Last updated: 2023-05-15

SDG indicator metadata

(Harmonized metadata template - format version 1.1)

0. Indicator information (SDG_INDICATOR_INFO)

0.a. Goal (SDG_GOAL)
Goal 6: Ensure availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all
0.b. Target (SDG_TARGET)
Target 6.4: By 2030, substantially increase water-use efficiency across all sectors and ensure sustainable
withdrawals and supply of freshwater to address water scarcity and substantially reduce the number of
people suffering from water scarcity
0.c. Indicator (SDG_INDICATOR)
Indicator 6.4.2: Level of water stress: freshwater withdrawal as a proportion of available freshwater
resources
0.d. Series (SDG_SERIES_DESCR)
Level of water stress: freshwater withdrawal as a proportion of available freshwater resources (%)
(ER_H2O_STRESS)
0.e. Metadata update (META_LAST_UPDATE)
2023-05-15
0.f. Related indicators (SDG_RELATED_INDICATORS)
6.4.1: Change in water-use efficiency over time
6.1.1: Proportion of population using safely managed drinking water services
6.3.1: Proportion of wastewater safely treated
6.6.1: Change in the extent of water-related ecosystems over time
6.5.1: Degree of integrated water resources management implementation (0-100)
2.4.1: Proportion of agricultural area under productive and sustainable agriculture
15.3.1: Proportion of land that is degraded over total land area
1.5.1: Number of deaths, missing persons and persons affected by disaster per 100,000 people [a]
11.5.1: Number of deaths, missing persons and persons affected by disaster per 100,000 people [a]
0.g. International organisations(s) responsible for global monitoring
(SDG_CUSTODIAN_AGENCIES)
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO)

1. Data reporter (CONTACT)

1.a. Organisation (CONTACT_ORGANISATION)
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO)

2. Definition, concepts, and classifications (IND_DEF_CON_CLASS)

2.a. Definition and concepts (STAT_CONC_DEF)
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Definition:
The level of water stress: freshwater withdrawal as a proportion of available freshwater resources is the
ratio between total freshwater withdrawn by all major sectors and total renewable freshwater resources,
after taking into account environmental flow requirements. Main sectors, as defined by ISIC standards,
include agriculture; forestry and fishing; manufacturing; electricity industry; and services. This indicator is
also known as water withdrawal intensity.

Concepts:
This indicator provides an estimate of pressure by all sectors on the country’s renewable freshwater
resources. A low level of water stress indicates a situation where the combined withdrawal by all sectors
is marginal in relation to the resources, and has therefore little potential impact on the sustainability of
the resources or on the potential competition between users. A high level of water stress indicates a
situation where the combined withdrawal by all sectors represents a substantial share of the total
renewable freshwater resources, with potentially larger impacts on the sustainability of the resources
and potential situations of conflicts and competition between users.

Total renewable freshwater resources (TRWR) are expressed as the sum of internal and external
renewable water resources. The terms “water resources” and “water withdrawal” are understood here
as freshwater resources and freshwater withdrawal.

Internal renewable water resources are defined as the long-term average annual flow of rivers and
recharge of groundwater for a given country generated from endogenous precipitation.

External renewable water resources refer to the flows of water entering the country, taking into
consideration the quantity of flows reserved to upstream and downstream countries through agreements
or treaties.

Total freshwater withdrawal (TFWW) is the volume of freshwater extracted from its source (rivers, lakes,
aquifers) for agriculture, industries and services1. It is estimated at the country level for the following
three main sectors: agriculture, services (including domestic water withdrawal) and industries (including
cooling of thermoelectric plants). Freshwater withdrawal includes fossil groundwater. It does not include
non-conventional water, i.e. direct use of treated wastewater, direct use of agricultural drainage water
and desalinated water.

Environmental flow requirements (EFR) are defined as the quantity and timing of freshwater flows and
levels necessary to sustain aquatic ecosystems, which, in turn, support human cultures, economies,
sustainable livelihoods, and wellbeing. Water quality and also the resulting ecosystem services are
excluded from this formulation which is confined to water volumes. This does not imply that quality and
the support to societies which are dependent on environmental flows are not important and should not
be taken care of.2 Methods of computation of EFR are extremely variable and range from global
estimates to comprehensive assessments for river reaches. For the purpose of the SDG indicator, water
volumes can be expressed in the same units as the TFWW, and then as percentages of the available water
resources.

