“IMPROVEMENT OF CBR VALUE OF SOIL BY USING WASTE

MATERIAL”
A Project Submitted In The Partial Fulfillment Of
Requirement For The Award
Of
Bachelor of Technology
In
Civil Engineering
Submitted to
RAJIV GANDHI PROUDYOGIKI VISHWAVIDYALAYA
Bhopal (M.P.)

Submitted by

SHUBHAM NANDEDKAR
0114CE213D42
Under The Supervision

Prof. PIYUSH VERMA

(Asst. Prof, Department Of Civil Engineering)

Department of Civil Engineering

TRUBA INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING & INFORMATION
TECHNOLOGY BHOPAL (M.P)

(2023)

Truba Institute Of Engineering & Information Technology Bhopal(M.P.) i

 TRUBA INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING & INFORMA-
TION TECHNOLOGY

Bhopal (M.P.)

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the dissertation titled IMPROVEMENT OF CBR

VALUE OF SOIL BY USING WASTE MATERIAL he bonafide re-

search work carried out independently by SHUBHAM NANDEDKAR student of
Bachelor of Technology/Engineering in “Civil Engineering ” from Rajiv Gandhi
Proudyogiki Vishwavidyalaya, Bhopal for the partial fulfillment of the requirement,
for the award of the degree of Bachelor of Technology/ Engineering and this has not
formed previously the basis for the award of any degree, diploma, associate ship, fel-
lowship or any other similar title according to our knowledge.

Forwarded By Supervised & Approved by:

Prof. AMIT SAXENA Prof. PIYUSH VERMA
( Principal ) Department of Civil Engineering
TIEIT, BHOPAL
TIEIT, BHOPAL

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 TRUBA INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING & INFORMA-
TION TECHNOLOGY Bhopal (M.P.)

APPROVAL CERTIFICATE

This dissertation work entitled IMPROVEMENT OF CBR VALUE OF

SOIL BY USING WASTE MATERIAL being submitted by

SHUBHAM NANDEDKAR (0114CE213D42), has been examined by us and is
hereby approved for the award of degree Bachelor of Technology/Engineering in for
which it has been submitted to Rajiv Gandhi Proudyogiki Vishwavidyalaya, Bhopal
(M.P.).
It is understood that by this approval the undersigned do not necessarily endorse or
approve any statement made, opinion expressed or conclusion drawn therein, but ap-
prove the dissertation only for the purpose for which it has been submitted.

________________ ________________
Date:____________ Date:____________

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 TRUBA INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING & INFORMATION
TECHNOLOGY Bhopal (M.P.)

CANDIDATE’S DECLARATION

I hereby declare that this dissertation titled IMPROVEMENT OF CBR VALUE OF

SOIL BY USING WASTE MATERIAL is my own work conducted under the supervi-
sion of Prof. PIYUSH VERMA, Civil Engineering Department, Truba Institute Of Engineering
& Information Technology Bhopal (M.P.)

I further declare that to the best of my knowledge and belief this dissertation does not contain
any part of work that has been submitted for the award of any degree either in this university or
in any other University/Deemed University.

_________________

SHUBHAM NANDEDKAR
Enrollment No: 0114CE213D42

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 TRUBA INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING & INFORMATION
TECHNOLOGY Bhopal (M.P.)

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

At the outset, I wish to thank my father (Mr.HEMANT NANDEDKAR) and my family for their
abounding love, encouragement, and support they have bestowed upon me .It is pleasant privi-
lege to bring out sincere gratefulness to my supervisor Prof. PIYUSH VERMA, Asso-
ciate Professor and Head, Civil Engineering Department, Truba Institute of Engineering & in-
formation Technology Bhopal ( TIEIT), who honored me by giving consent to work under their
kind guidance. It is a great opportunity to work under such highly experienced personality. The
successful completion of dissertation work has been possible only because of this constant ap-
probation, inspiration, motivation & valuable suggestions.
I wish to express with felicitous words my deep sense of gratitude to Prof.
PIYUSH VERMA he not only encouraged me throughout the project work but also took
great pains in going through the manuscripts carefully. I am obliged for their kind cooperation
without which the things would have not been in present form.
I also want to thank, Principal,Truba Institute of Engineering & information Technology, Bhopal
for completion of the task.

SHUBHAM NANDEDKAR
Enrollment No: 0114CE213D42

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6|Page
 INDEX

CHAPTER 1 AIM

CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 LITERATURE REVIEW AND

2.2 ABSTRACT

CHAPTER 3 METHODOLOGY
3.1 Soil stabilization:-
3.2 The basic principles in soil stabilization may be stated as:-
3.3 Soil stabilization may results in any one or more of the following changes
3.5 Defination of Soil
3.6 Formation of soil
3.7 Climate
3.8 Properties of Soils
3.9 Structure
3.10 Soil Structural Classes
3.11 Engineering Classification of Soil
3.12 Necessity of Soil Stabilization:-

CHAPTER 4 METHODOLOGY
4.1 Methods of soil stabilization:
4.2 MATERIALS USED
CHAPTER 5 EXPERIMENTAL REULTS
5.1 sieve analysis
5.2 LIQUIT LIMIT OF SOIL
5.3 the plastic limit of soil sample
5.4 CALIFORNIA BEARING RATIO TEST

CHAPTER 6 REFRENCES

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 CHAPTER - 1

AIM

Reduce the cost of road (black cotton soil) near about 50-60% by soil
stablisation technique. With the help of stablisation agent like jute, fly
ash, lime and water proofing compound and also improve the c.b.r value
near about 18-20 times.

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 CHAPTER -2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 LITERATURE REVIEW AND ABSTRACT

Road pavement thickness and their depth of construction take a chunk of the overall cost of
road construction. This has called for a need for reduced road pavement thickness by im-
proving the engineering properties of subgrade such as the California bearing ratio (CBR).
The CBR of road subgrade has been a major determining factor for road pavement thick-
ness, and expansive subgrades generally have a low CBR, resulting in major road defects. In
this study, road pavement thickness and construction depth optimization were conducted
using the CBR values achieved in this study. Additives proportions of 8% lime and 20% ce -
ment were used in expansive subgrade to improve their engineering properties, making
them suitable for use in road construction. The study investigated the characteristics, min-
eral structure, Atterberg limit, compaction, CBR, swell and microstructural properties of ex-
pansive subgrade. The results show a reduction in road pavement thickness and a con-
struction depth with an increase in CBR value. All CBR values for treated samples were
above 2%, making them usable in road construction. A reduction in swell potential up to
0.04% was observed for treated expansive subgrade. The study concluded that pavement
thickness and construction depth can be reduced by enhancing subgrade materials and us-
ing cement and lime as binders.

2.1.1 Rakaraddi, P. G., &Gomarsi, V. (2015)

The CBR value of the sub-grade is used as a strength metric since it is thought to be the best layer in flex-
ible pavements for withstanding wheel load. The CBR test is not only time-consuming and expensive, but
it also presents significant challenges when trying to achieve an insitu density while molding the sample
in the lab. Moreover, if the available soil is of low quality, suitable additives are combined with it, and
the resulting strength of the soil is evaluated using a time-consuming metric called the CBR value. In this
investigation, we employ alternative techniques, such as regression-based models (both basic and mul-
tivariate). Soil from several locations in the Bagalkot district is analyzed to establish parameters for pre-

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dicting the soaked CBR value, including the liquid limit, plastic limit, plasticity index, optimal moisture
level, maximum dry density, and % fineness of the soil (passing a 75-micron sieve).

2.1.2 Gill, S., & Maharaj, D. K. (2015)

Different approaches to creating design charts have been discussed. The Group Index Method measures
the combined thickness of the pavement's surface, base, and sub base. The depth of the sub-base is
measured as well. When it comes to flexible pavement design, the CBR method is by far the most used.
Given that it takes the material's strength parameter into account, the CBR approach is more reasonable
than the Group Index Method. The North Dakota Approach is comparable to the CBR strategy. Design
curve between pavement thickness and cone bearing ratio is used to determine pavement thickness.
Burmister's Design Method is predicated on the idea of a two-layer system, with the top layer (which in -
cludes the road surface, base course, and sub-base) having a thickness of h and the bottom layer (the
sub-grade) having an unlimited depth. Burmister suggests a pavement thickness of 5 mm deflection for
this technique. Additionally, Burmister's two-layer hypothesis is the foundation for the U.S. Navy's plate
bearing testing procedure. Base course and subgrade modulus of elasticity are used in this technique.

