HENRYKOLOGY

COURSE TITLE: THE SOCIAL SCIENCE

COURSE TITLE: GSP 201
UNITS: 2

INTRODUCTION

Social Sciences is a component of General Studies Programme. It is an

innovation that gives the University of Nigeria a unique character. It was
launched in the University during the 1961/1962 academic session and was
designed to acquaint the students with issues of political processes, the social
system, social change and problems associated with life in the society. The
course includes video illustrations, discussion forums, weekly quizzes, practice
tests and recommended readings.
COURSE OBJECTIVES

1. The course is aimed at introducing to students the disciplines in the social

sciences
2. To reveal the anthropocentric nature of man.
3. To inculcate to students the application and principles of the various
disciplines in the social sciences and how they influence the human
society.
4. Toequip the students with the ability to apply basic analytical tools and
methodologies in the analysis of social structure, relationships and social
processes.

Course Outline

The Universe of the Social Sciences

a. Definition and Concept of Social Sciences
b. Various Disciplines of the Social Sciences
c. Characteristics of Social Sciences

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d. Research Methods in Social Sciences

e. Social science research issues

Research Methods in the Social Sciences

a. Concept of Scientific Research, Research Design and Social Research
b. Scientific Methods of Research
c. Steps and Processes of Scientific Research
d. The language of Social science research

Sociology and Anthropology: Basic Concepts and Theories

a. Overview of Sociology
b. Sociological Enquiries
c. Theories and Perspective in Society
d. Anthropology
e. Concept of Culture
f. Anthropological Theories

Religion in Contemporary African Society

a. The Concept of Religion
b. Religion and African World –View
c. Religion and African Contemporary Society
d. Religion and Terrorism

Geography and Human Society

a. History and Evolution of Geography as an Academic Discipline

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b. Concepts and Theories in Geography

c. The Environment and Environmental Issues in Nigeria
d. Environmental Security, Peace and Conflict

Political Science and Contemporary Society

a. Concept of Politics, Political Science and Human Society
b. Concept of Science and Science of Politics
c. The relevance/importance of political science to the society
d. The relationship between political science and other discipline

Psychology: Concepts and Application

a. Historical Development of Psychology as a Social Science
b. Psychology as a Social Science
c. Contemporary Perspectives in Psychology
d. Application of Psychological Principles to human life

Basic Concepts and Theories of Economics

a. Definition of Economics
b. Basic Concepts of Economics
c. Economics as a Social science

Basic Principles of Public Administration

a. Meaning, Nature, Scope and Importance of Public Administration
b. Approaches to the study of Public Administration
c. Administrative Theories
d. Areas of Specialization in Public Administration
e. Challenges of Public Administration
f. Issues in Public Administration

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Ethics and Leadership Issues in Africa

a. Theories of Ethics
b. Theories of Leadership
c. Approaches to Leadership
d. Consequences of Non Ethical Leadership in Africa

Mass Communication: Concepts and Application

Social Work and Social Problems

a. The Concept of Social Welfare
b. The Nature of Social Problems
c. Roles of Social work

Gender Empowerment and Society

a. Conceptual Issues
b. Historical Account of Women’s Right
c. The Concept of Women Empowerment
d. Forms of Empowerment
e. Barriers/Challenges to Women Empowerment
f. Women Empowerment Principles
g. Methods and Channels of gender Empowerment

Recommended Text
Social Science Perspective to Peace and Conflict Vol. 1
Edited by Asso. Prof. A.O. Onu, Dr. J. Eze and C.W.K Udegbunam

HIGHLIGHTS FOR THE UNIVERSE OF THE SOCIAL SCIENCES

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BY

PETER-JAZZY EZEHPh.D

&

CHUKWUEMEKA QUENTIN CHUKWU

Course Objectives

Students will become acquainted with the following concepts at the end of the
course:

 Definitions of the Social Sciences

 Why the Social Science is regarded as a Scientific endeavour
 The Subjects which make up the discipline of Social Sciences
 The major branches of these subjects
 Some mind arousing questions

Definition

 Halloram (2010) attempted an all inclusive definition thus:

 Social science, which is generally regarded
as including psychology, sociology,
anthropology, economics and political
science, consists of the disciplined and
systematic study of society and its
institutions, and of how and why people
behave as they do, both as individuals and
in groups within society. At a minimum it
would appear that to be “scientific” entails
a systematic and disciplined method of

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acquiring knowledge, and that knowledge

must be verifiable knowledge.

 Social Science has as its central focus – Man and the Environment where
there is the interactions between both.
 Social Science has its scientific nature because of its reliance on an
organized set of techniques to investigate phenomena
 Science is derived from the Latin word ‘scientia’- knowledge
 The characteristics of science include:
 Observation
 Data Selection’
 Classification of Materials
 Application of generally gathered materials
 Use of theory to explain/predict phenomena

 The social science has the following subjects as the fields within the
domain:
 Political Science
 Philosophy
 Economics
 Geography
 Sociology
 Anthropology
 Psychology
 Religion

 Revision Questions
 Social Science is a Science. True or False? Buttress your answers
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 What is the Social Science?

 Mention and Explain the Characteristics of Science
 What are the major fields of the social science

PHILOSOPHY

 Regarded as the cradle of all other subjects

 Philosophy means quest for wisdom
 Miller (1996) argues that philosophy could be defined in four (4) distinct
ways:
 Etymologically
 Through the various branches of the subject of philosophy
 As a critical and rational enterprise
 Through the various Approaches – Speculative, Analytical,
Existential & Phenomenological Approaches

 The branches of philosophy include the following:

 Logic – studies the nature of reasoning
 Metaphysics – inquires into the nature & essence of reality. It is
divided into Cosmology & Cosmogony
 Epistemology – studies the theory of knowledge
 Ethics – inquires the nature of the good life and morality
 Aesthetics – studies the value in art & our experience of beauty
 Philosophy has the following schools – Dialectics, Materialists, Sceptics,
Realists, Liberalists, Modernists etc.

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POLITICAL SCIENCE

 Anifowose&Enemuo (1999) defined political science as the field of study

which systematically studies &analyzes politics
 Political science focuses on the essence of power & how power is
captured, used, allocated; political behaviour, groups & society,
organization of society and how rules which government societies are
made and implemented.
 It is an off-shoot of Philosophy and still draws some of her concepts, like
other social sciences from philosophy.
 Political Science has the following major branches:
 Public Administration’
 Government/Comparative Politics
 Political Theory
 International Relations
 Political Economy
 Human Security & Conflict Management

GEOGRAPHY

 Comes from two Greek Words ‘Geo’ and ‘Graphy’- Earth Writing
 Ofomata (2001) defines it as the science which studies the interactions
between man & his environment
 The focus area of Geography includes – Climate, Population, Natural
Resources etc
 It is divided into Human Geography which studies man’s interactions
with his immediate environment, Regional Geography –investigates the
linkages between areas with the use of special tools; Transportation
Geography – studies landscapes etc& Physical Geography – investigates
the resources found in the environment

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PSYCHOLOGY

 Strives to understand, predict, control & change human behaviours when

necessary
 Hilgard (1962) defines it as the science that studies the behaviour of man
and other animals
 It is concerned with the mental processes & behaviours, dreams, thoughts
etc
 It is regarded as both a biological and social science discipline
 It relies on the following perspectives to explain behaviour:
 Functionalism
 Structuralism
 Associationism
 Behaviourism
 Psychoanalysis
 The branches of psychology are as follows:
 Experimental Psychology
 Behaviour Genetics
 Physiological Psychology’
 Cross-cultural Psychology, etc
 Research methods in psychology include; Case Study, Observational
Method, Correlational Method, Experimental and quasi-experimental
methods.

SOCIOLOGY

 It is the branch of the social science which investigates how society is

governed, by whom, when and how, via the study of groups
 Comes from Latin word ‘Socius’ and Greek word ‘Logo’ both interpreted
as “study of Society”

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 Deals with study of the

 society as a group,
 people as the constituents,
 the interactions,
 consensus maintenance and stability process in society
 the social groups arising therein
 The focus of sociology is the nature, stability, dynamics of society and
interactions between the individuals as organizations.
 The primary focus of the subject is social groups, institutions and
organizations
 There are fourteen branches of sociology which include the following:
 Sociology of Medicine
 Sociology of Religion
 Sociology of Law
 Military Sociology
 Urban Sociology
 Industrial Sociology
 Sociology of Education
 Gerontology, etc

ECONOMICS

 This is defined as the practical wisdom in household management

 It is concerned with scarce resources at all levels
 Economics rests on the fact that resources are scarce and as a result,
needs must be prioritized
 Studies human behaviour at the micro and macro level

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 Both micro and macro economics try to foster solutions to problems of

societies, through inductive or deductive channels
 Branches of economics include:
 Public Finance
 Labour Economics
 International Economics
 Petroleum Economics
 Health Economics etc
 Some notable thinkers of economics are: Adam Smith, J.S Mill, Alfred
Marshall, J. Schumpeter

ANTHROPOLOGY

 This branch of the social science seeks to establish the nexus and
differences between cultures and ethnic groups.
 They employ standardized behaviour in establishing facts
 The subject focuses on the kinship patterns, culture and other distinct
features of society in its study.
 Branches of Anthropology include:’
 Linguistic Anthropology
 Physical Anthropology’
 Archaeological Anthropology
 Cultural Anthropology
 Notable scholars here are Immanuel Kant, Francis Bray, James Frazer etc

RELIGION

 Religion comes from latin – ‘religio’, meaning a relationship between

human beings and some spiritual beings.

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 Many elements constitute the subject matter such as the existence of gods
and spirits
 There are many religious experiences, which make the meditations,
mysticisms, meditations, dreams, visions etc.
 The following are the perspectives of religion:
 Anthropological Perspectivesfocus on religion as the bedrock of
the relationship of the human beings to their cultural environments
 Sociological Perspectives examine the impact of religion and social
institutions.
 Psychological Perspectives centre on the role of emotions and
feeling in the practice of religion.
 Historical Perspectives deal with the development of religions in
time and space.
 Theological Perspectives focus on the different levels of
relationship of God to human beings
 Ethical Perspectives emphasise human being’s interpersonal
relationships.
 Philosophical Perspectives focus on rational explanation of
religious behaviours and ideas.
 Phenomenology Perspectives describe religious ideas as one
observes them, and as they appear to the practitioners.

Revision Questions

A. Define Sociology and outline the perspectives in Sociology?

B. Who are the notable Scholars of Psychology who were taught?
C. Outline the Research methods adopted by psychology in the inquiry of
phenomena?
D. Discuss the perspectives and definitions of religion?
E. Is dreams a perspective or experience?

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THANK YOU FOR YOUR ATTENTION

Research Methodology in the Social Sciences

By
David C. Ononogbu
&
Elias C. Ngwu
Social Sciences Unit
School of General Studies
University of Nigeria, Nsukka

Introduction
The branch of knowledge today referred to as the Social Sciences has as
its focus of analysis on human beings both as individuals and within their social
settings. For several decades, the debate had raged in literature over the
scientific status of the Social Sciences. Essentially, the debate centered around
whether those disciplines within the social sciences – Political Science,
Sociology, Religion, Psychology, Public Administration, Philosophy,
Geography, Economics, etc – were sufficiently rigorous in their methods of
knowledge generation to qualify as scientific disciplines. Such debate has
however since been rendered redundant in the face of increasing evidence of the
use of objective and rigorous methodology in the study of such subjective
matters such as humans, which is the primary concern of the Social Sciences.

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In this section therefore, we shall discuss the methodology of research in

the social sciences with a view to aiding a thorough understanding of the unity
of knowledge.
Learning Objectives
This chapter (module) is designed to expose you (the students) to basic
concepts in social science research and the techniques for the conduct of actual
social research. It is therefore expected that at the end of this chapter or module,
you should have gained the following knowledge:
 A clear understanding of the basic concepts associated with social science
research;
 A working knowledge of the techniques of scientific research in the broad
field of knowledge known as the Social Sciences;
 Insight into the rigorous scientific orientation of the Social Sciences;

Perhaps, it needs to be stated that mastery of this singular module would

hardly qualify even the most gifted amongst you to conduct a full blown
scientific research in the social sciences. Such expertise would have to be
painstakingly developed through further exposure and expert guidance.
Review Questions
i. From the introduction and objectives above, how would you rate the
potentials of this module as a contributor to the overall goal of this
university in producing well-rounded graduates who are able to hold
their own across varied disciplines?
ii. What other objective would you love to see added to those listed above?
iii. If you have your way, would you wish to go ahead with the study of this
course or would you opt for another ancillary course?
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Some Basic Concepts

1. Research
Research is a conscious, systematic or orderly search or study of a
problem that has not yet been resolved according to existing literature. Implied
in this is that if e researcher is not aware of what the literature has to say about
the particular problem he/she is studying, his/her inquiry into that problem does
not qualify as a research. A researcher’s personal ignorance does not therefore
excuse his/her search into a problem that has long been resolved in existing
literature.
2. Scientific Research
Knowledge is a state of mind at rest on an issue. It is a way of fixing
belief. Scholars have identified four principal ways by which knowledge and
belief are acquired and /or validated. These are: tenacity; authority; intuition;
and the scientific method. The first three are said to be non-scientific and
therefore unreliable.
On the other hand, science is seen as both a body of systematized
knowledge as well as a method of gathering such knowledge. It is both the
product of investigations and the procedure employed in those
investigations.‘Science is the production of systematic explanations based upon
empirical data joined logically to form regular patterns’ (Meehan, 1965: 34
cited in Obasi, 1999: 8).
3. Social Science Research
Social research is not just a set of common sense ideas, based on well-
known facts without theory, using personal life experience or perpetuating
media myths. According to Gene (2009), “the scientific method, as applied to
social sciences, includes a variety of research approaches, tools and techniques,
such as:

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a. qualitative and quantitative data;

b. statistical analysis;
c. experiments;
d. field surveys; and
e. case research.
It is to be noted that the scientific method operates primarily at the empirical
level of research, i.e., at the level of observing, analyzing, and interpreting data,
all with a view to predicting with a huge measure of accuracy the future trends
of social phenomena.

Review Questions
i. Without scrolling back up, can you recall the number of concepts we
have just dealt with in this section?
ii. Did you notice just how few they were?
iii. Could you , or are you aware of their existence before now

Quantitative and Qualitative Research in the Social Sciences

Note should also be taken that Social research methods can generally vary
along quantitative-qualitative dimensions, where:
1. Quantitative studies approach social phenomena through quantifiable

evidence. It often relies on statistical analysis of many cases (or across

intentionally designed treatments in an experiment) to create valid and
reliable general claims.
2. Qualitative research, on the other hand, emphasizes understanding of

social phenomena through direct observation, communication with

participants, or analysis of texts. The qualitative approach often stresses
contextual subjective accuracy over generalizability. It is related to
quality.Qualitative descriptive studies have as their goal a comprehensive
summary of events in the everyday terms of those events.

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It should however be noted that the quantitative and qualitative

approaches are not mutually exclusive as most designs often contain elements
of both. The attempt by some group of scholars to treat them as mutually
exclusive has often resulted in the elevation of the quantitative over the
qualitative approach. This has led Sandelowski (2000: 334) observe that “the
general view of descriptive research as a lower level form of inquiry has
influenced some researchers conducting qualitative research to claim methods
they are really not using and not to claim the method they are using: namely,
qualitative description. This has also led natural scientists and other observers
not versed in the technique of qualitative social research to kick, quite
erroneously, against the scientific status of the social sciences.

Review Questions
i. Have you noticed the needless dichotomy between quantitative and
qualitative research?
ii. How should the debate between the two categories of research be
resolved?

Characteristics of the Scientific Method:

The scientific method involves a logical, empirical, systematic and
integrated process of collecting and analyzing data with the aim of providing
understanding, explanation and prediction. The method is characterized by the
following:
1. Replicability: This means that other scholars should be able to
independently replicate or repeat a scientific study and obtain similar, if
not identical, results.
2. Precision: Theoretical concepts, which are often hard to measure, must
be defined with such precision that others can use those definitions to
measure those concepts and test that theory.

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3. Falsifiability: A theory must be stated in a way that it can be disproven.

Theories that cannot be tested or falsified are not scientific theories and
any such knowledge is not scientific knowledge. A theory that is
specified in imprecise terms or whose concepts are not accurately
measurable cannot be tested, and is therefore not scientific.
4. Parsimony: When there are multiple explanations of a phenomenon,
scientists must always accept the simplest or logically most economical
explanation. This concept is called parsimony or “Occam’s razor.”
Parsimony prevents scientists from pursuing overly complex or
outlandish theories with endless number of concepts and relationships
that may explain a little bit of everything but nothing in particular.
Perhaps, it bears reinstating that the methods of social science research take
cognizance of all of the above.

Review Questions
i. Given the above assertion, do you now accept the unity of the scientific
knowledge regardless of the various compartmentalizations?

Methods and Methodology of Social Science Research

 Methods
Methods refer to that range of approaches used in research to gather data
which are to be used as a basis for inference and interpretation for explanation
and prediction. Methods may also be taken to include the more specific features
of the scientific enterprise such as forming concepts and hypotheses, building
models and theories, and sampling procedures.
 Methodology
On the other hand, the aim of methodology is ‘to describe and analyse these
methods, throwing light on their limitations and resources, clarifying their
presuppositions and consequences, relating their potentialities to the twilight
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zone at the frontiers of knowledge’. It helps us to understand, in the broadest

possible terms, not the products of scientific enquiry but the process of it
(Obasi, 1999).
Methodology has further been distinguished in terms of four usages,
according to (Kaplan, 1964: 18-24:
1. Methodology as Techniques
2. Methodology as Honorifics
3. Methodology as Epistemology
4. Methodology as Methods
These different perspectives and usages of methodology are not mutually
exclusive or irreconcilable. However, it’s noteworthy that scholars still
emphasize different things when they use the term methodology.

Review Questions
ii. Come to think of it, did you notice any real difference between method
and methodology beyond the difference in the number of letter?
iii. In which of the four senses would you say that methodology is used in
your particular discipline?

