Chapter 4: SQL

Chapter 4: SQL
■ Basic Structure
■ Set Operations
■ Aggregate Functions
■ Null Values
■ Nested Subqueries
■ Derived Relations
■ Views
■ Modification of the Database
■ Joined Relations
■ Data Definition Language
■ Embedded SQL
Database System Concepts 4.1 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan

Basic Structure
■ SQL is based on set and relational operations with
certain modifications and enhancements
■ A typical SQL query has the form:
select A1, A2, ..., An
from r1, r2, ..., rm
where P
★ Ais represent attributes
★ ris represent relations
★ P is a predicate.
■ This query is equivalent to the relational algebra
expression.
■ ∏A1, A2, ..., An(σρ (r1 x r1 x ... x rm))
■ The result of an SQL query is a relation.

The select Clause
■ The select clause corresponds to the projection operation of the
relational algebra. It is used to list the attributes desired in the
result of a query.
■ Find the names of all branches in the loan relation
select branchname
from loan
■ In the “pure” relational algebra syntax, the query would be:
■ ∏branchname(loan)
■ An asterisk in the select clause denotes “all attributes”
■ select *
from loan

The select Clause (Cont.)
■ SQL allows duplicates in relations as well as in query results.
■ To force the elimination of duplicates, insert the keyword
distinct after select.
Find the names of all branches in the loan relations, and remove
duplicates
■ select distinct branchname
from loan
■ The keyword all specifies that duplicates not be removed.
■ select all branchname
from loan

The select Clause (Cont.)
■ The select clause can contain arithmetic expressions involving
the operation, +, –, ∗, and /, and operating on constants or
attributes of tuples.
■ The query:
select branchname, loannumber, amount ∗ 100
from loan
would return a relation which is the same as the loan relations,
except that the attribute amount is multiplied by 100.

The where Clause
■ The where clause corresponds to the selection predicate of the
relational algebra. If consists of a predicate involving attributes
of the relations that appear in the from clause.
■ The find all loan number for loans made a the Perryridge branch
with loan amounts greater than $1200.
select loannumber
from loan
where branchname = “Perryridge” and amount> 1200
■ SQL uses the logical connectives and, or, and not. It allows the
use of arithmetic expressions as operands to the comparison
operators.

The where Clause (Cont.)
■ SQL Includes a between comparison operator in order to simplify
where clauses that specify that a value be less than or equal to
some value and greater than or equal to some other value.
■ Find the loan number of those loans with loan amounts between
$90,000 and $100,000 (that is, ≥$90,000 and ≤$100,000)
select loannumber
from loan
where amount between 90000 and 100000

The from Clause
■ The from clause corresponds to the Cartesian product operation of the
relational algebra. It lists the relations to be scanned in the evaluation of
the expression.
■ Find the Cartesian product borrower x loan
select ∗
from borrower, loan
■ Find the name and loan number of all customers having a loan at the
Perryridge branch.
select distinct customername, borrower loan
number
from borrower, loan
where borrower.loannumber = loan.loannumber and
branchname = “Perryridge”

The Rename Operation
■ The SQL mechanism for renaming relations and attributes is
accomplished through the as clause:
oldname as newname
■ Find the name and loan number of all customers having a loan
at the Perryridge branch; replace the column name loannumber
with the name loanid.
select distinct customername, borrower.loan
number as loanid
from borrower, loan
branchnumber = “Perryridge”

Tuple Variables
■ Tuple variables are defined in the from clause via the use of the
as clause.
■ Find the customer names and their loan numbers for all
customers having a loan at some branch.
select distinct customername, T loannumber
from borrower as T, loan as S
where T. loannumber = S. loannumber
■ Find the names of all branches that have greater assets than
some branch located in Brooklyn.
select distinct T.branchname
from branch as T, branch as S
Where T .assets > S. assets and S. branchcity = “Brooklyn”

