CLASS 10 NOTES

SCIENCE
Heredity and evolution
PRASHANT KIRAD
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Heredity
# Introduction:
● Heredity involves the transmission of
characteristics from one generation to the
next, as traits are passed down from parents

● Heredity is the result of genes being

inherited.
● Study of Heredity and Inheritance is term
Genetics
● A trait that is Genetically passed down from one
generation to another is termed as Inherited
trait.

Variations-> Variations in traits among individuals in a species arise

from genetic mutations and environmental factors, such as diet,
chemicals, and pollution.

Inherited Traits-> Inherited traits are characteristics passed from

parents to offspring through generations, controlled by genes. Examples
include height and skin color.

# Gregor Johann Mendel:

He is credited with establishing fundamental laws of
inheritance, earning him the title "Father of Genetics"
worldwide.
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He chose garden peas for his experiments for the following reasons:

● Pea plants have Several Contrasting

Characteristics like height, flower
Colour, Seed Colour a Shape.
● Self-pollinated plant in nature.
● Cross-pollination can be done
Artifically.
● Short life Span
● Easy to cultivate
Not : The s i t fi na of pe is Pis sa m.
Important Terms:

● Allele-> An allele is one of the various versions of a specific gene,

such as for height.
● Dominant Allele-> A dominant allele, indicated by a capital letter (e.g.,
"T"), expresses its phenotype even when another allele is present.
● Recessive Allele-> The phenotype is expressed only when both alleles
are present, and it is represented by a lowercase letter, as in "t."
● Genotype-> The genetic recipe of a person, like whether they are
entirely tall or a mix of tall traits.
● Phenotype-> Phenotype is an organism's visible traits resulting from
its genes and environment. E.g- tall or dwarf
● Chromosomes-> Chromosomes are thread-like structures in the cell
nucleus that carry genetic information (DNA).
● Hybrid-> An individual with two distinct alleles for the same trait,
like "Tt" for height (tall).
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● Monohybrid Cross-> A cross that focuses on one pair of contrasting

traits is referred to as a monohybrid cross, resulting in a 3:1 ratio
known as the monohybrid ratio.
● Dihybrid cross-> A cross that involves two pairs of contrasting traits
is termed a dihybrid cross, and it yields a 9:3:3:1 ratio, which is known
as the dihybrid ratio.
● Dominant Trait-> The trait that can be visibly expressed in the first
generation.
● Recessive Trait-> The trait that is not able to express itself in F1
generation but reappears in f2 generation.
● Homozygous-> Homozygous means having two identical alleles for a
particular gene.
●

● Heterozygous-> It refers to having two different alleles for a

specific gene.
● Dominant ene-> The gene that can be expressed in both homozygous
and heterozygous conditions.
● Recessive Gene-> A gene that can only express itself in the homozygous
condition.
● Inherited traits from previous generations provide a shared body plan and
introduce subtle modifications for the next generation.
● Depending on the nature of variations, various individuals may possess
diverse advantages.
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Mendel 's Experiment:

Mendel found that traits can be dominant or recessive. When he crossed a tall
pea plant with a short one, all offspring in the first generation were tall. To
understand what happened to the short trait, he self-pollinated the
first-generation plants and observed that in the second generation, both tall
and short plants were present in a 3:1 ratio. This led Mendel to conclude that
the short trait was present in the first generation but unable to express itself.
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Mendel crossed round and yellow seed pea plants with green and
wrinkled seed pea plants. In the parent generation, all offspring had a
round shape and yellow color. To understand what happened to the
wrinkled and green traits, he self-pollinated the first-generation plants.
In the second generation, he observed new combinations alongside the
parental traits, showing that shape and color traits are inherited
independently.
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# Secret Questions:
1) Explain Mendel’s concept of heredity, by giving three points.
Solution:
Mendel's work on pea plants led to the discovery of three fundamental laws of inheritance:
1. Law of Segregation: Genes come in pairs, and during gamete formation, these genes
segregate randomly so that each gamete receives only one gene from the pair.
2. Law of Independent Assortment: Genes for different traits are sorted independently
during gamete formation, meaning the inheritance of one trait is not dependent on the
inheritance of another.
3. Law of Dominance: When an organism has alternate forms of a gene (alleles), one form (the
dominant allele) will be expressed in the phenotype if present.
These laws laid the foundation for our understanding of genetics and inheritance.