2.1.3 Khatti, E. J., Jangid, E. A. K. et al, (2018)

Flexible pavements are designed using the sub grade’s California bearing ratio (CBR) value per IRC re-
commendation. The choice of pavement material could have an effect on the final design. Black cotton
soil is an expansive soil; its expansion upon contact with water is a primary contributor to the collapse of
black cotton soil layers. Material such as fiber, ash, lime, sludge, etc. can take advantage of the black
cotton soil's engineering potential. The maximum dry density, optimum moisture content, shrinkage,
swelling pressure, degree of expansiveness, and permeability, as well as the liquid limit (Wl) and plastic
limit (Wp) of the soil or mix specimen, all influence the CBR value. The University Teaching Department
of Rajasthan Technical University in Kota is where these analyses are conducted. This study examines
the feasibility of creating a flexible pavement out of a mixture of black cotton soil and Kota stone slurry
in varying concentrations. Kota stone slurry concentrations ranging from 5% to 30% are used in conjunc-
tion with black cotton soil in this study. Tests are often used to establish engineering parameters

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2.1.3 Goud, G. N., Ramu, B. et al, (2022)

One way to measure the worth of pavement reinforcement is through the Layer Coefficient Ratio (LCR).
LCRs for unreinforced and geogrid-reinforced base layers on soft to stiff sub grades were determined by
a series of Large-Scale Model Experiments (LSMEs) in this study. The LCR values for the reinforced
foundation layers ranged from 1.01 to 1.33 as determined by careful LSME testing. As with conventional
flexible pavements, geogrid-reinforced versions are developed with the use of LCR-based theory.

2.1.3 Saha, D. C., & Mandal, J. N. (2017)

It is common practice to propose grade-separated structures such as flyovers, vehicular underpasses

(VUPs), pedestrian underpasses (PUPs), and cattle underpasses (CUPs) at regular intervals when expand -
ing the carrying capacity of an existing National Highway (NH) Project. As a result, the approaches to
these constructions necessitate that the present road levels be increased, rendering the current pave-
ment materials obsolete. Milling the pavement surface prior to placing an overlay for reinforcement is
Harshit Saxena. International Journal of Science, Engineering and Technology, 2022, 10:4 Page 3 of 5 In -
ternational Journal of Science, Engineering and Technology An Open Access Journal another way to get
existing pavement materials. The purpose of this research is to evaluate the viability of Reclaimed As -
phalt Pavement (RAP) as a subbase/base course material for flexible pavement. From a review of the rel-
evant literature, it was determined that 100% recycled asphalt pavement (RAP) does not meet Indian
Standards for use as a flexible pavement base with a California bearing ratio (CBR) of 3.5 or above (IRC).
Accordingly, crushed stone aggregates, cement stabilization, and a mixture of the two were all tried to
increase the CBR of RAP. CBR experiments were performed in the lab on recycled asphalt pavement
(RAP)

2.1.4 Goud, G. N., &Umashankar, B. (2017)

If they want to build roadway pavements to the appropriate quality and quantity, contractors often
have to source aggregates from great distances. To both reduce waste and keep up with rising construc -
tion demands, it is necessary to find sustainable alternatives to the materials that are currently in high
demand. If the layer is thick enough, it will be able to withstand the necessary axle load passes without
reaching terminal rut depth and fatigue cracking, allowing for the use of lower quality materials. Accord -
ing to the Indian Road Congress guidebook [16] on design of flexible pavement structure covering sub
grade, the percentage of crushed aggregates for granular base and sub base layers alone varies from
75% to 88%, equal to 150 million standard axles (MSA) to 2 MSA of traffic, respectively. It is essential to

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utilize as little aggregates as possible when constructing a flexible pavement base/sub base layer and
this is especially true for low-volume pavements

2.1.5 Choudhary, D. K., & Joshi, Y. P. (2014)

Design of flexible pavements is guided by the sub grade California Bearing Ratio (CBR) value, per IRC
guidance. For the design of airfield runways and flexible pavements, the California Bearing Ratio (CBR)
value is a crucial soil characteristic. Soil sub-reaction can be calculated with this method as well. When it
comes to planning the foundation of highways, this engineering property of soil is crucial. Furthermore,
the value is affected by whether the soil is wet or dry. This sort of testing can be simply carried out in a
lab. If the CBR could be estimated using these tests, which take much less time and money to conduct,
then it would be simple to gather data on the road network's sub grade strength. Because of this, many
scholars in the past have studied the topic and built several kinds of pavements by determining the CBR
value through the results of easy, cheap, and quick testing.

2.2 ABSTRACT
Road construction is a complex process that requires coordination among various stakeholders,
including engineers, construction workers, government agencies, and the community. It plays a
crucial role in enhancing transportation infrastructure, facilitating economic development, and
improving overall connectivity. Ensure that your literature review provides a synthesis of the ex-
isting knowledge, identifies gaps in the research, and suggests potential areas for future investi-
gation in the realm of road construction. Road construction involves the planning, design, and
execution of projects to create, improve, or maintain transportation routes. It encompasses vari-
ous phases:

A comprehensive literature review on road construction would involve delving into various as-
pects:

1. Construction Methods:

- Evaluate traditional methods like asphalt and concrete construction.

- Explore newer techniques such as recycled materials or innovative pavement designs.

2. Materials Used:

5|Page
 - Examine studies on the performance of materials like asphalt mixes and concrete in different
environmental conditions.

- Investigate the sustainability and environmental impact of construction materials.

3. Environmental Impact Assessments:

- Review research on the ecological consequences of road construction.

- Analyze studies on mitigating environmental impact through eco-friendly construction prac-

tices.

4. Safety Protocols:

- Explore literature on safety measures during road construction.

- Investigate advancements in technologies ensuring the safety of workers and the public.

5. Technological Advancements:

- Examine how technology, such as Building Information Modeling (BIM) and drones, is influ-
encing road construction.

- Evaluate studies on the use of smart materials and intelligent transportation systems in road
infrastructure.

6. Cost and Efficiency:

- Investigate research on cost-effective road construction methods.

- Analyze studies on project management strategies to enhance efficiency in construction time-

lines.

7. Maintenance and Rehabilitation:

- Review literature on effective maintenance practices for road longevity.

- Explore rehabilitation methods for existing road infrastructure.

8. Government Regulations and Policies:

- Examine studies on the impact of government regulations on road construction projects.

- Analyze how policy changes influence construction practices and standards.

9. Community Impact:

- Investigate research on how road construction affects local communities.

6|Page
 - Examine community engagement strategies in road construction projects.

10. Global Perspectives:

- Explore literature comparing road construction practices in different countries.

- Analyze international standards and best practices in road construction.

11. Planning:

- Identifying the need for a new road or improvements to an existing one.

- Conducting feasibility studies and environmental impact assessments.

12. Design:

- Creating detailed engineering plans, considering factors like traffic flow, terrain, and environ-
mental impact.

- Selecting appropriate materials and construction methods.

13. Site Preparation:

- Clearing the area and ensuring proper drainage.

- Excavating and grading the terrain as needed.

14. Foundation Construction:

- Establishing a stable base, often with materials like gravel or crushed stone.

- Compacting the foundation to ensure durability.

15. Pavement Construction:

- Applying the chosen pavement material, such as asphalt or concrete.

- Employing specialized techniques like asphalt paving or slip forming for concrete.

16. Infrastructure Installation:

- Adding necessary elements like curbs, gutters, and drainage systems.

- Installing traffic control devices and signage.

17. Quality Control:

- Regular inspections to ensure compliance with design specifications.

- Testing materials for strength, durability, and safety.

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18. Project Management:

- Overseeing timelines, budget, and resource allocation.

- Addressing any unforeseen issues during construction.

