GENERAL CHEMISTRY 1

CHEMISTRY density, physical state (solid, liquid or gas),

and solubility.
- Study of the composition, structure and
properties of matter and the changes of it
undergoes. - Physical property/properties used to
describe matter can be classified as:
1. INTENSIVE- depends on the amount of matter
MATTER in the samples. E.g. mass, volume and length.
- is anything that occupies space and has
mass. It is made of atoms which are made of
2. EXTENSIVE- depends on the type of matter, not
smaller particles called protons, electrons,
the amount present. E.g. Hardness, density,
and neutrons. All physical objects are
boiling point.
composed of matter, and an easily observed
property of matter is it states or phase.

ATOM CHEMICAL PROPERTIES

- is came from the greek word atomos - can be observed or measured as a
meaning “cannot be divided” proposed by substance changes in identity.
Democritus. All matter is composed of atoms. - ability or inability of a substance to combine
with or change into one or more other
substances to undergo a chemical reaction.
There is so many different matter, which are
organized by their composition and properties.
 COMPOSITION- The type and amounts EXAMPLES: Ability to burn, reactivity, charcoal
of atoms that make up a sample of matter. burning in air, iron rust, decomposition of
wood.
 PROPERTIES- The characteristic that
give each substance unique identity.
Consider term such as:

PROPERTIES OF MATTER  Burn

 Rot
 Properties of matter allow us to  Rust
distinguish between substances and  Decompose
classify them.  Ferment
 Explode
 Can reveal the identity of an unknown  Oxidize
substance.
 Corrode
 Grow
 Divided into two groups:  Precipitate
o PHYSICAL PROPERTIES  Gasformation
o CHEMICAL PROPERTIES  Digest

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES PHASES OF MATTER

- can be observed or measured without - A state of matter is one of the distinct forms
changing the identity or composition of the that different phases of matter take on. Four
substance. states of matter are observable in everyday life:
solid, liquid, and gas.
EXAMPLES: Appearance, texture, color, odor,
taste, size, melting point, boiling point,
 GENERAL CHEMISTRY 1

SOLID
- holds shape
- fixed volume

 Less rigid
 Can’t be compressed
 Takes form on its container
 Has a definite volume
 Least dense

 Very rigid
 Can’t be compressed STATE OF MATTER
 Has a definite shape - Matter can be studied from two points of
 Has a fixed volume view: Macroscopic and Microscopic.
 Most dense
MACROSCOPIC- matter looks continuous and
LIQUID visible.
MICROSCOPIC- matter is composed of particles
- Shape of a container
(atoms).
- Free surface
- Fixed volume
CHANGES IN MATTER
- All matter can undergo physical and
chemical changes.

PHYSICAL CHANGES- occurs when a substance

alters its shape (phase change) but does not
change its chemical composition. E.g. Grinding,
cutting.
- Depend on temperature and pressure
 Less rigid - E.g. Boiling, Freezing, and condensing.
 Can’t be compressed - Physical changes can be classified as
 Takes form on its container reversible or irreversible.
 Has volume
 Less dense
PHYSICAL CHANGES EXAMPLES
- Breaking glass - Chopping wood
GAS - Mixing candles - Cutting hair
- Shape of a container - Shredding paper - Dry ice sublimation
- Volume of container - Folding paper - Boiling water
- Melting ice - Breaking egg
 GENERAL CHEMISTRY 1

CHEMICAL CHANGES- occurs when a substance PURE- every pure substance has exactly the
is converted into a new or different substance same characteristics, properties, and
in each change in the composition of compositions. It can be classified as element or
substance. compound.
- Also referred to as a chemical reaction.
- Chemical reaction consists of reactant and ELEMENT- simplest form of matter.
products.
 Consists only one kind of matter.
 Building blocks for other substances.
REACTANTS- starting substances.  Elements are organized on the periodic
PRODUCTS- substances which are produce/form. table, based on their properties.
 Consists of name and symbol.
 94 naturally occurring elements, 25
CHEMICAL CHANGES EXAMPLES synthetic.
- Burning wood - Using a battery
- Rotting fruit - Exploding fireworks COMPOUND- a substance that consists of two or
- Baking a cake - Cooking an egg more elements chemically bonded.
- Rusting metal - Photosynthesis - Compound is always composed of the same
- Digestion - Souring milk elements in the same portion by mass.
- Represented by a formula e.g. NaCl, H2O
- Most of matter in the universe exists as
CHANGES OF STATE compounds.
- Compounds can be synthesized or
 MELTING- solid to liquid decomposed.
 FREEZING- liquid to solid
 EVAPORATION- liquid to gas SYNTHESIS- combination of elements to form
 CONDENSATION- gas to liquid compound.
 SUBLIMATION- solid to gas
DECOMPOSITION- splitting of compounds into
 REVERSE SUBLIMATION- gas to solid
their individual elements.

