◼ Abbe’s refractometer
• ◼ Pulfrich refractometer
• ◼ Immersion/dipping refractometer

2. Interferometers (Differential refractometer)

• ◼ Deflection refractometer
• ◼ Reflection refractometer
12. Brix", refers to a scale of measurement for soluble solids in a
liquid. 20 Brix means approximately 20% sugar

13. Refractometers are used in food analysis to:

In the food industry, refractometers have many uses including measuring sugar and salt. In winemaking,
Brix refractometers can check the sugar content of the grape juice.

In agriculture, beekeepers use refractometers to check the moisture in honey. Refractometers can
also measure the water content of milk or for determining concentration of soy milk.

Refractometers can also measure chemical concentrations, validate mixtures and determine the
purity of materials.

1. Measure sugar content.

2. Monitor concentration of solutes.

3. Check purity, especially in dairy products.

4. Identify adulteration in food products.

5. Determine protein concentration in certain cases.

6. Monitor grape ripeness in winemaking.

7. Measure total solids in canned and processed foods.

8. Ensure quality in confectionery products.

9. Measure Brix, a unit for sugar content in solutions.

14. A polarimeter is an instrument which measures the angle of rotation by passing polarized
light through an optically active (chiral) substance.

14. Definition of polarimetry:

Polarimetry is a scientific method used to measure the angle of rotation of polarized light
as it passes through an optically active substance. Optically active substances are those that
can rotate the plane of polarization of light. This includes many organic molecules, such as
carbohydrates, amino acids, and proteins.

15. How polarimetry works:

A polarimeter is a scientific instrument used to perform polarimetry. It consists of a light

source, a polarizer, a sample cell, an analyzer, and a detector. The light source emits a beam
of light, which is then passed through the polarizer. The polarizer only allows light with a
specific plane of polarization to pass through.

The polarized light then passes through the sample cell. If the sample is optically active, it
will rotate the plane of polarization of the light. The amount of rotation depends on the
concentration and type of optically active substance in the sample.

The rotated light then passes through the analyzer. The analyzer is another polarizer that is
oriented perpendicular to the first polarizer. If the plane of polarization of the light has been
rotated, it will not be able to pass through the analyzer. The detector measures the amount
of light that passes through the analyzer.

The angle of rotation of the polarized light can be calculated by adjusting the position of
the analyzer until the detector reads zero. The angle of rotation is proportional to the
concentration of the optically active substance in the sample.
16. Applications of polarimetry:

Polarimetry is a widely used analytical technique in many different fields, including:

• Chemistry: Polarimetry is used to identify and quantify optically active substances,

such as carbohydrates, amino acids, and proteins. It is also used to determine the
purity of organic compounds.

• Food science: Polarimetry is used to measure the sugar content of food and
beverages. It is also used to determine the quality of honey and syrup.

• Pharmaceutical science: Polarimetry is used to identify and quantify active

pharmaceutical ingredients in drugs. It is also used to determine the purity and
quality of drugs.

• Biochemistry: Polarimetry is used to study the structure and function of proteins and
other biological molecules

✓ Pharmaceutical Industry
✓ Polarimetry for Flavor, Fragrance, and Essential Oil Industry
✓ Polarimetery for Food Industry Applications
✓ Using Polarimetery in the Chemical Industry
✓ Polarimetry of sugar solutions
‘’Non-destructive analytical techniques are those that do not damage or destroy the sample
being analyzed. This is in contrast to destructive analytical techniques, which require the
sample to be altered or destroyed in order to be analyzed.’’
17.Densitometry is the quantitative measurement of optical density in light-sensitive
materials,

18.principles

Densitometry is measured by transmitting light through a material and comparing the

intensity of the light that is transmitted to the intensity of the incident light. A larger optical
density means less of the incident light was transmitted.

19.Types of densitometry:

• Single-line densitometry
• Multiple energy densitometry
• Absorption-edge densitometry
20. SPECTROPHOTOMETER

A device that measures the absorption of light by a sample.

 It includes:

➢ Light

➢ Source

➢ Wavelength selector

➢ Electrical means of detecting light

21.Types:

1. UV spectrophotometer

2. Visible spectrophotometer

3. IR spectrophotometer

4. Atomic absorption spectrophotomete

22.Working principle

1.Light Source: A spectrophotometer emits a beam of light, typically in the visible or

ultraviolet (UV) range, through a sample of the food substance.

2.Sample Holder: The food sample is placed in a transparent container, such as a

cuvette, which allows the light to pass through the sample.