19. Safety Measures:

- Implementing safety protocols for workers and the public.

- Using warning signs and barriers to guide traffic safely.

20. Completion and Maintenance:

- Finalizing the construction and opening the road for public use.

- Establishing a maintenance plan to address wear and tear over time.

21. Expressways or Freeways:

- Function: High-speed, controlled-access roads for long-distance travel.

- Design: Limited access points, high design standards, separated carriageways.

22. Highways or National Roads:

- Function: Connect major cities and regions within a country.

- Design: Varied designs, multiple lanes, intersections, and access points.

23. Arterial Roads:

- Function: Primary roads within a city, connecting major areas.

- Design: Handle moderate to high traffic, signal-controlled intersections.

24. Collector Roads:

- Function: Collect and distribute traffic between local streets and arterials.

- Design: Fewer lanes lower speed limits, residential and commercial access.

25. Local Streets:

- Function: Serve local neighborhoods, providing access to homes and businesses.

- Design: Lower speed limits, narrower lanes, often with on-street parking.

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A detailed literature review on road construction encompasses a wide range of topics. Here's a
breakdown of key themes within this domain Construction Materials and Techniques Explore re-
search on the latest materials used in road construction, including asphalt mixes, concrete formu -
lations, and sustainable alternatives. Investigate studies comparing the performance and durabil-
ity of different construction techniques. Pavement Design and Analysis Examine literature on
pavement design methodologies considering factors like traffic loads, soil conditions, and cli-
mate variations.

Analyze advancements in structural analysis tools and technologies for predicting pavement per-
formance. Environmental Impact and Sustainability: Review studies on the environmental im-
pact of road construction, focusing on issues such as carbon emissions, resource depletion, and
habitat disruption. Explore research on sustainable construction practices, including the use of re-
cycled materials and environmentally friendly technologies.

Safety Measures and Protocols Investigate literature on safety protocols during road construc-
tion, including the latest advancements in worker safety and public protection.

Analyze studies on the integration of smart technologies for real-time monitoring and risk miti-
gation.Innovations in Technology Explore how emerging technologies, such as Building Infor-
mation Modeling (BIM), drones, and autonomous construction equipment, are influencing road
construction. Review literature on the integration of Internet of Things (IoT) for smart infrastruc-
ture management. Cost Analysis and Project ManagementExamine research on cost-effective
road construction methods and strategies. Analyze project management methodologies to en-
hance efficiency, reduce delays, and manage budgets effectively. Quality Control and Assurance
Explore literature on quality control measures throughout the construction process.

Investigate studies on testing procedures for materials, structural integrity, and long-term perfor-
mance. Maintenance and Rehabilitation Review research on effective maintenance practices to
prolong the lifespan of roads. Analyze rehabilitation methods for existing road infrastructure,
considering both structural and functional aspects.

Community Engagement and Social Impact Investigate how road construction projects affect lo-
cal communities and economies.

Explore literature on effective community engagement strategies to address concerns and ensure
public support. Regulatory Frameworks and Standards Examine studies on the impact of govern-

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ment regulations and standards onroadconstruction practices. Analyze international comparisons
to understand global best practices and compliance requirements. A comprehensive literature re-
view should synthesize these themes, highlighting current trends, identifying gaps in knowledge,
and suggesting avenues for future research in the dynamic field of road construction.

Low volume roads in the Czech Republic are roads with lower traffic volume that primarily in -
clude forest and field roads, and they are an integral part of the Czech transport network. When
building road pavements, we can use processes for surveying, designing, building and inspecting
road constructions included in national and international, particularly European, standards. In ad-
dition, the roads are evaluated in terms of their environmental impacts, in order to maintain the
quality of the environment. However, during the construction of road pavements decisions based
on financial, time and other reasons are made. The decisions have impacts on the operation of
roads and lead to other measures and additional costs of repairs and reconstructions. The article
summarizes the authors' research results from constructions of low volume road pavements and
contains evaluations of laboratory and in situ material tests (soils, layers) of installed road pave-
ments as well as evaluations of modelled laboratory and long-term monitored in situ structures.

Objectives: This paper present a thorough understanding of bid evaluation process and assess-
ment of innovation in road construction industry. Methods/Analysis: The research articles re-
viewed are based on topics of bid evaluation process, evaluation of bids in road construction in -
dustry, the indicators and techniques of bids evaluation, process of Bid evaluation in countries,
innovation in road industry, and indicators of innovation in the context of road construction in-
dustry. Findings: It is widely accepted that projects related to the road construction must be ac-
complished in an organized manner. Literature indicates that the road constructing demands from
customers and competition of assessing and evaluating tenders have been increasing rapidly.
Novelty /Improvement: Challenges in developing suitable roads contribute to the inconsistency
in the industry and directly demands towards physical work on a road construction project, nev-
ertheless, a failure to accurately assessment of tenders can lead to complications for the whole
project and road Construction Company. The selection of a suitable construction contractor’s
surges likelihoods of successful achievement of a road construction project. This may also
achieve the customer goals, and retain the project schedule on time, within the budget and
achieve high quality project.

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This paper describes an automated method of constructing a hierarchical road network given a
single dataset, without the presence of thematic attributes. The method is based on a pattern
graph which maintains nodes and paths as junctions and through-traffic roads. The hierarchy is
formed incrementally in a top-down fashion for highways, ramps, and major roads directly con-
nected to ramps; and bottom-up for the rest of major and minor roads. Through reasoning and
analysis, ramps are identified as unique characteristics for recognizing and assembling high
speed roads. The method makes distinctions on the types of ramps by articulating their connec-
tion patterns with highways. Major and minor roads will be identified by both quantitative and
qualitative analysis of spatial properties and by discovering neighbourhood patterns revealed in
the data. The result of the method would enrich data description and support comprehensive
queries on sorted exit or entry points on highways and their related roads. The enrichment on
road network data is important to a high successful rate of feature matching for road networks
and to geospatial data integration.

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 CHAPTER -3

METHODOLOGY

3.1 Soil stabilization:-

The term soil stabilization means the improvement of the stability of bearing power of
the soil by the use of controlled compaction, proportioning under the addition of suit-
able admixture or stabilizers. Soil stabilization deals with physical, physicochemical
and chemical methods to make the stabilized soil serves, its purpose as pavement
components materials.
Soil stabilization is a new process by which we improve the soil characteristic and
economic Stabilization. In a broad sense, incorporates the various methods improved
for modifying the properties of soil, to improve the engineering properties of soil and
improve the performance of soil. Stabilization is being used for several of engineering
works, the most common application being in the construction of road and air field
pavements, where the main objective is to increase the strength or stability of soil and
to reduce the construction cost by making best use of locally available material. When
for construction the available soil is not suitable for the intended purpose then the soil
stabilization is required. In its other senses, the stabilization process includes the
drainage, pre-consolidation, compaction many other such processes. However, gener-
ally the term stabilization is restricted to the processes which alter the soil material it-
self for improvement of its properties. For the purpose of stabilization, a chemical or a
cementing material is used to a natural soil

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 Fig. 1 Process of soil stabilization

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 In the earth structures, the soil stabilization is used to decrease the compressibility and perme-
ability of the soil mass and to increase its shear strength. The soil stabilization requires increas -
ing the bearing capacity of the foundation soils. But, the main use of stabilization is to improve
the natural soil for the construction of airport runways and highways. The principles of the soil
stabilization are used for controlling the grading of aggregates and soils in the construction of
bases and sub bases of the airport runways and highways.
For the military and other emergency purposes, the areas are made trafficable with the use of
soil stabilization in a short period of time. Sometimes, for making the suburban streets and city
to make them more noise-absorbing, the soil stabilization is used.

3.2 The basic principles in soil stabilization may be stated as:-

 Evaluating the properties of given soil.

 Deciding method of supplementing the lacking property by the effectives and economical
method of stabilization.
 Designing the stabilized soil mix for intended stability and durability values.
 Considering the construction procedures by adequately compacting the stabilized layers.

