ENGINEERING MECHANICS

Department of Engineering Sciences

Engineering Mechanics

Lecture Notes

B.Tech ( I YEAR - I SEM)

(2022-23)
 ENGINEERING MECHANICS

Introduction to Engineering
Mechanics
Module 1
 ENGINEERING MECHANICS

Lecture-1

INTRODUCTION TO ENGINEERING MECHANICS

ENGINEERING MECHANICS

Mechanics is that branch of physical science which deals with the action of forces on material bodies.
Engineering Mechanics, which is very often referred to as Applied Mechanics, deals with the practical
applications of mechanics in the field of engineering. Applications of Engineering Mechanics are found in
analysis of forces in the components of roof truss, bridge truss, machine parts, parts of heat engines, rocket
engineering, aircraft design etc.

DIVISIONS OF ENGINEERING MECHANICS

The subject of Engineering Mechanics may be divided into the following two main groups: 1. Statics and 2.
Dynamics.

STATICS: It is the branch of Engineering Mechanics, which deals with the forces and their effects, while acting
upon the bodies at rest.

DYNAMICS: It is the branch of Engineering Mechanics, which deals with the forces and their effects, while acting
upon the bodies in motion.

Dynamics may be further sub-divided into the following two branches: 1. Kinematics 2. Kinetics Kinetic deals
with the forces acting on moving bodies, whereas kinematics deals with the motion of the bodies without any
reference to forces responsible for the motion.

FUNDAMENTAL UNITS

Every quantity is measured in terms of some internationally accepted units, called fundamental units. All the
physical quantities in Engineering Mechanics are expressed in terms of three fundamental quantities, i.e. 1.
Length 2. Mass and 3. Time. DERIVED UNITS Sometimes, the units are also expressed in other units (which are
derived from fundamental units) known as derived units e.g. units of area, velocity, acceleration, pressure etc.

SYSTEMS OF UNITS

There are only four systems of units, which are commonly used and universally recognized. These are known
as: 1. C.G.S. units2. F.P.S. units3. M.K.S. units and 4. S.I. units. In this study material we shall use only the S.I.
system of units.

FUNDAMENTAL S.I UNITS QUANTITIES FUNDAMENTAL UNIT SYMBOL

Length, Mass, Time, Electric Current, Luminous Intensity and Thermodynamic Temperature is Meter, Kilogram,
Second, Ampere, Candela and Kelvin represented as m, Kg, S, A, Cd and K

RIGID BODY AND ELASTIC BODY

A body is said to be rigid if it does not undergo deformation whatever force may be applied to the body. In
actual practice, there is no body which can be said to be rigid in true sense of terms. A body is said to be elastic
if it undergoes deformation under the action of force. All bodies are more or less elastic. SCALAR AND VECTOR
All physical quantities can be divided into scalar quantity and vector quantity. Scalar quantity is that physical

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quantity which has only magnitude and no direction. For example, length, mass, energy etc. Vector quantity is
that physical quantity which has both magnitude and direction. For example, force, velocity etc.

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Lecture-2

LAW OF FORCES AND FORCE SYSTEMS

LAWS OF MECHANICS

The following are the fundamental laws of mechanics:

(i) Newton’s first law

(ii) Newton’s second law

(iii) Newton’s third law

(iv) Newton’s law of gravitation

(v) Law of transmissibility of forces

(vi) Parallelogram law of forces

Law of transmissibility of forces and law of parallelogram of forces will be discussed in coming lessons. Let us
discuss the remaining laws:

(i) Newton’s first law: It states that everybody continues in its state of rest or of uniform motion in a straight
line unless it is compelled by an external agency acting on it.

(ii) Newton’s second law: It states that the rate of change of momentum of a body is directly proportional to
the impressed force and it takes place in the direction of the force acting on it.

According to this law,

Force = rate of change of momentum. But momentum = mass × velocity

As mass do not change,

Force = mass × rate of change of velocity

i.e., Force = mass × acceleration

F=m×a

(iii) Newton’s third law: It states that for every action there is an equal and opposite reaction.

VECTORS:

Various quantities used in engineering mechanics may be grouped into scalars and vectors.

Scalar Quantity: A quantity is said to be scalar if it is completely defined by its magnitude alone. Examples of
scalar quantities are:

Area, length, Mass, Moment of inertia, Energy, Power, Volume and Work etc.

Vector Quantity: A quantity is said to be vector if it is completely defined only when its magnitude as well as
direction are specified. Examples of vector quantities include:

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Force, Moment, Momentum, Displacement, Velocity and Acceleration.