1 In AQUASTAT, Services water withdrawal is reported as Municipal water withdrawal.

2 They are indeed taken into account by other targets and indicators, such as 6.3.2, 6.5.1 and 6.6.1.
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2.b. Unit of measure (UNIT_MEASURE)

Percent (%)

2.c. Classifications (CLASS_SYSTEM)

• The System of Environmental-Economic Accounting for Water: SEEA-Water for water resources
and withdrawals (Available at https://seea.un.org/content/seea-water
• The World Census of Agriculture 2020: WCA (Volume 1), for irrigation definitions (Available at:
http://www.fao.org/world-census-agriculture).

3. Data source type and data collection method (SRC_TYPE_COLL_METHOD)

3.a. Data sources (SOURCE_TYPE)
Data for this indicator are usually collected by national ministries and institutions having water-related
issues in their mandate, such as national statistic offices, ministries of water resources, agriculture or
environment. Official counterparts at country level are the national statistics office and/or the line
ministry for water resources and irrigation. More specifically, FAO requests countries to nominate a
National Correspondent to act as the focal point for the data collection and communication. Data are
mainly published within national statistical yearbooks, national water resources and irrigation master
plans and other reports (such as those from projects, international surveys or results and publications
from national and international research centres).

3.b. Data collection method (COLL_METHOD)

Data collection is done through FAO’s Global Information System on Water and Agriculture (AQUASTAT)
and AQUASTAT questionnaire on water and agriculture. The data collection process relies on a network
of National Correspondents, officially nominated by their respective countries, in charge of the provision
of official national data to AQUASTAT. As at August 2020, 150 countries have nominated national
correspondents as well as alternate correspondents from different agencies. Countries submit data
through the annual AQUASTAT questionnaire on water and agriculture, which contains, among others,
the information required for the calculation of SDG indicator 6.4.2.

3.c. Data collection calendar (FREQ_COLL)

Data are collected every year through the AQUASTAT network of National Correspondents. FAO has
dispatched the questionnaires to the National Correspondents in July 2022.

3.d. Data release calendar (REL_CAL_POLICY)

Data for the indicator are released every year, usually in February following the UNSD collection
schedule.

3.e. Data providers (DATA_SOURCE)

Data come from governmental sources. The institutions responsible for data collection at national level
vary according to countries. However, in general data for this indicator are provided by the Ministry of
 Last updated: 2023-05-15

Agriculture, Ministry of Water, Ministry of Environment and other line Ministries. In many cases, data
collection at country level is coordinated by the National Statistics office (NSO).

3.f. Data compilers (COMPILING_ORG)

Calculation rules are predefined and use data referring to the same year to general aggregate values.

3.g. Institutional mandate (INST_MANDATE)

FAO has, as part of its mandate, the function of “collect, analyse, interpret and disseminate information
relating to nutrition, food and agriculture”. (FAO Constitution, Article 1)

4. Other methodological considerations (OTHER_METHOD)

4.a. Rationale (RATIONALE)
The purpose of this indicator is to show the degree to which water resources are being exploited to meet
the country's water demand. It measures a country's pressure on its water resources and therefore the
challenge on the sustainability of its water use. It tracks progress regarding “withdrawals and supply of
freshwater to address water scarcity”, i.e. the environmental component of target 6.4.

The indicator shows to what extent water resources are already used, and signals the importance of
effective supply and demand management policies. It indicates the likelihood of increasing competition
and conflict between different water uses and users in a situation of increasing water scarcity. Increased
water stress, shown by an increase in the value of the indicator, has potentially negative effects on the
sustainability of the natural resources and on economic development. On the other hand, low values of
the indicator indicate that water does not represent a particular challenge for economic development
and sustainability.

However, extremely low values may indicate the inability of a country to use properly its water resources
for the benefit of the population. In such cases, a moderate and controlled increase in the value of the
indicator can be a sign of positive development.