Social Research as a Scientific Process

Social research is a scientific process involving the systematic collection
of methods to produce knowledge. It is objective. It can tell you things you do
not expect about almost everything. Like other branches of science, it consists
of theory and observation. Because it involves the study of people, social
sciences are sometimes referred to as the soft sciences. Conducting scientific
research, therefore, requires two sets of skills, theoretical and methodological,

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both of which are needed to operate in the theoretical and empirical levels
respectively.
Steps in Conducting (Social) Scientific Research:
The following steps are important and necessary to carry out a standard
research study. They include:
1. Problem Stage
I. Problem identification.
II. Survey/review of relevant literature.
III. Identification and clarification of major concepts and variables.
IV. Formulation of testable hypotheses deriving from answerable
research questions and research objectives as appropriate.
2. Planning Stage
Construction of the RESEARCH DESIGN to maximize internal and
external validity:
I. select your subjects if required;
II. control and/or manipulate variables if required;
III. establish criteria to evaluate outcomes;
IV. engage in instrumentation – select or develop measuring
instrument(s), if necessary.
V. Specification of the DATA COLLECTION procedures.
VI. Selection and specification of the DATA ANALYSIS methods.
3. Execution Stage
I. Execute research as planned;
II. Analyze the data, answering research questions, meeting research
objectives and testing hypotheses specified; report findings of tests
and any additional information of interest to the research problem.
III. Evaluate the results and draw conclusions relating these to the
problem area.

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Meanwhile, the major practical limitations to a proper research design

include:
(i) Ethical Considerations;
(ii) Data Difficulties (access, lack etc), and
(iii) Resource Constraints (time, money, expertise)
Review Questions
i. Did you take particular note of the sequencing of social science
research? That’s quite rigorous you say? That’s the stuff of the
scientific enterprise.
ii. What about the limitations or challenges faced by the average
researcher? Did you notice that too? Oh, Good!
iii. Hey, you went back all the way to look it up? That’s still okay. The only
problem is that you will not always have the privilege and opportunity
to go look up the answers to questions. Your best bet would be to read
and internalize.

References

Gene, S. (2009). “What is Program Evaluation, A Beginner's Guide. Module 3.

Methods”. Adapted from The Global Social Change Research Project.
Retrieved on Tuesday 9th September, 2014 from http://www.ideas-int.org

Agbaje, A. and Alarape, A. I. (2006). Introductory Lecture Notes on Research

Methodology. Ibadan: n.p

Bhattacherjee, A. (2012). Social Science Research: Principles, Methods and

Practices (2nded). Florida: Textbooks Collection

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Bradley, E. H, Curry, L. A. and Devers, K. J. (2007). “Qualitative Data

Analysis for Health Services Research: Developing Taxonomy, Themes,
and Theory”. Health Services Research. August: 42(4): 1758–1772.

Further Reading

Haralambos& Holborn. (2004). Sociology: Themes and Perspectives

(6thed).London: Collins Educational.

Poggi, G. (2000). Durkheim. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Firebaugh, G. (2008). Seven Rules for Social Research (10thed). Wadsworth:

Thomson Learning Inc

Neuman, W. L. (2006). Social Research Methods: Quantitative and

Quantitative Approaches (6thed). Boston: Allyn& Bacon

Ononogbu, D. C. (2014). Research Methodology in the Social Sciences. In P-J

Ezeh (ed). Social Sciences in Peace and Conflict Studies. Enugu: San
Press Limited.

SOCIOLOGY AND ANTHROPOLOGY: BASIC CONCEPTS AND

THEORIES
Austin O. Onu
Social Sciences Unit
School of General Studies
University of Nigeria, Nsukka
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 Introduction
Sociology has been defined by the founding fathers of the discipline as
the study of the society. Specifically, sociology studies human relationship.
They seek to understand what happens when human beings meet. Do they
for example form groups, does it lead to the emergence of a new culture
etc. Sociology studies all aspects of human behaviour, the usual and the
unusual, the conformist as well as the deviance; the impersonal and the
personal (Mathias, 2015). Sociology is the systematic study of human
societies, giving special, but not exclusive emphasis, to modern industrial
societies (Giddens, 2009).
This topic has been structured to inculcate to the studentsthe
practices of sociology including the ability to think imaginatively and
to detach oneself from preconceived ideas about social life. Students at
the end of this topic are expected to learn the following:
Learning Objectives
 History and Evolution of Sociology as an Academic Discipline
 Sociological Enquiries
 Theories and Perspective in Sociology
 Anthropology and Concept of Culture
 Anthropology Theories

 History and Evolution of Sociology as an Academic

Discipline
Sociology came into being as an attempt to understand the far-
reaching changes that have occurred in human societies over the past
two or three centuries. The changes involved are not just large-scale
ones; they also involve shifts in the most intimate and personal aspects
of people's lives.
Among the classical founders of sociology, four figures are
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particularly important:
 Auguste Comte,
 Karl Marx, Emile Durkheim
 Max Weber.
Comte and Marx, working in the mid-nineteenth century,
established some of the basic issues of sociology, later elaborated on by
Durkheim and Weber. These issues concern the nature of sociology and
the impact of modernization on the social world.A diversity of
theoretical approaches is found in sociology. Theoretical disputes are
difficult to resolve even in the natural sciences, but in sociology we
face special difficulties because of the complex problems involved in
subjecting our own behaviour to study.The main theoretical approaches
in sociology are functionalism, conflict perspectives and symbolic
interactionism. There are some basic differences between each of these
approaches, which have strongly influenced the development of the
subject in the post-war period. One way of thinking about sociology's
approaches is in terms of their level of analysis. Microsociology is the
study of everyday behaviour in face-to-face encounters.
Macrosociology analyses large-scale social systems and whole
societies. Micro- and macro-levels are closely connected, however, and
this can be seen in research studies of communities and
neighbourhoods - the meso (or middle) level of social life.
Sociology is a subject with important practical implications. It
can contribute to
social criticism and practical social reform in several ways. The
improved understanding of social circumstances gives us all a better
chance of controlling them. At the same time, sociology provides the
means of increasing our cultural sensitivities, allowing policies to be
based on an awareness of divergent cultural values. In practical terms,
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we can investigate the consequences of the adoption of particular

policy programmes. Finally, and perhaps most important, sociology
provides self-enlightenment, offering groups and individuals an
increased opportunity to understand and alter the conditions of their
own lives.
Revision Exercise
i. What is Sociology?
ii. Identify the four important founders of Sociology
iii. What are the practical implications of Sociology as an academic
discipline

 Sociological Enquiries
Sociologists investigate social life by posing distinct questions and
trying to find the answers to these by systematic research. These questions
may be factual, comparative, developmental or theoretical.All research
begins from a research problem, which interests or puzzles the
investigator. Gaps in the existing literature, theoretical debates, or practical
issues in the social worldmay suggest research problems. There are a
number of clear steps in the development ofresearch strategies - although
these are rarely followed exactly in actual research.
A causal relationship between two events or situations is one in
which one event or
situation brings about the other. This is more problematic than it seems at
first. Causation must be distinguished from correlation, which refers to the
existence of a regular relationship between two variables. A variable can
be differences in age, income, crime rates, etc. We need to also distinguish
independent variables from dependent variables. An independent variable
is a variable that produces an effect on another. Sociologists often use
controls to ascertain a causal relationship.

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In fieldwork or participant observation, the researcher spends

lengthy periods of time with a group or community being studied. Survey
research involves sending or administering questionnaires to samples of a
larger population. Documentary research uses printed materials, from
archives or other resources, as a source for information. Other research
methods include experiments, biographical methods, historical analysis
and comparative research.Each of these various methods of research has
its limitations. For this reason, researchers will often combine two or more
methods in their work, each being used to check or supplement the
material obtained from the others. This process is called triangulation.
Sociological research often poses ethical dilemmas. These may arise
either where deception is practiced against those who are the subjects of
the research, or where the publication of research findings might adversely
affect the feelings or lives of those studied. There is no entirely
satisfactory way to deal with these issues, but all researchers have to be
sensitive to the dilemmas they pose.
Revision Exercise
i. What are the variables in sociological enquiry?
ii. What is sociological enquiry?
iii. Differentiate between participant observation and survey research

 Theories and Perspectives in Sociology

A diversity of theoretical approaches is found in sociology. The
reason for this is not particularly puzzling: theoretical disputes are difficult
to resolve even in the natural sciences, and in sociology we face special
difficulties because of the complex problems involved in subjecting our
own behaviour to study. However, the dominance of Parsonian
functionalism in the 1950 and '60s shows us that things have not always
been this way and may change again in the future. Sociological theorizing

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needs to remain close to the central problems of the day in order to stay
relevant.Clashes of viewpoint in sociology bring to our attention several
basic theoretical dilemmas. An important one concerns how we should
relate human action to social structure. Are we the creators of society, or
created by it? The choice between these alternatives is not as stark as it
may initially appear, and the real problem is how to relate the two aspects
of social life to one another.
A second dilemma concerns whether societies should be pictured as
harmonious
and orderly, or whether they should be seen as marked by persistent
conflict. Again, the two views are not completely opposed, and we need to
show how consensus and conflict interrelate.A third basic dilemma
concerns gender, and in particular whether we should build it as a general
category into our sociological thinking. Feminist theorists have brought
changes both in what sociologists think about, and in the way they think
it.A fourth dilemma is to do with the analysis of modern social
development. Are processes of change in the modern world mainly shaped
by capitalist economic development or by other factors, including non-
economic ones? Positions taken in this debate are influenced to some
extent by the political beliefs and attitudes held by different sociologists.
In tackling the issues of social development, recent theorists have
tried to go beyond both Marx and Weber. Postmodern thinkers deny that
we can develop any general theories of history or society at all, but these
are now losing ground to theories of globalization.Other theorists are
critical of postmodernism, arguing that we can still develop overall
theories of the social world, and in a way thatwill enable us to intervene to
shape it for the better. Castells, Beck and Giddens are amongst this more
recent strand of theorizing, which attempts to develop new ways of
theorizing for a global age.

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 HENRYKOLOGY

Revision Exercise
i. What do you understand by theories and perspective of Sociology?
ii. Who are the proponents of Sociological Theories?

 Anthropology

Anthropology derives from the Greek forms anthropos which means

man and logos which mean study. The literal meaning of anthropology is
therefore ‘the scientific study of man’. Anthropology is the most comprehensive
of the sciences dealing with man and his work. It is explicitly and directly
concerned with all varieties of man and his works. It considers men of all
periods, beginning with the emergence of man and tracing his development up
to the present.
The academic discipline of anthropology involvesthe study of the
biological and cultural origins ofhumans. The subject matter of
anthropology iswide-ranging, including fossil remains, nonhuman primate
anatomy and behavior, artifacts from past cultures, past and present
languages, and all of the prehistoric, historic, and contemporary cultures of
the world (Ferraro, 2006).
As practiced in the United States, the discipline of anthropology
follows an integrated four-field approach comprising physical
anthropology, archaeology, anthropological linguistics, and cultural
anthropology. All four sub-disciplines have both theoretical and applied
components.The sub-discipline of physical anthropology focuses on three
primary concerns: paleoanthropology (deciphering the biological record of
human evolution through the study of fossil remains), primatology (the study of
nonhuman primate anatomy and behavior for the purpose of gaining insights
into human adaptation to the environment), and studies in human physical
variation (race) and how biological variations contribute to adaptation to one's

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environment. The subfield of archaeology has as its primary objective the

reconstruction of past cultures, both historic and prehistoric, from the material
objects the cultures leave behind. Anthropological linguistics, which studies
both present and past languages, is divided into four major subdivisions:
historical linguistics (studying the emergence and divergence of languages over
time), descriptive linguistics (structural analysis of phonetic and grammar
systems in contemporary languages), ethnolinguistics (exploring the
relationship between language and culture), and sociolinguistics (understanding
how social relations affect language).
Cultural anthropology focuses on the study of contemporary cultures
wherever they may be found in the world. One part of the task of cultural
anthropology involves describing particular cultures (ethnography), and the
other part involves comparing two or more cultures (ethnology). Cultural
anthropologists tend to specialize in areas such as urban anthropology, medical
anthropology, educational anthropology, economic anthropology, and
psychological anthropology, among others. A long-standing tradition in
anthropology is the holistic approach. The discipline is holistic (or
comprehensive) in four important respects: It looks at both the biological and
the cultural aspects of human behavior; it encompasses the broadest possible
time frame by looking at contemporary, historic, and prehistoric societies; it
examines human cultures in every part of the world; and it studies many
different aspects of human cultures.There are essentially two ways to respond
to unfamiliar cultures. One way is ethnocentrically - that is, through the lens of
one's own cultural perspective. The other way is from the perspective of a
cultural relativist-that is, from within the context of the other culture. Cultural
anthropologists strongly recommend the second mode, although they are aware
of certain limitations.
Cultural anthropologist distinguish between the emic (insider) approach,
which uses native categories, and the etic (outsider) approach, which describes

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a culture in terms of the categories, concepts, and perceptions of the

anthropologist. The study of anthropology is valuable from a number of
different viewpoints. From the perspective of the social and behavioral
sciences, cultural anthropology is particularly valuable for testing theories
about human behavior within the widest possible cross-cultural context. For
the individual, the study of different cultures provides a much better
understanding of one's own culture and develops valuable leadership skills.
From a societal point of view, the understanding of different cultures can
contribute to the solution of pressing societal problems.
Revision Exercise
i. What is Anthropology?
ii. What is Cultural Anthropology
iii. What are the four fields of Anthropology

 Concept of Culture
Culture can be defined here as everything that people have, think, and
do as members of a society. Culture is something that is shared by members of
the same society. This shared nature of culture enables people to predictwithin
broad limits  the behavior of others in the society. Conversely, people become
disoriented when attempting to interact in a culturally different society because
they do not share the same behavioral expectations as members of that
society.Rather than being inborn, culture is acquired through a learning process
that anthropologists call enculturation. People in different cultures learn
different things, but there is no evidence to suggest that people in some cultures
learn more efficiently than do people in other cultures. Certain aspects of
culture-such as ideas, beliefs, and values-can affect our physical bodies and our
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 HENRYKOLOGY

biological processes. More specifically, certain culturally produced ideas

concerning physical beauty can influence the ways in which people alter their
bodies.
Cultures-and their three basic components of things, ideas, and behavior
patterns - are constantly experiencing change. Although the pace of culture
change varies from society to society, no culture is totally static. Cultures
change internally (innovation) and by borrowing from other cultures
(diffusion). Although cultures found throughout the world vary considerably,
certain common features (cultural universals) are found in all cultures. Cultural
anthropology-the scientific study of cultures- looks at both similarities and
differences in human cultures wherever they may be found.
Cultures function to help people adapt to their environments and
consequently increase their chances for survival. It is also possible for cultures
to negatively alter or even destroy their environments.A culture is more than the
sum of its parts. Rather, a culture should be seen as an integrated system with its
parts interrelated to some degree. This cultural integration has important
implications for the process of culture change because a change in one part of
the system is likely to bring about changes in other parts. Although culture
exerts considerable influence on a person's thoughts and behaviors, it does not
determine them.
Revision Exercise
i. Define the term Culture
ii. What are the functions of culture in the human society
iii. What is the relationship between culture and Anthropology

 Anthropological Theories

Anthropological theory, which arose from the desire to explain the

great cultural diversity in the world, enables us to reduce reality to an

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abstract, yet manageable, set of principles. The first group of anthropologists

used the notion of evolution to account for differences in human cultures.
Nineteenth-century evolutionists such as Tylor and Morgan suggested that
all societies pass through a series of distinct evolutionary stages. Although
they have been criticized by their successors for being overly speculative and
ethnocentric in their formulations, these early evolutionists fought and won
the battle to establish that human behavior was the result of certain cultural
processes rather than biological or supernatural processes. The diffusionists
explained cultural differences and similarities in terms of the extent of
contact cultures had with one another. The British diffusionists, represented
by Smith and Perry, held that all cultural features, wherever they may be
found, had their origins in Egypt.
The Germani Austrian diffusionists, most notably Graebner and
Schmidt, took a more methodologically sound approach by examining the
diffusion of entire complexes of culture. In contrast to the evolutionists and
diffusionists, Boas took a more inductive approach to anthropology, insisting
on the collection of firsthand empirical data on a wide range of cultures
before developing anthropological theories. Although he has been criticized
for not engaging in much theorizing himself, the meticulous attention Boas
gave to the methodology put the young discipline of anthropology on a solid
scientific footing.
The British functionalists Malinowski and Radcliffe-Brown, who, like
Boas, were strong advocates of fieldwork, concentrated on how
contemporary cultures functioned to meet the needs of the individual and
perpetuate the society. Not only do all parts of a culture serve a function
(universal functions), but they are interconnected (functional unity) so that a
change in one part of the culture is likely to bring about change in other
parts. The early psychological anthropologists, most notably Benedict and
Mead, were interested in exploring the relationships between culture and the

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individual. By examining the configuration of traits, Benedict described

whole cultures in terms of individual personality characteristics. Mead's
early research efforts brought her to Samoa to study the emotional problems
associated with adolescence and later to New Guinea to study male and
female gender roles.
The theory of evolution was brought back into fashion during the
twentieth century by White and Steward. White, like Tylor and Morgan
before him, held that cultures evolve from simple to complex forms, but for
White, the process of evolution was driven by his "basic law of evolution"
(C = EXT). Steward's major contribution was to introduce the concept of
multilinear evolution, a form of evolution of specific cultures that did not
assume that all cultures passed through the same stages. Drawing heavily on
the models of linguistics and cognitive psychology, Levi-Strauss maintained
that certain codes or mental structures preprogrammed in the human mind
are responsible for culture and social behavior. A fundamental tenet of Levi-
Strauss's theory is that the human mind thinks in binary oppositions-
opposites that enable people to classify the units of their culture and relate
them to the world around them.
Like the French structuralism of Levi-Strauss, the theoretical approach
known as ethnoscience is cognitive in that it seeks explanations in the human
mind. By distinguishing between the emic and the etic approaches to
research, ethnoscientists attempt to describe a culture in terms of how it is
perceived, ordered, and categorized by members of that culture rather than
by the codes or categories of the ethnographer’s culture. As a corrective to a
long standing male bias in anthropological theory, feminist anthropologists
call for a systematic analysis of the role women play in the social structure.
The feminist critique, by and large, does not embrace positivism,
quantitative methods, or a valueneutral orientation. Led by Harris, cultural
materials believe that tools, technology, and material wellbeing are the
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 HENRYKOLOGY

most critical aspects of cultural system. Diametrically opposed to the cultural

materialists are the postmodernists, who advocate cultural description and
interpretation rather than a search for generalizations and explanatory
theories. A major debate in anthropological theory today is taking place
between the cultural materialists and the postmodernists.
Revision Exercise
i. The first group of anthropologists used the notion of evolution to
account for differences in human cultures. “Discuss”
ii. Describe the anthropological theory in the view of the British
Functionalist

Suggested Readings
Brown, D. E. (1991). Human universals. New York: McGrawHill.