Force systems

Force is that which change or tends to change the state of rest of uniform motion of a body along a straight
line. It may also deform a body changing its dimensions. The force may be broadly defined as an agent
which produces or tends to produce, destroys or tends to destroy motion. It has a magnitude and direction.
Mathematically: Force=Mass × Acceleration.
Where F=force, M=mass and A=acceleration.
Units of force

In C.G.S. System: In this system, there are two units of force: (i) Dyne and (ii) Gram force (gmf). Dyne is the
absolute unit of force in the C.G.S. system. One dyne is that force which acting on a mass of one gram
produces in it an acceleration of one centimeter per second2. In M.K.S. System: In this system, unit of force
is kilogram force (kgf). One kilogram force is that force which acting on a mass of one kilogram produces in
it an acceleration of 9.81 m/sec2. In S.I. Unit: In this system, unit of force is Newton (N). One Newton is
that force which acting on a mass of one kilogram produces in it an acceleration of one m /sec2. 1 Newton
= 105 Dyne.
Effect of force

A force may produce the following effects in a body, on which it acts:

1. It may change the motion of a body. i.e. if a body is at rest, the force may set it in motion. And, if the
body is already in motion, the force may accelerate or decelerate it.
2. It may retard the forces, already acting on a body, thus bringing it to rest or in equilibrium.
3. It may give rise to the internal stresses in the body, on which it acts.
4. A force can change the direction of a moving object.
5. A force can change the shape and size of an object.
Characteristics of a force
In order to determine the effects of a force, acting on a body, we must know the following characteristics
of a force:
1. Magnitude of the force (i.e., 50 N, 30 N, 20N etc.)
2. The direction of the line, along which the force acts (i.e., along West, at 30° North of East etc.). It is also
known as line of action of the force.
3. Nature of the force (push or pull).
4. The point at which (or through which) the force acts on the body.
Principle of physical independence of forces
It states, “If a number of forces are simultaneously acting on a particle, then the resultant of these forces
will have the same effect as produced by all the forces”.
System of forces

When two or more forces act on a body, they are called to form a system of forces. Force system is basically
classified into following types.
i. Coplanar forces
ii. Collinear forces
iii. Concurrent forces
iv. Coplanar concurrent forces
v. Coplanar non- concurrent forces
vi. Non-coplanar concurrent forces
vii. Non- coplanar non- concurrent force
Coplanar forces

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The forces, whose lines of action lie on the same plane, are known as coplanar forces.
Collinear forces
The forces, whose lines of action lie on the same line, are known as collinear forces. They act along the
same line. Collinear forces may act in the opposite directions or in the same direction.

Fig 1.1

Concurrent forces
The forces, whose lines of action pass through a common point, are known as concurrent forces. The
concurrent forces may or may not be collinear

Fig. 1.2 Fig. 1.3

Coplanar concurrent forces

The forces, whose lines of action lie in the same plane and at the same time pass through a common point
are known as coplanar concurrent forces.

Fig. 1.4

Coplanar non-concurrent forces

The forces, which do not meet at one point, but their lines of action lie on the same plane, are known as
coplanar non-concurrent forces.

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Fig. 1.5

Non-coplanar concurrent forces

The forces, which meet at one point, but their lines of action do not lie on the same plane, are known as
non-coplanar concurrent forces.

Fig 1.6
Non-coplanar non-concurrent forces
The forces, which do not meet at one point and their lines of action do not lie on the same plane, are called
non-coplanar non-concurrent forces.
Pull and push
Pull is the force applied to a body at its front end to move the body in the direction of the force applied.
Push is the force applied to a body at its back end in order to move the body in the direction of the force
applied.

Fig 1.7 push and pull

Action and Reaction

Action means active force. Reaction means reactive force. When a body having a weight W (=mg) is placed
on a horizontal plane as shown in Fig 1.8, the body exerts a vertically downward force equal to ‘W’ or ‘mg’
on the plane. Then ‘W’ is called action of the body on the plane. According to Newton’s 3 rd law of motion,
every action has an equal and opposite reaction. But action and reaction never act on the same body. So,
the horizontal plane will exert equal amount of force R on the body in the vertically upward direction. This
vertically upward force acting on the body is called reaction of the plane on the body.

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Fig 1.8 Action and reaction

Free body diagram
The representation of reaction force on the body by removing all the support or forces act from the body
is called free body diagram.

A
B
R A RB

W
Object with support Free Body Diagram
Fig.1.9
External force and internal force
When a force is applied externally to a body; that force is called external force.
Internal force is that force which is set up in a body to resist deformation of the body caused by the external
force.
Tension
Tension is the pull to which a rope or wire or rod is subjected. In figure 1.10 (b) P is the tension applied to
a rope.

Fig 1.10 Tension

Let a body having weight W be suspended by means of a vertical rope fixed at its upper end at O. The point
O is pulled downward by a force W. Hence the point O will exert equal amount of force W to the body, in
the upward direction. This upward force on the rope is the tension of the rope. In Fig 1.10(a), T is the
tension of the rope.

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Lecture-3
COMPONENTS OF FORCES

Representation of a force
Since force is a vector quantity, it can be represented by a straight line. The length of the line represents
magnitude of the force, the line itself represents the direction and an arrow put on the head of the straight
line indicates the sense in which the force acts.
Denoting a force by bow’s notation

Fig 1.11

In Bow’s notation for denoting a force, two English capital letters are placed, one on each side of the line
of action of the force. In figure 1.11 AB denotes the force F.
Principle of transmissibility of forces
It states, “If a force acts at any point on a rigid body, it may also be considered to act at any other point on
its line of action, provided this point is rigidly connected with the body”. That means the point of application
of a force can be moved anywhere along its line of action without changing the external reaction forces on
a rigid body.