String Operations
■ SQL includes a stringmatching operator for comparisons on
character strings. Patterns are described using two special
characters:
★ percent (%). The % character matches any substring.
★ underscore (_). The _ character matches any character.
■ Find the names of all customers whose street includes the
substring “Main”.
select customername
from customer
where customerstreet like “%Main%”
■ Match the name “Main%”
like “Main\%” escape “\”

Ordering the Display of Tuples
■ List in alphabetic order the names of all customers having a loan
in Perryridge branch
select distinct customername
from borrower, loan
where borrower. loannumber = loan.loannumber and
branchname = “Perryridge”
order by customername
■ We may specify desc for descending order or asc for ascending
order, for each attribute; ascending order is the default.
■ SQL must perform a sort of fulfil an order by request. Since
sorting a large number of tuples may be costly. It is desirable to
sort only when necessary.

Duplicates
■ In relations with duplicates, SQL can define how many copies of
tuples appear in the result.
■ Multiset versions of some of the relational algebra operators –
given multiset relations r1 and r2:
1. If there are c1 copies of tuple t1 in r1, and t1 satisfies selections σθ,,
then there are c1 copies of t1 in σθ(r1).
2. For each copy of tuple t1 in r1, there is a copy of tuple ΠA(t1) in ΠA(r1)
where ΠA(t1) denotes the projection of the single tuple t1.
3. If there are c1 copies of tuple t1 in r1 and c2 copies of tuple t2 in r2,
there are c1 x c2 copies of the tuple t1. t2 in r1 x r2

Duplicates (Cont.)
■ Suppose relations r1 with schema (A, B) and r2 with
schema (C) are the following multisets:
r1 = {(1, a) (2,a)} r2 = {(2), (3), (3)}
■ Then ΠB(r1) would be {(a), (a)}, while ΠB(r1) x r2 would
be
{(a,2), (a,2), (a,3), (a,3), (a,3), (a,3)}
■ SQL duplicate semantics:
select A1,, A2, ..., rm
from r1, r1, ..., rm
where P
is equivalent to the multiset version of the expression:
Π A1,, A2, ..., An(σρ I(r1 x r2 x ... x rm))

Set Operations
■ The set operations union, intersect, and except operate on
relations and correspond to the relational algebra operations ∪,
∩, −.
■ Each of the above operations automatically eliminates
duplicates; to retain all duplicates use the corresponding multiset
versions union all, intersect all and except all. Suppose a
tuple occurs m times in r and n times in s, then, it occurs:
★ m + n times in r union all s
★ min(m,n times in r except all s

Set Operations
■ Find all customers who have a loan, an account, or both:
(select customername from depositor)
union
(select customername from borrower)
■ Find all customers who have both a loan and an account.
select customername from depositor)
intersect
■ Find all customers who have an account but no loan.
select customername from depositor)
except

Aggregate Functions
■ These functions operate on the multiset of values of a column of
a relation, and return a value
avg: average value
min: minimum value
max: maximum value
sum: sum of values
count: number of values

Aggregate Functions (Cont.)
■ Find the average account balance at the Perryridge branch.
select avg (balance)
from account
where branchname = “Perryridge”
■ Find the number of tuples in the customer relation.
select count (*)
from customer
■ Find the number of depositors in the bank.
select count (distinct customername)I
from depositor

Aggregate Functions – Group By
■ Find the number of depositors for each branch.
select branchname, count (distinct customername)
from depositor, account
where depositor.accountnumber = account.account
number
group by branchname
Note: Attributes in select clause outside of aggregate
functions must appear in group by list

Aggregate Functions – Having Clause
■ Find the names of all branches where the average account
balance is more than $1,200.
select branchname, avg (balance)
from account
group by branchname
having avg (balance) > 1200
Note: predicates in the having clause are applied after the
formation of groups.