Deutsch, R. (1999).Perspectives: Anthropology. St Paul MN:Coursewise.

Ferraro, G. (2004).Classic Readings in Cultural Anthropology. Belmont,

CA: Wadsworth
Publishing.

Ferraro, G. (2006). Introduction to Anthropology. With Readings.

Thomson Wadsworth, a
part of the Thomson Corporation. Thomson the Star Logo USA.

Gidddens, A. (2009).Sociology (6th Edition). Cambridge CB2 IUR, UK:

Polity Press.

Haralambos, M. Holton, M. and Heald, R. (2008).Sociology themes and

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 HENRYKOLOGY

perspectives
(Seventh Edition). London: HarperCollins Publishers Limited.

Tischler, H. L. (1999). Introduction to Sociology (Sixth Edition). Holt

Rinehart and
Winston: Harcourt Brace College Publishers USA.

RELIGION IN CONTEMPORARY AFRICAN SOCIETY

Dr. C.N. Ibenwa&Dr.Iheanacho, A.O
Social Sciences Unit
School of General Studies
University of Nigeria, Nsukka.

 INTRODUCTION
Religion by nature is esoteric which implies it can not be subjected to
empirical examination science wise. This does not mean that religion cannot be
examined though other valuable, cognitive and trust worthy means by the
society or adherents of its many pathways. One sure way of accessing the role,
importance and credibility of religion in our present enlightenment is to look at
the out crops of its effect on the society, which originated it. Out crops of its
effect on the society, which originated it? To some group of social analysts,
religion has two faces of janus the Roman god of doors and gateways. The
Roman Janus has a confusing physical appearance, it has two faces which look
forward and backward. The temple of this god is closed to the public in times
of war and peace.
When related to the role of religion in nation building, Kukar (2011) said,
Religion, in my view, is like a double edged sword. It is up to us to determine

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what edge we will use for the sake of nation building. Proper utilization or
application of the messages of religion in our society will make religion man’s
greatest companion in social cohesion, management of crises tolerance and
display of filial tendencies to members of the society among other moral
virtues of religion. The reverse is the case when moral custodians or authorities
in religion subvert the original messages of peace, love and charity for which
religion was meant to improper or one sided interpretation of sacred texts of
religion under their custody. For Kukah therefore, the emergence of religions
such as Christianity and Islam largely account for what is now known as
religious problem.
Basically, a new understanding of religion has germinated in the minds of
people in our present dispensation. Equally, a new horizon or system of
interpreting religion as a concept and its objectives has come to stay.

The objectives of discussing religion in contemporary African society include

among other thing the following points:
Learning Objectives
 The comprehension of what the concept really is at least to lay
adherents of religion.
 To understand the position of religion amidst contemporary
challenges.
 To link African worldview to African religious trait.
 This work aims at reminding us about the important role religion
is ethical formation or members of the society.
 It is aimed at calling our attention to the decay seen in the practice
of religion in our present time.
While there are visible ways of moral and leadership derailment on the
part of religion, there is also remarkable ways religion, and its officials have

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imparted positively on member of the society. Madu (1997) elucidated on the

gains of religion thus. (a). Religion affords man the insight into the realm of the
supra mundane making us realize that life has meaning, a meaning which must
be sought with God.
(b) Man in his vertical dimension finds fulfillment, self realization and self
actualization in God when he believes cannot disappoint him in the manner
of human beings. The following sub-themes is an attempt to explain the
concept in a more detailed presentation.

 The Concept Religion: An Understanding

For Hornby (2006) Concepts are ideas or principles connected with
something. Ideas are therefore expressed in formation of concepts, principles,
statements and theories. For Mautner (1996) concepts can be signified in
simple or compound terms, they are sentences, statements, propositions,
beliefs, theories and doctrines that can be true or false.
Religion in relation to the above interpretation by this definition above, is
therefore a concept which tries to explain peoples’ belief in the Supreme Being
namely God. It tries to produce reasons for the existence of God and other
Supra-sensible entities like angles, spirits, spirit forces, ancestors, medicine and
magic.
Religion as a concept or theory of belief in external force or beings above
man establishes a moral or ethical relationship between humans and other
beings adjudged superior to man in all facet viz, power or vitality, omniscience,
justice, prudence, cleyoyance and philanthropy. Religion can be explained
using the following schools of thought and windows _theology, sociology,
worldview philosophy, people’s culture and tradition, historical antecedents,
Anthropology etc. Each of the named schools of thought tries to explain
religion in relation to its own perception of religion and world view around it.

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They all point to the fact that religion provides and satisfies man’s moral,
psychological and social needs.
An understanding of the main focus of religion and its present practice is
important in our present epoch. This is because of perceived divergence of the
functions and tenets in a world heavily influenced by materialism, education,
religious fundamentalism and human freedom of expression of thought.
Revision Exercise .A.
i. Religion by nature is esoteric “Discuss”
ii. Describe the concept of Religion
iii. What are the Objectives of this topic

 Religion and African World-view

In this chapter, we shall review the traditional African thoughts, beliefs
and conceptions oftheir world-views. The spirituality of African man is worldly
affirming. And in African society there is the belief that there is two worlds of
existence, namely, the spirit world and the human world. Religion and world-
view has been defined by different authors to mean different things. Tylor
(1981) in Okeke (1998: 53) sees religion as a belief in Spiritual Being. A more
elaborate definition was given by Ibenwa (2014:50) who explains religion to
mean man’s awareness of the existence of a supernatural being who he believes
to be his creator and controller of the universe and his willingness to worship
him through an intermediary in solitariness and in group.
While world-view, according to lfesieh (1989:17) is defined as denoting
an outlook towards the universe, philosophy of life, creed, and ideology.
Africans believe that the world is created and controlled by a Supreme Being
and his superintendent beings. Every thing is viewed through the eye of
religion. From the same trend of thought, Kalu(1997), Gbenda (1997:20),
Ekwunife (1990), Metuh (1981), Ejizu (1986) among others argued that the
word-view of traditional Africans in general is deeply religious. Madu (2004:6)

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added that the World-views are essentially religious because of the position
that world-views accord to Supreme Being and other minor spirits and deities.
This agrees with more elaborate efforts by Mbiti (1976:1-2) who averred that
because traditional religions permeate all the departments of life so fully that it
is not easy or possible always to isolate, there is no formal distinction between
the sacred and the secular, between the religious and non religious, between the
spiritual and the material areas of life, He said further, that wherever the
African is, there is his religion: he carries it to thefields where he is sowing
seeds or harvesting a new crop; he takes it with him to the beer party or to
attend a funeral ceremony; and if he is educated, he takes religion with him to
the examination room at school or in the university; if he is a politician, he
takes it to the house of parliament, and as such he concluded that Africans are
notoriously religious.
Spirit beings both good and bad ones operate in the universe and every
object living and non- living things are believed to be inhabited by a spirit
(pantheism). In the same line of thought Nwala (1985: 52 observed that in lgbo
traditional thought, spirits and forces abound in the universe and they permeate
every being. The world is thought to be in three levels as, the Sky, the abode of
the Supreme God and his lieutenants, the Earth which is inhabited by man and
other spiritual beings, and the Underworld occupied by the Ancestors and other
spiritual beings. The Africans (Igbo) strive to live a good moral life in order to
maintain a balance/equilibrium in his relationship with the world of the spirit,
and to enable them inherit eternal life and to avert the anger and possible
punishment from the Supreme Being and other minor gods and spirits.
Life is seen as a continuum, moving in a cyclical form, i.e birth/life,
death, birth again and dyes again. It is never ended and as such, it cannot be
annihilated. Time and season are calculated by using physical features in their
environment like the moon and sun ( the rising and setting of sun), human
shadow and some birds and animals like hen (Okuko) partridge (Okwa). Days,

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weeks and months are calculated based on market days namely, eke, orie, afo,
and nkwo for the Igbo of Eastern Nigeria. This makes one native week, and
these names are names of gods that are believed to own these markets, and are
located within these markets with their shrines. Africans conceive time
differently from Westerner. To westerners time moves in a continuum or linear
form, as shown here under.

Figure 1:

Past Present Future

Politically, the king that is Igwe/Eze in Igbo society is the leader of the people
as well as the custodian of the custom and the tradition of the people. In terms
of agriculture and other occupations, there are gods and goddess responsible
for production and fertility, such as the earth goddess-Ala, the sun-god-
Anyanwu, the god of thunder-Igwe or Kamalu( so called among the Igbo), etc
Revision Exercise .B.
a. Based on the diagram of the African world view in the main text (
Social Sciences Perspectives in Peace and Conflict Studies), list and
discuss the three worlds of existence according to OgbuKalu (1997)
b. Discuss the reasons that you indentified as major causes of
derailment by our religion leaders today.

 RELIGION IN CONTEMPORARY AFRICAN SOCIETY

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 HENRYKOLOGY

There is the need and necessity to have a clearer view, understanding and
perception of Religion in our present dispensation where ideologies and their
practical applications are in flux. Religion like other universal ideologies is in
constant flux especially in the application of its basic tenets by authorities of
religion systems across the globe. These authorities in religious system are
responsible for the interpretation of original or foundational principles of
different religions as formulated by their founders or founders. There is visible
digression, manipulation or reinterpretation of basic principles of religion in our
present era. These alterations in conclude concept of peace, concept of conflict,
means of livelihood, obedience to constituted authorities. Others include
channels of proselytism, interpretation of internal and external relations between
members and the public. The outcrops of misguided tenets of religion can be
explained as the root causes of terrorism in some parts of the globe.
The present situation or understanding of religion is therefore at variance
with the primitive or old understanding and practice of religion. The old
practice saw religion as means through which man and society reach to God the
all-powerful in humility for solution to his/her myriads of problems. In the
present practice however, religion has been turned to be means for economic
enhancement, social networking and disturbance of public peace in the forms
terrorism, hate speeches and noise escalation of the environment through the
mechanism of loud speakers.

 Religion and Terrorism: Any Relationship?

Religion and terrorism are two parallel lines that can never meet one
another or said to be synonymous in any way. But the question whether there is
any relationship between the two is not far-fetched. Considering the fact, that
terrorism is an institutional matter, and most of the terrorist attacks are traceable
to one religion or the other, particularly the Islamic religion. Moreso, those
people perpetrating terrorism claim to be carrying a change or revolution to

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wrest negative influences of Western civilization and culture on their religions.

For instance, Osama Bin Laden’s declaration of war on America in the 1990”s
stemmed from his beliefe that U.S. troops stationed in Saudi Arabia represented
an abomination to the kind of Islamic state he believed should exist in Arabic
represented an abomination to the kind of Islamic state he believed should exist
n Abrabian peninsula, (Zalman.2013, Gana-Gana(2011) commenting about
Boko-Haram said that, the sect whose name translates to western education is
sin’ is thought to have a number of factions with different aims, including some
political links and a thought to have a number of factions with different aims,
including some political links a hardcore Islamist cell, hence the current wave
of terrorism attacks in Nigeria.
The Isis in Syria and Iraqi, Al Shabab in Kenya and Somalia, Al Qaeda in
the Maghreb that operates in Mali and Algeria, Hezbollah in Lebanon, Hamas in
Isreal and Palestine are attributed to Islam and some crusades by the early
church which some scholars recorded as terrorism for Christians like that of the
work of Da’wah Institute in Nigeria Islamic Education Trust (2010:34-35).
From the foregoing one can say that religion fans the embers of terrorism and as
such there are some seemingly relationship between the two terms.
Nevertheless, the three major religion preach peace. Islam according to Enah
(2001:1) means peace between the creator and the created. Jesus Christ in the
Holy Bible (Isaiah 9:6) was referred to as prince of peace.
The adherents of the traditional religion of Africa preach and practice
peace. Religion can make and can as well mare, when wrongly applied by the
user. Religion is being used to settle socio-economic and political scores
between one group and another, states or nations does not make it a terror.
Religion can never be used to justify wr. No matter the way you view this
argument religion cannot be used as a scape-goat for terrorism.
1. Revision Exercise C

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 HENRYKOLOGY

a. Do you agree with the authors that there is a relationship between

religion and terrorism?
b. Do you think that education and influence of foreign ways of life have
negatively affected African religious practice?

 Conclusion:
Any current investigation or reflection on the place and role of religion is very
timely. This assertion is uncommented with various forms of religious fanatisms
ravaging the entire globe and there upon suffocating global peace, project.
There is the need therefore to take a second look at the practice and concept of
religion in our present situation.
Our findings certainly gave a clearer view of current perception of religion in
the minds of members of the public as well as the actions of the agents of
religion so to speak.
Our method of inquiry was expository and analytical. This exposition was
however brief. Full details of this article can be accessed from the unit’s
workbook.
 Group and personal activities
Note: Students are required to read thorough this brief presentation very well
and get themselves acquainted with the idea, terminologies and logic inherent.
 Group Discussion
Students are advised to have group discussion on some of the issues raised by
the authors of this sub-topic and others in the unit book. This will greatly
generate fertilization of ideas and understanding in general

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REFERENCES
Da’wah Institute of Nigeria Islamic Education Trust (n.d) Jihad and the Spread
of Islam. Nigeria: DIN Publications.
Ejizu, C.I (1986). Continuity and Discontinuity of Igbo Traditional Religion In
E.I, Metuh The Gods n Retreat. Enugu: Fourth Dimension Publishers.
Ekwunife, A.N.O. (1992). Politics and Religious Intolerance: The Nigerian
Experience. Enugu: Jovel Computer Ventures.
Emile duckheim. The Elementary form of Religious life. London. George
Allen and unwin.
Eneh, J.O (2001). The Sharia and Islamic Philosopy: The Nigerian Experience.
Enugu: Jovel Computer Ventures.
Freud, S (1955) Totem and Taboo London: Regenth Press.
Gbenda, J.S (1997). African Traditional Religion and Christianity in a
Changing World: Issues in Comparative Religion. Enugu: Fulladu
Publishing Company.
Hornby, A.S (2000). Advanced learners dictionary, 6 th edition, Oxford: Oxford
press.
Ibenwa, C.N (2014). Religion and Social Change in Contemporary African
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Ifesiah, E.I (1989). Religion at Grassroot: Studies in Igbo Religion Enugu:
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Kalu, O.U (1978). Precarious Vision; The African’s Perception of His world.
In Readings in O.U, kalu (ed) African Humanities-African cultural
Developmen. Enugu: Fourth Dimension
Kukah, M (2011) The Janus face of Religion. In Nigeria half century of
program and challenges (ed). Abuja: Time expression Press.
Madu, J.A (1997). Fundamentals of Religion calabar; Franedoh.
Mbiti,I.S (1969). African Religions and Philosophy. London: Heinemann.

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Metuh. E.I (1981). God and Man in African Religion. London:Geoffry

Chapman.
Nwala, T.U (1985). The Igbo Philosophy. Lagos:
Ogbu, U.K (1978). Precarious Vision: The African’s Perception of His World.
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Development. Enugu: Fourth Dimension.
Okeke, V.I (1998). “ Religion and Its Place in Human Society”. In B.N. Iffih
Modern Textbook on Social Sciences. Eungu: JoenPulishers.
Omoregbe, J. I (1999). The comparative Religion: Christianity and other world
religious in dialogue. Lagos: Joja educational research and publications
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Ugwu, C.O.T (2000). Man and His Religion In A Contemporary Society
.Nsukka: ChukaEducatoal Publishers.

GEOGRAPHY AND HUMAN SOCIETY

AyoguChineroNneka and Nwokocha Victor Chukwunweike

Social Sciences Unit
School of General Studies
University of Nigeria, Nsukka

 Introduction
Geography and the human society is one of the topics in the course GSP 201 –
The Social Sciences. This topic consists of four sub-themes designed with both
global and local examples. The discipline is designed to examine “Spatial
variations on the global earth surface”, “Human-environment interaction” and
“Place based population”. Geography is interested in spatial variations which

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aimed at understanding how and why things differ from place to place across
the landscape. It is also concerned with the interaction between humans and the
environment, both the impact of the physical environment on the society and the
various ways in which people adapt and change their natural environment over
time (Withers, 2010).
The Planet Earth

`
Source: Coffey, 2016

 What to learn in this topic

The general aim of this topic is to teach and introduce to students the concept of
geography and its applications in the human society. The topic is structured in a
way that knowledge gained from the study of geography will help the public
(students) make informed choices in the globalized world. The course will
provide a wider view of topical issues relevant to environment, environmental
security, conflict and Peace. This will be done within the purview of geography,
with the sole aim of equipping the students with the right tools and commitment
for a better interaction with their immediate surrounding/environment and the
society at large. In view of the general aim of the course-GSP 201, this topic has

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been structured to elicit appropriate responses from the students using the
following objectives.

 The objectives are:

a. To examine the history and evolution of geography as an academic

discipline
b. To analyse the concepts and theories in geography
c. To explore the importance of the environment and its physical and human
issues
d. To examine the concept of environmental Security and its roles to peace
and Conflict in the world
 The Definition of Geography

The discipline geography has been defined to mean different things by different
authors. While Ofomata (2003) defined geography as an area of study that
examines the inter-relationship between man and his environment, Ayogu
(2014) defined geography as an area of study that analyzes the earth’s physical
phenomena, people and their economic activities. Geography as an academic
discipline therefore is an area of study that examines the earth and all of its
human and natural characteristics (Interactions and Relationships) including the
location and distribution of earth features such as rivers, mountains, markets,
industries etc as well as the processes that brought them into existence.

