7.

7A: Crime
Crime is the breach of rules or laws for which some performance or interference with the other party’s
governing authority can ultimately prescribe a conviction. performance.
Crime is the breach of rules or laws for which some
Learning Objectives governing authority can ultimately prescribe a conviction.
Crimes may also result in cautions, rehabilitation, or be
Relate cultural change to changing definitions of
unenforced. Individual human societies may each define
crime
crime and crimes differently, in different localities, and at
different time stages of the crime. While every crime violates
Key Points the law, not every violation of the law counts as a crime; for
While every crime violates the law, not every violation of example, breaches of contract and of other civil law may rank
the law counts as a crime. Breaches of contract and of as “offenses” or as “infractions. ” Modern societies generally
other civil law may rank as “offenses” or as “infractions. ” regard crimes as offenses against the public or the state, as
Torts are wrongs against private parties that can give rise distinguished from torts, which are wrongs against private
to a civil cause of action. parties that can give rise to a civil cause of action.
In sociology, a normative definition views crime as
In sociology, a normative definition views crime as deviant
deviant behavior that violates prevailing norms, or cultural
behavior that violates prevailing norms, or cultural standards
standards prescribing how humans ought to behave
prescribing how humans ought to behave normally. This
normally.
approach considers the complex realities surrounding the
Criminalization is a procedure deployed by society as a
concept of crime and seeks to understand how changing
pre-emptive, harm-reduction device, using the threat of
social, political, psychological, and economic conditions may
punishment as a deterrent to anyone proposing to engage
affect changing definitions of crime and the form of the legal,
in the behavior causing harm.
law-enforcement, and penal responses made by society.
As cultures change and the political environment shifts,
societies may criminalize or decriminalize certain These structural realities remain fluid and often contentious.
behaviors, which directly affects crime statistics and social For example: as cultures change and the political environment
perception of crime and deviant behavior.. shifts, societies may criminalize or decriminalize certain
Criminology is the scientific study of the nature, extent, behaviors, which directly affects the statistical crime rates,
causes, and control of criminal behavior in both the influences the allocation of resources for the enforcement of
individual and in society. laws, and re-influences the general public opinion. One can
As cultures change and the political environment shifts, view criminalization as a procedure deployed by society as a
societies may criminalize or decriminalize certain pre-emptive, harm-reduction device, using the threat of
behaviors, which directly affects the crime statistics. punishment as a deterrent to anyone proposing to engage in
Crime statistics refers to the collection and calculation on the behavior causing harm. The state becomes involved
data on crime in a given location. because governing entities can become convinced that the
Criminology is the scientific study of the nature, extent, costs of not criminalizing, through allowing the harms to
causes, and control of criminal behavior in both the continue unabated, outweigh the costs of criminalizing it,
individual and in society. restricting individual liberty, for example, to minimize harm
to others.
Key Terms Similarly, changes in the collection and calculation of data on
criminalization: The act of making a previously legal crime may affect the public perceptions of the extent of any
activity illegal. given “crime problem.” All such adjustments to crime
Deviant Behavior: The violation of prevailing norms or statistics, together with the experience of people in their
cultural standards prescribing how humans ought to everyday lives, shape attitudes on the extent to which the state
behave. should use law or social engineering to enforce or encourage
Breaches of Contract: An action in which a binding any particular social norm. Criminology is the scientific study
agreement or bargained-for exchange is not honored by of the nature, extent, causes, and control of criminal behavior
one or more of the parties to the contract by non- in both the individual and in society.