CLASSIFICATION OF MATTER MIXTURE- combination of two or more

- All matter is composed of atoms. substances in which each substance retains its
- All matter can be classified or identified as individual properties.
either pure substances or mixtures. - Mixture can be separated by physical
methods.
MATTER - Mixture can either be classified as:
o HOMOGENEOUS
o HETEROGENEOUS
- Based on the distribution of the
PURE MIXTURE
components.

HETEROGE HOMOGENO
HOMOGENEOUS- a mixture in which the
ELEMENT COMPOUND
NOUS US composition throughout is uniform. Another
term for this mixture is solution.
EXAMPLES: Honey, Softdrinks
 GENERAL CHEMISTRY 1

HETEROGENEOUS- the composition is not measurement is precise.; however, if the values

uniform. Therefore, individual components can varied widely, then it is imprecise.
be distinguished. May form suspensions, lumps ACCURACY- is determined when a certain
due to insolubility. Mixture can easily be quantitative value is relatively close to the “true
separated by physical method e.g. filtration. value”
EXAMPLES: chip cookies, pizza, soda with ice,
salad, sandwich
SCIENTIFIC NOTATION- It is a simple way to
write or keep track of very large or very small
SOLUTE- substance in a smaller amount which is numbers without having to deal with a lot of
dissolved in the solvent. zeros.
SOLVENT- the liquid in which the solutions is - It provides a convenient way of recording
made of and is in a greater amount. results and doing calculations.

MEASUREMENTS
- The most convenient system of units is the
International System of Units (SI).
- This system is the modern versions of metric
system.

SIGNIFICANT FIGURES- Significant figures

are the digits in any measurement that are
known certainty with an additional one digit
which is uncertain.

UNCERTAINTY IN MEASUREMENTS
- A measured quantity contains some digits
that are exactly known and one digit that is
estimated. The estimated digit produces
uncertainty in measurements.

PRECISION AND ACCURACY

PRECISION- is the consistency of a result. If you
measure a quantity several times and the values
agrees closely with one another, then your
 GENERAL CHEMISTRY 1

RULES FOR SIGNIFICANT FIGURES IN The following rules should be applied to round
FUNDAMENTAL OPERATIONS off values to the correct number of digits.

- In addition and subtraction, the answer must

have the same number of decimal places as 1. For a series of calculations, carry extra
the measured number with the least number digits through to the final result, then round
of decimal places. off.
- In multiplication and division, the answer 2. If the first digit to be deleted is:
must have the same number of significant o 5 or greater, the last retained figure is
figures as the measured number with the increased by one
lowest number of significant figures. o 4 or less, the last retained figure is
retained.
DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS- is a process in which a
conversion factor written in a form of ratio is used DENSITY MEASUREMENT
to change units given in the data to the units
desired. - is one of the common measurements done in
the laboratory. It involves getting Mass,
Volume and Temperature of an object.
The following are the steps to be followed in
doing dimensional analysis:
MASS
a. Write the unknown quantity that is sought, - is the quantity of matter in the object. It is
including the units. determined by weighing the object, using
balance. The SI basic unit of mass is the
b. Write all known conversion factors needed. Kilogram, but the gram is more convenient to
c. Begin with what is known and then multiply use.
it by the identified conversion factor,
cancelling similar units to get the unknown
units. VOLUME
- is the amount of space occupied by a
substance. In liquids, the volume can be
RULES IN ROUNDING OFF determined using a graduated cylinder, while
- Oftentimes, the answers to computations solids, the volume can be determined by two
contain too many insignificant digits. Hence it methods.
becomes necessary to round off numbers to
attain the insignificant figures. Rounding off,
therefore, is the process of removing, 1. For regularly-shaped solids, the volume
insignificant digits from calculated number. formula for the particular shaped is used.