 HISTORY AND EVOLUTION OF GEOGRAPHY AS AN

ACADEMIC DISCIPLINE
The study of geography as an academic discipline dates back to the 18th and
19th century. This period led to the discovery of features such as mountains,
rivers, lakes etc as well as places such as Africa and South American
Continents. These discoveries were made by geographers- Aristotle,

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Eratosthenes, Ptolemy who travelled around the planet in search of new ideas.
Examining and analysing the history and evolution of geography as an
academic discipline provides some important insights about its character and
methodology. The history and evolution of geography as an academic discipline
transcends six eras/stage (Pidwirny, 2006). They include:

 Ancient Greek Era

The ancient Greeks were the first civilization to practice a form of geography
which was more than mere map making or cartography. This development
which took place in the 8th century saw the description of a circular world
ringed by a single massive ocean. The notable Greek geographer in this era
included Herodotus, Aristotle and Eratosthenes (Pidwirny, 2006).
 Roman Era,
This era marked the utilization of the Greeks accomplishments in geography.
Some of these accomplishments include the use of modern satellites technology
to compute the earth circumference as well as the form, size, and geometry of
the earth surface.
 Middle Age Era,
This era in the evolution of geography as an academic discipline occurred
between 5th and 13th centuries. It was marked with little work and intellectual
stagnation.
 Renaissance Era,
The Renaissance era was made prominent by the numerous geographical
expeditions which were commissioned by a variety of nation states in Europe.
Most of these expeditions were undertaken to explore and acquire new lands in
places like Africa and Asia.
 Europe and United State Era

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This period in the evolution of geography saw the emergence of geographers

such as Alexander Von Humboldt, Carl Ritter and FredrichRatzel. These
geographers made substantial contributions to human and physical geography.
 Modern Era
The modern era in the study of geography as an academic discipline saw
changes in the philosophy, content and methodology of Geography. This was
such that there was a shift from a descriptive method of analysis to a more
scientific approach that relied on quantitative techniques.
Revision Exercise
1. Define Geography as an academic discipline
2. Describe the Evolution of geography as an academic discipline
3. Using your local environment describe the three cardinal interests of
geography

 CONCEPTS AND THEORIES OF GEOGRAPHY

The concepts and theories in geography are the principles that allows for the
exploration of relationships and connections between people and their
environment both physical/natural and human/cultural environments (TKI,
2015). While geographic concepts provides a framework that geographers use
to interpret and represent information about the earth surface, geographic theory
is an organised and systematized geographic knowledge used as a base to
explore new ideas of knowledge (Golledge, 2001). The development and
understanding of geographic theories and concepts will not only enable students
to participate actively in class, it will help them in understanding and explaining
the characteristics of their immediate surrounding or environment. For instance,

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why is water scarcity a dominant issue in Nsukka region? Some of the concepts
and theories in geography include:
Concepts-
 Location
Location is one of the most basic concepts in geography. It is used to identify a
point or an area on the earth surface. Location in geography can be “absolute”
or “relative” location. Absolute location refers to the exact point on the earth
surface usually identified with longitude and latitude.The relativity of a location
is the description of how a place is related to other places. For instance, the
relative location of the School of General Studies shows that the school is
bounded in the North, East West and South by University of Nigeria Primary
School, School of Postgraduate Studies, Department of Economics building and
Bursary Department, while it is absolutely located between Latitudes 50 58 1N
and 70 081N of the Equator and Longitude 70 081E and 70 481E of the Greenwich
Meridian.
 Man-land Relationship
In this case, geography tries to establish the functional relationship that goes on
between man and the biotic and abiotic part of environment.
 Spatial Organization
This is focused on unravelling the way things are organized in space. It spans
from the human organizational structure to the physical aspects of the milieu.
 Areal Differentiation
It analyses the peculiarity or the uniqueness of things across the globe and how
such variable characters on the earth facilitates the understanding of regional
resource distribution and man’swell being.
 Earth Science
Geography studies the environment, its components and the processes behind
their occurrences or existence.
Theories-
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 System Theory
A system is a component of interrelated parts that work together by way of
some driving process. Systems in geography include eco-system and solar
system.
 Alfred Weber’s Theory of industrial location
Alfred Weber’s Theory of industrial location also known as least cost theory
examines the locational pattern of a production infrastructure. This theory
which is domiciled in industrial geography emphasizes the location of industries
in areas where transportation and labour cost are minimum.
 Agglomeration Theory
The theory of industrial cluster and agglomeration is a theory defines the benefit
a firm will achieve by localising its production. This idea project the
geographical concentration of industrial activities in an area.
 Spatial Diffusion Theory (Relocation, Expansion, and Hierarchical
diffusion)
Spatial diffusion is a process by which ideas, innovation technologies,
diseases etc are spread across space. The theory projects the dispersion of
concepts from a central point of origin to other locations that may or may not be
directly connected
 Population and Migration Theory (Malthus population growth model,
Gravity model, Demographic transition model etc)
Revision Exercise
1. What do you understand by the term “concept” in geography
2. Identify the concepts and theories in geography
3. Describe the absolute and relative location of your base department

 ENVIRONMENT AND ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES

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The environment is the natural conditions- land, air and water, in which people,
animal and plant live (Hornby, 1998).

The Environment

Source: Policy Centre for Environment and Peace

The environment is made up of physical and cultural environments. While the

physical or natural environment denotes features such as rivers and water
bodies, trees, hills/mountains, mineral resources such as iron ore, gold,
petroleum etc., the cultural environment denotes an interaction between man
and his environment. The relationship between man and his environment has led
to the ecological imbalance causing environmental issuessuch as:

 Erosion

Erosion is the removal of soil particles from the earth surface by the actions of
wind and water. The soils (especially top soils) covering the landscape are
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decreasing on daily bases through the processes of erosion-the gradual but

continuous washing away of soils until it is checked.

Soil Erosion

Source: Adopted from Schumaker, Gerard and Ellis (2012)

 Oil spillage and Gas flaring

Prior to its treatment, crude contains chemicals-Dual Purpose Kerosene (DPK),
Automative Gas Oil (AGD), Aviation Turbine Kerosene (ATU), Liquefied
Petroleum (LP), Premium Motor Spirit (PMS) in addition to other natural
occurring substances (Akande, 2011).
Oil spillage and Gas flaring

Source: Adopted from Amnesty International 2011

 Flooding and Drought

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Drought is a deficiency in precipitation over an extended period, usually a

season or more, resulting in water shortage causing adverse impacts on
vegetation, animals, and/or people (National Weather Service, 2006). Flooding
on the other hand is the overflow or submerging of land areas by water. This is
a precipitate of poor land management especially when falling of trees or over –
harvesting of trees is not at par with re-planting or replacement of species.
Flooding and Drought

Source: Adopted from Polycarpou (2011)

 Pollution (water, air and soil)
Currently, water pollution is a problem that bedevils mankind because most
surface water bodies have been impacted upon by erosion processes
(Ayogu,2016), agriculture(Kevin, 2011) and other activities of man leading to
the alteration in the physical, chemical and biological composition because of
contamination and cases of pollution(UNEP 1992).

Pollution (Landscape full of Trash in Bangladesh)

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Source: Adopted from Linda (2012)

 Soil degradation
This is the decline in the soil quality due human actions such as mining,
extraction, farming etc. It is a multi faceted problem because it affects
environment, agronomic productivity, food security, and quality of life.

Revision Exercise
1. What is Environment
2. Describe the Environmental issues on the basis of man/land relationship

ENVIRONMNETAL SECURITY, CONFLICT AND PEACE

 Environmental Security-

Environmental Security is defined as the relative safety from environmental

change caused by natural or human processes due to ignorance, accident,
mismanagement or design originating within or across national borders
(Varshney, 2005).

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 Conflict-

Conflict is a perceived disagreement or difference between two persons. In the

environmental context, conflicts are those peculiar issues which are capable of
causing disequilibrium in the environment. The disequilibrium/imbalance in the
environment not only lead to changes in the environmental quality, it is capable
of causing disagreement in a society. Some of the peculiar issues that can lead
to environmental imbalance are resource consumption, exploitation, scarcity
and degradation.

 Peace-
Peace can be defined as the absence of conflict. It can be viewed from a positive
and negative sense. Positively, peace is a state of calmness and quietness while
in a negative sense, peace is the absence of war or violence.
 History and evolution of environmental security
The history of environmental security can be viewed from three perspectives.
These include the progress of a growing environmentalism in developed
countries after the 1960’s, the attempts to contest the meaning and practice of
security from an environmental perspective and developments in the bipolar
world. (Collins, 2007)
 Approaches to Environmental Security
The notion of environmental security emerged in international discussion and
debate about environmental change in the late 1970s (Eddy, 2004). This was as
a result of violent conflict arising from environmental change and natural
resource scarcity. This section of the chapter, explains the three major
approaches associated to environmental security. These approaches according to
Eddy (2004) are:
 Geopolitical Environmental Security
 Comprehensive Environmental Security
 Social Justice Approach to Environmental Security

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 Environmental Stress as a Source of Conflict

Environmental Stress is an action, agent, or condition that impairs the structure
or function of the environmentor system (Cairns, 2013). Many environmental
stresses, such as hurricanes, droughts, floods, and fires are a periodic feature of
life on earth (Safriel, 2008) triggered by, deforestation, pollution, urbanization
etc. Consequently, these environmental stressors are likely to result in scarcity
disputes between nations or between ethnic groups. Scarcity disputes occur
when resources become scarce or degraded increasing competition which may
become critical beyond which conflict is inevitable (Homer-Dixion, 1994).
Scarcity disputes/conflicts can be manifested in the society in the following
forms
 Conflict over water resources
 Conflict over food scarcity,
 Conflict over land accessibility
 Drought induced migration and conflict
Revision exercise
1. What is Environmental security
2. What is the relationship between environmental security, peace and
conflict
3. From the course text, identify the groups affected by land accessibility
conflict

REFERENCE/FURTHER READING

Amnesty International (2011). Petroleum and Poverty in the Niger Delta. Eyes
on Nigeria,
USA: Amnesty International

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Ayogu, N.A. (2014). Geography and Human Society. Social Sciences in Peace
and Conflict
Studies Vol.1. Enugu: San Press Limited pp 83-116

Baker, J.N.C. (1963). The History of Geography. Oxford: Basil Blackwell p.66

Coffey, .J. (2016). Earth Surface. Blue marble Earth, Image credit: NASA
(Accesses 18th
September 2016, http://www.universetoday.com/60830/earth-surface/)

Collins, A. (2007).Contemporary security studies. Oxford: Oxford University

Press.

Golledge, R.G. (2001). Geographical Theories. University of California

Transportation
Centre. California: University of California pp-461-476

Eddy, E (2004). Environmental security: securing what for whom in I. Lowe

and E. Eddy
(eds) Globalisation, Environment and Social Justice. Social Alternatives
23 (4): pp23-
28 Collins (2007).

Homer-Dixon, T. F. (1994). Environmental Scarcities and Violent Conflict:

Evidence from
Cases.International Security 19 (1): pp 5-40.

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Hornby, A.S (1998) Oxford Advance Learner’s Dictionary, Oxford University

Press, P. 387.

Lina, D. (2012). Landscape full of Trash in Banglash. Heartbreaking Photos of

Pollution that
will inspire you to Recycle (accessed 16th September, 2016
www.boredpanda.com)
Ofomata,G.E.K.(2008): Geographic Thought,Jamoe Publishers Limited, Enugu.

Polycarpou, L. (2011). The Year of Drought and Flood. World Water Day,
Columbia
Univeristy: Earth Institute

Policy Centre for Environment and Peace. (Accessed 16th September 2016
http://www.conservation.org/projects/Pages/Policy-Center-for-
Environment-and-Peace.aspx)

Schumaker, G., Gerard, T., and Ellis, M. (2012). Soil Erosion (Accesses 16th
September
2016 www.google.com.ng/search?biw=1024&bih)

TK1 (2015). Key Concepts in Geography. New Zealand Curriculum Guides.

(Accessed from
http://seniorsecondary.tki.org.nz/Social-sciences/Geography/Key-
concepts)

Varshney, C. K. (2005). Growing Threats to Environmental Security in H.

Aydogan, (ed)

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Environmental Scarcity and Global Security: The Assessment of

Environment Related Conflicts in Bangladesh, Senegal-Mauritania,
Philippines and El Salvador.European Scientific Journal 11(8): pp1857 –
7881

POLITICAL SCIENCE AND CONTEMPORARY SOCIETY

Paulinus Ejiofor Ezeme

&
Casmir ChukwukaMbaegbu

Introduction

This topic is on Political Science and Contemporary Society. It aims to

introduce students to the origins, concepts, theories, perspectives and dynamics
of Political Science as an academic field of study that have evolved as integral
part of larger social science discourse. This will also highlight the interaction of
the science of politics to contemporary societal issues and its perspective to
peace and conflict studies in an era challenged by ethno-religious, geo-political
and socio-economic instabilities.

However, to begin our study of Political Science and Contemporary Society it

will be important for us to review the various concepts of politics and political
science. The discussion on the concept of politics has generated a great deal of
controversy and debate. The very first problem which confronts a reader
desirous to discern the subject matter of politics is on how to settle the
ambiguity that tend to confuse the concepts of politics and political science.

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Most attempts to define political science often collapse in defining politics.

Some scholars have asked the question: Is politics synonymous with political
science? Others question on whether politics should be regarded as an art or
science?

Politics is a subject that deals on how to acquire and use power to influence
decisions or policies that affect the public, groups of people, organization, state,
or society; in which all classes of the society, including touts, market women or
the common people in the street who have the opportunity can get involved;
many define politics in such a loose manner that renders the subject an all
comers game that need no expertise, training and skill. To a political scientist,
these conceptions are to say the least, very erroneous.

Ezeani (2010) aptly remarked, it is important for us to reiterate that the primary
objective of this discussion is not to arrive at a generally acceptable definition
of politics. Rather, our duty will be to explicate some of the important nuances
which have dotted the political science literature and also accounted for the
varying degrees of interpretations given to the subject matter; including but not
exclusive of the disagreements among scholars over the meaning and nature of
the word political, as well as the controversy surrounding politics as a science.

What to learn in this topic

In this topic, we shall attempt a shedding of light on some basic concepts and
themes adjudged vital for a better understanding of this topic. Such concepts
and themes include: the development of political science as an academic field of
study; the State; Government as an instrument of the state; Power and
Authority; the relevance of Political Science to society, Governance and

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Democratization; Political Party Systems and Ideology; Human Rights Issues

and the likes. In view of GSP 201 course requirement, the topic has been
structured to elicit appropriate responses from the students.

For further reading, please see the recommended text – Onu, A. O. (2016)
Social Science perspectives to Peace & Conflict1 (Edited)- Forthcoming.

Objectives

At the end of this topic, you should be able to:

 define the various views of politics and political science

 analyze the historical trajectory of Political Science
 discuss the scientific nature of political science
 explain some concepts in Political Science
 explain the relevance of Political Science to society

The Concept and Meaning of Political Science

Man is a network of relationship. It is in his nature not to live alone, he lives in
human society. This is the reason the famous Greek philosopher Aristotle said,
man is a political animal. As an epicenter of everything, he needs to interact
with other people, develop rules and regulations that govern his continued
existence in the society. It is a statement of fact that man has since antiquity
engaged in politics. Right from the time of Greek city states, mankind has
always lived in communities with various political structures that suit his
environment. Having said this, what then is Political Science?

Political science according to Wikipedia is a social science discipline that deals

with systems of government, the analysis of political activity and political

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behaviour.It also deals extensively with the theory and practice of politics which
is commonly thought of as the determining of and the distribution of power and
resources (Nnoli, 1986). Political scientists engage themselves with the study of
the state or political society, that is to say, people organized for law within a
definite territory and revealing the relationships underlying political events and
behaviour in which they attempt to construct general principles about the way
the world of politics works.

What is Politics?

 Is there any difference between politics and political science?

 If yes, what is it? If no, explain?

The definition of politics is enmeshed in controversies and

contradictions.However, it is important to mention that the word ‘politics’
derives from the Greek word polis, which means in Greek – State or City –
State.It is germane at this stage to emphasize the point that any useful definition
of politics must etymologically be woven around the State for it to make sense.
For details, see the text referred above.

Self-Assessment Exercise

 i. Give some definitions of Political Science.

 ii. Explain the common characteristics to these definitions
 iii. What is politics?

The Development of Political Science as an Academic Discipline

Ezeani (2010:17) divides the discussion on this into two phases, namely:

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The early trends which date back to ancient Greeks (about 500 -300): Actors
under this phase include the early world philosophers like Plato (427-347 B.C);
Aristotle 384 – 322 B.C), and Socrates, etc.The second phase aligns with the
modern political science marked by the emergence of political science as a
University discipline taught in early United States. For details, see text
referred above.

Political Science: Art or Science?

Political science is an academic discipline that studies politics. As we earlier

stated, political scientists and scholars have tried in their various ideological and
intellectual persuasions to define politics.

Some define politics as the “art of the possible”. What is meant here, according
to Nnoli (1986:2), is that very often it is not possible for politicians to achieve
all their goals. Thus, a credible and effective politician must limit himself to
achievable goals. Even though, this definition has its flaws, one basic fact that
emerges is that politics can be an ‘art’ in the hands of experienced and skilled
politicians.

To be effective in the act of governing men, a politician needs some skill and
experience otherwise he gets easily frustrated and incapable of attaining his
goals and aspirations. To that extent, political science can be an art as well as a
science. For details, see text.

The Scientific nature of political Science

 Can Political Science be studied like the natural science or physical

science courses?
 IF yes, explain? If no, why?

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As Ugwu (2000:17) stated, many critics of political science have stated that
there is nothing scientific about political science. However, Appadorai (1975:5)
defines science as “the classification of facts and the formation upon that basis
of absolute judgment, which are consistent and universally valid, sum up the
essential aim of modern science”.

As Meehan (1965:34) rightly puts it “Science is the production of systematic

explanations based upon empirical data joined logically to form regular
patterns”. Science can, therefore, be seen as both a body of systematized
knowledge as well as the method of gathering such knowledge.

To this extent, therefore, any discipline which applies the “Scientific method” in
its approach in the investigation of phenomena and reality qualifies to answer
science. However, it may not be in the sense of the physical or biological
sciences that go to the laboratory to investigate their object. For further
reading see text.

Tutor-Marked Assignment

 i. From your understanding of the subject matter of our discipline, narrate

the historical development of Political Science as a discipline
 ii. Political Science is an ‘architectonic’ science. Explain?
 iii. What are the scientific attributes of political science?

Basic Concepts in Political Science

 What do you understand by concept?

A concept is a generalization or abstraction from reality, experience or the result

of a transformation of existing ideas. In the simplest terms, a concept is a

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thought or idea. It is also a name or label that regards or treats an abstraction as

if it had concrete or material existence, such as a person, a place, or a thing.

There are some concepts that serve as building blocks in the understanding of
political science both as an academic discipline and as a practical endeavor.
Political science concepts are the building blocks (used in empirical analysis) of
the subject matter of the discipline. The goal of political science concepts is to
provide a small set of carefully defined and interrelated words that can be used
to describe and analyze a wide range of political phenomena and issues.

Concepts in political sciences are many and they include but not limited to:
State, Government, Power, Authority, Civil Society and Citizenship, Nations,
Sovereignty, Political Culture, Political System, Political Participation and
Political Socialization etc. For details, see text referred above.

Self-Assessment Quiz

 i. Give your own definition of concept,

 Ii. Mention five other concepts in Political Science.