3.Detector: On the other side of the sample, there is a detector that measures how
much light passes through the sample.

4.Measurement: The spectrophotometer measures the intensity of the light before it

enters the sample (the reference or incident light) and the intensity of the light after
it passes through the sample (the transmitted light). It then calculates the absorbance
or transmittance of the sample at the selected wavelength.
A single beam spectrophotometer has only one beam of light, while a double beam spectrophotometer
has two beams of light, one passing through a reference solution and one passing through the sample.

23.There are two major classes of spectrophotometers

1. Single beam and

2. Double beam

Single beam:

• A single beam spectrophotometer measures the relative light intensity of the beam
before and after a test sample is inserted.
• Although comparison measurements from double beam instruments are easier and
more stable, single beam instruments can have a larger dynamic range.
• Optically simpler and more compact.

Double beam:

• A double beam spectrophotometer compares e light intensity between two light

paths reference sample and test sample

24. Design and Working Principles of Single Beam and Double Beam Spectrophotometers

Design and Working Principle of Single Beam Spectrophotometer：

A single beam spectrophotometer is designed with a straightforward optical path. The

instrument consists of a light source, a monochromator or filter to select the desired
wavelength, a sample cell, and a detector. The working principle involves the following
steps:

1. The light beam emitted by the source passes through the monochromator, which
isolates the desired wavelength.

2. The beam then travels through the sample cell containing the sample being analyzed.

3. After passing through the sample cell, the beam reaches the detector, which
measures the intensity of the transmitted light.

4. The detector generates a signal that is converted into a readable output, such as
absorbance or transmittance.
Design and Working Principle of Double Beam Spectrophotometer:

A double beam spectrophotometer has a more complex optical path and additional
components compared to a single beam spectrophotometer. The design typically includes:

1. Light Source: A common light source generates the light beam that is split into two
paths.

2. Beam Splitter: A beam splitter, often a dichroic mirror or prism, divides the light beam
into two separate beams.

3. Sample Cell and Reference Cell: The sample beam passes through the sample cell
containing the analyte, while the reference beam passes through a reference cell
containing a reference material or a blank.

4. Monochromator: Both beams pass through a monochromator or wavelength selector

to isolate the desired wavelength.

5. Detectors: Two separate detectors measure the intensities of the sample and
reference beams.

6. Signal Processing: The detectors convert the measured intensities into electrical
signals, which are processed and compared.

7. Data Output: The resulting output is often presented as the ratio of the intensities or
the difference in absorbance/transmittance between the sample and reference
beams.
25, Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer (AAS) and principle

An Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer (AAS) is a scientific instrument used to determine

the concentration of individual elements in a sample by analyzing the absorption of specific
wavelengths of light.
26. APPLICATION: ATOMIC ABSORPTION SPECTROPHOTOMETER

• Clinical analysis: Analysing metals in biological fluids such as blood and urine.
• Environmental analysis: Monitoring our environment – eg finding out the levels of
various elements in rivers, seawater, drinking water, air, petrol and drinks such as
wine, beer and fruit drinks.
• Pharmaceuticals: In some pharmaceutical manufacturing processes, minut quantities
of a catalyst used in the process (usually a metal) are sometimes present in the final
product. By using AAS the amount of catalyst present can be determined.
• Industry: Many raw materials are examined and AAS is widely used to check that the
major elements are present and that toxic impurities are lower than specified –eg in
concrete, where calcium is a major constituent, the lead level should be low because
it is toxic.
• Mining: By using AAS the amount of metals such as gold in rocks can be determined
to see whether it is worth mining the rocks to extract the gold

ADVANTAGES ➢ The atomic absorption technique is specific because the atoms of a particular element
can only absorb radiation of their own characteristic wavelength. ➢ It is independent of flame
temperature. ➢ High sample throughput ➢ Easy to use ➢ High precision ➢ Inexpensive technique 
DISADVANTAGES ➢ AA spectroscopy is highly specific. Each element has to be tested separately. ➢ The
samples and standards have to be in solution, or at least volatile. ➢ A large number of interferences are
possible, such as the formation of nonvolatile compounds, smoke formation which will absorb light,
contamination etc

27.Advantages of Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometry (AAS):

1. Elemental Specificity
2. Wide Element Range
3. High Sensitivity
4. Linearity
5. Reliability
6. Robustness
7. Speed
8. Minimal Interference

Disadvantages of Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometry (AAS):

1. Limited Multielement Analysis

2. Sample Preparation
3. Hazardous Reagents
 4. Expensive Equipment
5. Lack of Molecular Information
6. Inability to Analyze Non-Metals
7. Narrow Line Width

28. UV spectrophotometer: Uses ultraviolet light (UV), with wavelengths from 200 to 400
nanometers (nm). UV spectrophotometers are commonly used to measure the
concentration of proteins, nucleic acids, and other organic molecules.