Some formula that may be used are the

following:

2. For irregularly-shaped solids, the water

displacement method is used.
 GENERAL CHEMISTRY 1

TEMPERATURE LAW OF CONSTANT COMPOSITION

- tells how hot or cold an object is. It is JOSEPH PROUST (1754-1826)
commonly marked either by °𝑪(Celsius) or °𝑭
(Fahrenheit); although the SI basic unit for
temperature is the K (Kelvin)
 K = °𝐶 + 273.15
 K = (°𝐹 + 459.67) x5/9

DENSITY
- is the ratio of the mass of an object to the
volume it occupies.

- States that a given chemical compound

always contains its component elements in
fixed ratio (by mass) and does not depend on
its source and method of preparation.

LAWS OF MULTIPLE PROPORTION

JOHN DALTON (1766-1844)

LAWS OF MATTER
 Law of Conservation of Mass
 Law of Constant Composition
 Law of Multiple Proportion

LAW OF CONSERVATION OF MASS

ANTOINE LAVOISIER (1743-1794)
- Whenever the same two elements form more
than one compound, the different masses of
one element that combine with the same mass
of the other element are in the ratio of small
whole numbers.

- During a chemical reaction, atoms are

neither created nor destroyed. The number of DALTON’S ATOMIC THEORY
atoms remains constant throughout the States the following:
reaction. Since the number of atoms doesn’t 1. Elements are made up of small indivisible
change, the mass must remain constant as particles called atom.
well.
2. In any given pure element, the mass and
other properties of all atoms are the same.
Atoms of different elements differ in mass
and other properties.
 GENERAL CHEMISTRY 1

3. Compounds are composed of atoms of - THOMSON’S PLUM PUDDING MODEL

more than one element. The constituent He found that:
atoms in a given compound are present in
- An atom consists of positive charge and
a consistent or constant whole number.
negative charge.
4. In a chemical reaction, atoms are neither - An atom is electrically neutral.
created nor destroyed. They simple - Negatively charged electrons are fixed in the
combine, separate, or rearrange. positive sphere.
- Speculated that the atom is made up of even
ELEMENTS smaller particles.
- He discovered electron.

Atomic Mass
ERNEST RUTHERFORD
Symbol of an Element
Atomic Number
HELIUM

MODELS OF ATOMS

- RUTHERFORD’S NUCLEAR MODEL

JOHN DALTON
He theorized that:
- Atoms are mainly empty pace.
- Positive charge is concentrated at the center
of atom, the nucleus.
- The center of atom = the nucleus.
- Electrons move around the nucleus.
- DALTON’S ATOMIC THEORY
He proposed his theory: NEILS BOHR
- Atoms are small, invisible
- Can’t be divided, created and destroyed
- An element = Identical
- Different elements = different properties
- Atoms of different elements combine to form
compounds.
- BOHR’S PLANETARY MODEL
He said that:
JJ THOMSON
- Electrons orbit the nucleus.
- The orbits have the specific size and energy.
- The energy is related to its size.
- The lowest energy is found in the smallest
orbit.
 GENERAL CHEMISTRY 1

- Electrons can move between each shell

when gaining or losing energy.

JAMES CHADWICK

ATOMIC MASS
- it is approximately equivalent to the number
- The nucleus of an atom contains neutrons, of protons and neutrons in an atom.
electrically neutral particles with a mass
p + n = Atomic Mass
similar to that of proton.
His theory:
ATOMIC NUMBER
- Neutrons have no electrical charge.
- the number of protons of an atom.
- Neutrons have mass nearly equal to the
mass of a proton.
- Unit of measurement for subatomic particles ISOTOPE
is the atomic mass unit (amu). - atoms of the same element having the same
numbers of protons but different numbers of
neutrons.
ERWIN SCHRODINGER

 No. of Protons = Atomic Number

 No. of Electrons = No. of Protons
 Atomic Mass = Proton + Neutron
 No. of Neutrons = Atomic Mass – Atomic
Number of Protons

- QUANTUM MECHANICAL MODEL

ELECTRONIC STRUCTURE OF
He discovered that: ATOMS
- Electrons move around the nucleus in ‘a
cloud’ not ‘orbits’
QUANTUM MECHANICAL DESCRIPTION
- Orbital helps us predict the area where we
can find electrons. OF THE ATOM
- The closer position to the nucleus, the HISTORY
higher chance to find electrons.  BOHR’S ATOMIC MODEL (1922) describes
the atom is like a solar system, where he
considered electrons as particles moving
ATOMIC PARTICLES around the nucleus in specific circular
paths called orbits, these orbits are found
at fixed distances from the nucleus.
 GENERAL CHEMISTRY 1