Fig 1.12
Here force at point A = force at B (the magnitude of force in the body at any point along the line of action
are same)
Principle of superposition of forces
This principle states that the combined effect of force system acting on a particle or a rigid body is the sum
of effects of individual forces.
Consider two forces P and Q acting at A on a boat as shown in Fig 1.13. Let R be the resultant of these two
forces P and Q. According to Newton’s second law of motion, the boat will move in the direction of resultant
force R with acceleration proportional to R. The same motion can be obtained when P and Q are applied
simultaneously.

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Fig 1.13

Resolution of a force
The process of splitting up the given force into a number of components, without changing its effect on the
body is called resolution of a force. A force is, generally, resolved along two mutually perpendicular
directions.

Y F p
θ θ

X b

Fig(a) Fig (b)

Fig 1.14

(From Pythagoras theorem we know that

p= h sin θ

similarly

Cos θ =

b= h cos θ

By resolution of force F, we found X=F Cos θ and Y=F Sin θ

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RESOLUTION OF A GIVEN FORCE INTO TWO COMPONENTS IN TWO ASSIGNED DIRECTION

Let P be the given force represented in magnitude and direction by OB as shown in Fig 1.15. Also let OX
and OY be two given directions along which the components of P are to be found out.

Fig 1.15
Let < BOX = α and < BOY = β

From B, lines BA and BC are drawn parallel to OY and OX respectively. Then the required
components of the given force P along OX and OY are represented in magnitude and direction by
OA and OC respectively. Since AB is parallel to OC, <BAX = <AOC = α + β

< AOB = 180o – (α + β)

Now, in Δ OAB

Or

But AB = OC

i.e. OC

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DETERMINATION OF RESOLVED PARTS OF A FORCE

Fig 1.16

Resolved parts of a force mean components of the force along two mutually perpendicular directions.
Let a force F represented in magnitude and direction by OC make an angle θ with OX. Line OY is drawn
through O at right angles to OX as shown in figure 1.16.
Through C, lines CA and CB are drawn parallel to OY and OX respectively. Then the resolved parts of the
force F along OX and OY are represented in magnitude and direction by OA and OB respectively.
Now in the right angled Δ AOC, cosθ = OA / OC = OA / F i.e OA = F cos θ
Since OA is parallel to BC, <OCB = <AOC = θ
In the right angled Δ OBC, sinθ = OB / OC = OB / F i.e, OB = F sin θ
Thus, the resolved parts of F along OX and OY are respectively. F cos θ and F sin θ.

Significance of the resolved parts of a force

Fig 1.17

Let 50 KN force is required to be applied to a body along a horizontal direction CD in order to move the
body along the plane AB. Then it can be said that to move the body along the same plane AB, a force of
50kN is to be applied at an angle of 60° with the horizontal as CD = 50
cos60° = 25kN.
Similarly, if a force of 43.3kN is required to be applied to the body to lift it vertically upward, then the body
will be lifted vertically upward if a force of 50kN is applied to the body at an angle of 60° with the horizontal,
as the resolved part of 50kN along the vertical CE = 50 sin60° = 43.3kN.

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Thus, the resolved part of a force in any direction represents the whole effect of the force in that direction.
Resultant and component
Resultant of two or more forces is a single force whose effect on a body is the same as the given forces
taken together acting on the body. In figure 1.20, R is the resultant of forces P and Q.

Fig 1.18 Resultant and component

If R is the resultant of two forces P and Q, it means forces P and Q can be replaced by R. Similarly, R can be
replaced by two forces P and Q whose joint effect on a body will be the same as R on the body. Then these
two forces P and Q are called components of R.
Or we can say:
If a number of forces, P, Q, R ... etc are acting simultaneously on a particle, then it is possible to find out a
single force which could replace them i.e., which would produce the same effect as produced by all the
given forces. This single force is called resultant force and the given forces P, Q, R ...etc are called
component forces.
Equilibrant
Equilibrant of a system of forces is a single force which will keep the given forces in equilibrium. Evidently,
equilibrant is equal and opposite to the resultant of the given forces.
Equal forces
Two forces are said to be equal when acting on a particle along the same line but in opposite directions,
keeping the particle at rest.

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Lecture-4
MOMENT OF A FORCE

It is the turning effect produced by a force, on the body, on which it acts. The moment of a force is equal to
the product of the force and the perpendicular distance of the point, about which the moment is required
and the line of action of the force.

Mathematically, moment,

M=P×l

where P = Force acting on the body, and l = Perpendicular distance between the point, about which the
moment is required and the line of action of the force.

Moment of a force about a point is the product of the force and the perpendicular distance of the point
from the line of action of the force.

Fig 1.39

Let a force P act on a body which is hinged at O.

Then, moment of P about the point O in the body is = F x ON, where:

ON = perpendicular distance of O from the line of action of the force F.

Moment of a force about an axis

Let us consider a door leaf hinged to a vertical wall by several hinges. Let us consider a vertical axis XY
passing through hinges as shown in Fig 1.40.

Let a force F be applied to the door leaf at right angles to its plane and at a perpendicular distance of l from
the XY-axis. Then, moment of the force F about XY-axis = F x l.

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Fig 1.40

Unit of moment
Unit of moment depends upon unit of force and unit of length.