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7.7B: Types of Crime
Criminal law, as opposed to civil law, is the body of law that (including criminal ends) such as robbery. Violent crimes
relates to crime and that defines conduct that is not allowed. include crimes committed with and without weapons.
Criminal law, as opposed to civil law, is the body of law that
Learning Objectives relates to crime. It could be defined as the body of rules that
defines conduct that is not allowed because it is held to
Identify and differentiate between different types of
threaten, harm or endanger the safety and welfare of people,
crimes
and that sets out the punishment to be imposed on people who
do not obey these laws. Criminal law is distinctive for the
Key Points uniquely serious potential consequences, or sanctions, for
In criminal law, an offense against the person usually failure to abide by its rules.
refers to a crime which is committed by direct physical
harm or force being applied to another person. Offenses Against the Person
A violent crime is a crime in which the offender uses or In criminal law, an offense against the person usually refers to
threatens to use violent force upon the victim. a crime which is committed by direct physical harm or force
Sex crimes are forms of human sexual behavior that are being applied to another person. They are usually analyzed by
crimes. Someone who commits one is said to be a sex division into fatal offenses, sexual offenses, or non-fatal non-
offender. sexual offenses. Although most sexual offenses will also be
Property crime involves the taking of money or property, offenses against the person, sexual crimes are usually
and does not involve force or threat of force against a categorized separately. Similarly, although many homicides
victim. also involve an offense against the person, they are usually
Hate crimes occur when a perpetrator targets a victim categorized under the more serious category.
because of his or her perceived membership in a certain
social group, usually defined by racial group, religion, Violent Crimes
sexual orientation, disability, class, ethnicity, nationality, A violent crime is a crime in which the offender uses or
age, sex, or gender identity. threatens to use violent force upon the victim. Violent crimes
Organized crime is the transnational, national, or local include crimes committed with and without weapons. They
grouping of highly centralized enterprises run by criminals also include both crimes in which the violent act is the
for the purpose of engaging in illegal activity. objective, such as murder, as well as crimes in which violence
Virtual crime refers to a virtual criminal act that takes is the means to an end, such as robbery. The United States
place in a massively multiplayer online game (MMOG). Department of Justice Bureau of Justice Statistics (BJS)
Organized crime are transnational, national, or local counts five categories of crime as violent crimes: murder,
groupings of highly centralized enterprises run by forcible rape, robbery, aggravated assault, and simple assault.
criminals for the purpose of engaging in illegal activity According to BJS figures, the rate of violent crime
victimization in the United States declined by more than two
Key Terms thirds between the years 1994 and 2009. On September 30,
Property Crime: Property crime is a category of crime 2009, 7.9% of sentenced prisoners in federal prisons were in
that includes, among other crimes, burglary, larceny, theft, for violent crimes; 52.4% of sentenced prisoners in state
motor vehicle theft, arson, shoplifting, and vandalism. prisons at yearend 2008 were in for violent crimes; and 21.6%
Property crime only involves the taking of money or of convicted inmates in jails in 2002 were in for violent
property, and does not involve force or threat of force crimes.
against a victim.
organized crime: A set of large criminal organizations Sex Crimes
(often competing for markets and territories) that deal in Sex crimes are forms of human sexual behavior that are
illegal goods and services. crimes. Someone who commits one is said to be a sex
Violent Crime: A violent crime, or crime of violence, is a offender. Some sex crimes are crimes of violence that involve
crime in which the offender uses or threatens to use sex. Others are violations of social taboos, such as incest,
violent force upon the victim. This entails both crimes in sodomy, indecent exposure or exhibitionism. There is much
which the violent act is the objective, such as murder, as
well as crimes in which violence is the means to an end,

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variation among cultures as to what is considered a crime or
not, and in what ways or to what extent crimes are punished.

Property Crimes
Property crime is a category of crime that includes burglary,
larceny, theft, motor vehicle theft, arson, shoplifting, and
vandalism. Property crime only involves the taking of money
or property, and does not involve force or threat of force
against a victim. Although robbery involves taking property,
it is classified as a violent crime, since force, or threat of
force, on an individual is involved, in contrast to burglary
which typically takes place in an unoccupied dwelling or
other unoccupied building. In 2005, only 18% of reported
cases of larceny/theft were cleared in the United States.
Handcuffs: Handcuffs pictured on the ground outside the
Hate Crimes courthouse
Hate crimes occur when a perpetrator targets a victim because
of his or her perceived membership in a certain social group,
usually defined by racial group, religion, sexual orientation,
disability, class, ethnicity, nationality, age, sex, or gender
identity.