SCHRODINGER’S MODEL OF THE

HYDROGEN ATOM AND WAVE
FUNCTIONS
 The hydrogen atom, consisting of an
electron and a proton, is a two-particle
system, and the internal motion of two
particles around their center of mass is
equivalent to the motion of a single
particle with a reduced mass.
 This reduced particle is located at r, where
r is the vector specifying the position of
 Much later, scientist discovered that it is the electron relative to the position of the
impossible to determine the exact location proton.
of electrons in an atom.
 Bohr’s idea that electrons are found in
definite orbits around the nucleus was
rejected.
 Three physicists led the development of a
better model of the atom. These were;
Louis De Broglie, Erwin Schrodinger and
Werner Heisenberg  The length of r is the distance between the
proton and the electron, and the direction
of r is given by the orientation of the
vector pointing from the proton to the
electron. Since the proton is much more
massive than the electron, we will assume
throughout this chapter that the reduced
mass equals the electron mass and the
LOUIS DE BROGLIE (1892-1987) proton is located at the center of mass.
- De Broglie proposed that the electron (which  The hydrogen atom wave functions,
is thought of as a particle) could also be ψ(r,θ,φ) , are called atomic orbitals. An
thought of as a wave. atomic orbital is a function that describes
one electron in an atom. The wavefunction
with n = 1, l l = 0 is called the 1s orbital,
ERWIN SCHRODINGER (1892-1987) and an electron that is described by this
- Schrodinger used this idea of de broglie ( function is said to be “in” the ls orbital, i.e.
that electrons are wave particles) to develop a have a 1s orbital state. The constraints on
mathematical equation to describe the n, l l) , and ml that are imposed during
probable location of an electron around the the solution of the hydrogen atom
nucleus. schrödinger equation explain why there is
a single 1s orbital, why there are three 2p
orbitals, five 3d orbitals, etc.

WERNER HEISENBERG (1901- 1976)

- Heisenberg discovered that for a very small
particles like the electron, its location cannot
be exactly known. This is called the
uncertainty principle.
 GENERAL CHEMISTRY 1

- these scientist believed that there is only a - the principal energy levels are broken down
probability that electrons can be found in a into sublevels. These sublevels define the
three- dimensional space around the nucleus orbital shape (s, p d, f).
called atomic orbitals.
- these scientist arrived with the idea that the
quantum mechanical model of the atom
describes the probable location of electrons
within the atom using atomic orbital.
- there are different kinds of atomic orbitals
that differ in the amount of energy and shapes
(where the electron probably is).
- the principal energy levels are always equal
- the atomic orbitals get filled by electrons in a to the number of sublevels.
certain order.

 N= 1, 1 sublevel (s) the first

energy level have 1 sublevel (s orbital)

 N=2, 2 sublevels (s, p) the second

energy level have 2 sublevels (s, p
orbitals)

 N= 3, 3 sublevels (s, p, d) the 3rd

- the quantum mechanical model describes energy level have 3 sublevels (s, p, d
the region of space around the nucleus as orbitals)
consisting of shells. These shell are also
called principal energy levels.  N= 4, 4 sublevels (s, p, d, f) the 4th
energy level have 4 sublevels (s, p, d , f
orbitals)

- Each sublevel has a different number of

orbitals. This is due to the orientation of the
sublevels along the x, y and z axes. Thus,
there are different orientations in space for p,
d and f orbitals except for s orbitals because
of its spherical shape

Look at the periodic table of elements, the

energy levels of the atoms corresponds to the
rows of the table.

- each orbital can hold a maximum of 2

electrons. Since the p. D and f orbitals have
different number of orientation, each orbital
orientation also holds a maximum of
electrons. Thus, the maximum number of
 GENERAL CHEMISTRY 1

electrons that can occupy a principal energy

level is given by the formula 2n2, where n is
the principal energy level.

THE AZIMUTHAL QUANTUM NUMBER

- the second quantum number is often called
the azimuthal quantum number (l). One of
three quantum numbers that describes the
shape of the region of space occupied by an
- therefore, the quantum mechanical model electron. The value of l describes the shape of
describes the probable location of electrons the region of space occupied by the electron.
in atoms using its principal energy levels (n), The allowed values of l depend on the value of
sublevels (s,p,d,f) and orientation of orbitals n and can range from 0 to n – 1.
in a three- dimensional space.