If, however, force is measured in Newton and distance is measured in meter, the unit of moment will be
Newton meter (Nm). If force is measured in kilo Newton and distance is measured in meter, unit of moment
will be kilo Newton meter (kNm) and so on. Unit of moment is the same as that of work. But work is
completely different from moment.

Types of moments
Broadly speaking, the moments are of the following two types:

1. Clockwise moments. 2. Anticlockwise moments.

Fig 1.41

Clockwise moment is the moment of a force, whose effect is to turn or rotate the body, about the point in
the same direction in which hands of a clock move as shown in Fig. 1.41(a).
Anticlockwise moment is the moment of a force, whose effect is to turn or rotate the body, about the point
in the opposite direction in which the hands of a clock move as shown in Fig1.41 (b).

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Positive moment and negative moment

It is found that some moments acting on a body have a tendency to turn the body in the clockwise direction
and some other moments acting on the same body have a tendency to turn the body in the anti-clockwise
or counter clockwise direction.

Fig 1.42

In order to distinguish turning tendency in the clockwise direction from that in the anti-clockwise direction,
it has become necessary to treat moment in one direction as positive and moment in the reverse direction
as negative. Usually, anti-clockwise moment is taken as positive moment and clockwise moment is taken as
negative moment. But there is no hard and fast rule regarding sign convention of moments.

Algebraic sum of the moments

With reference to Fig1.42, a bar AB is held in position on a pivot O under the action of four loads W1, W2, W3
and W4, whose lines of action are at perpendicular distances of l1, l2, l3, l4respectively from O. Then, moment
of about O = W1 x l1. This moment has a tendency to turn the bar about O in a vertical plane in the clockwise
direction. The moment due to W2 about O = W2 x l2. This moment also has a tendency to turn the bar AB in
the clockwise direction in a vertical plane about O.

The moment due to W3 about O = W3xl3. This moment has a tendency to turn the bar AB in the anti-clockwise
direction in a vertical plane about O. The moment due to W, about O = W4 x I4. This moment also has a
tendency to turn the bar AB in the anti-clockwise direction in the vertical plane about O.

Algebraic sum means summation considering proper signs of the physical quantities. Hence, algebraic sum
of the moments of W1, W2, W3, W4 about O = W3 x l3 + W4 x l4 – W1 x l1 – W2 x l2

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Geometrical representation of the moment of the force about a point

Fig 1.43

Let a force F represented in magnitude and direction by AB be acting on a body and let O be any point in the
plane of the force F as shown in Fig 1.43.

From O, perpendicular OM is drawn on the line of action of F. Then, moment of F about

O=FxOM x OM, Thus, the moment of a force about a point is represented by twice the area of the
triangle formed by joining the point to the extremities of the straight line which represents the force.

Varignon’s Theorem
Varignon’s theorem states that the algebraic sum of the moment, two forces about any point in their plane
is equal to the moment of the, resultant about the same point.

Proof.

Case (i) When the forces are concurrent

Fig 1.44

Let P and Q be any two forces acting at a point O along lines OX and OY respectively and let D be any point
in their plane as shown in Fig 1.44.

Line DC is drawn parallel to OX to meet OY at B. Let in some suitable scale, line OB represent the force Q in
magnitude and direction and let in the same scale, OA represent the force P in magnitude and direction.

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With OA and OB as the adjacent sides, parallelogram OACB is completed and OC is joined. Let R be the
resultant of forces P and Q. Then, according to the “Theorem of parallelogram of forces”, R is represented in
magnitude and direction by the diagonal OC of the parallelogram OACB.

The point D is joined with points O and A. The moments of P, Q and R about D are given by 2 x area of
ΔAOD, 2 x area of ΔOBD and 2 x area of ΔOCD respectively.

With reference to Fig1.44(a), the point D is outside the <AOB and the moments of P, Q and R about D are all
anti-clockwise and hence these moments are treated as +ve.

Now, the algebraic sum of the moments of P and Q about

D = 2ΔAOD + 2ΔOBD

= 2 (ΔAOD + ΔOBD)

= 2 (ΔAOC + ΔOBD) {See note below]

= 2 (ΔOBC + ΔOBD)

= 2ΔOCD = Moment of R about D.

[Note. As AOC and AOD are on the same base and have the same altitude. ΔAOD = ΔOBC.

Again, As AOC and OBC have equal bases and equal altitudes. ΔAOC = ΔOBC].

With reference to Fig 1.44 (b), the point D is within the <AOB and the moments of P, Q and R about D are
respectively anti-clockwise, clockwise and anti-clockwise.

Now, the algebraic sum of the forces P and Q about

D = 2ΔAOD-2 ΔOBD = 2 (ΔAOD-ΔOBD) = 2 (ΔAOC- ΔOBD) = 2(ΔOBC - ΔOBD)

= 2ΔOCD = Moment of R about D

Case (ii) When the forces are parallel

Fig 1.45

Let P and Q be any two like parallel forces (i.e. the parallel forces whose lines of action are parallel and
which act in the same sense) and O be any point in their plane.

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Let R be the resultant of P and Q.

Then, R=P+Q

From O, line OACB is drawn perpendicular to the lines of action of forces P, Q and R intersecting them at A,
B and C respectively as shown in Fig 1.45.

Now, algebraic sum of the moments of P and Q about O

= P x OA + Q x OB

= P x (OC - AC) + Q x (OC + BC)

=P x OC – P x AC + Q x OC + Q x BC.