Null Values
■ It is possible for tuples to have a null value, denoted by null,
for some of their attributes, null signifies an unknown value
or that a value does not exist.
■ The result of any arithmetic expression involving null is null.
■ Roughly speaking, all comparisons involving null return false.
More precisely.
★ Any comparison with null returns unknown
★ (unknown or unknown) unknown,
(true and unknown) unknown, (false and unknown) = false,
(unknown and unknown) = unknown
★ Result of where clause predicate is treated as false if it
evaluates to unknown
★ “P is unknown” evaluates to true if predicate P evaluates to
unknown

Null Values (Cont.)
■ Find all loan number which appear in the loan relation with nulll
values for amount.
select loannumber
from loan
where amount is null
■ Total all loan amounts
select sum (amount)
from loan
Above statement ignores null amounts; result is null if there is no
nonnull amount.
■ All aggregate operations except count(*) ignore tuples with null
values on the aggregated attributes.

Nested Subqueries
■ SQL provides a mechanism for the nesting of subqueries.
■ A subquery is a selectfromwhere expression that is nested
within another query.
■ A common use of subqueries is to perform tests for set
membership, set comparisons, and set cardinality.

Set Membership
■ F in r ⇔ ∃ t ∈ r (t = F)
0
(5 in 4 ) = true
5
0
(5 in 4 ) = false
6
0
(5 not in 4 ) = true

Example Query
■ Find all customers who have both an account and a loan at the
bank.
from borrower
where customername in (select customername
from depositor)
■ Find all customers who have a loan at the bank but do not have
an account at the bank
from borrower
where customername not in (select customername
from depositor)

Example Query
■ Find all customers who have both an account and a loan at the
Perryridge branch.
from borrower, loan
branchname = “Perryridge” and
(branchname, customername) in
(select branchname, customername
where depositor.accountnumber =
account.accountnumber)

Set Comparison
■ Find all branches that have greater assets than some branch
located in Brooklyn.
select distinct T.branchname
from branch as T, branch as S
where T assets S assets and
S branchcity “Brooklyn”

The Some Clause
■ F <comp> some r ⇔ ∃ t(t ∈ r ∧ [F <comp> t])
Where <comp> can be: <, ≤, >, =, ≠
0
(5< some 5 ) = true
(read: 5 < some tuple in the relation)
6
0
(5< some 5 ) = false
0
(5 = some 5 ) = true
0
(5 ≠ some 5 ) = true (since 0 ≠ 5)
(= some) ≡ in
However, (≠ some) ≡ not in
Example Query
■ Find all branches that have greater assets than some branch
located in Brooklyn.
select branchname
from branch
where assets >some
(select assets
from branch
where branchcity = “Brooklyn”

The All Clause
■ F <comp> all r ⇔ ∀ t(t ∈ r ∧ [F <comp> t])
0
(5< all 5 ) = false
6
6
(5< all 10 ) = true
4
(5 = all 5 ) = false
4
(5 ≠ all 6 ) = true (since 5 ≠ 4 and 5 ≠ 6)
(≠ all) ≡ not in
However, (= all) ≡ in
Example Query
■ Find the names of all branches that have greater assets than all
branches located in Brooklyn.
select branchname
from branch
where assets > all
(select assets
from branch
where branchcity = “Brooklyn”)

Test for Empty Relations
■ The exists construct returns the value true if the argument
subquery is nonempty.
■ exists r ⇔ r ≠ Ø
■ not exists r ⇔ r = Ø

Example Query
■ Find all customers who have an account at all branches located
in Brooklyn.
select distinct S customername
from depositor as S
where not exists (
(select branchname
from branch
where branchcity = “Brooklyn”)
except
(select R branchname
from depositor as T, account as R
where T accountnumber = R accountnumber and
S customername T customername))
■ Note that X – Y Ø ⇔ X ⊆ Y

Test for Absence of Duplicate Tuples
■ The unique construct tests whether a subquery has any
duplicate tuples in its result.
■ Find all customers who have only one account at the
Perryridge branch.
select T customername
from depositor as T
where unique (
select R customername
from account, depositor as R
where T customername = R customername and
R accountnumber = account.accountnumber
and
account.branchname = “Perryridge”)

