IF2034 Structured Query Language

(SQL)

Disusun oleh: Wikan Danar Program Studi Teknik Informatika Institut Teknologi Bandung
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Schema Used in Examples

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Basic Structure
SQL is based on set and relational operations with certain modifications and enhancements A typical SQL query has the form:
select A1, A2, ..., An from r1, r2, ..., rm where P Ais represent attributes ris represent relations P is a predicate. This query is equivalent to the relational algebra expression.
A1, A2, ..., An(P (r1 x r2 x ... x rm))

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The SELECT Clause

The select clause list the attributes desired in the result
corresponds to the projection operation of the relational algebra

E.g. find the names of all branches in the loan relation

select branch-name from loan

In the pure relational algebra syntax: branch-name(loan) SQL allows duplicates in both relations and query results.
To force the elimination of duplicates, use the keyword distinct after select. select distinct branch-name from loan The keyword all specifies that duplicates not be removed (default). select all branch-name from loan
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The SELECT Clause (Cont.)

An asterisk in the select clause denotes all attributes
select * from loan

The select clause can contain arithmetic expressions involving the operation, +, , , and /, and operating on constants or attributes of tuples. The query:
select loan-number, branch-name, amount 100 from loan

would return a relation which is the same as the loan relations, except that the attribute amount is multiplied by 100.
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The WHERE Clause

The where clause specifies conditions that must be satisfied To find all loan number for loans made at the Perryridge branch with loan amounts greater than $1200. Comparison results can be combined using the logical connectives and, or, and not. Comparisons can be applied to results of arithmetic expressions. SQL includes a between comparison operator
select loan-number from loan where amount between 90000 and 100000

corresponds to the selection predicate of the relational algebra. select loan-number from loan where branch-name = Perryridge and amount > 1200

E.g. Find the loan number of those loans with loan amounts between $90,000 and $100,000 (that is, $90,000 and $100,000)

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The FROM Clause

The from clause lists the relations involved in the query
corresponds to the Cartesian product operation of the relational algebra.

Find the Cartesian product borrower x loan

select from borrower, loan

Find the name, loan number and loan amount of all customers having a loan at the Perryridge branch.
select customer-name, borrower.loan-number, amount from borrower, loan where borrower.loan-number = loan.loan-number and branch-name = Perryridge

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The Rename Operation and Tuple Variables

SQL allows renaming relations and attributes using as clause
old-name as new-name
Find the name, loan number and loan amount of all customers; rename the column name loan-number as loan-id. select customer-name, borrower.loan-number as loan-id, amount from borrower, loan where borrower.loan-number = loan.loan-number

Tuple variables are defined in from clause via as clause.

Find the customer names and their loan numbers for all customers having a loan at some branch. select customer-name, T.loan-number, S.amount from borrower as T, loan as S where T.loan-number = S.loan-number Find the names of all branches that have greater assets than some branch located in Brooklyn. select distinct T.branch-name from branch as T, branch as S where T.assets > S.assets and S.branch-city = Brooklyn
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String Operations
SQL includes a string-matching operator for comparisons on character strings. Patterns are described using two special characters:
percent (%). The % character matches any substring. underscore (_). The _ character matches any character.

Find the names of all customers whose street includes the substring Main. select customer-name from customer where customer-street like %Main% Match the name Main% like Main\% escape \
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Ordering the Display of Tuples

List in alphabetic order the names of all customers having a loan in Perryridge branch
select distinct customer-name from borrower, loan where borrower.loan-number = loan.loan-number and branch-name = Perryridge order by customer-name

We may specify desc for descending order or asc for ascending order, for each attribute; ascending order is the default.
E.g. order by customer-name desc

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In relations with duplicates, SQL can define how many copies of tuples appear in the result. Multiset versions of some of the relational algebra operators given multiset relations r1 and r2:
1. 2.

Duplicates

3.