But P x AC = Q x BC

Algebraic sum of the moments of P and Q about O

=P x OC + Q x OC

=(P+Q) x OC = R x OC = Moment of R about O.

In case of unlike parallel forces also it can be proved that the algebraic sum of the moments of two unlike
parallel forces (i.e. the forces whose lines of action are parallel but which act in reverse senses) about any
point in their plane is equal to the moment of their resultant about the same point.

Principle of moments
1. If a system of co-planar forces (concurrent or non-concurrent) is in equilibrium, the algebraic sum of
the moments of those forces about any point in their plane is zero, i.e., the sum of the clockwise moments
about any point in their plane is equal to the sum of the anticlockwise moments about the same point.
2. The algebraic sum of the moments of any number of co-planar forces (concurrent or non-concurrent)
about a point lying on the line of action of their resultant is zero.

3. From 1 and 2 above, it can be concluded that if the algebraic sum of the moments of any number of
co-planar forces about any point in their plane is zero, either the forces are in equilibrium or their resultant
passes through that point.

Example 1.12 A force of 15 N is applied perpendicular to the edge of a door 0.8 m wide as shown in Fig (a).
Find the moment of the force about the hinge. If this force is applied at an angle of 60° to the edge of the
same door, as shown in Fig.1.47 (b), find the moment of this force.

Fig 1.46

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Solution.
Given: Force applied (P) = 15 N and width of the door (l) = 0.8 m
Moment when the force acts perpendicular to the door We know
that the moment of the force about the hinge, = P × l = 15 × 0.8 =
12.0 N-m Ans.
Moment when the force acts at an angle of 60° to the door
This part of the example may be solved either by finding out the perpendicular distance between the hinge
and the line of action of the force as shown in Fig 1.47(a) or by finding out the vertical component of the
force as shown in Fig 1.47. (b).

Fig 1.47

From the geometry of Fig.1.47(a), we find that the perpendicular distance between the line ofaction of the
force and hinge,
OC = OB sin 60° = 0.8 × 0.866 = 0.693 m Moment = 15 ×
0.693 = 10.4 N-m Ans.
In the second case, we know that the vertical component of the force
= 15 sin 60° = 15 × 0.866 = 13.0 N Moment = 13
× 0.8 = 10.4 N-m Ans.
Note. Since distance between the horizontal component of force (15 cos 60°) and the hinges zero, therefore
moment of horizontal component of the force about the hinge is also zero.
Example 1.13A uniform plank ABC of weight 30 N and 2 m long is supported at one end A and at a point B
1.4 m from A as shown in Fig. Find the maximum weight W, that can be placed at C, so that the plank does
not topple.

Fig 1.48

Solution. Weight of the plank ABC = 30 N; Length of the plank ABC = 2 m and distance between end A and a
point B on the plank (AB) = 1.4 m.
We know that weight of the plank (30 N) will act at its midpoint, as it is of uniform section.
This point is at a distance of 1 m from A or 0.4 m from B as shown in the figure.

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We also know that if the plank is not to topple, then the reaction at A should be zero for the maximum
weight at C.
Now taking moments about B and equating the same, 30 ×
0.4 = W × 0.6 W = 12/0.6 = 20N Ans.

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Lecture-5
EQUIVALENT FORCES: RESULTANT

Methods for finding the resultant force

Though there are many methods for finding out the resultant force of a number of given forces, yet the
following are important from the subject point of view.
1. Analytical method. 2. Method of resolution.

Analytical method for resultant force

The resultant force, of a given system of forces, may be found out analytically by the following methods
1. Parallelogram law of forces. 2. Method of resolution.

Parallelogram law of forces

This theorem states that if two forces acting at a point be represented in magnitude and direction by the
two adjacent sides of a parallelogram drawn from a point, then their resultant is represented in magnitude
and direction by the diagonal of the parallelogram passing through that point.
Explanation: Let forces P and Q acting at a point O be represented in magnitude and direction by OA and
OB respectively as shown in Fig 1.19. Then, according to the theorem of parallelogram of forces, the
diagonal OC drawn through O represents the resultant of P and Q in magnitude and direction.

Fig 1.19

Determination of the resultant of two concurrent forces with the help of law of parallelogram
of forces

Fig 1.20
Consider, two forces „P‟ and „Q‟ acting at and away from point „A‟ as shown in figure 1.20.

Let, the forces P and Q are represented by the two adjacent sides of a parallelogram AD and AB respectively
as shown in fig. Let, θ be the angle between the force P and Q and α be the angle between R and P. Extend
line AB and drop perpendicular from point C on the extended line AB to meet at point E.

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Consider Right angle triangle ACE,

AC2 = AE2 + CE2

= (AB + BE)2 + CE2

= AB2 + BE2 + 2.AB.BE + CE2

= AB2 + BE2 + CE2 + 2.AB.BE……………………... (1)

Consider right angle triangle BCE,

BC2 = BE2 + CE2 and BE = BC.Cos θ

Putting BC2 = BE2 + CE2in equation (1), we get

AC2 = AB2 + BC2 + 2.AB.BE………………………..(2)

Putting BE = BC. Cos θ in equation (2)

AC2 = AB2 + BC2 + 2.AB. BC. Cos θ

But, AB = P, BC = Q and AC = R

R=

In triangle ACE

But, CE = BC. Sin θ

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Now let us consider two forcesF1 and F2 are represented by the two adjacent sides of a
parallelogram
i.e. F1 and F2 = Forces whose resultant is required to be found out, θ = Angle between the forces F1 and F2,
and α = Angle which the resultant force makes with one of the forces (say F1).