29.Visible spectrophotometer: Uses visible light, with wavelengths from 400 to 750 nm.
Visible spectrophotometers are used to measure the concentration of colored compounds,
such as dyes and pigments.
COLORIMETRY
ELECTROPHORESIS is a technique used to separate macromolecules in a fluid or gel
based on their charge, binding affinity, and size under an electric field

Types:

➢ Paper Electrophoresis

➢ Agarose Gel Electrophoresis

➢ Polyacrylamide Gel Electrophoresis

➢ SDS-PAGE

➢ Horizontal Electrophoresis

➢ Vertical Electrophoresis

Applications:

➢ Estimation of DNA molecule

➢ Analysis of PCR product

➢ Determining molecular weight of protein

➢ Diagnose various diseases of kidney, liver and CVS

➢ Separation of organic acids, alkaloids, carbohydrates, amino acids,

alcohols et

Gel electrophoresis is a technique used to separate molecules according to their size and
charge. It is commonly used in food analysis to identify and quantify different components
of food, such as proteins, nucleic acids, and carbohydrates.

The procedure for gel electrophoresis in food analysis is as follows:

1. Sample preparation: The food sample is first prepared by grinding or homogenizing

it and then extracting the components of interest. The extract is then clarified to
remove any debris.

2. Gel preparation: A gel is prepared by dissolving a gelling agent, such as agarose or

polyacrylamide, in a buffer solution. The gel is then poured into a mold and allowed
to solidify.

3. Sample loading: The prepared sample is loaded into the wells of the gel.

4. Electrophoresis: An electric field is applied to the gel. The molecules in the sample
will migrate through the gel at different speeds, depending on their size and charge.

5. Visualization: After electrophoresis, the gel is stained to visualize the separated

molecules. The gel can then be photographed or scanned for analysis.

Procedure:

1. Prepare the agarose gel. Dissolve the agarose powder in buffer solution and heat the
mixture until the agarose is completely dissolved. Pour the agarose solution into an
electrophoresis chamber and allow it to solidify.
2. Prepare the DNA samples. Mix each DNA sample with loading dye.

3. Load the DNA samples into the wells of the agarose gel.

4. Fill the electrophoresis chamber with buffer solution.

5. Connect the electrophoresis chamber to the power supply and apply a voltage.

6. Allow the electrophoresis to run for 30-60 minutes.

7. Stain the gel with ethidium bromide.

8. Visualize the gel under UV light.

 chromatography

Paper chromatography is a simple and effective technique for separating and identifying
different components in a mixture. It is widely used in chemistry, biology, and other fields.

Rf= the distance traveled by the solute/the distance traveled by the solvent

Why Can A RF Value Never Be Greater Than 1?

Because, the solvent is always larger from the distance travelled by solute so the Rf value
must always be less than or equal to 1.

Rf value of zero means that the solute did not move at all during the paper chromatography
What are the advantages of Paper Chromatography?
Paper Chromatography Has Many Benefits
Simple and rapid
Paper chromatography necessitates a minimal amount of quantitative material.
Paper chromatography is less expensive than other chromatography methods.
The paper chromatography method can identify both unknown inorganic and organic
compounds.
Paper chromatography takes up little space when compared to other analytical methods or
equipment.
Outstanding resolving power
Why water is not used in paper chromatography?
It is preferable to use a less polar solvent, such as ethanol, so that the non-polar compounds will
travel up the paper while the polar compounds will stick to the paper, separating them.
What are the limitations of Paper Chromatography?
Limitations of Paper Chromatography are as follows-
Paper chromatography cannot handle large amounts of sample.
Paper chromatography is ineffective in quantitative analysis.
Paper chromatography cannot separate complex mixtures.
Less Accurate than HPLC or HPTLC

High-Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC)

High-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) is an analytical technique to
separate, identify, and quantify components in a mixture. It is the main chromatography
technique used in most laboratories worldwide.

How HPLC works in detail:

1. The sample is dissolved in a suitable solvent and injected into the HPLC column.

2. A high-pressure pump forces a liquid mobile phase through the column.

3. The sample components interact differently with the stationary phase, causing them
to travel through the column at different speeds.