Virtual Crimes
Virtual crime refers to a virtual criminal act that takes place in
a massively multiplayer online game (MMOG). The huge
time and effort invested into such games can lead online
“crime” to spill over into real world crime, and even blur the
distinctions between the two. Some countries have introduced
special police investigation units to cover such “virtual
crimes. ” South Korea is one such country, and looked into
22,000 cases in the first six months of 2003. Crime Does Not Pay: Shooting a Baby: “Crime Does Not
Pay” was one of the primary targets of Dr. Fredrick
Wertham’s crusade against comics books, and were often
Organized Crime cited in his writing and during the Senate inquiries into the
Organized crime is the transnational, national, or local comic book industries corruption of the innocent. The general
theme of “Crime Does Not Pay” is exactly what the title of
grouping of highly centralized enterprises run by criminals for the series suggests – criminals rise to power, but come to an
the purpose of engaging in illegal activity, most commonly often violent end. This panel is from issue 22 of the series.
for monetary profit. Sometimes criminal organizations force
people to do business with them, as when a gang extorts
money from shopkeepers for “protection. ” An organized
gang or criminal set can also be referred to as a mob.

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 Crime Dog: Anti-crime campaign using the crime dog cartoon

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7.7C: Crime Statistics
Crime statistics attempt to provide statistical measures of the including Interpol and the United Nations. Law enforcement
crime in societies. agencies in some countries, such as the Federal Bureau of
Investigation (FBI) in the United States and the Home Office
in England & Wales, publish crime indices, which are
Learning Objectives
compilations of statistics for various types of crime. The U.S.
Evaluate U.S. crime statistics and the various ways has two major data collection programs: the Uniform Crime
law enforcement officials gather them Reports from the FBI and the National Crime Victimization
Survey from the Bureau of Justice Statistics. The National
Key Points Crime Victimization Survey has its use, but it also limited in
The two major methods for collecting crime data are law its scope. For example, it only collects data on the following
enforcement reports and victimization statistical surveys. crimes – assault, burglary, larceny, motor vehicle theft, rape
Statistics from law enforcement organizations are and robbery. The U.S. has no comprehensive infrastructure to
normally readily available and are generally reliable in monitor crime trends and report the information to related
terms of identifying what crime is being dealt with by law parties, such as law enforcement.
enforcement organizations. Crime can generally be broken down into 2 categories –
Victimization surveys are useful because they show some violent and nonviolent. Violent crimes involve harm to
types of crime are well reported to law enforcement another person, generally done intentionally. The seriousness
officials, while other types of crime are under reported. of the crime is determined by the amount of harm; use of a
The U.S. has two major data collection programs: the weapon also increases the seriousness. By contrast,
Uniform Crime Reports from the FBI, and the National nonviolent crime involves harm to property and/or
Crime Victimization Survey from the Bureau of Justice possessions. Fraud or certain drug charges are examples of
Statistics. nonviolent crimes.