The Relevance of Political Science to the Society

 For some, politics means business, business for money and money for
personal aggrandizement…..For you, what is science of politics and its
importance to the society?
 Why are you interested in serving as UNN-SUG President; Vice-
presidents; Financial Secretary; Senator or House of Representative
Member?

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There are ample data depicting the relevance of political science to the
contemporary society. The notion of lost relevance of political science to the
society stems from the misconception of the subject matter of the discipline.
Among academic disciplines, Political Science is one of the most
misunderstood. Yet, it is one of the oldest disciplines, and certainly, the most
important.

It is the ‘architectonic’ science: that which shapes the environment within which
the other sciences re pursued. It is the systematized body of knowledge
concerning how society is organized, how values are created, distributed and
sustained, and, above all, how human welfare may be enhanced and guaranteed
(Asobie, 2007).

Political science could be relevant in the advice it can give on how to win
election campaigns, on how politicians should best act so as to get enough
support for their policies in legislative assemblies, on when and if state leaders
should go to war or on how they should act in international negotiations to best
further the interest of their countries, to name a few.

Political scientists are seen as a consultants or advisors to politicians in power,

who are “speaking truth to power”, to use Aaron Wildavsky’s famous phrase
(1987). (Find details in the recommended text).

Tutor-Marked Assignment

 Examine the roles of political scientists in political governance of the

society,
 In your opinion, should Politics be practiced by those who are not
exposed to, or who have no knowledge of, the science of politics?

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Contemporary issues in Politics and Society

The raison d’etre of the science of politics is the discovery and articulation of
laws for the organization of society in a manner that maximizes the
enhancement of human welfare.Politics is primarily and ultimately about human
welfare. The following issues pose a challenge to the socio-economic and
political reengineering of the society.

Governance and Democratization

 What is governance and when do we say a state is democratizing?

Governance in the context of this study is defined as the process of allocating

resources, through the instrumentalities of the state, for the attainment of public
good. Governance has social, economic, administrative and political dimensions
(World Bank Institute, 2003). Democratization, in turn, is understood to be the
process whereby democratic institutions, practices and beliefs are built and/or
strengthened in a society. This includes fostering the participation of citizens in
the democratic process.

Political Party system and Ideology

 How many political parties do we have in Nigeria?

Modern democracy is unthinkable without political parties. According to Johari

(2008:424) political party signifies “a group of people who hold certain political
beliefs in common or who are prepared to support the party candidate, work
together for electoral victory, attain and maintain political power". Ideology
represents a typically crucial element of political parties and their activities. For
OkudibaNnoli, ideology typifies “a systematized and interconnected set of ideas

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about the socio-economic and political organization of society as a whole”

(Nnoli, 2003:178).

Poverty

 What is poverty?

Globally, poverty has been a serious challenge to governments. It has many

dimensions and consequences. Its effect, which includes lack and deprivation in
the basic necessities of life, is worrisome. Poverty has no precise definition but,
in the simplest form, it refers to the inability of an individual to attain the
minimum standard of living.

Corruption:

 When do we say someone is corrupt?

Corruption manifests in different ways and in different sectors of society. It is

sometimes defined in terms of the quantum involved and the status of the
perpetrators as ‘grand’ or ‘petty’ corruption (Kong, 1996:49). The Dictionary of
Social Sciences (1964:142) provides a relatively straightforward but
comprehensive definition of corruption: “the use of power for profit,
preferment, or prestige, or for the benefit of a group or class, in a way that
constitutes a breach of law or of standards of high moral conduct”

Human Rights Abuse

Human rights belong to everyone, everywhere and every time. Human rights are
those privileges enjoyed by the citizens of any given country guaranteed and
protected by the State constitution. Thus, human right abuse can be defined as
any act that fails to acknowledge the rights of man by treating man in a cruel

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and violent way or by treating human less human. It also means denying human
his fundamental human rights.

Unemployment

Unemployment is a global trend, and has become a threat to political, socio-

economic fortunes vis-a- vis peace and stability. The term unemployment
denotes a condition of joblessness or lack of employment. In other words,
anyone who is fit and available to work but fails to get one may be considered
as being unemployed for the concerned period (Olubukola, 2013). Simply put,
unemployment describes the condition of people who are without jobs.

Terrorism

 Why do terrorist attacks?

The specter of terrorism looms globally to the extent that the international
community has literarily been swept into antiterrorism schemes which defy any
effort at complete enumeration. Terrorism has existed for at least 2,000 years
and is likely to remain a fixture on political agendas, both domestic and
international, for years to come. Terrorism is generally defined as politically
motivated violence by clandestine groups or individuals against civilians or
noncombatant personnel.

Climate Change

The environment is a gift of nature to enhance a good habitation for man’s

health, spiritual, economic and socio-political growth, happy living, and
development. The concept “climate change” is not a new development in the
world but a contemporary environmental issue going by its numerous and
unmitigated implications on the human society. Climate change therefore is the

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variations in the prevailing state of the climate on all temporal and spatial scales
beyond that of individual weather events (Wingenteret al, 2007).

Find other details in the recommended text.

Tutor-Marked Assignment

 Describe some attribute of a political party

 Define the term ideology.
 Define corruption
 Examine the salient features of corruption
 Is there any link between fight against corruption and human right abuse?

Conclusion

In this chapter, we have been able to examine the subject matter of political
science and its relevance to the contemporary society. The concepts of political
science, politics, development of political science and its relevance and the
basic concepts in political science have also been critically analyzed. We
concluded with some contemporary issues in politics and society.

THANKS

References

Almond, G. (1960). A functional approach to comparative politics. In G.

Almond & J.S. Coleman (eds.), The politics of developing areas,
Princeton, N.J: Princeton University press.

Appadorai, A. (1975). The substance of politics. New Delhi: Oxford University

Press.

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 HENRYKOLOGY

Asobie, H. A. (2007). Re-inventing the study of International Relations: From

state and state power to man and social forces. An Inaugural lecture of
the University of Nigeria, nsukka, delivered on July, 18, 2007. Nsukka:
University of Nigeria Press.

Easton, D. (1953). The political system: An inquiry into the state of Political
Science, New York: Alfred Aknopt.

Ezeani, E.O. (2010). Political Science: An introduction, Abakaliki: Willy Rose

& Appleseed Publishing Coy.

Isaak, C. A. (1985). Scope and methods of Political Science: An introduction to

the methodology of political inquiry, Homewood, Illionis: Dorsey Press.

Kong, T. Y. (1996). Corruption and its institutional foundations: The experience

of South korea” in IDS Bulletin, 7(2), Dey, HarendraKanti, The genesis
and spread of economic corruption: A micro-theoretic interpretation”
World Development 17(4); 503 – 504.

Nnoli, O. (1986). Introduction to Political Science. Enugu: PAEREP.

Onu, A. O. (2016) Social Science perspectives to Peace & Conflict 1 (Edited)-

Forthcoming.

Psychology: Concepts and Applications

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By

John E. Eze
Social Science Unit
School of General Studies
University of Nigeria, Nsukka

Introduction
The need to understand human behaviour led to the emergence of psychology as
a science. Before the emergence of psychology, philosophers had provided
contradictory explanations on human behaviour. Thomas Hobbes stated that
human beings are basically self-centred and brutish. Jean Jacques
Rousseauasserted that human beingsarebasically good but get corrupted by their
environment. It was difficult to know which of the explanations was valid,
mainly because their assertions were not derived from scientific procedure.
This module focuses on what psychology as a science is concerned with,
and instances of the explanations they have provided about behaviour.

Learning Objectives
This module aims to provide a definition of psychology. The student at the end
of the module is expected to have an idea of the nature of enquiry psychologists
make on human behaviour and some of the aspects of human behaviour that
psychologists specialise in. The student would also be exposed to how
psychologists conceive conflict in human behaviour.

Topic 1
Psychology as a Science

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Wilhelm Wundt, a German,established the first laboratory to study human

behaviour at the University of Leipzig, Germany, in 1879. He was a
physiologist. Hestudied the nature of consciousness of immediate experience,
using the method of introspection. He stated that elements of thought are
formed in consciousness by immediate experience. He defined psychology as
the study (Greek: logos) of the mind (Greek: psyche). Many other psychologists
considered his focus on the mind to be too narrow. Some also did not accept his
method of study because it was not very objective.
Later, John Watson, an American,introduced the stimulus-response (S-R)
paradigm of behaviour, and stated that psychologists should study only
observable behaviour and not the mind. Sigmund Freud introduced the study of
unconscious and abnormal behaviour. Carl Rogers proposed humanistic
psychology.Psychology now embraces all aspects of behaviour, including
biological inheritance, biological factors in behaviour, unconscious behaviour,
thoughts, role of culture in behaviour, sleep, neurological processes in
behaviour, human development, personality, motivation, animal behaviour,
learning, etc. Psychology is now defined as the scientific study of behaviour
and mental processes. Psychology approachesbehaviour at the organismic
level. It is a science because it uses the scientific method. It is however usually
not easy to measure some of the aspects of behaviour.

Review Questions
i. Who started studying psychology in a laboratory?
ii. Which aspect of behaviour did he study?
iii. What is introspection?
iv. Why was introspection criticised?
v. What is the difference between Wundt’s definition and current
definition of psychology?

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vi. Who is correct about the basic nature of human beings: Hobbes
or Rousseau?
vii. How can the contradictions in their explanations be resolved?

Topic 2
Methods of Investigation in Psychology
Psychology uses the following methods of investigation:
 Experimental method.
 Quasi-experimental method or field experiments.
 Naturalistic observation.
 Survey.
 Case study, etc.

Review Questions
i. What is the difference between an experiment and a field
experiment?
ii. What is naturalistic observation?
iii. Describe any field experiment in psychology that you have read
about.

Topic 3
Specialisations and Professions in Psychology
The aspects of behaviour studied by psychologists are very diverse. A
psychologist is therefore expected to specialise in one of the following areas:
Psychometrics:the development and standardization of psychological tests.
Comparative Psychology: the study of the behaviour of non-human organisms.
Cognitive Psychology:focus on attention, memory, information processing,
learning.

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Developmental Psychology: changes that occur in human behaviour throughout

the lifespan.
Personality Psychology:characteristic behaviour of individuals.
Health Psychology:behavioural processes involved in health and illness.
Clinical Psychology:treatment of people with incapacitating behavioural
problems.
School Psychology: application of psychological principles and techniques in
the school systems in order to promote conditions that facilitate learning.
Industrial-Organisational Psychology:studies people at work and applies
psychological principles and techniques to problems at work such as job
satisfaction.
Sports Psychology: tackles issues of motivation, training, stress, performance in
sports.
Military Psychology:applies psychological principles and techniques to military
operations.
Forensic Psychology:applies psychological principles and techniques in
investigation, evaluation, correctional interventions, and professional
advice to courts and tribunals.
Peace Psychology:development of theories and practices to prevent and control
violence.

Review Questions
i. Which of these fields of psychology appeals to you?
ii. Is it possible for psychologists to develop ways of preventing
violence?

Topic 4
Human Development

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Jean Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development: Piaget (1971) explainedthat

development of cognitivefunctioningis a process of human adaptation to the
environment. Major constructs in the theory are:
 Cognitive schema: mental structure which an individual applies across
situations.
 Assimilation: the child manipulates every situation encountered to fit a
schema.
 Accommodation: when the situation could not fit the existing schema, the
child modifies it to a new schema that incorporates the principles of the
previously handled situations as well as that of the new situation.

These processesoccur through three major stages inPiaget’s theory of

cognitive development:sensorimotor stage,marked byinitial rudimentary
coordination of the external world by use of the senses and reflexes, and high
egocentrism; preoperational stage,marked by ability to use symbols but no
thought reversibility; concrete operational stage, marked by achievement of
conservation and reversibility of thought; formal operational stage, marked by
abstract reasoning, and constitutes the highest level of cognitive development.

Sigmund Freud’s Theory of Psychosexual Development: Freud (1905, 1923)

proposed that the human person is pleasure driven and that the source of
gratifying such pleasure is sexual and changes from one body region (erogenous
zone) to another through five (5) stages of life.
Oral stage: erogenous zone is located at the oral region; the child likes
sucking, biting.
 Anal stage: erogenous zone shifts to the anal region; the child enjoys
defecation, but with toilet training, enjoys retention of urine in the bladder,
and faeces in the rectum.

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 Phallic stage: erogenous zone shifts to the genital area; Oedipus

complexoccurs.
 Latency stage: latency of erogenous stimulation occurs; the child derives
satisfaction from exploring the environment and developing skills.
 Genital stage: erogenous zone at the genitalia is awakened; expression of
sexual feelings.

Erik Erikson’s Theory of Psychosocial Development: Erikson (1968) stated

that a person in society grapples with psychosocial challenges from birth until
death in eight stages:
 Trust or mistrust: develops due to level of carereceived from others.
 Autonomy or self-doubt: develops due tolevel of opportunity to use
physical skills.
 Initiative or guilt: develops due to level of opportunity to use own initiative
to engage in intellectual and physical activities.
 Industry or inferiority: develops due to level of ability to use skills to
initiate events.
 Identity or role confusion: develops due to level of clarity of self-identity.
 Intimacy or isolation: marks adult life, able or not to relate intimately with
people.
 Generativity or stagnation: develops due to level of contributions to the
society
 Ego Integrity or despair: develops due tolevel of satisfaction with life.

Review Questions
i. What is egocentrism?
ii. How does Piaget’s accommodation differ from hostel
accommodation?

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iii. At what age does a normal person reach the highest level of
cognitive development?
iv. Why is Freud’s theory referred to as theory of psychosexual
development?
v. What is Oedipus complex?
vi. What could make someone to develop despair at old age?

Topic 5
Personality
Personality is the term denoting the relatively consistent and enduring pattern of
dispositions, thinking and acting which individuals manifest across situations. It
is a quality which every human being has, but individuals differ in the mixture
of the dimensions of personality.
The psychodynamic theory (Freud, 1923) of personality centres on the
conflict that occurs among three components of the mind: id, ego, and
superego. The idis marked by the pleasure principle; the ego is the executive
part of personality and is marked by reality principle; and the superego is
marked by conscience. The ego uses defense to protect itself from anxiety when
conflict tries to overwhelm it. Defense mechanisms are unconscious processes
that reduce anxiety by distorting reality. The following are defense mechanisms:
 Repression: inhibiting the anxiety-arousing thoughts or feelings from
consciousness.
 Regression: reverting to a lower stage of psychosexual development
 Projection: attributing undesirable impulse one harbours to another person.
 Rationalisation: giving self-serving, reassuring, but incorrect explanation to
sooth the ego.
 Displacement: scapegoating.
The trait theorydistinguishes between state and trait. Trait refers to a
relatively core consistent and enduring pattern of behaviour unique to the
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individual across situations. Trait theory assigns descriptive labels to patterns of

behaviour. The predominant way of measuring personality now relies on the
trait theory.

Personality disorderoccurs when an individual manifests particular traits

in an extreme. The following are personality disorders:
 Antisocial Personality Disorder: flagrantly disregards and violates other
people’s rights.
 Histrionic Personality Disorder:excessively seeks attention and expression
of emotion.
 Borderline Personality Disorder:high instability in interpersonal
relationships.
 Narcissistic Personality Disorder:excessive need for admiration, and self-
importance.
 Schizotypal Personality Disorder: poor interpersonal and social skills;
eccentric dressing.
 Paranoid Personality Disorder:pervasive distrust and suspicion of the
motives of others.

Review Questions
i. Which of the defense mechanisms do you use often?
ii. Which component of personality is related to morality?
iii. Can you remember anybody who has any of the personality
disorders?
iv. Is a personality disorder really a disorder?

Topic 6
Sensation and Perception

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Sensation involves using the sensory organs to gather information about the
external and internal environment of the body. But its interpretation, known as
perception, is done by the brain. Perception follows these principles:
 figure-ground: selected features form the figure; ignored features form the
ground.
 Proximity: close objects are perceived as belonging together.
 Similarity: similar elements are perceived to belong together.
 Closure: gaps in the features are filled to achieve perception.
 Continuity: features that appear in a continuous form are perceived to
belong together.
 Orientation: features that have the same orientation are grouped together.
 Common fate: sets of the features moving in the same direction are
perceived as a group.
 Simplicity: features of the object are selected to enable simplest
interpretation.
 Constancy: perception remains constant even when the sensation is
modified.

Review Questions
i. Is it possible for the brain to interpret a touch to one’s feet?
ii. How does an object’s image enter the brain to enable drawing it
later?
iii. Can you know somebody you have seen before by seeing only his
legs?

Topic 7
Motivation, Emotion and Conflict

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Motivation is a temporarily aroused state produced when the cues of a situation

elicit an expectancy of a goal attainment. Motive is the target of motivation;
e.g., need for food to replace depleted nutrients in the body. Motivated
behaviour is selective. Conflicts of motives may occur in three forms:
 approach-approach conflict: torn between two mutually exclusive,
desirable motives.
 avoidance-avoidance conflict: to choose one of two equally undesirable
goals.
 approach-avoidance conflict: the goal is as attracting as repelling.
The motivated behaviour moves in a specific direction, is purposeful and
persistent. Motivation is influenced by the person’s physiological state, strength
of the related emotion, habit, environmental factors andincentives; mental
sets, values, and attitudes.
Maslow (1970) identified five categories of motives that determine
human behaviour, and declared that they appear in a progression of a ladder:

Self-
actualisation

Esteem Needs

Belongingness
and Love Needs

Safety Needs

Biologicaland PhysiologicalNeeds
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Fig. 1: Illustration of Hierarchy of Human Needs Proposed by Abraham

Maslow

One very important implication of Maslow’s explanation of human needs

is that the conditions in a particular society strongly influences the level of
individual preoccupations

Review Questions
i. Have you ever experienced conflict of motives? Does it differ
from group conflict?
ii. What category of motives does needing a sexual partner belong
to in Maslow’s model?
iii. Do needs actually have categories; do they actually appear in a
hierarchy?

Conclusion
Psychology has accumulated a large, reliable,empirical body of knowledge on
human behaviour which can be applied to individual and societal problems in
Nigeria. Scientific psychology differs from arm-chair psychology. Developed
societies involve professional psychologists in critical areas of their institutional
operations because they all require adequate understanding, prediction and
professional control of human behaviour. Understanding oneself is the first step
to empowering oneself. The person who understands another person and can
predict his or her actions facilitates interpersonal relationship.

References
Erikson, E. H. (1968). Identity: Youth and crisis. New York: W. W. Norton.