Then resultant force

And

If (α) is the angle which the resultant force makes with the other force F2, then

CASES:
1. If θ = 0 i.e., when the forces act along the same line, then
Rmax= F1 + F2
2. If θ = 90 i.e., when the forces act at right angle, then

3. If θ = 180 i.e., when the forces act along the same straight line but in opposite directions, then
Rmin= F1 – F2
In this case, the resultant force will act in the direction of the greater force.
4. If the two forces are equal i.e., when F1 = F2 = F then

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Problems practices Resultant of Two Concurrent Forces

Example 1.1Two forces of 100 N and 150 N are acting simultaneously at a point. What is the resultant of
these two forces, if the angle between them is 45°?

Solution.Given: First force (F1) = 100 N; Second force (F2) = 150 N and angle betweenF1 and
F2 (θ) = 450

Example 1.2 Find the magnitude of the two forces, such that if they act at right angles, their resultant is
N. But if they Act at 60°, their resultant is N.

Solution: Given: Two forces = F1 and F2.

First of all, consider the two forces acting at right angles. We know that when the angle between the two
given forces is 90°, then the resultant force (R)

Similarly, when the angle between the two forces is 60°, then the resultant force (R)

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Lecture-6
RESULTANT FORCE

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN COMPONENTS AND RESOLVED PARTS

1. When a force is resolved into two parts along two mutually perpendicular directions, the parts
along those directions are called resolved parts. But when a force is split into two parts along two
assigned directions not at right angles to each other, those parts are called components of the
force.
2. All resolved parts are components, but all components are not resolved parts.
3. The resolved part of force in a given direction represents the whole effect of the force in that
direction. But the component of a force in a given direction does not represent the whole effect of
the force in that direction.
Note: The algebraic sum of the resolved parts of two concurrent forces along any direction is equal to the
resolved part of their resultant along the same direction.

ANALYTICAL METHOD OF DETERMINING THE RESULTANT OF ANY NUMBER OF CO-PLANAR

CONCURRENT FORCES
Let P, Q, T....... be a number of forces acting at a point O and let R be the required resultant of the given
forces.

Fig 1.21

Through O, lines OX and OY are drawn at right angles to each other.

Let forces P, Q, T,.... make angles α,β,γ,...... with OX measured in the anticlockwise direction as shown in
Fig. Also, let θ = angle made by the line of action of R with OX.
Now, the resolved parts P, Q, T....... along OX are respectively Pcosα, Qcosβ, Tcosγ and along OY are
respectively Psinα, Qsinβ, Tsinγ
Let ƩH =ƩX = algebraic sum of the resolved parts of the above forces along OX (horizontally)
ƩV = ƩY= algebraic sum of the resolved parts of the same forces along OY (vertically)
Then, ƩX =Pcosα+Qcosβ+Tcosγ………
ƩY =Psinα+Qsinβ+Tsinγ.......
Now, the resolved parts of R along OX and OY are respectively Rcosθ and Rsinθ.
ƩX = Rcosθ, and ƩY = Rsinθ
(ƩX)2 + (ƩY)2 = R2cos2θ + R2sin2θ
= R2(cos2θ+ sin2θ)
R=

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tanθ =

From the above formula, θ can be found out.

Note. When ƩX is +ve, R will lie either in between θ = 0° to 90° or between 270° to 360°.

When ƩX is -ve, R will lie in between 90° to 270°.

When ƩY is +ve, R will lie in between 0 = 0° to 180°.

When ƩY is -ve, R will lie in between 180° to 360°.

Example1.3 A particle is acted on by three forces 2, 2 2 and 1 kN. The first force is horizontal and towards
the right, the second acts at 45° to the horizontal and inclined right upward, and the third is vertical.
Determine the resultant of the given forces.

Solution. See Figure. Let R = required resultant of the given forces.

Then, R= where

ƩX = algebraic sum of the resolved part of the given forces along horizontal direction OX, and

ƩY = algebraic sum of the resolved parts of the given forces along vertical direction OY.

Now, ƩX = 2 cos 0 + 2 2 cos 45° + 1 cos 90°

4kN

Fig 1.22

ƩY = 2 sin 0° + 2 2 sin 45° + 1 sin 90°

= 3kN

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R= = 5 kN

tan θ = => θ = tan-1 0.75 = 36.9o

Example1.4. To resolve the given force into two perpendicular co-ordinates.

50 N

30

x‟ x

Solution:

According to resolution of forces: y‟

We know that x=50×cos30, x=50

x=43.30N fig 1.23 y=50×sin30, y=50× y=25N

Example 1.5 A triangle ABC has its side AB = 40 mm along positive x-axis and side BC = 30 mm along positive
y-axis. Three forces of 40 N, 50 N and 30 N act along the sides AB, BC and CA respectively. Determine
magnitude of the resultant of such a system of forces.
Solution. The system of given forces is shown in Fig 1.24.