SQL duplicate semantics:

select A1,, A2, ..., An from r1, r2, ..., rm where P

A(r): For each copy of tuple t1 in r1, there is a copy of tuple A(t1) in A(r1) where A(t1) denotes the projection of the single tuple t1. r1 x r2 : If there are c1 copies of tuple t1 in r1 and c2 copies of tuple t2 in r2, there are c1 x c2 copies of the tuple t1. t2 in r1 x r2

(r1): If there are c1 copies of tuple t1 in r1, and t1 satisfies selections ,, then there are c1 copies of t1 in (r1).

is equivalent to the multiset version of the expression: A1,, A2, ..., An(P (r1 x r2 x ... x rm))
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Set Operations
The set operations union, intersect, and except operate on relations and correspond to the relational algebra operations , , . Each of the above operations automatically eliminates duplicates; to retain all duplicates use the corresponding multiset versions union all, intersect all and except all. Suppose a tuple occurs m times in r and n times in s, then, it occurs: m + n times in r union all s min(m,n) times in r intersect all s max(0, m n) times in r except all s Find all customers who have a loan, an account, or both.
(select customer-name from depositor) union (select customer-name from borrower)

Find all customers who have both a loan and an account. (select customer-name from depositor) intersect (select customer-name from borrower) Find all customers who have an account but no loan. (select customer-name from depositor) except (select customer-name from borrower)
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Aggregate Functions
These functions operate on the multiset of values of a column of a relation, and return a value avg: average value min: minimum value max: maximum value sum: sum of values count: number of values Find the average account balance at the Perryridge branch. select avg (balance) from account where branch-name = Perryridge Find the number of tuples in the customer relation.
select count (*) from customer

Find the number of depositors in the bank. select count (distinct customer-name) from depositor
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Aggregate Functions Group By & Having

Find the number of depositors for each branch.
select branch-name, count (distinct customer-name) from depositor, account where depositor.account-number = account.account-number group by branch-name

Find the names of all branches where the average account balance is more than $1,200.
select branch-name, avg (balance) from account group by branch-name having avg (balance) > 1200

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 It is possible for tuples to have a null value, denoted by null, for some of their attributes null signifies an unknown value or that a value does not exist. The predicate is null can be used to check for null values. E.g. Find all loan number with null values for amount. select loan-number from loan where amount is null The result of any arithmetic expression involving null is null
E.g. 5 + null returns null

Null Values

Aggregate functions simply ignore nulls

Total all loan amounts select sum (amount) from loan
Above statement ignores null amounts result is null if there is no non-null amount, that is the

All aggregate operations except count(*) ignore tuples with null values on the aggregated attributes.
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Null Values and Three Valued Logic

Any comparison with null returns unknown
E.g. 5 < null or null <> null

or

null = null

Three-valued logic using the truth value unknown:

OR: (unknown or true) = true, (unknown or false) = unknown (unknown or unknown) = unknown AND: (true and unknown) = unknown, (false and unknown) = false, (unknown and unknown) = unknown NOT: (not unknown) = unknown P is unknown evaluates to true if predicate P evaluates to

unknown

Result of where clause predicate is treated as false if it evaluates to unknown

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Nested Subqueries
SQL provides a mechanism for the nesting of subqueries. A subquery is a select-from-where expression that is nested within another query. A common use of subqueries is to perform tests for set membership, set comparisons, and set cardinality. Find all customers who have both an account and a loan at the bank.
select distinct customer-name from borrower where customer-name in (select customer-name from depositor)

Find all customers who have a loan at the bank but do not have an account at the bank
select distinct customer-name from borrower where customer-name not in (select customer-name from depositor)
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Nested Subqueries - Set Comparison

F <comp> some r t r s.t. (F <comp> t) Where <comp> can be: <, , >, =, 0 ) = true (5 < some 5 (read: 5 < some tuple in the 6
relation) (5 < some

F <comp> all r t r (F <comp> t)

(5 < all

0 5 ) = false 6 6 ) = true 10 4 ) = false 5

0 ) = false 5 0 ) = true 5 0 5 ) = true (since 0 5)

(5 < all

(5 = all

(5 = some (5 some

4 ) = true (since 5 4 and 5 6) (5 all 6 ( all) not in However, (= all) in

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(= some) in However, ( some) not in