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Freud, S. (1905). Three essays on the theory of sexuality. In J. Strachey (Ed.),

The standard edition of the complete psychological works of Sigmund
Freud (Vol. 7). London: Hogarth Press.
Freud, S. (1923). The ego and the id. In J. Strachey (Ed.), The standard edition
of the complete psychological works of Sigmund Freud (Vol. 19). London:
Hogarth Press.
Maslow, A. H. (1970). Motivation and personality (2nded.). New York: Harper
& Row
Piaget, J. (1971). Genetic epistemology. New York: W. W. Norton.

Recommended Reading:
Onu, A. O., Eze, J. E., &Udegbunam, K. (Eds.). (2016). Social science
perspectives to peace and conflict vol. 1. Unpublished manuscript.

Basic concepts and theories of economics:

Abada C.F. & Anthony-Orji O.I.
Social Sciences Unit
School of General Studies

University of Nigeria, Nsukka

 Introduction
Economics is a unique way of analysing diverse areas of human
behaviour. Sexton (2003) observed that the economic approach to human
behaviour sheds light on social problems that exist among human beings. The
society is faced with the problem of making choice or choosing, deciding on
who will do what and which thing to use up for what? People think of different
things to do and try to make choices from the limited resources available to

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attain their goals. Scarcity is pervasive, no matter how affluent an individual or

society is, they can never have all the goods and services they would desire to
have.

Precisely, economics is defined as the study of how people allocate their

limited resources in an attempt to satisfy their unlimited wants. As such,
economics is the study of how people make choice (Miler, 2006).

Consequently, this topic is aimed at giving students a general overview of

economics, its applications and how scarce resources can be used to satisfy
unlimited human wants. Students at the end of this topic should be able to gain a
broad understanding of the following:

Learning Objectives

 Branches of Economics and the Economic Systems

 Major School of thoughts in Economics
 Theory of Production
 Theory of Demand and Supply
 The equilibrium and Economics as Social Sciences

 Branches of Economics:

Economics consist of two main branches, “Macroeconomics and

Microeconomics. There are different subject areas of economics but it is not
classified according to its subject areas but according to the approach used.
Macroeconomics deals with the overview perspective of an economy or total
economy. While Microeconomics focuses on smaller units within the economy
such as firms and households and how they interact in the market place.

 An Overview of the Economic System

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Loucks (1957) defined an economic system as consisting of those

institutions which a people or group of people have chosen or accepted as the
means through which resources are utilized for the satisfaction of human wants.
An economic system constitutes the institutions and processes used to allocate
scarce resources and distribution of products. We will discuss four basic types
of economic systems namely:

 Capitalism or the Private Enterprise Economy

 Socialism
 Communism
 Mixed Economy

The difference between the four types of economic system emanates from the
extent of government interference within the systems.

 CAPITALISM

The bedrock of this economic system was set down by Adam Smith in his
classic book “An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations”,
published in 1776. Capitalism is based on the market system where the forces of
demand and supply determine the market price of goods and services. The
Laissez faire principle is what obtains within the capitalist economy where
government interference is prohibited and is limited to maintenance of law and
order within the society as well as the provision of public amenities and
institutions which are beyond what individuals or group of individuals can
handle.

 SOCIALISM

In the socialist economic system, all means of production are owned and
managed by the state. Private ownership of means of production is disallowed,
however, people can own personal property which can be transferred or

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inherited. All economic activities are planned centrally by the state, there is no
economic freedom as competition is not allowed within this economic system.
Under the socialist economy, economic activities are purely for social gains and
personal interest is downplayed. As a result, anti-social activities such as
smuggling and hoarding does not feature in this type of economic system.

 COMMUNISM

Communism can be referred to as Socialism in extreme. In this type of

economic system, means of production are owned by the state and restrictions
are placed on the ownership of personal property. Personal effects such as
clothing can be owned by individuals while houses and properties all belong to
the state. The state assigns jobs, duties and remunerations, often in kind, to
individuals as the need arises.

 MIXED ECONOMY

This is a combination of the capitalist and the socialist economic systems. The
state owns and manages a number of public industries while private ownership
of means of production is allowed and also encouraged.

Revision Exercise
i. What is Economics?
ii. Differentiate between economics and economic systems
iii. Attempt a brief explanation of the different elements of economic
systems

MAJOR SCHOOLS OF THOUGHT IN ECONOMICS

 The Classical School of Thought

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This refers to the set of economic doctrines propounded by a set of Economists

in the 18th and 19th century. Adam Smith was the founder of this school of
thought, closely followed by other economists such as David Ricardo, Malthus,
J.S Mill. The classicalists believed in the Laissez faire principle i.e. less
government intervention in the working of the economy is the best form of rule.
They advocated for a market economy based on perfect competition and full
employment.

 The Neo-Classical School of Thought

The founder of this school of thought was Alfred Marshall. He focused on

human wants and consumption and classified human activities according to
those that contribute to material welfare and those that do not. He differed from
the classicalists by shifting focus away from Wealth to Man regarding wealth as
only a means to human welfare.

 The Keynesian School of Thought

This school of thought is named after the founder, John Maynard Keynes – a
British Economist. His approach was clearly different from the classicists. For
the smooth and efficient running of the state, he strongly advocated for
government intervention in the working of the economy, refuting the classicists’
idea of the invisible hand, perfectly competitive markets and full employment
within the economy.

 Monetarist School of Thought

This is often referred to as the Chicago school of thought. They believed in

government regulation of the economy through monetary policy (money
supply). They believed that money supply should grow at the same pace with
productivity in the economy in order to ensure price stability.

Revision Exercise

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i. What are the school of thoughts in economics?

ii. Differentiate between Monetarist school of thoughts and Keynesian
school of thoughts
iii. Who are the proponents of the Classical school of thoughts?

 THEORY OF PRODUCTION

A production function describes the maximum attainable output of a

commodity that can be produced per period of time with a given set of inputs.
Agu (2009). A short-run production function can be explained in three ways
namely:

 Total product –

This measure the overall output of a firm’s production given various inputs
employed in production.

 Average product of an input –

This is the total output divided by the quantity of input employed in production.

 Marginal product of an input –

This is the change in the total product as a result of increasing an input by one
unit.

 The Cost of Production

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In economics, the costs of producing goods and service are measured in terms
of the alternative forgone in making use of that same resource i.e the
opportunity cost. Costs incurred in production can either be fixed or variable in
nature.

 Fixed costs

Fixed costs are those costs which cannot easily be changed i.e they remain the
same as the level of output changes. Example include: cost of procuring fixed
inputs such as buildings, plants and machineries.

 Variable costs

Variable costs are those costs which can quickly be adjusted as the level of
output changes. Example include: the cost of inputs such as raw materials,
hourly labour, etc.

 Total cost –

This is the sum of all costs of inputs used in production. It is made up of two
components, namely: Total fixed cost (TFC) and Total variable cost (TVC).

TC = TFC + TVC

 Average cost

This is referred to as the cost per unit of output and is derived by dividing the
total cost of inputs by their output. It consists of three types, namely:

 Average Fixed Cost

(AFC) is the Total fixed cost divided by the quantity of output. AFC = TFC/Q
where Q = Output

 Average Variable Cost (AVC)

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This is the total variable cost divided by the quantity of output.AVC =

TVC/Q

 Average Total Cost – the total cost divided by the quantity of output. It is
also the sum of the Average Fixed Cost and the Average Variable Cost.
ATC = TC/QATC = AFC + AVC

Marginal Cost (MC) – This is the additional cost as a result of a unit increase in
output. It is derived as the change in total cost per unit change in output.

MC = ∆TC/∆Q(See details in the textbook)

Revision Exercise
i. Describe the following TC= TFC+TVC and AVC= TVC/Q
ii. Describe the theory of production
iii. Differentiate between the Cost of production, Fixed cost and Variable
cost

 Theory of Demand and Supply (The price system):

Much of economics, as a discipline studies the market process and how it

works. The study of the market process is essentially the study of demand and
supply.Demand reflects people’s choices and supply reflects scarcity. Demand
works through the process of the market to pull out the output (supply) and the
suppliers of the output are rewarded with income. The operation of the forces of
demand and supply takes place in the market and a major function of this
market is setting the prices of all inputs and outputs.

Demand and Supply, however, means a propensity to buy and sell.

Demand represents inverse relationship between the price of a good and the
quantity buyers are willing to purchase in a defined time period and supply is
positively related to the product own price, rising when price rises and falling

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when price falls. The graphs (see social science perspectives in peace and
conflict, vol. 1) show various quantities of a product consumers are willing to
purchase at possible prices at a specified period of time and that which firms are
willing to offer for sale per period of time. Once there is an alteration in any of
the factors guiding the principles of demand and supply, brings about a change
in demand or change in quantity demanded of a commodity and change in
supply or change in quantity supplied of a commodity, either too high for the
consumers to buy or too low for the sellers to give out.

 The equilibrium price:

This is a market condition that occurs at a price where quantity demanded

and quantity supplied is equal. A price where the quantity being pushed into the
market by the seller will just be equal to quantity being pulled out of the market
by the buyers.

 Economics as a social science:

Economics is a social science in the sense that it employs the same

method used in other social sciences in the study of human behaviour. Like
other sciences, economics uses economic models or theories as they are
simplified representations of the real world, as the basis for explanations and
predictions of economic phenomena.

Revision Exercise
i. What are the proponents of price systems in economics?
ii. What is equilibrium price?
iii. Economics is a social science “Discuss”

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Topic 9: Principles of Public Administration Mr. Johnson E. NwofiaDr. Chris

C. UgwuDr. (Mrs.) F. N. Onah Content
1.0. Introduction
1.2 .Objectives/Learning outcomes
2.0. Meaning, Nature, Scope and Importance of Public Administration
2.1. Distinction and Similarities between public and private administration
2.2. Nature of Public Administration
2.3. Scope of Public Administration
2.4. Goals of Public Administration
2.5. Importance of Public Administration as a field of Study
2.6. The role of public administration in national development
2.7. Reasons for the Growing Importance of Public Administration
3.0. Approaches to Public Administration
4.0. Administrative Theories
5.0. Areas of Specialization in Public Administration
6.0. Challenges of Public Administration
7.0. Issues in Public Administration 1.0. Introduction: The topic examines
the basic principles of Public Administration with emphasis on the complex
mechanisms and structures through which the government manages available
resources for national development. This requires a proper and fair
understanding of Public Administration and the processes and procedures used
by the government to formulate and implement policies as well as a platform for
assessing the efficacy of public policies and programs. 1.1.
Objectives/Learning outcomes: After going through this topic, you should be
able to:

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development administration and the challenges of public administration in

Nigeria

2.0. Meaning, Nature, Scope and Importance of Public Administration 2.1.

Meaning of Public Administration: Administration is a universal and
indispensable human activity that involves the organization of human and
material resources to accomplish common purpose. It refers to the co-operative
action of a group of people that, when properly mobilized and utilized with
other material elements, leads to the achievement of desired goals. This means
that administration is goal-oriented, purposive and co-operative activity that
usually involve a number of people working together to achieve some common
explicit goals. Simply put, administration is determined action taken in pursuit
of a conscious purpose. It is the systematic ordering of affairs and the calculated
use of resources aimed at making those happen which one wants to happen.
Public Administration means administrative action that relates to government
and its agencies in the day-to-day management of the affairs of the state. It
covers the whole gamut of services, responsibilities and other obligations to its
citizens in particular, and the international community in general. As part of the
political process, Public Administration plays a crucial role in formulation of
public policies and consists of all those operations having for their purpose the
fulfillment or enforcement of the policies. In a sense, public administration is
situated within the public domain, is not owned by any single individual but by
all the people. Its’ core task is to provide public goods and services that private
individuals may not ordinarily be able to provide or the cost of such service may

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not be affordable to common people. Public administration, by implication,

caters for the over-all interest of all members of society. This singular
characteristic distinguishes it from private administration, which is concerned
with administration of private business organization. Public Administration has
been variously defined because of its vastness. • Woodrow Wilson- “Public
Administration is detailed and systematic application of law”. Every particular
application of law is an act of administration. • Gladden- “Public Administration
concerned with the administration of the government.” • Professor L D. White-
“Public Administration consists of all those operations having for their purpose
the fulfillment or enforcement of public policy”. • Luther Gullick- “Public
Administration is that part of the science of administration which has to do with
government and thus concern itself primarily with the executive branch where
the work of the Government is done” • Waldo- Public Administration is “the art
and science of management as applied to the affairs of state.” Public
Administration is the machinery that the government uses to make and carry out
its economic and social development plans and programs. Its national character
makes it a powerful instrument of national integration. Public Administration
may connote different things to many people in different contexts namely,

• As an academic discipline: The name of a branch of academic discipline

taught and studied in higher institutions. It studies the mechanisms and
structures through which the government implements its policies and programs.
• As a vocation: It may refer to the type of work, trade, profession or occupation
engaged in by a person especially one that involves knowledge, training, skill or
expertise. • As a process: It may mean the sum total of activities including the
complex mechanisms and structures through which the government implements
public policies to produce services or goods for national development. • In
another sense, it may refer to a particular dispensation, government, executive
or such other body of persons in executive charge of affairs e.g. President

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Jonathan administration or military administration. However, this topic adopts

an eclectic approach by examining the processes and procedures used by the
government in managing its affairs as well as the study of the efficacy of
government policies and programs. According to Nigro and Nigro, Public
Administration entails the following: • co-operative group effort in a public
setting; • covers all three tiers of government (Federal, State and Local
Government), their arms (executive, legislative, and judiciary) and their inter-
relationships; • plays very important role in the formulation (input) and
execution (implementation) of public policy which makes it part of the political
process; • links the government with individuals, private groups and the civil
society by providing services to the community. • links the government with the
international community and influences the nature and content Nigeria’s
external relations. In summary, public administration: • is the non-political
public bureaucracy operating in a political system; • it does the will of the
sovereign State and acts in public interests and laws; • it takes care of
government activities and interests through input in the policy-making and
execution processes; • covers all three branches and levels of government;

• provides public goods and services as well as regulates behavior in public

it draws upon other social sciences 2.2. Distinction and Similarities between
public and private administration Simon posited that the distinction between
public and private administration are • Public administration is bureaucratic
while private administration is business-like; • Public administration
implements political decisions while private administration is non-political; and
• Public administration is characterized by over adherence to abstract rules (red-
tape) while private administration is malleable. According to Sir Josiah Stamp,
the four principles that differentiate public and private administration are: •
Principle of uniformity- the application of uniform laws and regulations mostly

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regulate Public Administration. • Principle of external financial control- This

involves the legislative control of government revenues and expenditures. •
Principle of ministerial responsibility- Public administration does the wishes of
its political elites and through them to the people. • Principle of marginal return:
Private administration is profit-oriented while Public Administration may not be
measurable in monetary terms. Similarities The following similarities between
private and public administration may suffice: • Both require common skills,
expertise, techniques and procedures. • Both rely on the principle of profit
motive in contemporary society due to changing economic reality. • Both
experience cumbersome legal constraints. Government, using public
administration as instrument exercises control over business firms through
regulatory legislation. • Both have definite organizational structure and
hierarchical management systems.

• Both are enduring, dynamic and continuously striving to improve on their

internal performance for more efficient delivery of services to consumers. •
Public and private administrations are service and people-oriented and may
depend on the patronage of the public for survival. 2.3. Nature of Public
Administration

Public administration is synonymous with the bureaucracy of all governments

be it a democratic, socialist or a capitalist state because it serves as the matrix
on which all aspects of the life of every citizen is affected. The core-task
therefore, is ensuring equitable distribution of goods and services, improving
the quality of living standards of people, expanding the scope of administrative
function to include all and making the administrative process all-inclusive.

There are two views regarding the nature of Public Administration. They are the

the sum total of all the activities – manual, clerical, managerial, etc., which are

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undertaken to realize the objectives of the organization. In this view, all the
actions of officials of the government from the messenger to the President of
ial view of
administration, the managerial activities of people who are involved in
planning, organizing, commanding, coordinating and controlling constitute
Public Administration. This view regards administration as getting things done
and excluding nonmanagerial activities such as manual, clerical and technical
activities. 2.4. Scope of Public Administration There are many ways of
-
Gullick sums up the scope of Public Administration by the letters of the word
POSDCoRB, which denote Planning, Organizing, Staffing, Directing,
Coordinating, Reporting and Budgeting. These activities are common to all
organizations and constitute the core-task of management in different agencies
regardless of the nature of the work they do. • Planning- the broad outline of
what is to be and the methods to adopt to accomplish the purpose. •
Organization- the formal structure of authority through which the work is done.
• Staffing- the recruitment and training of the personnel and their conditions of
work. • Directing- making decisions and issuing orders and instructions to sub-
ordinates.

• Coordinating- inter-relating the functions of various divisions, units, sections

and other parts of the organization to synchronize with set out objectives. •
Reporting- informing higher levels of authority within the agency about what is
going on. • Budgeting-
Matter View

In this view, public administration is not limited to POSDCoRB processes but

also deals with the substantive matters of administration such as defense,
security, education, public health, agriculture, transport, etc. Public
administration therefore, has two important aspects, namely deciding what to do

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and actually doing things. The first provides the basis for the second. 2.5. Goals
of Public Administration The Department for Economic and Social Affairs of
the United Nations outlines the goals of public administration: • Survival of the
state and strengthening of national political and economic independence; •
Modernization of society through industrialization, social development, the
application of science and technology, and changes in socio-economic
relationships and behavior; • To Increase citizenship participation and build
representative institutions that guarantees political equality, participative
governance as well as collective and individual rights. 2.6. Importance of Public
Administration as a field of Study According to
Woodrow Wilson Public Administration is important because of the increasing
complexities of modern society, growing functions of state and growth of
democratic governments. The object of Public Administration as a field of study
is to discover what government can do with scarce resources in the most
rational way. • Enhances efficient delivery of public goods and services • Helps
to understand the efficacy of government policies and operations on society • It
provides the government with necessary knowledge about how to intervene for
speedy socio-economic development. • Helps citizens to know about the
structure of government, the activities it undertakes and the manner in which it
accomplishes them.