Example Query
■ Find all customers who have at least two accounts at the
Perryridge branch.
select distinct T customername
from depositor T
where not unique (
select R customername
from account, depositor as R
where T customername = R customername and
R accountnumber account.accountnumber and
account.branchname = “Perryridge”)

Derived Relations
■ Find the average account balance of those branches where the
average account balance is greater than $1200.
select branchname, avgbalance
from (select branchname, avg (balance)
from account
group by branchname)
as result (branchname, avgbalance)
where avgbalance > 1200
Note that we do not need to use the having clause, since we
compute in the from clause the temporary relation result, and
the attributes of result can be used directly in the where clause.

Views
■ Provide a mechanism to hide certain data from the view of
certain users. To create a view we use the command:
create view v as <query expression>
where:
★ <query expression> is any legal expression
★ The view name is represented by v

Example Queries
■ A view consisting of branches and their customers
create view allcustomer as
where depositor accountnumber = account.accountnumber)
union
from borrower, loan
where borrower.loannumber = loan.loannumber)
■ Find all customers of the Perryridge branch
select customername
from allcustomer

Modification of the Database – Deletion
■ Delete all account records at the Perryridge branch
delete from account
■ Delete all accounts at every branch located in Needham.
delete from account
where branchname in (select branchname
from branch
where branchcity = “Needham”)
delete from depositor
where accountnumber in (select accountnumber
from branch, account
where branchcity = “Needham”
and branch.branchname = account.branch
name)

Example Query
■ Delete the record of all accounts with balances below the
average at the bank.
delete from account
where balance < (select avg (balance)
from account)
★ Problem: as we delete tuples from deposit, the average balance
changes
★ Solutions used in SQL:
1. First, compute avg balance and find all tuples to delete
2. Next, delete all tuples found above (without recomputing avg or
retesting the tuples)

Modification of the Database –
Insertion
■ Add a new tuple to account
insert into account
values (“Perryridge”, A9732, 1200)
or equivalently
insert into account (branchname, balance, accountnumber)
values (“Perryridge”, 1200, A9732)
■ Add a new tuple to account with balance set to null
insert into account
values (“Perryridge”, A777, null)

Modification of the Database –
Insertion
■ Provide as a gift for all loan customers of the Perryridge branch,
a $200 savings account. Let the loan number serve as the
account number for the new savings account
insert into account
select branchname, loannumber, 200
from loan
insert into depositor
select customername, loannumber
from loan, borrower
and loan.accountnumber = borrower.accountnumber

Modification of the Database – Updates
■ Increase all accounts with balances over $10,000 by 6%, all
other accounts receive 5%.
★ Write two update statements:
update account
set balance = balance ∗ 1.06
where balance > 10000
update account
set balance = balance ∗ 1.05
where balance ≤ 10000
★ The order is important
★ Can be done better using the case statement (Exercise 4, 11)

Update of a View
■ Create a view of all loan data in loan relation, hiding the
amount attribute
create view branchloan as
select branchname, loannumber
from loan
■ Add a new tuple to branchloan
insert into branchloan
values (“Perryridge”,” L307”)
This insertion must be represented by the insertion of
the tuple
(“Perryridge”, “L307, null)
into the loan relation
■ Updates on more complex views are difficult or
impossible to translate, and hence are disallowed.

Joined Relations
■ Join operations take two relations and return as a result another
relation.
■ These additional operations are typically used as subquery
expressions in the from clause
■ Join condition – defines which tuples in the two relations match,
and what attributes are present in the result of the join.
■ Join type – defines how tuples in each relation that do not match
any tuple in the other relation (based on the join condition) are
treated.
Join Types Join Conditions
inner join natural
left outer join on <predicate>
right outer join using (A1, A2, ..., An)
full outer join

Joined Relations – Datasets for
Examples
■ Relation loan
branchname loannumber amount
Downtown L170 3000

Redwood L230 4000
Perryridge L260 1700
Relation borrower
customername loannumber
Jones L170
Smith L230
Hayes L155