3.3 Soil stabilization may results in any one or more of the follow-
ing changes:-

 Increase in stability.
 Change in physical properties like density or swelling.
 Change in physical characteristics.
 Evaluating the properties of given soil.
 Deciding method of supplementing the lacking property by the effectives and economical
method of stabilization.
 Designing the stabilized soil mix for intended stability and durability values.

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  Considering the construction procedures by adequately compacting the stabilized layers.
 Change in chemical properties.
 Retaining the desired minimum strength water proofing.

Fig. 2 Cement stabilization

3.4 Based on the above properties, the various techniques of soil stabilization
may be grouped as follows:-

3.4.1 Proportioning techniques:-

Various locally available soils and aggregates are mixed in suitable proportions and compacted
to serve desired objectives.

3.4.2 Cementing agents:-

The strength of the stabilizers soil can considerably by increased by the addition of cementing
agents like Portland cement, lime or lime-fly-ash, bituminous materials also impart binding ef-
fects to non-cohesive soils.

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3.4.3 Modifying agents:-

If the stabilizer added in small proportion could modify the undesirable properties of certain soils
(such as highly clayey soils) making them more useful as construction materials. Such stabilizers
may be called modifiers.

The most common modifier used in the case of highly plastic soils is lime. Portland cements
also acts as modifier in some cases.

3.4.4 Water proofing agents:-

A compacted soil mass which is stable enough may becomes weaker or softer by the ingress of
water or when subjected to soaking conditions. If the absorption of water can be stopped or re-
tarded by means of some water-proofing agents, it will be possible to make use of such materials
with advantages. The most common method of water proofing is by the use of bituminous mate-
rials.
3.4.5 Water retaining agents:-
Some non- cohesive soils have sufficient stability when the compacted layer possesses slight
moisture content, but the soil may become loose and less stable when completely dried. In such
cases use of materials with deliquescent properties like calcium chloride is likely to be useful to
retain some moisture to impart some apparent cohesion and thus retain the stability. This inci-
dentally can also reduce the dust nuisance in un-surfaced roads.

3.4.6 Water repelling agents:-

Almost the same function of water proofing agents may be performed by the water repelling or
retarding agents like organic compound (vinsol resin and resinous materials).

3.4.7 Heat treatment:-

Thermal stabilization has different useful aspects as regards clayey soils. There are desirable
changes in some of the properties and heated treated soil may be used in number of ways. re-
quirements.

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 3.5 Defination of Soil
“It is define as natural aggregate of mineral grains with or without organic matter constitutes
and that can be separated by general mechanical means such as agitation in water”

Soil is composed of particles of broken rock that have been altered by chemical and mechanical processes that in-
clude weathering and erosion. It is a mixture of mineral and organic constituent’s that are in solid,

Fig 3Gaseous and aqueous states of soil.

3.5.1 Soil particles

The descriptions of the grain size distribution of soil particles, according to their texture (particle
size, shape, and gradation).
Major textural classes include, very roughly
Gravel (>2 mm)

Sand (0.1 –2 mm)

Silt (0.01 –0.1 mm)

Clay (< 0.01 mm)

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 Fig 2.2 Soil particles

3.5.2 Constituents of Soil

A soil mass consists of solid particles, water and air. The solid particles are called soil grains. The void
space between the soil grains is partly filled with water and partly with air. Thus, Soil consists of three con-
stituents viz. solid particles, air and water which are blended together to form a complex material.

Fig. constituents of soil

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 Triangle texture of soil

Fig. Pascal’s triangle texture of soil.

3.6 Formation of soil

3.6.1 Weathering
The weathering of parent material takes the form of physical disintegrating and chemical de-
composition and transformation. Generally, minerals that are formed under high temperature
and pressure are less resistant to weathering, while minerals formed at low temperature and pres -
sure are more resistant to weathering. Weathering is usually confined to the top few meters of
geologic material, because physical, chemical, and biological stresses generally decrease with
depth. Physical disintegration begins as rocks that have solidified deep in the earth are exposed
to lower pressure near the surface and they swell and become unstable. A chemical decomposi-
tion rate double with each 10°C rise in temperature but is strongly dependent on water to effect
chemical changes. Rocks that will decompose in a few years in tropical climates will remain un-
altered for millennia in deserts.

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3.6.2 Physical disintegration
It is the first stage in the transformation of parent material into soil. Temperature fluctuations
cause expansion and contraction of the rock, splitting it along lines of weakness. Water may then
enter the cracks and freeze and cause the physical splitting of material along a path toward th

20 | P a g e
center of the rock, while temperature gradients within the rock can cause exfoliation of "shells". Cycles
of wetting and drying cause soil particles to be abraded to a finer size, as does the physical rubbing of
material as it is moved by wind, water, and gravity. Water can deposit within rocks, minerals that ex-
pand upon drying, thereby stressing the rock. Finally, organisms reduce parent material in size through
the action of plant roots or digging on the part of animals.

3.6.3 Chemical decomposition

Chemical decomposition results when minerals are made soluble by water or are changed in
structure. The first three of the following list are solubility changes and the last three are struc-
tural changes .
1. The solution of salts in water results from the action of bipolar water on ionic salt com-
pounds.
2. Hydrolysis is the transformation of minerals into polar molecules by the splitting of the inter-
vening water. This results in soluble acid-base pairs. For example, the hydrolysis of ortho-
clase-feldspar transforms it to acid silicate clay and basic potassium hydroxide, both of which
are more soluble.
3. In carbonation, the reaction of carbon dioxide in solution with water forms carbonic acid.
Carbonic acid will transform calcite into more soluble calcium bicarbonate.
4. Hydration is the inclusion of water in a mineral structure, causing it to swell and leaving it
more stressed and easily decomposed.
5. Oxidation of a mineral compound causes it to swell and increase its oxidation number, leav-
ing it more easily attacked by water or carbonic acid.
6. Reduction means the oxidation number of some part of the mineral is reduced, which occurs
when oxygen is scarce. The reduction of minerals leaves them electrically unstable, more sol-
uble and internally stressed and easily decomposed.

Of the above, hydrolysis and carbonation are the most effective. Saprolite is a particular example
of a residual soil formed from the transformation of granite, metamorphic and other types of
bedrock into clay minerals. Often called "weathered granite", saprolite is the result of weathering
processes that include: hydrolysis, chelation from organic compounds, hydration (the solution of
minerals in water with resulting cat-ion and anion pairs) and physical processes that include freez-
ing and thawing. The mineralogical and chemical composition of the primary bedrock material,
its physical features, including grain size and degree of consolidation, and the rate and type of
weathering transform the parent material into a different mineral. The texture, pH and mineral
constituents of saprolite are inherited from its parent material.

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 3.7 Climate
Climate is the dominant factor in soil formation, and soils show the distinctive characteristics of
the climate safe zone in which they form mineral precipitation and temperature are the primary
climatic influences on soil formation.

3.7.1 The direct influences of climate include:

1. A shallow accumulation of lime in low rainfall areas as caliches
2. Formation of acid soils in humid areas
3. Erosion of soils on steep hillsides
4. Deposition of eroded materials downstream.
Very intense chemical weathering, leaching, and erosion in warm and humid regions where soil
does not freeze
Climate directly affects the rate of weathering and leaching. Soil is said to be formed when de -
tectable layers of clays, organic colloids, carbonates, or soluble salts have been moved down-
ward. Wind moves sand and smaller particles, especially in arid regions where there is little plant
cover. The type and amount of precipitation influence soil formation by affecting the movement
of ions and particles through the soil, and aid in the development of different soil profiles. Soil
profiles are more distinct in wet and cool climates, where organic materials may accumulate,
than in wet and warm climates, where organic materials are rapidly consumed. The effectiveness
of water in weathering parent rock material depends on seasonal and daily temperature fluctua-
tions. Cycles of freezing and thawing constitute an effective mechanism which breaks up rocks
and other consolidated materials.
Climate also indirectly influences soil formation through the effects of vegetation cover and bio-
logical activity, which modify the rates of chemical reactions in the soil