Key Terms Because of the difficulties in quantifying how much crime

Victimization Statistical Surveys: The survey results are actually occurs, researchers generally take two approaches to
used for the purposes of building a crime index. gathering statistics about crime. First, they often use statistics
crime: a specific act committed in violation of the law from law enforcement organizations. These statistics are
Uniform Crime Reports: The UCR Program is a normally readily available and are generally reliable in terms
nationwide, cooperative statistical effort of over 18,000 of identifying what crime is being dealt with by law
city, university and college, county, state, tribal, federal, enforcement organizations, as they are gathered by law
and other law enforcement agencies who voluntarily enforcement officers in the course of their duties, and are
report data on crimes brought to their attention. often extracted directly from law enforcement computer
Crime Statistics: The collection and/or calculation of data systems. However, these statistics often tend to reflect the
on crime. productivity and law enforcement activities of the officers
concerned, and may bear little relationship to the actual
Crime statistics attempt to provide statistical measures of the amount of crime. One way in which victimization surveys are
crime in societies. Several methods for measuring crime exist, useful is that they show some types of crime are well reported
including household surveys, hospital or insurance records, to law enforcement officials, while other types of crime are
and compilations by police and similar law enforcement under reported. These surveys also give insights as to why
agencies. Typically official crime statistics refer to the latter, crime is reported, or not. This allows degrees of confidence to
but some offences are likely to go unreported to the police. be assigned to various crime statistics.
Public surveys are sometimes conducted to estimate the
Research using a series of victim surveys in 18 countries of
amount of crime not reported to police. Given that crime is
the European Union in 2005, funded by the European
usually secretive by nature, measurements of it are likely to
Commission, has reported that the level of crime in Europe
be inaccurate. The two major methods for collecting crime
has fallen back to the levels of 1990, and notes that levels of
data are law enforcement reports and victimization statistical
common crime have shown declining trends in the U.S.,
surveys.
Canada, Australia and other industrialized countries as well.
Crime statistics are gathered and reported by many countries The European researchers say a general consensus identifies
and are of interest to several international organizations, demographic change as the leading cause for this international

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trend. Although homicide and robbery rates rose in the U.S.
in the 1980s, by the end of the century they had declined by
40%.

FBI Seal: The U.S. has two major data collection programs:
the Uniform Crime Reports from the FBI, and the National
Crime Victimization Survey from the Bureau of Justice
Statistics.

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7.7D: Juvenile Crime
Juvenile delinquency is participation in illegal behaviors by educational support, and youth sheltering. Increasing
minors. A juvenile delinquent is typically under the age of 18. availability and use of family planning services, including
education and contraceptives helps to reduce unintended
pregnancy and unwanted births, which are risk factors for
Learning Objectives
delinquency.
Describe the factors that influence the development Status Offenses: A status offense is an action that is
of delinquency in youth and the ways the legal prohibited only to a certain class of people, and most often
system deals with this delinquency applied to offenses only committed by minors.
juvenile delinquency: Participation in illegal behaviour
Key Points by minors.
A juvenile delinquent is a person who is typically under
Juvenile Delinquency
the age of 18 and commits an act that otherwise would
have been charged as a crime had they been an adult. Juvenile delinquency is participation in illegal behavior by
There are three categories of juvenile delinquency: minors. Most legal systems prescribe specific procedures for
delinquency, criminal behavior, and status offenses. dealing with juveniles, such as juvenile detention centers and
Delinquency includes crimes committed by minors which courts. A juvenile delinquent is a person who is typically
are dealt with by the juvenile courts and justice system. under the age of 18 and commits an act that would have
Criminal behavior are crimes dealt with by the criminal otherwise been charged as a crime if the minor was an adult.
justice system. Depending on the type and severity of the offense committed,
Status offenses are offenses which are only classified as it is possible for persons under 18 to be charged and tried as
such because the person is a minor; they also dealt with by adults.
the juvenile courts. Juvenile delinquency can be separated into three categories:
Poverty is a large predictor of low parental monitoring,
1. Delinquency: crimes committed by minors that are dealt
harsh parenting, and association with deviant peer groups,
with by the juvenile courts and justice system;
all of which are in turn associated with juvenile offending.
2. Criminal behavior: crimes dealt with by the criminal
Family factors also have an influence on delinquency.
justice system;
Delinquency prevention is the broad term for all efforts
3. Status offenses: offenses which are only classified as such
aimed at preventing youth from becoming involved in
because one is a minor, such as truancy, also dealt with by
criminal or other antisocial activity.
the juvenile courts.
Poverty is a large predictor of low parental monitoring,
harsh parenting, and association with deviant peer groups, Young men disproportionately commit juvenile delinquency.
all of which are in turn associated with juvenile offending. Feminist theorists and others have examined why this is the
Family factors which may have an influence on offending case. One suggestion is that ideas of masculinity may make
include: the level of parental supervision, the way parents young men more likely to offend. Being tough, powerful,
discipline a child, particularly harsh punishment, parental aggressive, daring, and competitive becomes a way for young
conflict or separation, criminal parents or siblings, men to assert and express their masculinity. Alternatively,
parental abuse or neglect, and the quality of the parent- young men may actually be naturally more aggressive, daring,
child relationship and prone to risk-taking. According to a study led by Florida
Delinquency prevention is the broad term for all efforts State University criminologist Kevin M. Beaver, adolescent
aimed at preventing youth from becoming involved in males who possess a certain type of variation in a specific
criminal, or other antisocial, activity. gene are more likely to flock to delinquent peers. The study,
which appeared in the September 2008 issue of the Journal of
Key Terms Genetic Psychology, is the first to establish a statistically
Delinquency Prevention: Delinquency prevention is the significant association between an affinity for antisocial peer
broad term for all efforts aimed at preventing youth from groups and a particular variation (called the 10-repeat allele)
becoming involved in criminal or other antisocial activity. of the dopamine transporter gene (DAT1).
Prevention services may include activities such as There is also a significant skew in the racial statistics for
substance abuse education and treatment, family juvenile offenders. When considering these statistics, which
counseling, youth mentoring, parenting education,