This indicator provides an estimate of pressure by all sectors on the country’s renewable freshwater
resources. A low level of water stress indicates a situation where the combined withdrawal by all sectors
is marginal in relation to the resources, and has therefore little potential impact on the sustainability of
the resources or on the potential competition between users. A high level of water stress indicates a
situation where the combined withdrawal by all sectors represents a substantial share of the total
renewable freshwater resources, with potentially larger impacts on the sustainability of the resources
and potential situations of conflicts and competition between users.
The indicator is computed based on three components:
Total renewable freshwater resources (TRWR)
Total freshwater withdrawal (TFWW)
Environmental flow requirements (EFR)

4.b. Comment and limitations (REC_USE_LIM)

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Freshwater withdrawal as a percentage of renewable freshwater resources is a good indicator of pressure

on limited water resources, one of the most important natural resources. However, it only partially
addresses the issues related to sustainable water management.

Supplementary indicators that capture the multiple dimensions of water management would combine
data on water demand management, behavioural changes with regard to water use and the availability of
appropriate infrastructure, and measure progress in increasing the efficiency and sustainability of water
use, in particular in relation to population and economic growth. They would also recognize the different
climatic environments that affect water use in countries, especially in agriculture, which is the main user
of water. Sustainability assessment is also linked to the critical thresholds fixed for this indicator.
Although there is no universal consensus on such thresholds, a proposal is presented below.

Trends in freshwater withdrawal show relatively slow patterns of change. Usually, three-five years are a
minimum frequency to be able to detect significant changes, as it is unlikely that the indicator would
show meaningful variations from one year to the other.

Estimation of water withdrawal by sector may represent a limitation to the computation of the indicator.
Few countries publish water withdrawal data on a regular basis by sector.

There is no universally agreed method for the computation of incoming freshwater flows originating
outside of a country's borders. Nor is there any standard method to account for return flows, the part of
the water withdrawn from its source and which flows back to the river system after use. In countries
where return flow represents a substantial part of water withdrawal, the indicator tends to
underestimate available water and therefore overestimate the level of water stress.

Other limitations that affect the interpretation of the water stress indicator include:
• difficulty to obtain accurate, complete and up-to-date data;
• potentially large variation of sub-national data;
• lack of account of historical (e.g., due to climate change and population growth) and seasonal
variations in water resources;
• lack of consideration to the distribution among water uses;
• lack of consideration of water quality and its suitability for use; and
• the indicator can be higher than 100 percent when water withdrawal non-renewable freshwater
(fossil groundwater), when annual groundwater withdrawal is higher than annual replenishment
(over-abstraction) or when freshwater withdrawal includes part or all the water set aside for
environmental flow requirements.
Some of these issues can be solved through disaggregation of the indicator at the level of hydrological
units and by distinguishing between different use sectors. However, due to the complexity of water
flows, both within a country and between countries, care should be taken not to double-count.

4.c. Method of computation (DATA_COMP)

Computation Method:
Method of computation: The indicator is computed as the total freshwater withdrawn (TFWW) divided by
the difference between the total renewable freshwater resources (TRWR) and the environmental flow
requirements (EFR), multiplied by 100. All variables are expressed in km3/year (109 m3/year).
 Last updated: 2023-05-15

𝑇𝐹𝑊𝑊
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 (%) = × 100
(𝑇𝑅𝑊𝑅 − 𝐸𝐹𝑅)

Following the experience of the initial five years of application of the indicator, and consistent with the
approach taken during the MDG program, the threshold of 25% has been identified as the upper limit for
a full and unconditional safety of water stress as assessed by the indicator 6.4.2.

That means on one hand, that values below 25% can be considered safe in any instance (no stress); on
the other, that values above 25% should be regarded as potentially and increasingly problematic, and
should be qualified and/or reduced.

Above 25% of water stress, four classes have been identified to signal different levels of stress severity:
• NO STRESS <25%
• LOW 25% - 50%
• MEDIUM 50% - 75%
• HIGH 75-100%
• CRITICAL >100%

4.d. Validation (DATA_VALIDATION)

Data validation is done in a few steps.