3.8 Properties of Soils

The physical properties of soils, in order of decreasing importance,
are texture, structure, density, porosity, consistency, temperature, colour and resistivity. Most of
these determine the aeration of the soil and the ability of water to infiltrate and to be held in the
soil. Soil texture is determined by the relative proportion of the three kinds of soil particles,
called soil "separates": sand, silt, and clay. Larger soil structures called "peds" are created from
the separates when iron oxides, carbonates, clay, and silica with the organic constituent humus,
coat particles and cause them to adhere into larger, relatively stable secondary structures. Soil
density, particularly bulk density, is a measure of soil compaction. Soil porosity consists of the
part of the soil volume occupied by gases and water. Soil consistency is the ability of soil to stick
together. Soil temperature and color are self-defining. Resistivity refers to the resistance to con-
duction of electric currents and affects the rate of corrosion of metal and concrete structures.
The properties may vary through the depth of a soil profile.
1. The mineral components of soil, sand, silt and clay, determine a soil's texture. In the illus-
trated USDA textural classification triangle, the only soil that does not exhibit one of these pre-
dominately is called "loam". While even pure sand, silt or clay may be considered a soil, from
22 | P a g e
 the perspective of food production a loam soil with a small amount of organic material is con-
sidered ideal. The mineral constituents of a loam soil might be 40% sand, 40% silt and the bal-
ance 20% clay by weight. Soil texture affects soil behavior, in particular its retention capacity for nutri-
ents and water.
2. Sand and silt are the products of physical and chemical weathering; clay, on the other hand, is
a product of chemical weathering but often forms as a secondary mineral precipitated from dis-
solved minerals. It is the specific surface area of soil particles and the unbalanced ionic charges
within them that determine their role in the cat-ion exchange capacity of soil, and hence its fer-
tility. Sand is least active, followed by silt; clay is the most active. Sand's greatest benefit to soil
is that it resists compaction and increases porosity. Silt is miner logically like sand but with its
higher specific surface area it is more chemically active than sand. But it is the clay content;
with its very high specific surface area and generally large number of negative charges that
gives a soil its high retention capacity for water and nutrients. Clay soils also resist wind and
water erosion better than silt and sandy soils, as the particles are bonded to each other.
3. Sand is the most stable of the mineral components of soil; it consists of rock fragments, pri-
marily quartz particles, ranging in size from 2.0 to 0.05 mm (0.079 to 0.0020 in) in diameter.
Silt ranges in size from 0.05 to 0.002 mm (0.002 to 0.00008 in). Clay cannot be resolved by
optical microscopes as its particles are 0.002 mm (7.9×10−5 in) or less in diameter.[40] In
medium-textured soils, clay is often washed downward through the soil profile and accumu-
lates in the sub-soil.

4. Soil components larger than 2.0 mm (0.079 in) are classed as rock and gravel and are removed
before determining the percentages of the remaining components and the texture class of the
soil, but are included in the name. For example, a sandy loam soil with 20% gravel would be
called gravelly sandy loam.

5. When the organic component of a soil is substantial, the soil is called organic soil rather than
mineral soil. A soil is called organic if:
 Mineral fraction is 0% clay and organic matter is 20% or more
 Mineral fraction is 0% to 50% clay and organic matter is between 20% and 30%
 Mineral fraction is 50% or more clay and organic matter 30% or more.

23 | P a g e
 3.9 Structure
The clumping of the soil textural components of sand, silt and clay forms aggregates and the fur-
ther association of those aggregates into larger units forms soil structures called peds. The adhe-
sion of the soil textural components by organic substances, iron oxides, carbonates, clays, and
silica, and the breakage of those aggregates due to expansion-contraction, freezing-thawing, and
wetting-drying cycles, shape soil into distinct geometric forms. These peds evolve into units
which may have various shapes, sizes and degrees of development. A soil clod, however, is not a
ped but rather a mass of soil that results from mechanical disturbance. The soil structure affects
aeration, water movement, and conduction of heat, plant root growth and resistance to erosion.
Water has the strongest effect on soil structure due to its solution and precipitation of minerals
and its effect on plant growth.
Soil structure often gives clues to its texture, organic matter content, biological activity, past soil
evolution, human use, and the chemical and mineralogical conditions under which the soil
formed. While texture is defined by the mineral component of a soil and is an innate property of
the soil that does not change with agricultural activities, soil structure can be improved or de -
stroyed by the choice and timing of farming practices.

3.10 Soil Structural Classes

3.10.1 Types: Shape and arrangement of peds

A. Platy: Peds are flattened one atop the other 1-10 mm thick. Found in the A-horizon of forest
soils and lake sedimentation.
B. Prismatic and Columnar: Prism likes peds is long in the vertical dimension, 10-100 mm
wide. Prismatic peds have flat tops, columnar peds have rounded tops. Tend to form in
the B-horizon in high sodium soil where clay has accumulated.
C. Angular and sub-angular: Blocky peds are imperfect cubes, 5-50 mm, angular has sharp
edges, sub-angular have rounded edges. Tend to form in the B-horizon where clay has ac-
cumulated and indicate poor water penetration.
D. Granular and Crumb: Spheroid peds of polyhedrons, 1-10 mm, often found in the A-
horizon in the presence of organic material. Crumb peds are more porous and are consid-
ered ideal.

3.10.2 Classes
Size of peds whose ranges depend upon the above type
A. Very fine or very thin: <1 mm platy and spherical; <5 mm blocky; <10 mm prism like..
B. Fine or thin: 1-2 mm platy, and spherical; 5-10 mm blocky; 10-20 mm prism like.
C. Medium: 2-5 mm platy, granular; 10-20 mm blocky; 20-50 Prisms like.
D. Coarse or thick: 5-10 mm platy, granular; 20-50 mm blocky; 50-100 mm prism like.
E. Very coarse or very thick: >10 mm platy, granular; >50 mm blocky; >100 mm prism like.

24 | P a g e
3.10.3 Grades:

Is a measure of the degree of development or cementation within the pads that results in their
strength and stability.
F. Weak: Weak cementation allows pads to fall apart into the three textural constituents, sand, silt
and clay.
G. Moderate: Pads are not distinct in undisturbed soil but when removed they break into ag-
gregates, some broken aggregates and little un-aggregated material. This is considered
ideal.
H. Strong: Peds are distinct before removed from the profile and do not break apart easily.
I. Structure less: Soil is entirely cemented together in one great mass such as slabs of clay
or no cementation at all such as with sand.
At the largest scale, the forces that shape a soil's structure result from swelling and shrinkage that
initially tend to act horizontally, causing vertically oriented prismatic peds. Clayey soil, due to its
differential drying rate with respect to the surface, will induce horizontal cracks,

25 | P a g e
 columns to blocky peds. Roots, rodents, worms, and freezing-thawing cycles further break the
peds into a spherical shape.

At a smaller scale, plant roots extend into voids and remove water and cause the open spaces to
increase, and further decrease physical aggregation size. At the same time roots, fungal hyphen
and earthworms create microscopic tunnels that break up peds.

At an even smaller scale, soil aggregation continues as bacteria and fungi exude sticky polysac-
charides which bind soil into small peds. The addition of the raw organic matter that bacteria and
fungi feed upon encourages the formation of this desirable soil structure.

At the lowest scale, the soil chemistry affects the aggregation or dispersal of soil particles. The
clay particles contain polyvalent cations which give the faces of clay layers a net negative
charge. At the same time the edges of the clay plates have a slight positive charge, thereby allow-
ing the edges to adhere to the faces of other clay particles or to flocculate (form clumps). On the
other hand, when monovalent ions such as sodium invade and displace the polyvalent cations,
they weaken the positive charges on the edges, while the negative surface charges are relatively
strengthened. This leaves a net negative charge on the clay, causing the particles to push apart,
and so prevents the flocculation of clay particles into larger assemblages. As a result, the clay
disperses and settles into voids between peds, causing them to close. In this way the soil aggrega-
tion is destroyed and the soil made impenetrable to air and water. Such sodic soil tends to form
columnar structures near the surface.