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state that Black and Latino teens are more likely to commit Juvenile Delinquency: Juvenile delinquency refers to
juvenile offenses, it is important to keep the following in antisocial or illegal behavior by children or adolescents, for
mind: poverty is a large predictor of low parental monitoring, dealing with juveniles, such as juvenile detention centers.
harsh parenting, and association with deviant peer groups, all There are a multitude of different theories on the causes of
of which are in turn associated with juvenile offending. The crime, most if not all of which can be applied to the causes of
majority of adolescents who live in poverty are racial youth crime.
minorities.
Family factors that may have an influence on offending
include:
the level of parental supervision,
the way parents discipline a child,
particularly harsh punishment,
parental conflict or separation,
criminal parents or siblings,
parental abuse or neglect,
the quality of the parent-child relationship.
Delinquency prevention is the broad term for all efforts aimed
at preventing youth from becoming involved in criminal or
other antisocial activity. Because the development of
delinquency in youth is influenced by numerous factors,
prevention efforts need to be comprehensive in scope.
Prevention services may include activities like substance
abuse education and treatment, family counseling, youth Cure Juvenile Delinquency by Planned Housing: Poster
mentoring, parenting education, educational support, and promoting planned housing as a method to deter juvenile
delinquency, showing silhouettes of a child stealing a piece of
youth sheltering. Increasing availability and use of family fruit and as an older minor involved in armed robbery.
planning services, including education and contraceptives,
helps to reduce unintended pregnancy and unwanted births—
which are risk factors for delinquency.

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7.7E: Violent Crime
A violent crime is a crime in which the offender uses or offences between jurisdictions be compared. Often this is not
threatens to use violent force upon the victim. possible because crime statistics aggregate equivalent
offences in such different ways that make it difficult or
impossible to obtain a valid comparison.
Learning Objectives
The United States Department of Justice Bureau of Justice
Explain how the United States Department of Justice
Statistics (BJS) counts five categories of crime as violent
classifies violent crime
crimes: murder, forcible rape, robbery, aggravated assault,
and simple assault. According to the BJS, the rate of violent
Key Points crime victimization in the United States declined by more
The United States Department of Justice Bureau of Justice than two thirds between the years 1994 and 2009. Nearly 8%
Statistics (BJS) counts five categories of crime as violent of sentenced prisoners in federal prisons on September 30,
crimes: murder, forcible rape, robbery, aggravated assault, 2009 were in for violent crimes; 52.4% of sentenced prisoners
and simple assault. in state prisons at yearend in 2008 were in for violent crimes;
Violent crimes include crimes committed with and without and 21.6% of convicted inmates in jails in 2002 were in for
weapons. With the exception of rape, males are the violent crimes.
primary victims of all forms of violent crime.
The rate of violent crime victimization in the United
States declined by more than two thirds between the years
1994 and 2009.