− the AQUASTAT questionnaire embeds automatic validation rules to allow National

Correspondents to identify any data consistency errors while compiling the data.
− Once the questionnaire is submitted, FAO thoroughly reviews the information reported, using
the following tools:
o Manual cross-variable check. This includes cross-comparison with similar countries as
well as historic data for the countries.
o Time-series coherency by running an R-script to compare reported data with those
corresponding to previous years
o Verification of the metadata, especially the source of the proposed data. The critical
analysis of the compiled data gives preference to national sources and expert
knowledge.

− After this verification, exchanges between the National Correspondents and FAO take place to
correct and confirm the collected data.
− The last validation step is an automated validation routine included in the Statistical Working
System (SWS), which uses almost 200 validation rules.

4.e. Adjustments (ADJUSTMENT)

Since national level data is frequently tailored to be useful at national level and not for international
comparisons, data may be manipulated in order to maximize international comparability. Adjusted data is
displayed with an appropriate qualifier. Data is rounded according to a specific methodology
http://www.fao.org/aquastat/en/databases/maindatabase/metadata/
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Additionally, the Statistical Working System (SWS) has the correspondence among different international
codes (FAOSTAT, UNSDM49, ISO2, ISO3) for geographic areas and is used to convert area codes in the
external sources to UNSDM49 codes which is the standard used in the SWS.

4.f. Treatment of missing values (i) at country level and (ii) at regional level
(IMPUTATION)

• At country level
Three types of imputation are made at country level to fill in missing years in the timeseries:
• Linear imputation: between two available data-points.
• Carry forward: after the last available data-points and up to 10 years.
• Vertical imputation: in case of available total freshwater withdrawal but missing
disaggregation by sources, and if existing disaggregation existed for previous years, the
respective ratio by sources is applied to the available total.

• At regional and global levels

Thanks to the imputation methods at country level, data will be available for the whole time series
(unless the latest official value was obtained more than 10 years ago). Imputed data is displayed
with an appropriate qualifier.

4.g. Regional aggregations (REG_AGG)

Regional and global estimates will be done by summing up the national figures on renewable freshwater
resources and total freshwater withdrawal, considering only the internal renewable water resources of
each country to avoid double counting, and the external renewable freshwater resources of the region, if
any. In case of regional aggregation without physical continuity (such as income groupings or Least
Developed Countries group, etc.), total renewable water resources are summed up. The EFR at regional
level is estimated as the average of the countries’ EFRs, in percentage, and applied to the regional water
resources.

4.h. Methods and guidance available to countries for the compilation of the data at
the national level (DOC_METHOD)
• A set of tools is available to countries for the compilation of the indicator. Among them, a step-
by-step methodological guide, an interpretation paper, and an e-learning course. All the tools are
available on the FAO web pages, at: http://www.fao.org/sustainable-development-
goals/indicators/642/en/.
• During 2020,2021 and 2022, FAO has organized regional virtual trainings for Asia, Latin-America
and the Caribbean and Africa on SDG 6.4. and contributed to global workshops on SDG 6.
• FAO’s AQUASTAT team provides continued guidance to the countries thought the National
Correspondents during the data collection time to ensure data is duly and timely compiled.

4.i. Quality management (QUALITY_MGMNT)

• The AQUASTAT questionnaire on water and agriculture, used for collecting information on SDG
indicator 6.4.2, was endorsed by FAO’s Office of the Chief Statistician (OCS).
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• During the reporting process, the OCS provides overall guidance, including on metadata
reporting, based on the Metadata Dissemination Standard approved by the FAO IDWG-Statistics
Technical Task Force.
• Data on Environmental flow requirements is reupdated only when detailed methodology and
metadata are provided and when consistency in the values is ensured.
• After revision and validation, data are submitted to the OCS who also ensures the quality of the
data and results.

4.j Quality assurance (QUALITY_ASSURE)

FAO is responsible for the quality of the internal statistical processes used to compile the published
datasets. The FAO Statistics Quality Assurance Framework (SQAF), available at:
http://www.fao.org/docrep/019/i3664e/i3664e.pdf, provides the necessary principles, guidelines and
tools to carry out quality assessments. FAO is performing an internal bi-annual survey (FAO Quality
Assessment and Planning Survey) designed to gather information on all of FAO’s statistical activities,
notably to assess the extent to which quality standards are being implemented with a view to increasing
compliance with the quality dimensions of SQAF, documenting best practices and prepare quality
improvement plans, where necessary. Domain-specific quality assurance activities are carried out
systematically (e.g. quality reviews, self-assessments, compliance monitoring).