2) A pea plant with a blue color flower denoted by BB is cross-bred with a pea
plant with a white flower denoted by ww.

a. What is the expected color of the flowers in their F1 progeny?

b. What will be the percentage of plants bearing white flowers in F2 generation, when the
flowers of F1
plants were selfed?
c. State the expected ratio of the genotypes BB and Bw in the F2 progeny.

Solution:
a. F1 generation — blue.
b. 25%
c. BB : Bw = 1 : 2.

3) In a pea plant, find the contrasting trait if:

a. the position of the flower is terminal.
b. the flower is white in color.
c. shape of the pod is constricted.

Solution:
In a pea plant, find the contrasting trait if:
a. the position of the flower is terminal.
b. the flower is white in color.
c. shape of the pod is constricted.
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Chromosomes:
Chromosome pairs refer to the two sets of chromosomes present in most
human cells. Each set consists of 23
individual chromosomes, with one set
inherited from the mother and the
other from the father. These pairs
include sex chromosomes (X and Y in
humans) and autosomes, which carry
genetic information and are essential
for genetic inheritance.

Sex Determination:

# In humans, there are 23 pairs of chromosomes,

making a total of 46 chromosomes. Among these, 22

pairs are autosomes, and one pair is sex
chromosomes. In males, the sex chromosomes are XY,
and in females, they are XX. The sex of a child is
determined during fertilization. If an X-carrying
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sperm fertilizes the egg, the child will be female (XX), and if a Y-carrying sperm
fertilizes the egg, the child will be male (XY). Therefore, the sperm's genetic
contribution determines the child's sex.

Haploid & Diploid Cells:

Diploid:
Dip me ha g t o se of pa c om es in a
ce or or s .
Haploid:
Hap me ha g a si l se of un ed c om es
in a ce or or s .
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# TOP 7 QUESTIONS
1) “It is a matter of chance whether a couple will have a male or a female child.”
Justify this statement by drawing a flow chart. (Foreign 2015,2017)

Solution:
Women produce only one type of ovum (carrying X
chromosome) and males produce two types of sperms
(carrying either X or Y chromosome) in equal proportions. So
the sex of a child is a matter of chance depending upon the
type of sperm fertilizing the ovum.

2) Why traits such as intelligence and knowledge cannot be passed on to the next
generation?
Solution:
Traits such as intelligence and knowledge are not heritable traits, which do not bring
upon any changes in the DNA of the germ cells and, therefore, cannot be passed on
to the progeny.

3) Distinguish between inherited traits and acquired traits in a tabular form, giving one
example of each. (All India 2017)

Solution:

4) What is a dominant trait with respect to height in pea plants? Give any two
examples.
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Solution:
Characters/Traits like ‘T’ are called dominant trait (because it express itself)
‘t’ are recessive trait (because it remains supressed).

5) What are chromosomes? Explain how sexually reproducing organisms the number of
chromosomes in the progeny is maintained. (Outside Delhi 2015)

Solution:
Chromosomes - Thread-like structures made up of DNA found in the nucleus. The
original number of chromosomes becomes half during gamete formation. Hence, when
the gametes combine, the original number of chromosomes gets restored in the
progeny

6) Rekha has a dark complexion and seeks beauty products to lighten her skin. Her
friend Lila tells her that skin color is determined by birth and advises against
excessive use of such products. (All India 2013)
a. What might have caused Rekha’s color to be dark?
b. Is it possible that all the family members of Rekha’s family were dark?
c. What value do you learn?
Solution:
a. Her dark colour may be due to genetic inheritance.
b. All may not be dark, depending upon the genes inherited and the environmental conditions
that each one of them living in.
c. Awareness, logical thinking, and scientific temperament.

7) How do Mendel’s experiment show that traits are inherited independently?

Solution:
Mendel performed dihybrid crosses by mating pea plants with different traits in two
characteristics, like yellow round seeds with green wrinkled seeds. In the F2 generation, he
observed both parental (yellow round and green wrinkled) and recombinant (yellow wrinkled
and green round) phenotypes. This showed that these traits separated from their original
combinations and were inherited independently.
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# COMPETENCY-BASED QUESTIONS
1. Gregor Mendel conducted hybridisation experiments on garden peas for seven years and proposed
the laws of inheritance in living organisms. He investigated characters in the garden pea plant that
1) Mendel
were performed
manifested dihybrid
as two opposing traits,crosses bydwarf
e.g., tall or mating
plants, pea
yellow and green seeds, etc.
plants with different traits in two characteristics, like
(i) Among the seven pairs of contrasting traits in pea plant as studied by Mendel,
yellow round seeds
the number with related
of traits green towrinkled
flower, podseeds. In respectively
and seed the were
(a) 2, 2, 2 (b) 2, 2, 1 (c) 1, 2, 2 (d) 1, 1, 2.
F2 generation, he observed both parental (yellow
round and
(ii) Thegreen wrinkled)
colour based and traits
contrasting recombinant (yellow pairs, studied by
in seven contrasting
Mendel in pea plant were
wrinkled(a) and
1 (b) 2green
(c) 3 (d)round)
4. phenotypes. This showed
that these traits separated from their original
combinations and were inherited independently.