Key Terms
Simple Assault: In law, assault is a crime which involves
causing a victim to apprehend violence.
aggravated assault: Assault with disregard for the value
of life, or with a deadly weapon.
Forcible Rape: A type of sexual assault usually involving
sexual intercourse, which is initiated by one or more
persons against another person without that person’s
consent.
A violent crime is a crime in which the offender uses or
threatens to use violent force upon the victim. This entails
both crimes in which the violent act is the objective, such as
murder, as well as crimes in which violence is the means to an Chicago Violent Crime Map: Map of violent crimes in 2005
end, such as robbery. Violent crimes include crimes in Chicago community areas per 100,000 residents.
committed with and without weapons. With the exception of Since the 13th century AD, evidence shows large long-term
rape (which accounts for 6% of all reported violent crimes), declines in the rate of murder, from one hundred people to
males are the primary victims of all forms of violent crime. one person per 100,000 between 1200 and 2000 AD. By
The comparison of violent crime statistics between countries contrast, there is a widespread belief that violent crime is on
is usually problematic due to the way different countries the rise, due largely to a mass media, which
classify crime. Valid comparisons require that similar disproportionately reports violent crime.

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7.7F: Property Crime
Property crime only involves the taking of money or property,
and does not involve force or threat of force against a victim.

Learning Objectives
Discuss different types of property crime

Key Points
Burglary of residences, retail establishments, and other
commercial facilities involves breaking and entering, and
then stealing property.
Theft of cash is most common, followed by vehicle parts,
clothing, and tools.
Shoplifting is a specific type of theft, in which products
are taken from retail shops without paying. Car Window Burglary: This is a photographic example of a
car that has been burglarized.
Motor vehicle theft is a common form of property crime,
often perpetrated by youths for joyriding. Burglary of residences, retail establishments, and other
The percentage of U.S. households that experienced commercial facilities involves breaking and entering, and then
property crime dropped from 21% in 1994 to 12% in stealing property. Attempted forcible entry into a property is
2004. Moreover, from 1996 to 2005, the number of arrests also classified as burglary in the FBI’s Uniform Crime
in the United States for property crime has declined by Reports (UCR) definition. In the United States, burglary rates
22.1%. are highest in August and lowest in February, with weather,
length-of-day, and other factors having an effect on rates. Fall
Key Terms and winter are peak seasons for burglary in Denmark. Most
burglary: The crime of unlawfully breaking into a residential burglaries occur on weekdays, between 10 to 11
vehicle, house, store, or other enclosure with the intent to a.m. and 1 to 3 p.m., when homes are the least likely to be
steal. occupied. Some crime prevention programs, such as
shoplifting: It is the theft of goods from a retail Neighborhood Watch, have shown little effectiveness in
establishment. It is one of the most common property reducing burglary and other crime.
crimes dealt with by police and courts.
Property Crime: Property crime is a category of crime
that includes, among other crimes, burglary, larceny, theft,
motor vehicle theft, arson, shoplifting, and vandalism.
Property crime only involves the taking of money or
property, and does not involve force or threat of force
against a victim.
Property crime is a category of crime that includes larceny,
theft, motor vehicle theft, arson, shoplifting, vandalism, and
burglary. Property crime only involves the taking of money or
property, and does not involve force or threat of force against
a victim. Property crimes are high-volume crimes, with cash,
electronics, power tools, cameras, and jewelry often targeted.
Property Crimes in the United States: Property crime rates in
the United States, 1986-2005
Theft of cash is most common, followed by vehicle parts,
clothing, and tools. In 2005, only 18% of reported cases of
larceny and theft were cleared in the United States.
Shoplifting is a specific type of theft, in which products are
taken from retail shops without paying. Items popular with