Joined Relations – Examples
■ loan inner join borrower on
loan.loannumber = borrower.loannumber
branchname loannumber amount customername loannumber
Downtown L170 3000 Jones L170

Redwood L230 4000 Smith L230
loan left inner join borrower on

loan.loan-number = borrower.loan-number
branchname loannumber amount customername loannumber
Downtown L170 3000 Jones L170

Redwood L230 4000 Smith L230
Perryridge L260 1700 null null

■ loan natural inner join borrower
branchname loannumber amount customername
Downtown L170 3000 Jones

Redwood L230 4000 Smith
loan natural right outer join borrower

null L155 null Hayes

■ loan full outer join borrower using (loannumber)

Perryridge L260 1700 null
null L155 null Hayes
Fine all customers who have either an account or a loan (but not
both) at the bank.
select customer-name
from (depositor natural full outer join borrower)
where account-number is null or loan-number is null

Data Definition Language (DDL)
Allows the specification of not only a set of relations but also
information about each relation, including:
■ The schema for each relation.
■ The domain of values associated with each attribute.
■ Integrity constraints
■ The set of indices to be maintained for each relations.
■ Security and authorization information for each relation.
■ The physical storage structure of each relation on disk.

Domain Types in SQL
■ char(n). Fixed length character string, with userspecified length n.
■ varchar(n). Variable length character strings, with userspecified
maximum length n.
■ int. Integer (a finite subset of the integers that is machine
dependent).
■ smallint. Small integer (a machinedependent subset of the integer
domain type).
■ numeric(p,d). Fixed point number, with userspecified precision of
p digits, with n digits to the right of decimal point.

Domain Types in SQL (Cont.)
■ real, double precision. Floating point and doubleprecision
floating point numbers, with machinedependent precision.
■ float(n). Floating point number, with userspecified precision of
at least n digits.
■ date. Dates, containing a (4 digit) year, month and date.
■ time. Time of day, in hours, minutes and seconds.
★ Null values are allowed in all the domain types. Declaring an
attribute to be not null prohibits null values for that attribute.
★ create domain construct in SQL92 creates userdefined domain
types
create domain personname char(20) not null

Create Table Construct
■ An SQL relation is defined using the create table
command:
create table r (A1 D1, A2 D2, ..., An Dn,
(integrityconstraint1),
...,
(integrityconstraintk))
★ r is the name of the relation
★ each Ai is an attribute name in the schema of relation r
★ Di is the data type of values in the domain of attribute Ai
■ Example:
create table branch
(branchname char(15) not null,
branchcity char(30),
assets integer)

Integrity Constraints in Create Table
■ not null
■ primary key (A1, ..., An)
■ check (P,) where P is a predicate
Example: Declare branch-name as the primary key for branch

and ensure that the values of assets are non-negative.
create table branch
(branch-name char(15) not null,
branch-city char(30)
assets integer,
primary key (branch-name),
check (assets > - 0))
primary key declaration on an attribute automatically

ensures not null in SQL-92

Drop and Alter Table Constructs
■ The drop table command deletes all information about
the dropped relation from the database.
■ The after table command is used to add attributes to
an existing relation. All tuples in the relation are
assigned null as the value for the new attribute. The
form of the alter table command is
alter table r add A D
where A is the name of the attribute to be added to
relation r and D is the domain of A.
■ The alter table command can also be used to drop
attributes of a relation
alter table r drop A
when A is the name of an attribute of relation r.