QUANTUM NUMBERS
- Schrödinger’s approach requires three
quantum numbers (n, l, and ml ) to specify a
wavefunction for the electron. The quantum
numbers provide information about the spatial
distribution of an electron. Although n can be
any positive integer (not zero), only certain
values of l and ml are allowed for a given THE MAGNETIC QUANTUM NUMBER
value of (n). - the third quantum number is the magnetic
quantum number (ml). One of three quantum
numbers that describes the orientation of the
THREE QUANTUM NUMBERS region of space occupied by an electron with
 The Principal Quantum Number (N) respect to an applied magnetic field.
 The Azimuthal Quantum Number
 The Magnetic Quantum Number

THE PRINCIPAL QUANTUM NUMBER (N)

- one of three quantum numbers that tells the
average relative distance of an electron from
the nucleus. Indicates the energy of the
electron and the average distance of an
electron from the nucleus.
 GENERAL CHEMISTRY 1

PAULI EXCLUSION PRINCIPLE

- states that, in an atom or molecule, no two
electrons can have the same four electronic
quantum numbers. As an orbital can contain a
maximum of only two electrons, the two
electrons must have opposing spins. This
means if one electron is assigned as a spin up
(+1/2) electron, the other electron must be
spin-down (-1/2) electron.
- electrons in the same orbital have the same
first three quantum numbers, e.g., n=1, l=0 ,
ml=0 for the 1s subshell.
ELECTRON CONFIGURATION - only two electrons can have these numbers,
so that their spin moments must be either
- describes the electron arrangement in ms=−1/2 or ms=+1/2 . If the 1s orbital contains
atoms. only one electron, we have one ms value and
- also called electronic structure, the the electron configuration is written as 1s1
arrangement of electrons in energy levels (corresponding to hydrogen). If it is fully
around an atomic nucleus. occupied, we have two ms values, and the
electron configuration is 1s2 (corresponding
to helium).
AUFBAU PRINCIPLE
- The aufbau principle dictates the manner in
which electrons are filled in the atomic HUND’S RULES
orbitals of an atom in its ground state. It - the aufbau section discussed how electrons
states that electrons are filled into atomic fill the lowest energy orbitals first, and then
orbitals in the increasing order of orbital move up to higher energy orbitals only after
energy level. According to the aufbau the lower energy orbitals are full. However,
principle, the available atomic orbitals with there is a problem with this rule. Certainly, 1s
the lowest energy levels are occupied before orbitals should be filled before 2s orbitals,
those with higher energy levels. because the 1s orbitals have a lower value of
- The word ‘Aufbau’ has German roots and n, and thus a lower energy. What about filling
can be roughly translated as ‘construct’ or the three different 2p orbitals? In what order
‘build up’. A diagram illustrating the order in should they be filled? The answer to this
which atomic orbitals are filled is provided question involves hund's rule.
below. Here, ‘n’ refers to the principal
quantum number and ‘l’ is the azimuthal Hund’s rule state that:
quantum number.
- every orbital in a sublevel is singly occupied
before any orbital is doubly occupied.
- all of the electrons in singly occupied
orbitals have the same spin (to maximize total
spin).

EXAMPLE 1: NITROGEN ATOMS

- consider the correct electron configuration
of the nitrogen (z = 7) atom: 1s2 2s2 2p3.
 GENERAL CHEMISTRY 1

- Remember that if an electron is alone in an

orbital, the orbital has a net spin, because the
spin of the lone electron does not get
canceled out.
- The p orbital's are half-filled; there are three - Even one orbital has a net spin, the entire
electrons and three p orbital's. This is atom will have a net spin. Therefore, an atom
because the three electrons in the 2p sub is considered to be paramagnetic when it
shell will fill all the empty orbital’s first before contains at least one paramagnetic electron.
pairing with electrons in them. In other words, an atom could have 10 paired
(diamagnetic) electrons, but as long as it also
has one unpaired (paramagnetic) electron, it
EXAMPLE 2: OXYGEN ATOMS is still considered a paramagnetic atom.
- consider oxygen (z = 8) atom, the element
after nitrogen in the same period; its electron
configuration is: 1s2 2s2 2p4. ORBITAL DIAGRAMS
- are pictorial descriptions of the electrons in
an atom. Three rules are useful in forming
orbital diagrams. According to the auf Bau
principle, each electron occupies the lowest
energy orbital. The Pauli exclusion principle
says that only two electrons can fit into an
single orbital. Hund s rule states that
- Oxygen has one more electron than electrons go into different orbitals in the same
nitrogen; as the orbital’s are all half-filled, the sub-level before doubling up inside orbitals.
new electron must pair up. Keep in mind that
elemental oxygen is found in nature typically
as molecular oxygen, O2, which has
molecular orbital’s instead of atomic orbital’s
as demonstrated above.