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Example Query
Find all branches that have greater assets than some branch located in Brooklyn.
select distinct T.branch-name from branch as T, branch as S where T.assets > S.assets and S.branch-city = Brooklyn OR select branch-name from branch where assets > some (select assets from branch where branch-city = Brooklyn)

Find the names of all branches that have greater assets than all branches located in Brooklyn.
select branch-name from branch where assets > all (select assets from branch where branch-city = Brooklyn)
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Nested Subqueries - Test for Empty Relations

The exists construct returns the value true if the argument subquery is nonempty.
exists r r not exists r r =

Find all customers who have an account at all branches located in Brooklyn.
select distinct S.customer-name from depositor as S where not exists ( (select branch-name from branch where branch-city = Brooklyn) except (select R.branch-name from depositor as T, account as R where T.account-number = R.account-number and S.customer-name = T.customer-name))
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Views
Provide a mechanism to hide certain data from the view of certain users. To create a view we use the command:
create view v as <query expression>

where: <query expression> is any legal expression The view name is represented by v

A view consisting of branches and their customers

create view all-customer as (select branch-name, customer-name from depositor, account where depositor.account-number = account.account-number) union (select branch-name, customer-name from borrower, loan where borrower.loan-number = loan.loan-number) Find all customers of the Perryridge branch select customer-name from all-customer where branch-name = Perryridge
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Derived Relations
Find the average account balance of those branches where the average account balance is greater than $1200. select branch-name, avg-balance from (select branch-name, avg (balance) from account group by branch-name) as result (branch-name, avg-balance) where avg-balance > 1200 Note that we do not need to use the having clause, since we compute the temporary (view) relation result in the from clause, and the attributes of result can be used directly in the where clause.
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Modification of the Database Deletion

Delete all account records at the Perryridge branch
delete from account where branch-name = Perryridge

Delete all accounts at every branch located in Needham city.

delete from account where branch-name in (select branch-name from branch where branch-city = Needham) delete from depositor where account-number in (select account-number from branch, account where branch-city = Needham and branch.branch-name = account.branch-name)

Delete the record of all accounts with balances below the average at the bank.
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 Add a new tuple to account or equivalently

Modification of the Database Insertion

insert into account values (A-9732, Perryridge,1200) insert into account (branch-name, balance, account-number) values (Perryridge, 1200, A-9732)

Add a new tuple to account with balance set to null

insert into account values (A-777,Perryridge, null)

Provide as a gift for all loan customers of the Perryridge branch, a $200 savings account. Let the loan number serve as the account number for the new savings account
insert into account select loan-number, branch-name, 200 from loan where branch-name = Perryridge insert into depositor select customer-name, loan-number from loan, borrower where branch-name = Perryridge and loan.loan-number = borrower.loan-number
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Modification of the Database Updates

Increase all accounts with balances over $10,000 by 6%, all other accounts receive 5%. update account set balance = balance 1.06 where balance > 10000 update account set balance = balance 1.05 where balance 10000
The order is important

Update of a View
Create a view of all loan data in loan relation, hiding the amount attribute create view branch-loan as select branch-name, loan-number from loan Add a new tuple to branch-loan insert into branch-loan values (Perryridge, L-307) This insertion must be represented by the insertion of the tuple (L-307, Perryridge, null) into the loan relation IF-ITB/WD dari Silberschatz, modifikasi TW/25 Nopember 2008 IF2034 SQL Page 25

Joined Relations
Join operations take two relations and return as a result another relation. These additional operations are typically used as subquery expressions in the from clause Join condition defines which tuples in the two relations match, and what attributes are present in the result of the join. Join type defines how tuples in each relation that do not match any tuple in the other relation (based on the join condition) are treated.
Join Types inner join left outer join right outer join full outer join Join Conditions natural on <predicate> using (A1, A2, ..., An)

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Joined Relations Datasets for Examples

Relation loan
loan-number L-170 L-230 L-260 branch-name Downtown Redwood Perryridge amount 3000 4000 1700