Fig 1.24

From the geometry of the figure, we find that the triangle ABC is a right-angled triangle, in which side AC = 50
mm. Therefore

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Resolving all the forces horizontally (i.e., along AB),

∑H = 40 – 30 cos θ = 40 – (30 ×
0.8) = 16 N

and now resolving all the forces vertically (i.e., along BC)
∑V= 50 – 30 sin θ

= 50 – (30 × 0.6) = 32 N

We know that magnitude of the resultant force,

2 2
R= = = 35.8 N Ans.

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Lecture-7
RIGID BODY EQUALIBRIUM

Analytical method of determination of the resultant of a system of like and unlike parallel forces
In this method, the sum of clockwise moments is equated with the sum of anticlockwise moments about a
point.
Analytical method of determining the point of application of the resultant of a system of like and
unlike non concurrent parallel forces
We know that the algebraic sum of the moments of any number of co-planar forces (concurrent or non-
concurrent) about any point in their plane is equal to the moment of their resultant about the same point.
This principle is applied in determining the point of application of the resultant of any number of parallel
forces.

Fig 1.35

Let parallel forces P, T and S be acting at the points A, B and C respectively as shown in Fig 1.35.

The resultant of the parallel forces is given by R= P+T-S. Let x = required

distance of the point of application of R from A i.e. x = AD.

Taking moments about A, we get

R ˣ x – Sx l2 +Tx l1 = 0

R × x=Sxl2 – Tx l1

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EXAMPLE 1.10 A beam 3 m long weighing 400 N is suspended in a horizontal position by two vertical
strings, each of which can withstand a maximum tension of 350 N only. How far a body of 200 N weight
be placed on the beam, so that one of the strings may just break?

Fig 1.36

Let x = Distance between the body of weight 200 N and support A.

We know that one of the string (say A) will just break, when the tension will be 350 N. (i.e., RA = 350 N).
Now taking clockwise and anticlockwise moments about B and equating the same,
350 × 3 = 200 (3 – x) + 400 × 1.5
1 050 = 600 – 200 x + 600 = 1200 – 200 x 200 x = 1
200 – 1 050 = 150
X=
Example 1.11. Two unlike parallel forces of magnitude 400 N and 100 N are acting in such a way that their
lines of action are 150 mm apart. Determine the magnitude of the resultant force and the point at which
it acts.
Solution. Given: The system of given force is shown in Fig

Fig 1.37

Magnitude of the resultant force

Since the given forces are unlike and parallel, therefore magnitude of the resultant force, R = 400 –
100 = 300 N Ans.
Point where the resultant force acts
Let x = Distance between the lines of action of the resultant force and Ain mm.
Now taking clockwise and anticlockwise moments about A and equating the same,
300 × x = 100 × 150 = 15 000 x = 15000/300 = 50mm ans.

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METHOD OF EQUILIBRIUM OF COPLANAR FORCES

The methods of finding out equilibrium for concurrent and non-concurrent forces in a coplanar force system
are:

• Analytical method
• Graphical method

Analytical method:

The equilibrium of coplanar concurrent and non-concurrent forces can be studied analytically by Lami’s
theorem.

Lami’s theorem

It states, “If three coplanar forces acting at a point be in equilibrium, then each force is proportional to the
sine of the angle between the other two.” Mathematically,

Fig 2.4

Where, P, Q, and Rare three forces and α, β, γ are the angles as shown in Fig.

Example 2.1: An electric light fixture weighting 15 N hangs from a point C, by two strings AC and BC. The
string AC is inclined at 60° to the horizontal and BC at 45° to the horizontal as shown in Fig. Using Lami’s
theorem, or otherwise, determine the forces in the strings AC and BC.

Fig 2.6

RIGID BODY EQUILIBRIUM MODULE -1 L-7

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Solution.
Given:
Weight at C = 15 N
Let TAC = Force in the string AC, and TBC = Force in
the string BC.
The system of forces is shown in Fig. From the geometry of the figure, we find that angle between
TAC and 15 N is 150° and angle between TBC and 15 N is 135°. ACB = 180° – (45° + 60°) = 75°.
Applying Lami’s equation at C,

Fig2.7

Example 2.2: A string ABCD, attached to fixed points A and D has two equal weights of 1000 N attached to
it at B and C. The weights rest with the portions AB and CD inclined at angles as shown in Fig2.8. Find the
tensions in the portions AB, BC and CD of the string, if the inclination of the portion BC with the vertical is
120°.

Fig 2.8

Solution:
Given: Load at B = Load at C = 1000 N for the sake of convenience, let us split up the string ABCD into two
parts. The system of forces at joints B and is shown in Fig.2.9 (a) and (b).

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Fig 2.9

Let
TAB = Tension in the portion AB of the string,
TBC = Tension in the portion BC of the string, and TCD =
Tension in the portion CD of the string.

Applying Lami‟s equation at joint B,

Again applying Lami‟s equation at joint C,

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Lecture-8
EQUILIBRIUM OF FORCES AND FREEBODY DIAGRAMS
DEFINITION

A little consideration will show, that if the resultant of a number of forces, acting on a particle is zero, the
particle will be in equilibrium. Such a set of forces, whose resultant is zero, are called equilibrium forces.