DIAMAGNETISM
- any time two electrons share the same
orbital their spin quantum numbers have to be
different. In other words, one of the electrons
has to be “spin-up,” with ms=+12ms=+12,
while the other electron is “spin-down,”
with ms=−12ms=−12.
- this is important when it comes to
determining the total spin in an electron
orbital. In order to decide whether electron
spins cancel, add their spin quantum numbers
together. Whenever two electrons are paired
together in an orbital, or their total spin is 0,
they are called diamagnetic electrons.

PARAMAGNETISM
- Electrons that are alone in an orbital are
called paramagnetic electrons.
 GENERAL CHEMISTRY 1

Naming compounds Iron (II) Chloride Iron (III) Chloride

FeCl2 FeCl3

Formula writing and naming metal- CLASSICAL METHOD

nonmetal binary compounds
- the name of the metal with the lower charge
 Metals tend to form positive ions (cations). is –ous and the one with the higher charge
 Nonmetals are more likely to form negative ends in –ic
ions (anions). EXAMPLE:
 Inorganic compounds composed of two
Fe2+ + Cl Fe3+ + Cl
elements with a metal cation and a
nonmetal anion are called metal-nonmetal Ferrous Chloride Ferric Chloride
binary compounds. FeCl2 FeCl3
 Some metals from cations with one
charge. Other forms cation with two or
more charges.

1. The cation is always listed before the

anion.  Most of the compounds containing
2. The cation-anion ratio must give a net polyatomic ions are ionic; therefore, we
charge of zero. follow the same rules as before.
3. The ratio is always expressed by the  We use a parenthesis of more than one of
smallest whole numbers. a group of atoms exists as a unit.
4. The unchanged English name of the metal  Example: Mg(NO3)2
is used.  In many cases, these anion groups are
5. The name of the anion includes only the composed of oxygen and one other
English root, plus –ide. element. We call them Oxyanions.

Name Formula 1. The name has a root taken from the name of
+ - the central atom
K + Br = KBr
Potassium Bromide (1+) + (1-) = 0 EXAMPLE:
NO3- = Nitrate
Al3+ + N3- = AlN CO32- = Carbonate
Aluminum Nitride (3+) + (3-) = 0
2. The names of the ions usually end in –ite or
–ate. The –ite ending indicates the anion with
Ca2+ + O2- = CaO
the smaller number of oxygen atoms.
Calcium Oxide (2+) + (2-) = 0 EXAMPLE:
NO2- = Nitrite
NO3- = Nitrate
STOCK METHOD
- the charge on the metal ion follows the name 3. When more than 2 polyatomic ions exist
of the metal in Roman Numerals in with the same central atom, the prefixes hypo-
parentheses. and per- (from hyper-) are used to indicate the
EXAMPLE: smallest and the largest number of oxygen
Fe2+ + Cl Fe3+ + Cl atoms.
ClO- hypochlorite
 GENERAL CHEMISTRY 1

ClO2- chlorite FORMULA NAME

ClO3- chlorate N2O Dinitrogen monoxide
ClO4- perchlorate
NO Nitrogen monoxide
4. There are some exceptions to these
generalizations. Some exceptions to these
N2O3 Dinitrogen Trioxide
generalizations include hydroxide (OH-),
peroxide (O22-) and cyanide (CN-) ions. These
have the –ide ending because they were NO2 Nitrogen Dioxide
once thought to be monoatomic ions.

5. A polyatomic anion with a charge more

negative than 1- may add a hydrogen cation BINARY ACIDS
(H+) to give another anion. These anions are - composed of Hydrogen and one other
named from the parent anion by adding the element.
word Hydrogen.
 Many ionic compounds can have water OXYACIDS
molecules incorporated in their solid
structures They are referred to as - composed of Hydrogen and a polyatomic
hydrates. anion or oxyanion.
 When writing the formula or naming, we
simply use a prefix or number that denotes
the number of water molecules in the
compound.
EXAMPLE:
Copper (II) sulfate pentahydrate
CuSO4 ● 5H2O
 The least electronegative element is written
first, followed by the more electronegative
element (Remember your periodic trends!)
 Greek prefixes are added to the name of there
are more than one atoms of a type of element.