4.k Quality assessment (QUALITY_ASSMNT)

Overall evaluation of data quality is based on standard quality criteria and follows FAO’s SQAF. It also
includes:
• A qualitative and quantitative manual cross-variable check after data is received. This consists of
the verification that all the numbers are consistent based on the internal validation rules
embedded in the questionnaire. Any issues identified are flagged and listed to be followed-up
with the countries.
• Time-series coherency check done by running an R-script to compare reported data with those
corresponding to previous years. Based on this, a scattered diagram is also made by variable and
country to allow for a visual verification of historical data. The critical analysis of the compiled
data gives preference to national sources and expert knowledge, unless these greatly diverge
from historic data or in the case of drastic changes in methodologies used by countries with
significant influence on the results.
• Verification of the metadata, especially the source of the proposed data. When data sources
were not provided, the questionnaire was added as the data source of a given value. For the

5. Data availability and disaggregation (COVERAGE)

Data needed for the indicator are collected through AQUASTAT for 168 countries worldwide.

Time series:
1961-2019 (Discontinuous, depending on country. Data are interpolated to create timelines.)

Disaggregation:
Sectoral disaggregated data are provided to show the respective contribution of the different sectors to
the water stress level, and therefore the relative importance of actions needed to contain water demand
 Last updated: 2023-05-15

in the different sectors (agriculture, services and industry). The contribution of the different sectors to
the water stress level is calculated as the proportion of sectoral withdrawals over total freshwater
withdrawals, after taking into account the EFR. sectors are defined following the United Nations
International Standard Industrial Classification of All Economic Activities ISIC 4 coding,
1. agriculture; forestry; fishing (ISIC A), hereinafter “agriculture”;
2. mining and quarrying; manufacturing; electricity, gas, steam and air conditioning supply;
constructions (ISIC B, C, D and F), hereinafter “MIMEC”;
3. all the service sectors (ISIC E and ISIC G-T), hereinafter “services”.

At national level, water resources and withdrawals are estimated or measured at the level of appropriate
hydrological units (river basins, aquifers). It is therefore possible to obtain a geographical distribution of
water stress by hydrological unit, thus allowing for more targeted response in terms of water demand
management.

6. Comparability / deviation from international standards (COMPARABILITY)

Geographical: For national estimates incoming freshwater is counted as being part of the country’s
available freshwater resources, while global estimates can only be done by adding up the internal
renewable freshwater resources (water generated within the country) of all countries in order to avoid
double counting. Moreover, external freshwater resources are computed according to treaties, if present,
which may lead to different values with respect to the actual freshwater resources assessed through
hydrology.
Over-time: time series are comparable across time.

7. References and Documentation (OTHER_DOC)

URL:
http://www.fao.org/aquastat/en/

References:
Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations (FAO). AQUASTAT, FAO's Global Water
Information System. Rome. Website http://www.fao.org/aquastat/en/.

The following resources of specific interest to this indicator are available on these sites:
AQUASTAT glossary (http://www.fao.org/aquastat/en/databases/glossary/).

AQUASTAT Main country database

(http://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/data/query/index.html?lang=en )

AQUASTAT Water use (http://www.fao.org/aquastat/en/overview/methodology/water-use/).

AQUASTAT Water resources (http://www.fao.org/aquastat/en/overview/methodology/water-

resources/).

AQUASTAT publications dealing with concepts, methodologies, definitions, terminologies, metadata, etc.
(http://www.fao.org/aquastat/en/resources/publications/reports/)
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IWMI – Global environmental flows assessment

http://eflows.iwmi.org/

IWMI - Global Environmental Flow Information for the Sustainable Development Goals
http://www.iwmi.cgiar.org/Publications/IWMI_Research_Reports/PDF/pub168/rr168.pdf

UNSD/UNEP Questionnaire on Environment Statistics – Water Section

http://unstats.un.org/unsd/environment/qindicators.htm

Framework for the Development of Environment Statistics (FDES 2013) (Chapter 3)

http://unstats.un.org/unsd/environment/FDES/FDES-2015-supporting-tools/FDES.pdf

OECD/Eurostat Questionnaire on Environment Statistics – Water Section

https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/documents/1798247/6664269/Data-Collection-Manual-for-
OECD_Eurostat-Questionnaire-on-Inland-Waters.pdf/f5f60d49-e88c-4e3c-bc23-
c1ec26a01b2a?t=1611245054001