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shoplifters include cigarettes, alcoholic beverages, and Statistics for violent crimes are accessible and available to the
fashionable clothing. Motor vehicle theft is a common form public. In 2004, 12% of households in the United States
of property crime, often perpetrated by youths for joyriding. experienced some type of property crime, with theft being the
The FBI includes attempted motor vehicle thefts in its most common. The percentage of U.S. households that
Uniform Crime Report (UCR) definition. Crime prevention experienced property crime dropped from 21% in 1994 to
and target-hardening measures, such as car alarms and 12% in 2004. Moreover, from 1996 to 2005, the number of
ignition locks, have been effective deterrents against motor arrests in the United States for property crime has declined by
vehicle theft, as have been practices such as etching VINs on 22.1%. The decline is far larger for offenders under age 18,
car parts. Only 13% of reported motor vehicle theft cases with a decrease of 43.8% in property crime arrests, compared
were cleared in the United States in 2005. to a 9.5% decrease for those 18 and over. The peak age for
property crime arrests in the United States is 16, compared to
18 for violent crime arrests.

Theft: An example of theft: someone took everything except

for the front wheel.

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7.7G: White-Collar Crime
White-collar crime is a financially motivated, nonviolent
crime committed for illegal monetary gain.

Learning Objectives
Describe Edwin Sutherland’s work on white collar
crime

Key Points
White-collar crime, is similar to corporate crime, because
white-collar employees are more likely to commit fraud,
bribery, ponzi schemes, insider trading, embezzlement,
cyber crime, copyright infringement, money laundering,
identity theft, and forgery.
Ponzi scheme: In March 2009, the American financier
The term “white-collar crime” was coined in 1939 by the Bernard Madoff pleaded guilty to 11 federal felonies and
sociologist Edwin Sutherland, who defined it as a “crime admitted to turning his wealth management business into a
committed by a person of respectability and high social massive Ponzi scheme that defrauded thousands of investors
of billions of dollars.
status in the course of his occupation”.
White collar crimes stand in contrast to blue-collar street The term “white-collar crime” was coined in 1939 by Edwin
crimes include arson, burglary, theft, assault, rape, and Sutherland, who defined it as a “crime committed by a person
vandalism. of respectability and high social status in the course of his
Corporate crime deals with the company as a whole. Their occupation” in a speech entitled “The White Collar Criminal”
difference is that white-collar crime benefits the individual delivered to the American Sociological Society. Much of
involved, and corporate crime benefits the company or the Sutherland’s work was to separate and define the differences
corporation. in blue-collar street crimes such as arson, burglary, theft,
Insider trading, the trading of stock by someone with assault, rape, and vandalism, which are often blamed on
access to publicly unavailable information, is a type of psychological, associational, and structural factors. Instead,
fraud. white-collar criminals are opportunists, who learn to take
advantage of their circumstances to accumulate financial gain.
Key Terms They are educated, intelligent, affluent, and confident
insider trading: Buying or selling securities of a publicly-
individuals whose jobs involve unmonitored access to large
held company by a person who has privileged access to
sums of money.
information concerning the company’s financial condition
or plans. Corporate crime deals with the company as a whole. The
copyright infringement: The unauthorized use of relationship that white-collar crime has with corporate crime
copyrighted material in a manner that violates one of the is that they are similar because they both are involved within
copyright owner’s exclusive rights, such as the right to the business world. Their difference is that white-collar crime
reproduce or perform the copyrighted work, or to make benefits the individual involved, and corporate crime benefits
derivative works that build upon it. the company or the corporation. Insider trading, the trading of
stock by someone with access to publicly unavailable
White-collar crime is a financially motivated, nonviolent information, is a type of fraud. One well-known insider
crime committed for illegal monetary gain. White-collar trading case in the United States is the ImClone stock trading
crime, is similar to corporate crime, because white-collar case. In December 2001, top-level executives sold their shares
employees are more likely to commit fraud, bribery, ponzi in ImClone Systems, a pharmaceutical company that
schemes, insider trading, embezzlement, cyber crime, manufactured an anti-cancer drug. The U.S. Securities and
copyright infringement, money laundering, identity theft, and Exchange Commission investigated numerous top-level
forgery. executives, as well as Martha Stewart, a friend of ImClone’s
former chief executive who had also sold her shares at the
same time. The SEC reached a settlement in 2005.