Embedded SQL
■ The SQL standard defines embeddings of SQL in a variety of
programming languages such as Pascal, PL/I, Fortran, C, and
Cobol.
■ A language to which SQL queries are embedded is referred to
as a host language, and the SQL structures permitted in the host
language comprise embedded SQL.
■ The basic form of these languages follows that of the system R
embedding of SQL into PL/I.
■ EXEC SQL statement is used to identify embedded SQL request
to the preprocessor
EXEC SQL <embedded SQL statement > ENDEXEC

Example Query
From within a host language, find the names and account
numbers of customers with more than the variable amount
dollars in some account.
■ Specify the query in SQL and declare a cursor for it
EXEC SQL
declare c cursor for
select customername, accountnumber
where depositor accountnumber = account.account
number
and account.balance > amount
ENDEXEC

Embedded SQL (Cont.)
■ The open statement causes the query to be evaluated
EXEC SQL open c ENDEXEC
■ The fetch statement causes the values of one tuple in the query
result to be placed on host language variables.
EXEC SQL fetch c into :cn: an ENDEXEC
Repeated calls to fetch get successive tuples in the query result;
a variable in the SQL communication area indicates when end
offile is reached.
■ The close statement causes the database system to delete the
temporary relation that holds the result of the query.
EXEC SQL close c ENDEXEC

Dynamic SQL
■ Allows programs to construct and submit SQL queries at
run time.
■ Example of the use of dynamic SQL from within a C
program.
char * sqlprog = “update account set balance = balance
* 1.05
where accountnumber = ?”
EXEC SQL prepare dynprog from :sqlprog;
char account [10} = “A101”;
EXEC SQL execute dynprog using :account;
■ The dynamic SQL program contains a ?, which is a place
holder for a value that is provided when the SQL program
is executed.

Other SQL Features
■ Forthgeneration languages – special language to
assist application programmers in creating templates
on the screen for a user interface, and in formatting
data for report generation, available in most
commercial database products
■ SQL sessions – provide the abstraction of a client and
a server (possibly remote)
★ client connects to an SQL server, establishing a session
★ executes a series of statements
★ disconnects the session
★ can commit or rollback the work carried out in the session
■ An SQL environment contains several components,
including a user identifier, and a schema, which
identifies which of several schemas a session is using.

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Chapter 4: SQL

Database System Concepts 4.1 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan

Database System Concepts 4.2 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan

Database System Concepts 4.3 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan

Database System Concepts 4.4 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan

Database System Concepts 4.5 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan

Database System Concepts 4.6 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan

Database System Concepts 4.7 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan

Database System Concepts 4.8 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan

Database System Concepts 4.9 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan

Database System Concepts 4.10 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan

Database System Concepts 4.11 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan

Database System Concepts 4.12 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan

Database System Concepts 4.13 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan

Database System Concepts 4.14 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan

Database System Concepts 4.15 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan

Database System Concepts 4.16 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan

Database System Concepts 4.17 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan

Database System Concepts 4.18 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan

Database System Concepts 4.19 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan

Database System Concepts 4.20 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan

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Database System Concepts 4.26 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan

Database System Concepts 4.27 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan

Database System Concepts 4.29 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan

■ F <comp> all r ⇔ ∀ t(t ∈ r ∧ [F <comp> t])

Database System Concepts 4.31 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan

Database System Concepts 4.32 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan

Database System Concepts 4.33 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan

Database System Concepts 4.34 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan

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Database System Concepts 4.42 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan

Database System Concepts 4.43 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan

Database System Concepts 4.44 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan

Database System Concepts 4.45 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan

branch­name loan­number amount

Downtown L­170 3000

Database System Concepts 4.46 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan

Downtown L­170 3000 Jones L­170

loan left inner join borrower on

branch­name loan­number amount customer­name loan­number

Downtown L­170 3000 Jones L­170

Database System Concepts 4.47 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan

branch­name loan­number amount customer­name

Downtown L­170 3000 Jones

loan natural right outer join borrower

branch­name loan­number amount customer­name

Downtown L­170 3000 Jones

Database System Concepts 4.48 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan

branchname loannumber amount

Downtown L170 3000

Downtown L170 3000 Jones L170

branchname loannumber amount customername loannumber

Downtown L170 3000 Jones L170

branchname loannumber amount customername

Downtown L170 3000 Jones

branchname loannumber amount customername

Downtown L170 3000 Jones

branchname loannumber amount customername

Downtown L170 3000 Jones