3.10.4 Density:-
Density is the weight per unit volume of an object. Particle density is the density of only the min-
eral particles that make up a soil; i.e., it excludes pore space and organic material. Particle den -
sity averages approximately 2.65 g/cm3 (165 lb/cu ft).
Soil bulk density, a dry weight, includes air space and organic materials of the soil volume. A
high bulk density indicates either compaction of the soil or high sand content. The bulk density
of cultivated loam is about 1.1 to 1.4 g/cm3 (for comparison water is 1.0 g/cm3). A lower bulk
density by itself does not indicate suitability for plant growth due to the influence of soil texture
and state.

3.10. 5 Porosity:-
Pore space is that part of the bulk volume that is not occupied by either mineral or organic matter
but is open space occupied by either gases or water. Ideally, the total pore space should be 50%
of the soil volume.

The gas space is needed to supply oxygen to organisms decomposing organic matter, humus, and
plant roots. Pore space also allows the movement and storage of water and dissolved nutrients.
Because soil pore space is tortuous or highly curved and twisted, the slow diffusion of solutes
and gases through soil pores can limit the bioavailability of substrates to microorganisms. This
property of soils effectively compartmentalizes the soil pore space such that many organisms are

26 | P a g e
 not in direct competition with one another, which may explain not only the large number of
species present, but the fact that functionally redundant organisms (organisms with the same eco-
logical niche) can co-exist within the same soil.

There are four categories of pores:

a. Very fine pores: < 2 µm
b. Fine pores: 2-20 µm
c. Medium pores: 20-200 µm
d. Coarse pores: 200 µm-0.2 mm
In comparison, root hairs are 8 to 12 µm in diameter. When pore space is less than 30 µm, the
forces of attraction that hold water in place are greater than the gravitational force acting to drain
the water. At that point, soil becomes water-logged and it cannot breathe. For a growing plant,
pore size is of greater importance than total pore space. A medium-textured loam provides the
ideal balance of pore sizes. Having large pore spaces that allow rapid gas and water movement is
superior to smaller pore space but has a greater percentage pore space. Soil texture determines
the pore space at the smallest scale, but at a larger scale, soil structure has a strong influence on
soil, aeration, water infiltration and drainage. [16] Tillage has the short-term benefit of temporar-
ily increasing the number of pores of largest size, but in the end those will be degraded by the de-
struction of soil aggregation. Structurally the pores in soil form a homogeneous set of fractals
(termed also uniform fractal) characterized by fractal dimension D <3 and linear sizes X. For the
clay soil is has been found that D=2.7 and X=0.150 mm.

3.10. 6 Consistency:-
Consistency is the ability of soil to stick to itself or to other objects (cohesion and adhesion re-
spectively) and its ability to resist deformation and rupture. It is of rough use in predicting culti-
vation problems and the engineering of foundations. Consistency is measured at three moisture
conditions: air-dry, moist and wet; and in those conditions the qualities depend upon the clay
content. In the wet state, the two qualities of stickiness and plasticity are assessed. A soil's resis-
tance to fragmentation and crumbling is assessed in the dry state by rubbing the sample. Its resis -
tance to shearing forces is assessed in the moist state by thumb and finger pressure. Finally, a
soil's plasticity is measured in the wet state by moulding with the hand. Finally, the cemented
consistency depends on cementation by substances other than clay, such as calcium carbonate,
silica, oxides and salts and moisture content has little effect on its assessment. The measures of
consistency border on subjective as they employ the "feel" of the soil in those states.
The terms used to describe the soil consistency in three moisture states and a last consistency not
affected by the amount of moisture is as follows:
 Consistency of Dry Soil: loose, soft, slightly hard, hard, very hard, extremely hard
 Consistency of Moist Soil: loose, very friable, friable, firm, very firm, extremely firm
 Consistency of Wet Soil: non-sticky, slightly sticky, sticky, very sticky; non-plastic,
slightly plastic, plastic, very plastic

27 | P a g e
  Consistency of Cemented Soil: weakly cemented, strongly cemented, in donated (re-
quires hammer blows to break up)
Soil consistency is useful in estimating the ability of soil to support buildings and roads. More
precise measures of soil strength are often made prior to construction.

3.10.7 Temperature
Soil temperature regulates seed germination, root growth and the availability of nutrients. Soil
temperatures range from permafrost at a few inches below the surface to 38°C (100°F) in Hawaii
on a warm day.

The colours of the ground cover and its insulating ability have a strong influence on soil temper-
ature. Snow cover will reflect light and heavy mulching will slow the warming of the soil, but at
the same time they will reduce the fluctuations in the surface temperature. Below 50 cm (20 in),
soil temperature seldom changes and can be approximated by adding 1.8°C (2°F) to the mean an-
nual air temperature.

3.10.8 Color
Soil color is often the first impression one has when viewing soil. Striking colors and contrasting
patterns are especially noticeable. The Red River (Mississippi watershed) carries sediment
eroded from extensive reddish soils like Port Silt Loam in Oklahoma. The Yellow River in China
carries yellow sediment from eroding loess soils. Molli sols in the Great Plains of North America
are darkened and enriched by organic matter. Pod sols in boreal forests have highly contrasting
layers due to acidity and leaching.

Soil color is primarily influenced by soil mineralogy. Many soil colors are due to various iron
minerals. The development and distribution of color in a soil profile result from chemical and bi-
ological weathering, especially redox reactions. As the primary minerals in soil parent material
weather, the elements combine into new and colorful compounds. Iron forms secondary minerals
of a yellow or red color, organic matter decomposes into black and brown compounds,
and manganese, sulfur and nitrogen can form black mineral deposits. These pigments can pro-
duce various color patterns within a soil. Aerobic conditions produce uniform or gradual color
changes, while reducing environments (anaerobic) result in rapid colour flow with complex,
mottled patterns and points of color concentration.

3.10. 9 Resistivity:-
Soil resistivity is a measure of a soil's ability to retard the conduction of an electric current. The
electrical resistivity of soil can affect the rate of galvanic corrosion of metallic structures in con-
tact with the soil. Higher moisture content or increased electrolyte concentration can lower resis-
tivity and increase conductivity, thereby increasing the rate of corrosion. Soil resistivity values
typically range from about 2 to 1000 Ω·m, but more extreme values are not unusual.

28 | P a g e
29 | P a g e
30 | P a g e
 3.11 Engineering Classification of Soil
Based on the engineering classification, soil may be grouped as:
1. Course grained soil or Granular soil
2. Fine grained soil or cohesive soil
3. Organic soil this classification is also known as general classification or broad classification of soil.

3.11.1 Coarse grained soil

Fig. coarse grains of soil

The soil which consists of coarser size particles or coarse grains is termed as coarse grained soil. It is also known
as cohesion less soil or granular soil as there is no cohesion or cohesive forces acting between the particles
to bind them together. Particles of this type of soil are rounded, angular, bulky, and hard rock particles and 50%
or more of total material (soil) by weight is retained on 75 micron IS sieve.

Sand, gravel, cobbles are the common examples of coarse grained soil the property of a coarse grained
soil depends upon the uniformity of the size of the grains. Well graded sand is more stable as a foundation
base as compared to a uniform or poorly graded gravel or sand. A granular soil has the following significant
engineering properties;
 It is an excellent foundation material.
 It is the best embankment material.
 It is the best backfill material for retaining walls.

3.11.2 Fine grained soil:

The soil which consists of finer size particles or fine grains is termed as fine grained soil. It is also known
as cohesive soil. The presence of cohesion or binding force in fine grained soil is due to the intermolecular
forces of attraction between soil particles and binding of soil mass together by the capillary action of mois-
ture present in the soil. This type of soil includes clays, silts, silty clays and clays mixed with sand or
gravel

31 | P a g e
In this type of soil, more than 50% of the total material passes 75 micron IS sieve. Clay is more cohesive than
silt. Fine grained soils have following significant engineering properties;
1. It possesses low shear strength.
2. It is impervious practically.
3. It shrinks upon drying and expands upon wetting.
4. It is plastic and compressible. Remember that cohesive property is due to presence of clay minerals in
soil. So term cohesive soil is generally used for clayey soils only.

3.11.3Organic Soil
The soil which contains a large percentage of organic matter and particles of decomposed vegetation matter
is known as Organic soil. The soil with organic matter is weaker and more compressible than soils hav-
ing the same mineral composition but lacking in fibrous nature and odors (smell) of decaying vegetation.