A body can be said to be in equilibrium when all the force acting on a body balance each other or in other
word there is no net force acting on the body.

Equilibrium of a body is a state in which all the forces acting on the body are balanced

(cancelled out), and the net force acting on the body is zero.

i.e. ΣF = 0

Principles of equilibrium
1. Two force principle. As per this principle, if a body in equilibrium is acted upon by two forces, then
they must be equal, opposite and collinear.
2. Three force principle. As per this principle, if a body in equilibrium is acted upon by three forces, then
the resultant of any two forces must be equal, opposite and collinear with the third force.
3. Four force principle. As per this principle, if a body in equilibrium is acted upon by four forces, then
the resultant of any two forces must be equal, opposite and collinear with the resultant of the other two
forces.

ANALYTICAL CONDITIONS OF EQUILIBRIUM OF A CO-PLANAR SYSTEM OF CONCURRENT FORCES

We know that the resultant of a system of co-planar concurrent forces is given by

R =√(∑ 𝑋)2 + (∑ 𝑌)2 , where ƩX (=ƩH) = algebraic sum of the resolved parts of the forces along a horizontal
direction, and ƩY (=ƩV) = algebraic sum of the resolved parts of the forces along a vertical direction

Or, R2 = (ƩX) 2 + (ƩY) 2

If the forces are in equilibrium, R = 0 =>O = (ƩX) 2 + (ƩY) 2

Sum of the squares of two quantities is zero when each quantity is separately equal to zero. i.e. ƩX = 0, ƩY =

Hence necessary and sufficient conditions of a system of, co-planar concurrent forces are:

1. The algebraic sum of the resolved parts of the forces in some assigned direction is equal to zero, and

2. The algebraic sum of the resolved parts of the forces in a direction at right angles to the assigned
direction is equal to zero.

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Analytical conditions of equilibrium of a system of coplanar non concurrent forces

If R = resultant of a system of co-planar non-concurrent forces,

ƩX = algebraic sum of the resolved parts of those forces along any direction, and

ƩY = algebraic sum of the resolved parts of those forces along a direction at right angles to the previous
direction.

Then, R =√(∑ 𝑋)2 + (∑ 𝑌)2 ,

R2 = (ƩX) 2 + (ƩY) 2

If the force system is in equilibrium, R = 0.

0 = R2 = (ƩX) 2 + (ƩY) 2

ƩX = 0, ƩY = 0

(If sum of the squares of two digits is zero, then each digit is zero)

Thus, the necessary and sufficient conditions of equilibrium for a system of co-planar and nonconcurrent
forces are:

(i) The algebraic sum of the resolved parts of the forces along any direction is equal to zero (i.e.,ƩX= 0),
(ii) The algebraic sum of the resolved parts of the forces along a directional right angles to the previous
direction is equal to zero (i.e. ƩY = 0),and
(iii) The algebraic sum of the moments of the forces about any point intheir plane is equal to zero (i.e. ƩM
= 0).

Types of equilibrium

Fig 1

Stable equilibrium

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A body is said to be in stable equilibrium, if it returns back to its original position, after it is slightly displaced
from its position of rest. This happens when some additional force sets up due to displacement and brings
the body back to its original position.
Unstable equilibrium
A body is said to be in an unstable equilibrium, if it does not return back to its original position, and heels
farther away, after slightly displaced from its position of rest.

Neutral equilibrium
A body is said to be in a neutral equilibrium, if it occupies a new position (and remains at rest in this
position) after slightly displaced from its position of rest.

FREE BODY DIAGRAM

Free body: A body is said to be free body if it is isolated from all other connected members

Free body diagram of a body is the diagram drawn by showing all the external forces and reactions on the
body and by removing the contact surfaces.

Steps to be followed in drawing a free body diagram

a. Isolate the body from all other bodies.

b. Indicate the external forces on the free body. (The weight of the body should also be included. It should
be applied at the centre of gravity of the body)
c. The magnitude and direction of the known external forces should be mentioned.
d. The reactions exerted by the supports on the body should be clearly indicated.
e. Clearly mark the dimensions in the free body diagram.

Fig 2.2

A spherical ball is rested upon a surface as shown in figure 2.2 (a). By following the necessary steps, we can
draw the free body diagram for this force system as shown in figure 2.2(b).
Similarly, fig 2.3 (b) represents free body diagram for the force system shown in figure 2.3(a).

EQUILIBRIUM OF FORCES AND FREEBODY DIAGRAMS MODULE -1 L-8

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Fig 2.3

EQUILIBRIUM OF FORCES AND FREEBODY DIAGRAMS MODULE -1 L-8

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Lecture-9
FREEBODY DIAGRAMS AND STATIC INDETERMINANCY

FREEBODY DIAGRAMS AND STATIC INDETERMINANCY MODULE -1 L-9

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Statically indeterminate structures are defined as structures that can't be statically analyzed using only
equilibrium equations (statics). Statically indeterminate structures indicate that there's at least one more
unknown reaction force than there are equations of equilibrium, meaning that the sum of forces and moments
in each direction is equal to zero.

FREEBODY DIAGRAMS AND STATIC INDETERMINANCY MODULE -1 L-9