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One common misconception about corporate crime is that its disclosing the dumping. It was sold in the 1950’s to a private
effects are mainly financial. For example, pharmaceutical housing developer, whose residents began experiencing major
companies may make false claims regarding their drugs and health problems such as miscarriages and birth defects in the
factories may illegally dump toxic waste. Indeed, the Hooker 1970’s.
Chemical Company dumped toxic waste into the abandoned
Love Canal in Niagara Falls and sold the land without

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7.7H: Organized Crime
Organized crime refers to transnational, national, or local commonly for monetary profit. Sometimes criminal
groupings of highly centralized enterprises run by criminals. organizations force people to do business with them, as when
a gang extorts money from shopkeepers for “protection.”
Gangs may become “disciplined” enough to be considered
Learning Objectives
“organized.” An organized gang or criminal set can also be
Compare and contrast patron-client networks and referred to as a mob.
bureaucratic organized crime groups
Patron-client networks are defined by the fluid interactions
they produce. Organized crime groups operate as smaller
Key Points units within the overall network, and as such tend towards
An organized gang or criminal set can also be referred to valuing significant others, familiarity of social and economic
as a mob. environments, or tradition.
Patron-client networks are defined by the fluid
Some notable patron-client networks involve the Russian and
interactions they produce.
Albanian mafias, the Japanese Yakuza, the Irish mob, and the
The best known patron-client networks are the Sicilian
Sicilian and Italian American Cosa Nostra (i.e. the Sicilian
and Italian American Cosa Nostra, most commonly
mafia).
known as the Sicilian Mafia.
Bureaucratic and corporate organized crime groups are
defined by the general rigidity of their internal structures.
The term “street gang” is commonly used interchangeably
with “youth gang”, referring to neighborhood or street-
based youth groups that meet “gang” criteria.

Key Terms
Corporate Organized Crime: Crimes committed either
by a corporation (i.e., a business entity having a separate
legal personality from the natural persons that manage its
activities), or by individuals acting on behalf of a
corporation or other business entity (see vicarious liability
and corporate liability). Organized Crime: Al Capone is a name often associated with
Patron-Client Networks: Patron-client networks are organized crime.
defined by the fluid interactions they produce. Organized Bureaucratic and corporate organized crime groups are
crime groups operate as smaller units within the overall defined by the general rigidity of their internal structures.
network, and as such tend towards valuing significant Focusing more on how the operations works, succeeds,
others, familiarity of social and economic environments, sustains itself or avoids retribution, they are generally typified
or tradition. by: a complex authority structure; an extensive division of
corporate crime: illegal acts committed by a business or labor between classes and the organization; responsibilities
corporation (a business entity having a separate legal carried out in an impersonal manner; and top-down
personality from the natural persons that manage its communication and rule enforcement mechanisms.
activities) or by individuals acting on behalf of a business A distinctive gang culture underpins many, but not all,
Street Gang: A group of recurrently associating organized groups; this may develop through recruiting
individuals with identifiable leadership and internal strategies, social learning processes in the corrective system
organization, identifying with or claiming control over experienced by youth, family, or peer involvement in crime,
territory in the community, and engaging either and the coercive actions of criminal authority figures. The
individually or collectively in violent or other forms of term “street gang” is commonly used interchangeably with
illegal behavior. “youth gang”, referring to neighborhood or street-based youth
Organized crime refers to transnational, national, or local groups that meet “gang” criteria.
groupings of highly centralized enterprises run by criminals Organized crime groups often victimize businesses through
for the purpose of engaging in illegal activity, most the use of extortion or theft and fraud activities like hijacking

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cargo trucks, robbing goods, committing bankruptcy fraud, en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Offence...nst_the_person.
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