Several documents exist that can be used to support countries in the computation of this indicator.
Among them:

Understanding AQUASTAT - FAO's global water information system

This information note covers a twenty-year history of the collection and analysis of water-related data
and its dissemination as an international public good, freely available to all. The process of collecting and
checking the data has resulted in the establishment of a unique network of collaborators who provide
data, use data from other countries for comparative purposes, and exchange views and experiences on
how best to measure and account for water-related use. Users range from international private
companies to non-governmental organizations, and virtually all significant reports related to water
depend on the data provided by AQUASTAT.
http://www.fao.org/3/a-bc817e.pdf

Incorporating environmental flows into “water stress” indicator 6.4.2 - Guidelines for a minimum
standard method for global reporting.
These guidelines are intended to assist countries to participate in the assessment of SDG 6.4.2 on water
stress by contributing data and information on environmental flows (EF). They provide a minimum
standard method, principally based on the Global Environmental Flows Information System (GEFIS),
which is accessible via http://eflows.iwmi.org.
https://www.unwater.org/app/uploads/2019/01/SDG6_EF_LOW2.pdf

Renewable Water Resources Assessment - 2015 AQUASTAT methodology review

http://www.fao.org/3/a-bc818e.pdf

Global database on municipal wastewater production, collection, treatment, discharge and direct use
in agriculture
This paper describes the rationale and method to setup and feed the AQUASTAT database on municipal
wastewater production, collection, treatment, discharge or direct use in agriculture. The best available
sources of information have been reviewed, including peer-reviewed papers, proceedings of workshops,
conferences and expert meetings, global or regional databases, as well as country briefs, national reports
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and direct communications by country government officials and experts.

http://www.fao.org/3/a-bc823e.pdf

Cooling water for energy generation and its impact on national-level water statistics
This technical note, describing the issue of cooling water for energy generation and its impact on
national-level water statistics, has two purposes: 1) to act as a general informational resource and 2) to
encourage governmental agencies responsible for water usage to gather and report information
disaggregated by sub-sector (keeping thermoelectric withdrawals separate from industrial and
hydroelectric withdrawals), and to determine the point at which lower water withdrawal designs are
more favourable, even if the required capital cost is higher.
http://www.fao.org/3/a-bc822e.pdf

Municipal and industrial water withdrawal modelling for the years 2000 and 2005 using statistical
methods
This document describes the efforts to generate models that estimate the municipal and industrial water
withdrawals for the years 2000 and 2005.
http://www.fao.org/3/a-bc821e.pdf

Disambiguation of water statistics

The nomenclature surrounding water information is often confusing and gives rise to different
interpretations and thus confusion. When discussing the way in which renewable water resources are
utilized, the terms water use, usage, withdrawal, consumption, abstraction, extraction, utilization, supply
and demand are often used without clearly stating what is meant.
http://www.fao.org/3/a-bc816e.pdf

FAO-AQUASTAT questionnaire on water and agriculture

These annual Guidelines and questionnaires have been prepared specifically designed to collect the SDG
6.4. related water variables, and therefore to update the core variables in AQUASTAT database.
http://www.fao.org/aquastat/en/overview/methodology/

International Recommendations for Water Statistics

The International Recommendations for Water Statistics (IRWS) were developed to help strengthen
national information systems for water in support of design and evaluation of Integrated Water
Resources Management (IWRM) policies.
https://unstats.un.org/unsd/EconStatKB/KnowledgebaseArticle10209.aspx

UNSD/UNEP Questionnaire on Environment Statistics – Water Section

http://unstats.un.org/unsd/environment/questionnaire.htm
http://unstats.un.org/unsd/environment/qindicators.htm

UNSD ‘National Accounts Main Aggregates Database’

http://unstats.un.org/unsd/snaama/selbasicFast.asp

FAO e-learning course on SDG Indicator 6.4.2 - Level of water stress:

https://elearning.fao.org/course/view.php?id=365