2.7. The role of public administration in national development: • Basis of the

Government: • An instrument for providing goods and services: • An instrument
for implementing policies: • A stabilizing force in society: • An instrument of
social change and economic development: • Training highly specialized,
professional and technical personnel for national development. According
Gerald Caiden, Public Administration plays the following crucial roles in
contemporary modern society: • Preservation of polity • Maintenance of
stability and order; • Institutionalization of Socio-Economic changes; •

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Management of large scale commercial services; • Ensuring growth and

economic development; • Equitable distribution of public goods and services; •
Formation of public opinion; and • Influencing public policies. 2.8. Reasons for
the Growing Importance of Public Administration: • The changing role of the
State in national development and emergence of welfare and democratic role •
Development of industrial relations, protection and promotion of the rights of
workers (trade unionism) • The imperative use of scientific information
technology and development occasioned by information and communication
technology (ICT) revolution. • Administrative machinery for formulating,
implementing, monitoring, and evaluating social and economic development
plans.

• The collapse of bipolar politics and the emergent democratization trends • The
changing nature of public policy management • Increased access and voice in
the policy process

Revision: i. Why is administration necessary? What is the scope and nature of

Public Administration? ii. How can you define of Public Administration in
order to capture its full meaning iii. What are the differences and similarities
between private and Public Administration? iv. What is the importance of
Public Administration to national development? v. What do you understand by
POSDCoRB? How can you use it to explain the scope of Public
Administration? 3.0. Approaches to Public Administration Public
Administration closely associates, interacts with and is influenced by several
fields of study such as the behavioral and administrative sciences and human
relations. It can then be inferred that the approaches to study the field would
also be as varied and as vast as the subject matter itself. This accounts for the

Institutional Approach to Public Administration- concerns itself with the

institutions and organizations of the State. The core interest of this method lies

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in detailed study of the structure, functioning, rules, and regulations of the

executives, legislatures and the departments and agencies of the government. It
rical
and Legal Approach to the Study of Public Administration- focuses on the
administrative systems, process and policies practiced in the past and then try to
interpret them relevantly in the context of present times. The legal approach
throws light on the legal framework in which the public administration operates.
- administrative
behavior is part of behavioral sciences and the study of Public Administration
cannot be complete without the study of individual and collective human
behavior in administrative situations. It advocated the study of cross-structural
and cross-cultural administrative behaviors that paved the way for the
of
Public Administration- sees Public Administration as an open or closed
complex organization that is in constant interaction with the environment.

The organization has a set of interdependent parts or sub-systems that together

make up a complete whole. Each contributes something and receives something
from the whole, and is therefore interdependent with the environment. It is
dynamic and ever evolving through a continuous process of development while
at the same time striving to attain homeostasis or th
Structural Functional Approach to Public Administration- Every society has
norms, values, customs, traditions and institutions that perform certain
functions. It can be likened to certain organs of the human body, which perform
specific functions that have an interdependent pattern between them. Public
Administration is a bureaucratic structure that has administrative system and
behavioral characteristics that can be analyzed. The function is the consequence
of patterns of actions while the structure is the resultant institution and the
-

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recognizes the complementarities and underpinnings, intricacy, inseparability

and complexity of the relationship between Public Administration and politics
when juxtaposed against the role of the government and nature of its policies. In
this context, the nature of government policies, the way they are implemented
l Economy
Approach to Public Administration- bureaucrats and politicians engage in an
attrition to increase their own power and influence and end up formulating
policies, which may not be in the best interest of the larger public. This required
a democratic administration from a bureaucracy that adopts a more consumer-
centered approach in the formulation and implementation of policies that

their Approach to Public Administration- Marx believed that understanding the

function and structure of bureaucracy was crucial to the understanding of the
division of labor in society. The State did not represent the general interest of
the masses but those of the ruling class. It makes decisions that represent the
interest of elites and foist it over the masses while the bureaucracy implements
it. Revision: i. How do the various approaches help us to study and understand
Public Administration? ii. Briefly explain the main theme of each approach iii.
How does the behavior of administrators affect organizational output?

4.0. Administrative Theories There are many schools of administrative theory

1800’s and early 1900’s around the classical work of Adam smith and bordered
on the economic

rationality of all employees. It proposes that people are motivated by economic

incentives and that they will rationally consider opportunities that provide for
them the greatest economic gain.
Schein (1970) summarized the rational economic view as:

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• People are motivated by economic gains;

• Because organizations control economic incentives, an individual is primarily

a passive resource to be manipulated, controlled and motivated by the
organization;

• Irrational emotions must be kept from interfering with economic rationality;

• Organizations can be designed in ways to control irrational emotions and

consequently unpredictable, dysfunctional behaviors of employees

The three major offshoots of the classical theory are the scientific management,
-classical
School: The neo-classical school accepted the main frame of the classical
doctrine but emphasized the human side of an organization and the best way to
motivate, structure, and support employees within the organization. The school
incorporated the behavioral sciences into management thought by arguing that
employees should share tasks, information, and knowledge with one another in
the work environment. The approach changed the view that employees are tools
and furthered the belief that employees are valuable resources. The variants

Human Relations Movement: Emphasized the role of interpersonal and social

relations among the members of an organization. These relations are known as
human relations. The proponents included Abraham H. Maslow, Douglas
McGregor, Frederick Herzberg, Keth Davis, Rensis Likert who conducted
studies that led to what is human relation movement). They argued that workers
respond primarily to the social context of the workplace including social

Organization Theory: The modern organization theory emphasizes more on

behavioral and quantitative aspects of the organization. It has changed the
conduct of public administration by being result-oriented, focusing on clients,

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outputs and outcomes. Katsamunska posited that it is underpinned by

competition and choice as well as performance driven management with a better
marching of authority, responsibility and accountability as opposed to the
encumbrances of the traditional bureaucracy. According to Lamidi, the
offshoots of this theory are systems theory, structural-functional theory,
contingency theory and the behavioral theory.

-making School: The theory believes that the key factor in attaining
organizational objectives was correct decision-making that is, making optimal
rational choice when faced with alternative courses of action. It concentrates on
the persons or

group making the decision, analysis of the decision-making process, decision-

making environment, and the information available to the decision-makers, the
structure of the organization, etc. Herbert A. Simon developed a model of
decision-making thus: Step 1. The Intelligence Phase - finding, identifying, and
formulating the problem or situation that calls for a decision. Step 2. The
Design Phase - develop alternatives. Step 3. The Choice Phase - evaluate the
alternatives that were developed in the design phase and choose one of them.
The theory suggests that because of the complexity of the real world, the
rationality of actual human decision is always partial, or ‘bounded’ by human
limitations. Humans' reasoning is limited by the paucity of available
information, the cognitive incapacity or limitations, bias or judgmental error,
lack of knowledge, and time constraint, etc.

Revision: i. What are administrative theories? ii. How do the theories help us to
understand Public Administration? iii. What are the phases of the development
of administrative theories?

5.0. Area
Administration: This area of specialization is very relevant to Nigeria as a

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developing nation because of its innovative and dynamic approach. It

encourages new and better ways to achieve objectives by being people-centered
and empowering to the whole society without being product or profit-centered.
The major problem of public administration has been its strict adherence to laid
down rules and procedure, hierarchical organization, limited scope and premise.
This is the basis of bureaucratic red tape. It is arguable that since the
bureaucracy is the arm of government that is responsible for executing plans, it
should also be innovative and proactive in approach, especially in developing
economies. Development administration is that aspect of public Administration
that aggressively initiates and executes projects, programs, policies and ideas
that focus at the development of a nation, with emphasis on the economic,
social and political development of the society in general executed by experts.
The aim is to attain modernization, socio-economic development, institution
building and the creation of an integrated political society. To achieve the
objectives, the government centralizes economic planning, as well as the
preparation and execution of development programs and projects that promote
and efficiently manage industrial growth. The objectives are to meet the basic
needs of citizens through the provision of social services, economic
opportunities and social welfare. It aims at result-oriented change and requires
that every development function should have a defined objective. It calls for
good planning to decide the framework of resources and time allotted for a
particular development function.

ancial management: Public financial management is the aspect of Public

Administration that deals with the financial operation of public treasury and its
implication. It examines the methods and processes put in place by the
government to generate, utilize and control the public money in order to
improve the welfare of the people. Public finance covers all levels of
government (federal, state and local government) extending to the regulatory

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activities of government in the private sector. It covers government economic

policies and processes such as fiscal, monetary, direct physical, income and
exchange rate policies, debt management, control of foreign trade, fiscal
federalism, taxation, revenue collection and allocation, government expenditure,
budgeting and the budgetary processes, auditing, public financial accounting
and control, capital investment, public enterprises, multilateral institutions, etc.
Parry (2010) identified four key objectives of an effective public financial
management and they include: • aggregate financial management - fiscal
prudence and sustainability, resource mobilization, allocation and consumption
• operational management - performance, value for money and strategic
financial planning and management • governance - transparency and
accountability • Fiduciary risk management - controls, compliance and
oversight. Kiragu (2002) cited in Ezeani (2006) succinctly outlines the main
objectives of an effective financial system to include: • Proper planning and
budgeting for public expenditure • Effective and efficient administration of
government revenues • Proper use of budget resources • Effective control of
public expenditure • Accounting and reporting on public finance • Full
- Administrative
Law is the whole body of law relating to public administration.
Administrative law is the body of law, which concerns the functions of
administration and the relations of the administrative authorities with the
individuals, as well as the other authorities of the state. It contains the principles
according to which the activity of the service concerned with its execution is
exercised. It differentiates from constitutional law that is concerned with the
operation of the state as a sovereign entity. Administrative law concerns itself
with the official powers and responsibilities that determine the amount of
discretion permitted to administrative officers and agencies. It stipulates the
legal basis of administration, administrative discretion, its limits and various
kinds of official responsibility. Administrative law derives from statutes,

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charters, rules, regulations and procedures as well as resolutions, orders,

decisions, etc. Other sources are the constitution, legislative enactments,
administrative ordinances, regulations, decisions, customs, conventions, and
judicial decisions.

course of action which the government intends to implement in response to a

given problem or situation. It is pre-determined patterns of action or inaction by
government officials guided by extant rules, regulations and practices. Policies
reflect the intentions of the executive with input from public administrators; are
legalized by the legislators, mediated by the judiciary and implemented by
public administrators. The policy processes of demand and input, decisions,
statements, outputs and outcomes are unpredictable and fraught with
uncertainties. Policy analysis therefore, is the systematic investigation of the
policy options available, integrating the various aspects for and against each
option and selecting the best course of action to solve a particular problem.
Policy analysis is rational by being problem solving, informative, interpretative
and predictive of outcomes. Stages of the public policy analysis process are
initiation, estimation, selection, implementation, evaluation, and termination.
The main features of policy analysis are: • Public policy analysis is integrative
and inter-disciplinary. • Public policy analysis is anticipatory • Public policy
analysis is decision-oriented • Public policy analysis is expo facto (after the
fact) • Public policy analysis is value-conscious and client-
government administration: Nigeria operates a three-tier system of government
with the local government at the base. The local government has all the
appurtenances of government, which include its localness, establishment by
statute, relative independence, clearly defined area, population and
representative government. The purposes for establishing the local government
system include: • Political Integration and Nation-Building • Training in

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Citizenship and Political Participation and Articulation • Promotion of

Accountable Governance • Promotion of Claim-making on State and Federal
Government • Reduction of Social Discrimination • Provision of Channels of
Communication The expectation was that the above objectives would be
achieved if the local government administration were appropriately organized
toward effective:

• resource management; • conflict management; • planning and goal setting; •

provision of integrated social services; • claim making on government. The
functions of a Nigerian local government council are clearly outlined in the
fourth schedule of the 1999 constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria. The
constitution also provides for sources of revenue for the local government to
include statutory allocation, grants, loans and internally generated revenue.
Local government administration studies the operations of the Nigerian local
government system with a view to understanding the strengths, weaknesses and
his area investigates the impact that
individuals, groups and structure have on the behavior of organizational
members in order to apply such knowledge towards improving the
organization’s effectiveness. The Nigerian public administration is reflective of
the bureaucratic arrangement characterized by division of labor, hierarchy,
rules, records, impersonality, rationality and neutrality. It is designed to
accomplish large-scale administrative tasks by systematically coordinating the
work of many individuals. Organizational behavior studies how people behave,
what they do and how these affect the over-all performance of the organization.
The core topics include motivation, learning, leader behavior and power,
personality and emotions, inter-personal communication, group processes,
attitude development and perception, organizational structure and conflict, work
design, organizational culture, work stress and management, change
management, etc. Being multi-disciplinary, it applies behavioral principles from

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Psyc
Resource (Personnel) Management: Human Resource or Personnel
Management concerns itself with the management of personnel resources
guided by principles, practices, and techniques that help to ensure the
achievement of organizational objectives or goals. According to the Institute of
Personnel Management, it is that part of management concerned with people at
work and their relationships within an organization. The management function
concerns human relationships intended to develop employee potentialities in
order to contribute maximally to the achievement of organizational goals. It
covers manpower planning, recruitment, selection and placement, promotion
and compensation, training and development, employee (labor) management
relations, leadership and motivation, separation, etc. The objectives include: •
To achieve and maintain good human relationships within an organization • To
enable each employee to contribute his maximum personal effort to the
effective working of the organization • To ensure respect for human dignity and
the well-being of employees • To ensure maximum individual training and
development of personnel

• To motivate individuals to satisfy their personal needs and to help the

branch of Public Administration concerned with the nature and functioning of

international institutions, the development of their administrative patterns and
their effects on international policy-making. With the increasing importance of
global, regional and sub-regional institutions, the bureaucracy became the
centre of national and international policy-making, international decisionmaking
and administrative processes and therefore, an essential characteristic of the
international political and economic systems. International Administration
studies the administrative bodies of international organizations in order to
understand their internal working patterns and routines, their role in

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international policy-making, and the ecological factors that influence their

policy outcomes. How autonomous are the administration of international
institutions vis-à-vis the member states? Is their any link between them and the
members’ national administration? Does the administration have its own
expertise? Here the emphasis is on: • The characteristics of international
institutions • International public management systems of multilateral
institutions • Multilateral institutions, international administration and public
administration • Membership of International organizations and foreign policy
objectives • Reasons for the emergence of international administration. Revision
i. How has specialization helped the development of Public Administration? ii.
What area of Public Administration helps in the understanding of the way
administrators behave? iii How can the government determine the efficacy of its
policies? iv How do Nigeria relate with other countries? What area of Public
Administration links Nigeria with the international community? iv. What makes
Development Administration unique? Why is it relevant to developing
countries? v. How is Development Administration people-centered and
peopleoriented? 6.0. Challenges of Public Administration

Poverty, population explosion, corruption, illiteracy, poor sanitation,

insufficient infrastructure, inequitable distribution of income, etc. characterize
the Nigeria society. These are the hallmarks of under-development. Ideally, it is
the responsibility of public administration to oversee Nigeria’s developmental
strides by preserving and upholding

democratic values and delivering democracy dividends. This is achievable by

properly administering all government institutions, ensuring access to the
fundamental freedoms and other rights of the citizens while implementing
policies, laws, rules and regulations. What then are the problems and
challenges? Why has Nigeria not been able to surmount the ‘natural resource
curse’? The structure and organization of the current Nigerian public

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administration is a product of neo-colonialism and requires sufficient

reformation to make it development-oriented. It is essentially suited for
extractive economy rather than a productive one. The consequences of
institutional incapacity include inability to mediate conflicting interests,
cleavages and diversities in the political, social and economic realms, predatory
economic behavior, prebendalism, poor management of national resources as
well as low per capita income. The challenges include the need to build capacity
to accomplish all the goals for which it was created and to be adaptive to the
ever-changing global best practices and administrative techniques in response to
the changes in the social, political and economicenvironment.

Revision:

i. What are the effects of colonization on Nigeria’s public bureaucracy? ii. Why
has Nigeria remained poor despite its huge natural resources endowment? iii.
What is your personal assessment of Nigeria’s public bureaucracy? iv. What
factors vitiate the effective functioning of Nigeria’s Public Administration 7.0.
Issues in Public Administration • Public policy process • Decision-making
process • Inter-governmental relations • Leadership • Ethics in Public
Administration • Communication and conflict in organizations • Good
governance • Legislative oversight and control • Programs and program
evaluation • Technology and Public Administration • Power, authority and
supervision • Budgeting and budgetary process • Public Enterprises and
privatization Revision:

i. What is the relevance of each of the above concepts to Public Administration

in Nigeria?

Further reading: Ezeani, E.O. (2006). Fundamentals of Public Administration.

Enugu: Snaap Press Ltd. SharmaM.P.,Sadana, B.L. & Kaur, H. (2011). Public
Administration in Theory and Practice. Allahabad: Kitab Mahal

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Ethics and Leadership Issues in Africa

Introduction

This course examines the meaning of ethics, theories of ethics, ethical standards
and their interactions with leadership issues in Africa. The course will further
discuss meaning of leadership, types of leaders, as well as theories of
leadership.

Learning Objectives:

To understand the meaning of ethical leadership;

Expose students to theories in ethics and leadership;

Highlights the challenge of poverty of ethical leadership in Africa; and

Challenge students to imitate ethical leaders

What is Ethics?

 Ethics refers to a system of moral principles or standards

 The principle of right and wrong conducts

 As a field of philosophy, Ethics involves the systematisation, defence,

and recommendation of right behaviour

 Moral philosophers or ethicists discuss the subject matter of ethics

within three different but related subfields :meta-ethics, normative
ethics, and applied ethics

 Meta-ethics investigates the source and meaning of our ethical

principles;

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 Normative ethics examines how to arrive at moral standards that

regulate right and wrong conduct. This may involve articulating the
good conducts, the ought of our behaviour, or the consequences of
our behaviour on others.

 Applied ethics involves examining specific controversial issues, such

as euthanasia, abortion, same sex marriage, capital punishment, etc.

Theories of Ethics

 Consequentialism

 Relativism

 Utilitarianism

 Legalistic Moralism (Moral absolute)

 Situationism

 Ethical Realism

 Ethical Hierarcicalism

 Principles Ethics

 Cognitive Moral Development

What is Leadership?

 Leadership is one of the fundamental structures of any society.

 From the end of the hypothetical state of nature, scholars have paid
serious attention to leadership and this has led to the emergence of
many theories on the nature and dynamics of leadership.

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 All over the world people pay attention to leadership. Nations have
laws on how to be a leader

Consider the following definitions:

 Bennis (1959) sees it as a process by which an agent induces a

subordinate to behave in a desired manner

 Hollander and Julian (1969) view it as the presence of a particular

influence relationship between two or more persons.

 Fiedler (1967) opines that leadership is directing and coordinating

the work of group members.

 An interpersonal relationship in which others comply because they

want to, not because they have to (Merton 1969)

 Transforming followers, creating visions of the goals that may be

attained and articulating for the followers the ways to attain the goals
(Bass, 1985)

 The process of influencing an organized group toward accomplishing

its goals (Roach and Behling, 1984)

 Actions that focus resources to create desirable opportunities

(Campbell, 1991).