Fig. organic soil The

significant engineering properties of organic soils are:

1. It has low shear strength.
2. It is often permeable.
3. It is highly compressible.
4. It is poorest foundation material.
These types of soils are present in the top layer of soil and are removed generally from a site prior to the start
of construction.

3.11. 4 Major Soil Deposits of India:-

Based on the physiographic, climatic conditions and geological formation, the soils of India can be divided into fol-
lowing major groups:-
1. Marine Deposits
2. Late rite Soil (Late rites)
3. Desert Soils
4. Black Cotton Soils
5. Alluvial Soil

32 | P a g e
 3.12 Necessity of Soil Stabilization:-
 Stabilized soil functions as a working platform for the project.
 Stabilization waterproofs the soil.
 Stabilization improves soil strength.
 Stabilization helps reduce soil volume change due to temperature or moisture.
 Stabilization improves soil workability.
 Stabilization reduces dust in work environment.
 Stabilization improves marginal materials.
 Stabilization improves durability.
 Stabilization dries wet soil.
 Stabilization conserves aggregate materials.
 Stabilization reduces cost.
 Stabilization conserves energy.

Deformation of soils:-
The change in shape or volume of soil mass accompanied by vertical or lateral movement under the effect of
external loads is termed as deformation of soils.

Swelling
The increase in the volume of a soil mass, when water is added to it is called swelling.

Creep
The slow and gradual lateral advancement of the soil is termed as Creep.

Heaving
The upward movement of soil is termed as Heaving.

Plastic Flow
The continuous soil deformation in highly plastic soils subjected to constant shearing stress is termed as
Plastic flow.

Lateral Movement
When soil is loaded, shearing stresses are induced in it. When shearing stresses reach a limiting value, shear
deformation takes place in lateral direction causing shearing of soil.

Settlement
Settlement of a structure is its vertical downward displacement due to decrease in the volume of soil mass
on which it is built. Settlement is of following types:

Uniform settlement

Differential settlemen

33 | P a g e
 CHAPTER -4

METHODOLOGY

4.1 Methods of soil stabilization:

There are the various methods of soil stabilizations are as follows:-
1. Mechanical stabilization
2. Lime stabilization
3. Cement stabilization
4. Bitumen stabilization
5. Chemical stabilization
6. Electrical stabilization
7. Thermal stabilization
8. Stabilization by grouting
9. Stabilization by geo-synthetics

4.1.2Mechanical stabilization
Mechanical stabilization is the process of improving the properties of the soil by changing its
graduation. Mechanical stabilization is also known as granular stabilization. For the purpose of
mechanical stabilization, the soils are subdivided in to two categories;
1. Aggregates
2. Binders
The mechanical stability of the mixed soil depends upon the following factors:-
1. Mechanical strength of the aggregates
2.Mineral composition
3. Gradation
4. Plasticity characteris-
tics 5.Compaction

4.1.3Cement stabilization:
The process of cement stabilization can be done by mixing the Portland cement and pulverized
soil with water and the compacting the mix to attain the strong material. The material take place
by mixing soil and cement is known as soil-cement. The material becomes hard and durable
structural material as the hydrates and develops strength.
There are the following factors which affects the cement stabilization:-
1. Type of soil
2. Quantity of cement
3. Quantity of water
4. Mixing, compaction and curing
5. Admixture.

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 Fig. cement stabilization Fig.

lime stabilization

4.1.3 Chemical stabilization:-

In chemical stabilization, soil is stabilized by adding different chemicals. The main advantages
of chemical stabilization are that setting time and curing time can be controlled.

The following chemicals have been successfully used.

1. Calcium chloride
2. Sodium chloride
3. Sodium silicate
4. Polymers
5. Chrome lignin

4.1.4 Thermal stabilization:

A thermal change causes a marked improvement in the properties of the soil. Thermal sta-
bilization is done either by heating the soil and cooling it.

a) By heating the soil

 When the soil is heated then the water content of soil is decreased. Electric repulsion be-
tween the clay particles is decreased and the soil strength is increased. If temperature is
increased to more than 100 degree Celsius, then the absorbed water is driven off and the
strength of soil is further increased.
 When the soil is heated at the temperature of 400 degcel. To600 deg.cel. Then some ir-
reversible changes occur which make the soil non-expansive and non-plastic. The clay
clods are converted in to aggregates.

35 | P a g e
  When the soil is heated with further increase in temperature then there is some verifica-
tion and fusion, and a brick- like material is obtained and these material can be used as
artificial aggregate for mechanical stabilization.

B) By freezing the soil

 When the inter particle repulsion increases then cooling causes a small loss of strength of
clayey soils. However, if the temperature is decreased to freezing point, the pore water
freezes and the soil is stabilized. Ice so formed to act as a cementing agent.
 In cohesion less soil, water freezes at about 0 deg.celsius. But in the cohesive soils, water
may freezes at a much lower temperature. The soil strength increases as more and more
water freezes. Freezing method of stabilization is very costly. This method has been used
successfully to specify soil beneath foundations. Generally, freezing method is adopted
when advancing shafts or tunnels through fine sand or loose silt.
 When freezing front penetrates these areas then the freezing cause serious trouble to adja-
cent structures. It may cause excessive heaving. After considering the above aspects then
the freezing method should be used.

4.1.5 Stabilization by grouting:-

 In the grouting stabilization method, stabilizers are introduced by injection in to the soil.
Grouting is always done under pressure, the stabilizers with high permeability. Grouting is
not appropriate for stabilizing clays because the clays very low permeability.
 The grouting stabilization method is costly in comparison with direct blending methods.
Grouting method is appropriate for stabilizing buried zones relatively limited extent, such
as a pervious stratum below a dam. The improvement in soil can be done by grouting
method so that the soil cannot be disturbed. Grouting method stabilized an area which is
close to an existing building.
 Relishing on the stabilizer used, the grouting techniques can be classified as under:-
1. Cement grouting
2. Clay grouting
3. Chemical grouting
4. Chrome-lignin grouting
5. Polymer grouting
6. Bituminous grouting

36 | P a g e
4.2 MATERIALS USED

In this project for making economical pavement we use following substance:

1. Fly ash
2. lime
3. Water proofing compound
4. jute

Fig . materials used in project

4.2.1 Fly ash

Soil stabilization is the alteration of soil properties to improve the engineering performance of
soils. The properties most often altered are density, water content, plasticity and strength, modifi-
cation of soil properties is the temporary enhancement of sub grade stability to expedite construc-
tion.

Class C-fly ash and class F-lime product blends can be used in numer-
ous Geo-technical applications common with highway construction:-
 To enhance strength properties.
 Stabilize embankments.
 To control shrink swell properties of expansive soils.
 Drying agents to reduce soil moisture content to permit compaction.

Class C-fly ash can be used as a stands alone material because of its self-cementitious properties.
Class fly ash can be used in soil stabilization with the addition of a cementitious agent (lime,
37 | P a g e
 Lime kiln dust, CKD and cement). The self cementitious behavior of fly ashes is determined by
ASTM D 5239. This test provide a standard method for determining the compressive strength of
cubes made with fly ash and water ( water/fly ash weight ratio .35) test at 7 days with standard
most curing .the cementitious characteristics are ranked as shown below.

 Very self-cementing> 500 psi (3400 kpa)

 Moderately self-cementing 100-500 psi (700-3400 kpa)
 Non self-cementing<100 psi(700kpa)

It should be noted that the result obtained from ASTM 05239 only characterize the characteris-
tic of the fly ash water blends and does not alone provide a basis to evaluate the potential inter -
actions between the fly ash and soil or aggregate the use of fly ash in soil stabilization and soil
modification may be subject to local environmental requirement pertaining to leaching and po-
tential interaction with ground water and adjacent water courses.

38 | P a g e
 CHAPTER – 5

EXPERIMENTAL REULTS

5.1 sieve analysis

Purpose:
This test is performed to determine the percentage of different grain sizes contained within a soil.
The mechanical or sieve analysis is performed to determine the distribution of the coarser,
larger-sized particles, and the hydrometer method is used to determine the distribution of the
finer particles.