4. The separated components emerge from the column and are detected by a detector.

5. The detector produces a signal that is proportional to the amount of each component
in the sample.

6. The signal is recorded by a data station, which produces a chromatogram.

Applications of HPLC
The HPLC has developed into a universally applicable method so that it finds
its use in almost all areas of chemistry, biochemistry, and pharmacy.
• Analysis of drugs
• Analysis of synthetic polymers
• Analysis of pollutants in environmental analytics
• Determination of drugs in biological matrices
• Isolation of valuable products
• Product purity and quality control of industrial products and fine
chemicals
• Separation and purification of biopolymers such as enzymes or nucleic
acids
• Water purification
• Pre-concentration of trace components
• Ligand-exchange chromatography
• Ion-exchange chromatography of proteins
• High-pH anion-exchange chromatography of carbohydrates and
oligosaccharides
Advantages of HPLC
1. Speed
2. Efficiency
3. Accuracy
4. Versatile and extremely precise when it comes to identifying and
quantifying chemical components.
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Limitations of HPLC
1. Cost: Despite its advantages, HPLC can be costly, requiring large
quantities of expensive organics.
2. Complexity
3. HPLC does have low sensitivity for certain compounds, and some
cannot be detected as they are irreversibly adsorbed.
4. Volatile substances are better separated by gas chromatography.
Gas chromatography (GC)
Gas chromatography (GC) is a common type of chromatography used in analytical chemistry
for separating and analyzing compounds that can be vaporized without decomposition.

Here is a short summary of how GLC works:

1. The sample is vaporized and injected into the column.

2. The sample is carried through the column by a carrier gas.

3. The components of the sample interact with the stationary phase to different

degrees.
4. The components elute from the column at different times.
 5. The eluted components are detected and analyzed.

Gas chromatography applications

Since the discovery of the gas chromatographic system, the areas of Gas
chromatography applications is ever-increasing which includes:

• Pharmaceutical industry
• Research
• Medical and Forensic
• Environmental monitoring (both inside laboratories, and natural water bodies)
• Petroleum refining and petrochemicals
• Edible oils
• Flavors, beverages, and the food industry
• Fragrance industry (Cosmetics)
• Polymers and plastics
• Pesticides

Gas Chromatography: Limitations and Common Issues

Limitations

Gas chromatography is broadly utilized across many industries for routine analysis,
research or analysing hundreds and thousands of compounds in different samples and
components from solids to gases. This technique is quite robust and can be easily
mixed or coupled with other distinctive techniques, such as mass spectrometry.

However, gas chromatography can analyse volatile compounds from helium/hydrogen

only when their molecular weights are around 1250 u. In the case of compounds that
are thermally labile, exposure to high temperatures in GC can degrade them.

Cold injection techniques and low temperatures can be used to minimize that. To
prevent polar analytes from getting lost or stuck in GC, the system must be well-
maintained and the analytes must be derivatized.

Issues
 2018-2019

TEXTURAL PROPERTIES OF A FOOD PRODUCT MEASURING INSTUMENTS

Penetrometer: A penetrometer is an instrument that is used to measure the hardness of a

food product.

Rheometer: A rheometer is an instrument that is used to measure the flow and deformation
of a food product.

Rheometer: A rheometer is an instrument that is used to measure the flow and

deformation of a food product.

densiometer

TEXTURAL PROPERTIES OF A FOOD

• Hardness: The resistance of the food to deformation.

• Softness: The opposite of hardness.

• Crispness: The tendency of the food to break with a sharp sound.

• Chewiness: The amount of work required to chew the food to a swallowing

consistency.

• Cohesiveness: The tendency of the food to stick together.

• Adhesiveness: The tendency of the food to stick to other surfaces, such as the teeth
or the tongue.

• Smoothness: The absence of any rough or grainy particles in the food.

• Creaminess: The richness and smoothness of the food's texture.

• Mouthfeel: The overall sensation of the food in the mouth.

VISCOMETER IS A PIECE OF EQUIPMENT FOR MEASURING THE
VISCOSITY OF A FLUID. Viscometer is an instrument used to measure the viscosity of
a fluid ( liquid or gas )

 CAPILLARY-TUBE VISCOMETER
 FALLING SPHERE VISCOMETERS
 FALLING BALLVISCOMETER

 4. FALLING PISTON VISCOMETER

 5. OSCILLATING PISTON VISCOMETER

 6. VIBRATIONAL VISCOMETERS

 7. BUBBLE VISCOMETER

 8. MICRO-SLIT VISCOMETERS