How Leaders Influence Followers

 Inspirational appeal

 Rational persuasion

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 Consultation

 Ingratiation

 Personal appeal

 Exchange

 Coalition tactics

 Threats tactics

Theories of Leadership:

 Ethical Leadership

 Utilitarian Leadership

 Libertarian Leadership

 Transformational Leadership

 Servant Leadership

Approaches to Leadership:

 Autocratic

 Democratic

 Laisser-faire

Overview of Ethical Leadership:

Ethical leadership refers to the actions of leaders conforming to the ethical

principles of the society.

 Ethical leadership influences people to do the right thing.

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 Non-ethical leadership is a bane of social ills in many contemporary

societies.

Anatomy of Non Ethical Leadership in Africa

 Imposition

 Selfishness

 Insatiability

 Insincerity

 Ethnic

 Ignorant

 Lawlessness

 Fetish

 Personalization of power

Consequences of Non-Ethical Leadership in Africa

 Poverty

 Violence/Conflicts

 Underdevelopment

 Lawlessness

Personal Reflections

Are you happy with Nigeria’s situations?

Leadership makes the difference between Africa and the developed World

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Today we complain about our leaders but how are you prepared as
tomorrow’s leader?

Few tips for Developing the Right Leadership Qualities

 Prepared for and determine to be the right kind of leader

 A paradigm shifts from the past

 Sincerity of purpose

 Altruistic actions

 Futuristic of plans

 Right Values

 Learn only from today’s good leaders

 Build Personal Integrity

 Many good leaders confessed to pray to God Almighty

Self Evaluation

1. How would you define Leadership?

2. What style of leadership do you think is most appropriate in Nigeria?

3. Do you think Africa will ever overcome the challenge of ethical

leadership?

4. Articulate other consequences of poor leadership in Africa. Discuss

this with your friends and see what they think.

5. List Nigerian leaders that you know and attempt to analyze their
leadership styles.

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NINE THEORIES OF ETHICS THAT RULE THE WORLD

1. Consequentialism maintains that the majority of an action depends on the

nonmoral consequences that the action brings about. Morality of an action
consists of
the ratio of good to evil that the action produces. We should perform right and
only right
action in terms of good and evil, as each individual defines good and evil, and
right and
wrong. There is no objective right and wrong or good and evil. The person
defines these.
You bump into a car at the mall. You could leave a note, but since there were no
witnesses and the owner is not around, you decide not to because you recognize
that the
damage is low (probably only a couple of hundred dollars). The car owner
probably has
insurance, and it would be such a hassle for the owner to contact you and your
insurance
company. You may have to end up paying higher premium, the owner may
think ill of
you—all of which are nonmoral reasons that may be unpleasant for you.
Ethical egoism state that you should always act so that your actions produce
what
is in your own best long-term interests.
Personal egoism states that an individual should always act in his or her own
best
long-term interests, but that does not say how others should act.
Impersonal egoism states that an individual should always act in his or her own
best long-term interest.

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2. Values Clarification (Philosophical Relativism) teaches that the most

important
aspect is not what one believes, but being aware one’s own feelings, beliefs,
and values
systems. People thus consider alternative models of thinking and acting. By
acting
thusly and making one’s own choices, one develops one’s own values.
In this setting, a value is what a person likes to do. It is NOT an ought-to-do, but
rather a want-to-do. Values clarification puts a heavy emphasis on feelings—so
much so
that it virtually equates values with feelings. It also reflects a philosophical
relativism—
the belief that there are no moral or ethical absolutes—everything is relative.
Concluding
what is right or wrong is basically anybody’s guess. Proponents of this systems
say that
they use the Socratic method—every ethical question is a question of either this
or that
choice. Unfortunately, Socrates and Plato had distinct beliefs about truth and
ethics which
the proponents of this methodology do not possess.
3. Utilitarianism states that the moral standard should be promotion of the
best longterm
interests of everyone concerned. Many utilitarianists say that which is
intrinsically good is pleasure and happiness (known as the hedonistic
calculus).
Others say there are other things which are intrinsically good such as beauty,
power,
knowledge, etc.

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Act Utilitarianism states that the right utilitarian act is the one that produces the
greatest ratio of good to evil for all concerned. Rule utilitarianism teaches us
that certain
actions almost always have a great utilitarian value and thus general rules are
formulated
to help us see that we follow these rules of action.
A few doctors decide that a number of experiments on a few people, even if
most
of them died, would be worth it if they could find a cure for a disease that would
relieve
the suffering of millions of people. Utilitarianism would give the approval for
such
because it produces the greatest good for the greatest number of people.
4. Legalistic Moralism (Moral Absolutism) states that there are pluralities of
absolutes
(or norms) with each one covering an area of human experience. These
absolutes
never conflict with each other. An action that is evil under one absolute is evil
under
every other absolute and could never be seen as good under any absolute.
Some call this the ethic of absolute ends because we do what is right and trust
God or fate or destiny or the forces of good to work things out. There is no
personal
responsibility for the consequences of morally right acts. We do them, not
because they
bring us pleasure, but because they are “right”…this is called the “categorical
imperative”.
A madman shows up at your door with a weapon raving, asking where your
loved

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one is, that he intends to kill the person. You answer truthfully because it would
be wrong
to lie. You trust that since you have told the truth, things will work out. Perhaps
the
neighbors have called the police, or someone will intervene, or something will
happen.
5. Situation Ethics shows that since legalistic Moralism is encumbered with a
bundle
of predetermined rules and regulations and while antinomianism says that
there are no
absolutes, then decision making must be based on a “middle ground”. That
middle
ground then says the guidelines for decision-making must be 1) absolute love
(agape)
2) general guidelines of helpfulness (sophia) 3) particular moment (kairos).
Love and justice are the same. If love is the end result, then the ends justifies the
means. This is not a selfish love, but a love that desires the neighbor’s best good
at all
times. There are four working principles involved—a) Pragmatism (love gives
concrete
practical, workable answers) b) Relativism (everything is relative to love) c)
Emotivism
(each person desires his or her own values) and d) Personalism (persons are the
ultimate
value).
A man finds himself in an unfulfilled marriage, looking for a person with whom
he can deeply connect. A woman is trapped in a marriage that is abusive and
filled with

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pain. They find each other and after a while one things lead to another until they
are in
love. Love being the ultimate goal, they being consenting adults, then they are
morally
right in having an affair.
6. Ethical Realism (as espoused by Reinhold Neibuhr)(the lesser of two evils)
states
that when absolute norms come into conflict (as they will eventually do) one
must
decide which to follow. Each solution offers limited alternatives, so the
solution which
produces the less of two evils is the one to be chosen.
Unavoidable moral dilemmas occur because our world is not perfect. Neibuhr’s
theory, The Origin of Moral Dilemma, comes from a Christian perspective
stating that we
live in a “fallen” world since sin entered it. Thus there is an excusable and
pardonable sin
because people did not cause that dilemma by their own acts. Every decision
will have
some sinful consequence of which God will forgive. Thus people must make the
choice
that is the lesser sin and then ask God’s forgiveness.
Neibuhr talked of a world. War. The Soviet Union was an evil and brutish
dictatorship over millions of people, forcing them into horrific, hellish
conditions. Yet to
oppose them in an outright war would bring massive destruction through
nuclear
weapons. Instead of direct opposition, we chose indirect opposition (the cold
war)

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through economics and alternative means.

7. Ethical Hierarcicalism (Graded Absolutism) is the view that there are many
universal norms, but they are not all intrinsically equal. Thus when a conflict
takes
place, we must obey the “higher” norm…we choose the greater of the two
goods.
Geisler Hierarchical Calculus is:
· Persons are more valuable than things
· God is more valuable than an incomplete person
· A complete person is more valuable than an incomplete person
· An actual person is more valuable than a potential person
· Potential persons are more valuable than actual things (fetus vs
appendage)
· Man persons are more valuable than a few persons
· Personal acts which promote personhood are better than those which don’t
Why should a person be held responsible for committing a crime if the crime
was
a lesser norm? Is it wrong for a man to steal money to purchase a life-saving
machine for
his child who is dying? Perhaps the system is at fault and not the person.
8. Principle Ethics states that principles are merely value states or guidelines
to
actions (as opposed to rules or laws). Thus when principles encounter each
other in
conflict it is not a conflict of norms, but rather an exercise in reasoning and
logic.
Principle ethics is the most difficult to study because it demands the area test
study and the most incisive analysis of principles and cases with the goal of
determining

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which principles apply to which case. The decision that is made is based upon
test of
logic, reasoning, and rationale.
9. Cognitive Moral Development (as espoused by Lawrence Kohlberg) states
that
ethics education is possible. Just as people develop mentally, physically, and
emotionally, they develop a moral cognizance. Using critical thinking tactics
such as
the Socratic method, people can solve their ethical dilemmas.
Kohlberg taught that there were six stages of ethical thinking, each stage being
of
greater maturity than the previous one. By delineating these levels, we are
allowed to
know and test each our own thinking. This helps us know ourselves better and
challenges
us to move on to a higher level of thinking. This assumes a sort of natural
goodness and
integrity in the child whereby he or she will always want to do the right thing—
if only
they had the time to reason tings out. This is the idea that people suffer from a
character
defect if they are void of logical thinking.

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MASS COMMUNICATION: CONCEPTS AND APPLICATIONS

(1) Brief Introduction

The topic is aimed at introduction university undergraduates particularly

non-mass communication students to the basic understanding of the discipline
of Mass Communication. The topic will afford students the opportunity to
appreciate the position and role of mass communication in the society and
government

Attempt is made in this topic guide to give information on the conceptual

explanations, characteristics, and elements of Mass communication; the
objective functions of mass communication the functions of mass
communication, the impact of mass communication and the challenges facing
mass communication with emphasis on Nigeria. To make the topic contents
more interactive and innovative, students are assessed and examined using
assessments questions, and topic related exercise. Furthermore, diagrams and
illustrations which will enhance the explanation of the ideas presented in the
topic are provided. Also, activities such as group charts; continuous assessment
or placing information in E-module calendar are other ways of making students
active participants in this study.

Topic Objective

At the end of the topic, students would be able to:

1. Understand in practical terms, the basics of mass communication as of

communications.
2. Understand the unique nature of mass communication considering the
characteristics and elements
3. Have being exposed to functions and impact of mass communication to
the society.

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Study Contents

Conceptual explanation

 Mass Communication, like any other social sciences disciplines, has been
given varied definitions depending on the perspective of the scholar that
offers them
 It is a process concerned with the production and transmission of mass
messages directed to a heterogeneous and diversified and widely
dispersed audiences through the use of sophisticated machines.
(2) Elements of Mass Communication

The central element of mass communication is the message while every

other component revolves round it. These are:

 Source
 Coding process
 Message
 Medium (channel)
 Decoding Process
 Decoder (reviewer)
 Feedback
 Noise

Characteristics of Mass Communication

There are features which make mass communication unique among other
forms of communication. These unique features are the presence of:

 Mass media gatekeepers

 More delayed feedback than other messages
 Limited sensory channels

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 Message open to the public, impersonal and irreversible

.Messages are directed towards relatively large, heterogeneous audience

who may not be seen by the communicators

 Reaction with mass communication messages rely almost exclusively on

sight and sound.

(3) Functions of Mass Media in the Society

The functions of mass media in the society are so vital that hardly can the
contemporary societies function properly and effectively without the mass
media. They constitute essential tool for political and socio-economic
development of countries Nigeria inclusive. On the other hand, mass media play
dysfunctional role in the society since their unguarded reports may trigger
conflicts. Generally, the functions of mass communication to human society are
achieved through the following:

 Surveillance
 Information
 Education (socialization)
 Entertainment
 Transmission of cultural heritage
 Interpretative
 Linkage
 Conferment of status
 Bonding
 Diversion
 Gate keeping function of relaying;
4. The uses of Mass Media

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Nwosu (1993) says that mass media and the government draw strength,
from the others weakness, excesses, anomalies and even successes.

This assertion presupposes that government and the media are

interdependent for the functioning of their systems.

However, there are specific roles which the media play to enhance
government policy programs as well as the wellbeing of the society. They are
discussed under the following:

 Building and reforming societal norms, values and belief

 Social Mobilization
 Education of the Public
 Entertainment
 Evangelization Role
 Explanation of government polices and laws to the citizens

Professional practices in various spheres of life egs. Teaching in tertiary

institutions, advertisement and public relations

 Watchdog Role .etc

 Promotion of democracy and good governance defense of human rights
 Fighting corruption
.

Challenges Facing Mass Media in Nigeria

The mass media are charged with the responsibility of seeking out the
truth and informing same to the masses. However, in Nigeria, mass media are
bedeviled with many challenges which threaten the actualization of the laudable
ends such as

1. Overbearing influence of owners of media houses

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2. Brown envelope syndrome

3. Commercialization of news
4. Insecurity in the country etc.

Self assessment Quiz

 Differentiate mass media from mass communication

 List 5 concepts associated with mass communication
 In what ways can mass communication reform social norms and values?

References

Dominick, J. R. (2009). The dynamics of mass communication (10th Ed.).

New York: McGraw-Hill.

Okunna, C. S. (1999). Introduction to mass communication (2nd Edition).

Enugu: New Generation Books.

SOCIAL WORK AND SOCIAL PROBLEMS

Igweonu O.U. &Onu J.C.
Social Sciences Unit
School of General Studies
University of Nigeria, Nsukka.

 Introduction

Social work is a professional discipline. It is a field of study that has

uniquely blended perspectives from other disciplines, particularly the biological

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and social sciences with its own values, knowledge and skills. Education for the
profession requires foundational understanding of human needs, social
problems, social welfare response, consumers of social services and
professional interventions (Brenda and Dubios et al, 2010).

According to Farley et al (2010:7) social work may be defined as an

art, a science, a profession that helps people solve personal, group, and
community problems and attain satisfying personal, group and community
relationships through social work practice. Social workers address social
concerns that threaten the structures of society and redress social conditions that
adversely affect the well-being of people and society. International federation of
social workers 2004 as in Dubios et al 2010, defines social work as the
profession that promotes social change, problem solving in human relationships
and the empowerment and liberation of people to enhance well-being, utilizing
theories of human behaviour and social systems, social work intervenes at the
points where people interact with their environments, principles of human rights
and social justice are fundamental to social work.

Following the major focus of social work which is on reducing problems

in human relationships and on enriching living through improved human
interaction, students at the end of this topic should be able identify activities
directed at improving human and social conditions and alleviating human
distress and social problems.

Learning Objectives

 The concept of social welfare

 The nature of social problems
 Roles of social work in the human society

 The Concept of Social Welfare

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The termssocial work and social welfare are often confused and
sometimes used synonymously. Actually, social welfare has a broader meaning
and encompasses social work, and other related programmes and activities
developed in meeting basic needs of people. According to Friend Lander 1980
in Farley et al social welfare is the organized system of social services and
institutions designed to aid individuals and groups to attain satisfying
standards of living life and health. Morales et al (2010) defines social welfare
as the translation of society’s dominant social 2010:3)philosophies into
social policies to be carried out by system of human services, agencies and
delivered by human in order service professions in order to meet the socially
related needs of individuals, families and other households, groups or
communities through programmes offering social provisions, personal services
or social action.

Every society develops its own specific pattern and programmes of social
welfare which is meant for the general good of the whole society without any
reference to a particular group and without any distinction between high and
low or rich and poor. In most countries, their governments have been engaged
in formulating and implementing a variety of social welfare programmes.

Revision Exercise
i. Social work is a professional discipline “Discuss”
ii. What is the major focus of social work
iii. Define social work according to Farley et.al (2010)

 The Nature of Social Problems

According to Adelola (1986) social problems have been defined to

include things that are inimical to the smooth running of the society. For a
condition to constitute a social problem, society must be aware of it. Ordinarily

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man requires comfort and security. Social problems constitute disturbance in the
society. Oxford Dictionary of Sociology (2005) defines social problems as a
generic term applied to the range of conditions and aberrant behaviours which
are held to be manifestations of social disorganization and to warrant changing
via some means of social engineering. Typically these problems include many
forms of deviant behaviours (such as crime like juvenile delinquency,
prostitution, mental illness, drug addiction, suicide, kidnapping, insurgency etc)
and of social conflict (ethnic tensions, domestic violence, industrial strife
and so forth).

In the complex social structure of modern industrial societies,

individuals and groups are differentially exposed to these hazards, and people
occupying different statuses and roles tend to differ in their appraisal of social
situation and in their views as to what constitutes a social problem requiring a
solution. For these reason, the range of possible social problems is alomost
infinite and can include phenomena as diverse as declining standards of literacy
and the demise of the work ethic. Similarly, the proposed solutions are also
variable due to the different interests and values of the various parties involved.

As people live together problems of relationship and interaction emerge.

Personal problems, family problems and community problems appear on the
horizon of everyday living. Drug abuse, homelessness, crime, delinquency,
sexual abuse, mental illness, suicide, school dropouts, examination malpractice,
AIDs and numerous other social problems abound at every turn. When serious
difficulties in human relationships arise the question immediately becomes
“Can we get help?” The answer is usually “Yes”. Many professions one of
which is social work are ready and eager to help (Farley et al, 2010:2).

Revision Exercise

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i. What is the definition of Social problems according to Adelola

(1986)
ii. What are the examples of social problems
iii. Differentiate between social work and social problems

 Roles of Social Workers

Social work practitioners assume a wide range of professional roles on problem

solving process. According to Ashman et al (1997) a role is a socially
expected behaviour pattern usually determined by an individual’s status in a
particular society or unit of society. The roles include: enabler, mediator,
integrator/coordinator, general manager, educator, analyst/evaluator, broker,
facilitator, initiator, negotiator, mobilizer and advocate.

References/Further Readings

Adelola, I. O. A. (1986). Introduction to sociology. Evans Brother (Nigeria

Publishers) Ltd Ibadan, Nigeria.

Ashman, K. K. & Hull, G. H. (1997). Generalist practice with organization

and communities. NelsonHall Publishers.

Dubois, B. and Miley, K. K. (2010).Social work an empowering profession.

Person Education, U.S.A.

Farley, O. W., Smith, L. L. and Boyle, S. W. (2010). Introduction to social

work (Eleventh Edition). Pearson Education, INC USA.

Scottt, J. and Marshall, G. (2005). Oxford dictionary of sociology. New

York: Oxford University Press.

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