Fig.13 process of sieve analysis

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 Observation & Calculations
SAMPLE NO: 1
Type Of Sieve Analysis: Dry
Total Weight Of Sample: 1kg

SIEVE NO. SIZE OF WT.OF SOIL CUMULATIVE CUM% RE-

OPENING RETAINED WT OF RE- TAINED
(MM) (GM) TAINED(GM)
1 4.75 189 189 18.9%

2 2.36 150 339 33.9%

3 1.18 176 515 51.5%
4 0.600 166 681 68.1%

5 0.300 140 821 82.1%

6 0.150 64 885 88.5%

7 0.000 115 1000 100%

Sieve size Percentages finer

4.75 160
2.36 140
1.18 190
0.85 25
0.6 85
0.3 20
0.15 50
0.075 252

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 Graph between sieve size and percentage of passing

300

250
percentage passing

200

150

0 4.75 2.36 1.18 0.85 0.6 0.3 0.15 0.075

sieve size (mm)

Graph no. 1

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5.2 LIQUIT LIMIT OF SOIL

1. DEFINITION:-
The liquid limit of a soil is the moisture content, expressed as a percentage of the weight
of the oven-dried soil, at the boundary between the liquid and plastic states of consis-
tency. The moisture content at this boundary is arbitrarily defined as the water content at
which two halves of a soil cake will flow together, for a distance of ½ in. (12.7 mm)
along the bottom of a groove of standard dimensions separating the two halves, when the
cup of a standard liquid limit apparatus is dropped 25 times from a height of 0.3937 in.
(10 mm) at the rate of two drops/second.

LIQUID LIMIT

Fig. 14 Cassagrandes apparatus

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 LIQUID LIMIT TEST

Coefficient of x (see equation on graph) = 0.15

Intercept c (see equation on graph) = 29.806
Liquid limit % = 26.056

NORMALLY LIQUID LIMIT FOR COHESIVE SOIL IS VARY (17-30%)

5.3 the plastic limit of soil sample

1. DEFINITION
The plastic limit of a soil is the moisture content, expressed as a percentage of the weight of the
oven-dry soil, at the boundary between the plastic and semisolid states of consistency. It is the
moisture content at which a soil will just begin to crumble when rolled into a thread ⅛ in. (3
mm) in diameter using a ground glass plate or other acceptable surface.

Results:-
Liquid Limit &Plastic Limit Test Result Observa-
tion and Calculations
Determination no 1 2 3
Container no 10 11 12
Mass of container(w1) 12gm 12gm 12gm
Mass of container+wet soil(w2) 45 47 50
Mass of container+dry soil(w3) 39 42 46
Mass of water,(ww= w2- w3) 6 5 4
Mass of dry soil ,(ws= w3- w1) 27 30 34
Moisture content,( w2- w3)/( w3- w1) x 100(%) 22.22 16.67 11.76

No of blows 7 8 10

Liquid limit=16.88%
Plastic limit=18

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5.4 CALIFORNIA BEARING RATIO TEST

DEFINITION OF C.B.R.:
It is the ratio of force per unit area required to penetrate a soil mass with standard circu-
lar piston at the rate of 1.25 mm/min to that required for the corresponding penetration of stan-
dardmaterial.
C.B.R =(test load/ standard load) 100
Thefollowing table gives the standard loads adopted for different penetration for the stan-
dard materialwith C.B.R values of 100%

Penetration of plunger (mm) Standard load (kg)

2.5 1370
5.0 2055
7.5 2630
10.0 3180
12.5 3600
jk

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 The test may be performed on undisturbed specimens and on remolded specimenwhich may be
compacted either statically or dynamically.
Sub grade soil is an integral part of the road pavements structure as it provides the support to
the pavement from beneath. The sub grade soil and its property are important in the design of
pavements structures. The main function of sub grade is to give the adequate support to the
pavements and for this the sub grade should possess sufficient stability under adverse climatic
and loading conditions. Therefore, it is very essential to evaluate the sub grade by conducting
test.
The tests used to evaluate the strength properties of soils may be broadly divided in to
three groups:
 Shear tests
 Bearing tests
 Penetration tests
Shears tests are usually carried out on relatively small soil samples in the laboratory. Some of the
commonly known shear test, are direct shear test,triaxial compression tests, and unconfined com-
pression tests.

Bearing tests are loading tests carried out on sub grade soils in situation with a load bearing area.
The results of the bearing tests are influenced by variations in the soil properties within the
stressed soil mass underneath and hence the overall stability of the part of the soil mass stressed
could be studied.
Penetration tests may be considered as small scale bearing tests in which the size of the loaded
area is relatively much smaller and ratio of the penetration to the size of the loaded area is much
greater than the ratios in bearing tests. The penetration tests are carried out in the field or in the
laboratory.

SOIL TESTING
First we take the black cotton soil and find the CBR value. For this take 5 kg of soil (black cotton
soil). And crush the soil BLACK COTTON SOIL passes by sieve 2.75 mm.
Then prepare a mould and submerged it in water near 96 hours we take near 3sample in labora-
tory and take in CBR testing machine.

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 Fig. CBR test machine

Fig.CBR TESTING MACHINE

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 TAKE BLACK COTTON SOIL PREPARES MOULDS AND TESTS CBR APPERATUS.

DATA OBTAINED BY TEST

LOAD PENETRATION DATA

Penetration ( mm) Load ( div) Load ( kgf)

0 0 0
0.5 8 6.612186
1 12 9.24328
1.5 14 10.78383
2 18 13.86492
2.5 20 15.40547
3 24 18.48656
3.5 28 21.56765
4 31 23.87847
4.5 34 26.18929
5 35 26.95957
5.5 38 29.27039
6 41 31.58121
6.5 44 33.89203
7 47 36.20285
7.5 49 37.74339
8 51 39.28394
8.5 53 40.82449
9 56 43.13531
9.5 59 45.44612

RESULTS:(GIVEN SOIL CBR )

Penetration (mm) Pt (kgf) Ps (kgf) CBR (%)

2.5 15.4 1370 1.124088

5 26.95957 2055 1.311901

GIVEN SOIL IS BLACK COTTON BECAUSE ITS CBR VALUE IS BELOW 5%

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 LOAD PENETRATION CURVE
70

60
LOAD DIVISION

50

40

30

Graph no. 2

BLACK COTTON SOIL

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 NOW WE TAKE BLACK COTTON SOIL AND MIX IT WITH FLY ASH
CONTENT:
FLY ASH 650 gm (15% WEIGHT OF SOIL)

DATA OBTAINED BY CBR APPARATUS

LOAD PENETRATION Data

Penetration (mm) Load ( div) Load (kgf)

0 0 0
0.5 4 3.081093
1 22 16.94601
1.5 40 30.81093
2 58 44.67585
2.5 70 53.91913
3 81 62.39214
3.5 87 67.0138
4 93 71.63542
4.5 98 75.48678
5 105 80.87
5.5 110 84.73006
6 116 93.20307
6.5 121 96.28416
7 125 97.82471
7.5 127 103.9869
8 140 107.8383
8.5 146 112.4599
9 151 116.3113
9.5 156 120.1626

Results:( given soil CBR )

Penetration (mm) Pt ( kgf)* Ps ( kgf)* CBR (%)

2.5 53.91913 1370 3.935703

5 80.8787 2055 3.935703

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 LOAD PENETRATION CURVE

180

160

140
load division

120

100

80

60

40

20 Graph no. 3

BLACK COTTON SOIL + FLY ASH

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 CHAPTER -6
CONCLUSION

 Above these result we conclude that, if we use individually each gradient then
its performance is not well.
 As in the case of fly ash when we use below 20% its CBR Value is good
but when we add more fly ash then its CBR value reduce.

References:

1. Soil Mechanics And Foundation, B.c Punmia, (Laxmi Publication)

2. Soil Mechanics And Foundation Engineering , K R Arora (Standard Book)

3. Soil Mechanics And Foundation Engineering S.K. Garg Khanna Publication,

Delhi

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