(a) Why did Mendel select a pea plant for his experiments?
(b) Study the picture below that represents traits studied
by Mendel in garden peas.

Solution:

(a) Mandel Selected the pea plant for his experiment

because the pea plant grew easily in a few days and also has some interesting
characteristics. Also, many generations can examined by Mendel in a few days or
months.

(b) Yellow pod colour and axial position are dominant traits.

2) Lokesh was very fond of dogs. So, one day his friend called him to show a
white dog and a black dog which he had recently got
(iv) Some of the dominant traits studied by Mendel were
from his(a)
friend, Lokesh
round seed was
shape, wondering
green how
seed colour anddifferent
axial flower position
dags have(b)different
terminal flower
colors!position, green pod colour and inflated pod shape
(c) violet flower colour, green pod colour and round seed shape
(d) wrinkled
(A) Dogs having blackseed shape,
coat coloryellow
whenpod colour and
crossed withaxial
dogsflower position.
having the(v)same
Whichcolor, produced
of the following200 offspring.
characters wasOut
not of this by Mendel?
chosen
150 were(a)black and 50 were white. What would be the
Pod shape
genotype (b) Pod colour
of dogs?
(c) Position of flower
(d) Position of pod
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2. Mendel crossed tall and dwarf pea plants to study the inheritance of one gene. He collected the seeds
produced as a result of this cross and grew them to generate plants of the first hybrid generation which is
(B) Harsh has two golden retriever dogs- one male and one female. Now they have
called the first filial progeny or F₁. Mendel then self pollinated the tall F₁ plants and he obtained F₂
grown up and he is surprised and curious to know whether his two golden retrievers can
generation.
produce a black puppy.
(i) In garden pea, round shape of seeds is dominant over wrinkled shape. A pea plant
(C) heterozygous
Lokesh allowed for to mate
round a black
shape dog
of seed havingand
is selfed a 1600
homozygous genotypeduring
seeds produced with the
a black
cross
are subsequently
heterozygous dog, germinated. How many
a total of four seedlings
puppies would have What
were produced. non-parental
will bephenotype?
the color of
(a) 1600 (b) 1200 (c) 400 (d) 800
the puppies?
(ii) If 'A' represents the dominant gene and 'a' represents its recessive allele, which of
the following would be the most likely result in the first generation offspring when Aa is
Solution:
crossed with aa?
(a) All will exhibit dominant phenotype.
(A)The genotype of the dogs with black coat color is likely **Bb**
(b) All will exhibit recessive phenotype.
(c)(heterozygous for coat
Dominant and recessive color). The
phenotypes ratios
will be of black to white puppies in the
50% each.
(d)offspring
Dominant phenotype will be 75%.
(150:50) suggest that these dogs have one dominant allele for black
coat color (B) and one recessive allele for white coat color (b).

(B) Harsh's two grown-up golden retriever dogs can potentially produce a black
puppy if both of them carry the recessive allele for black coat color (bb) and
pass it on to their offspring. The genetic combination of the parents will
determine the coat color of the puppies they produce.
iv) What result Mendel would have got, if he self pollinated a homozygous tall F₂ plant?
(a) TT and Tt (b) All Tt (c) All TT (d) All tt
(C) When a black dog with a homozygous genotype (BB) mates with a black
(v)heterozygous
In plant, tall phenotype
dog (Bb), is dominant over dwarf
the offspring phenotype,
will all and coat
have black the alleles
color.are
The genotype
designated as T and t, respectively. Upon crossing one tall and one dwarf plant, total 250
of the
plants were puppies
obtained, will
out ofbe Bb124
which (heterozygous for black
displayed tall phenotype andcoat color),
rest were and their
dwarf.
Thus, the genotype
phenotype of black.
will be the parent plants were
(a) TTX TT (b) TTx tt (c) Ttx Tt (d) Ttxtt.

All the