Relation borrower
customer-name Jones Smith Hayes loan-number L-170 L-230 L-155

Note: borrower information missing for L-260 and loan information missing for L-155
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Joined Relations Examples

loan inner join borrower on
loan-number L-170 L-230 branch-name Downtown Redwood amount 3000 4000

loan.loan-number = borrower.loan-number
customer-name Jones Smith loan-number L-170 L-230

loan left outer join borrower on loan.loan-number = borrower.loan-number

loan-number L-170 L-230 L-260 branch-name Downtown Redwood Perryridge amount 3000 4000 1700 customer-name Jones Smith null loan-number L-170 L-230 null
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Joined Relations Examples

loan natural inner join borrower
loan-number L-170 L-230 branch-name Downtown Redwood amount 3000 4000 customer-name Jones Smith

loan natural right outer join borrower

loan-number L-170 L-230 L-155 branch-name Downtown Redwood null amount 3000 4000 null customer-name Jones Smith Hayes

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Joined Relations Examples

loan full outer join borrower using (loan-

number)
L-170 L-230 L-260 L-155

loan-number

branch-name Downtown Redwood Perryridge null

amount 3000 4000 1700 null

customer-name Jones Smith null Hayes

Find all customers who have either an account or a loan (but not both) at the bank. select customer-name from (depositor natural full outer join borrower) where account-number is null or loan-number is null

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Data Definition Language (DDL)

Allows the specification of not only a set of relations but also information about each relation, including:

The schema for each relation. The domain of values associated with each attribute. Integrity constraints The set of indices to be maintained for each relations. Security and authorization information for each relation. The physical storage structure of each relation on disk.
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Domain Types in SQL

char(n). Fixed length character string, with user-specified length n. varchar(n). Variable length character strings, with user-specified maximum length n. int. Integer (a finite subset of the integers that is machine-dependent). smallint. Small integer (a machine-dependent subset of the integer domain type). numeric(p,d). Fixed point number, with user-specified precision of p digits, with n digits to the right of decimal point. real, double precision. Floating point and double-precision floating point numbers, with machine-dependent precision. float(n). Floating point number, with user-specified precision of at least n digits. Null values are allowed in all the domain types. Declaring an attribute to be not null prohibits null values for that attribute. create domain construct in SQL-92 creates user-defined domain types create domain person-name char(20) not null

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Date/Time Types in SQL

date. Dates, containing a (4 digit) year, month and date
E.g. date 2001-7-27

time. Time of day, in hours, minutes and seconds.

E.g. time 09:00:30 time 09:00:30.75

timestamp: date plus time of day

E.g. timestamp 2001-7-27 09:00:30.75

Interval: period of time

E.g. Interval 1 day Subtracting a date/time/timestamp value from another gives an interval value Interval values can be added to date/time/timestamp values

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Create Table Construct

An SQL relation is defined using the create table command:
create table r (A1 D1, A2 D2, ..., An Dn, (integrity-constraint1), ..., (integrity-constraintk)) r is the name of the relation each Ai is an attribute name in the schema of relation r Di is the data type of values in the domain of attribute

Example:
create table branch (branch-name char(15) not null, branch-city char(30),

Ai

assets

integer)

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Integrity Constraints in Create Table

not null primary key (A1, ..., An) check (P), where P is a predicate
Example: Declare branch-name as the primary key for branch and ensure that the values of assets are nonnegative. create table branch (branch-name char(15), branch-city char(30) assets integer, primary key (branch-name), check (assets >= 0)) primary key declaration on an attribute automatically ensures not null in SQL-92 onwards, needs to be explicitly stated in SQL-89
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Drop and Alter Table Constructs

The drop table command deletes all information about the dropped relation from the database. The alter table command is used to add attributes to an existing relation. alter table r add A D where A is the name of the attribute to be added to relation r and D is the domain of A.
All tuples in the relation are assigned null as the value for the new attribute.

The alter table command can also be used to drop attributes of a relation alter table r drop A where A is the name of an attribute of relation

r
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Dropping of attributes not supported by many databases

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