 The acid name is obtained by dropping

the word “hydrogen” and adding the
prefix hydro- to the anion root, changing
the –ide to –ic, followed by the word
“acid.”
 If the name of the oxyanion ends in –ate,
it is changed to –ic. If it ends in –ite, it is
changed to –ous. In both cases, you add
the word “acid” after the changed name.
 GENERAL CHEMISTRY 1

GASES STP/STANDARD TEMPERATURE AND

PRESSURE

PROPERTIES OF GASES
 Gases are compressible.
 Gases fill any container that they occupy.
 Gases expand in the heat.
 Gases do not settle in their container.

KINETIC MOLECULAR THEORY OF GAS GAS LAW

 A gas consists of very small particles. The
particles are in constant, random, straight-
line motion.
 The molecules of a gas are very far from
each other relative to their size.
 There is no interaction between molecules,
they act independently of each other.
 Molecules collide with each other and with
the walls of the container in a perfectly
elastic manner.

PRESSURE
- force exerted per unit area
P = F/A = N/m2 = Pa = Blaise Pascal

COMMON UNITES OF MEASUREMENT

BOYLE’S LAW
- at constant temperature, the volume of the
gas increases as the pressure decreases. The
volume of the gas decreases and the pressure
increases.
TEMPERATURE
- William Thomson/ Lord Kelvin
- 0 K = - 273 0C
- K = 0C + 273
 GENERAL CHEMISTRY 1

In 1662, Robert Boyle (1627- SAMPLE PROBLEM:

1691) studied the
relationship between
pressure and volume in
gases. Through the use of
vacuum pumps, he was
able to measure the
pressure exerted by his sample toward its
container when it was being compressed.

- To study the state that under constant

temperature and amount of gas, the volume of
any given amount of gas is inversely
proportional to the pressure exerted on it.

CHARLES LAW
- Charles law states that at constant pressure,
the volume of a fixed amount of gas is directly
proportional to its absolute temperature.

Charles law, named after the

prominent French scientist
Jacques Charles, states that
the Kelvin temperature and
the volume of a gas are
directly related when there is
no change in pressure or
amount of a gas.

To study the effect of changing the

temperature on the volume of a gas, pressure
or the amount of the gas must remain the
same.

The formula for Charles law is

V1 V2
T1 T2
 GENERAL CHEMISTRY 1

PERIODIC TABLE OF ELEMENTS

SAMPLE PROBLEM:

A gas has a volume of 4.00 L at 0◦C. What final

temperature in degree Celsius is needed to
cause the volume of the gas to change to 2.50
L?
SOLUTION:
Given: Solution:
V1=4.00L  Rows are called “Periods”.
V2=2.50L
T1=0 C
T2= ?

Find: T2 = ?

Formula:

 Columns are called “Groups”.

Answer: T2 = 170.625K or 171K  Columns (Groups) are also called
Families.

THE PERIODIC TABLE OF

ELEMENTS

CALIFORNIA STANDARDS
ATOMIC AND MOLECULAR STRUCTURE
- The periodic table displays the elements in
increasing atomic number and shows how
periodicity of the physical and chemical
properties of the elements relates to atomic
structure.
 GENERAL CHEMISTRY 1

GROUPS AND PERIODS - metallic elements found in the second group

of the periodic table. All alkaline earth
elements have an oxidation number of +2,
making them very reactive.

GROUP: HALOGENS

GROUP: ALKALI METALS

- the halogens are the family of chemical

elements and diatomic molecules. From the
Greek for salt, halos, and for generating
genes.

GROUP: NOBLE GASES

- very reactive metals that do not occur freely

in nature. These metals have only one
electron in ionic bonding with other elements.
As with all metals, the alkali metals are
malleable, ductile, and are good conductors of
heat & electricity.

GROUP: ALKALINE EARTH METALS

- are sometimes called inert gases, which has

no know stable isotopes. These gases are
found as single atoms as they do not like to
interact with other atoms on the periodic
table, hence the name inert.
 GENERAL CHEMISTRY 1

REGION: TRANSITION METALS REGION: METALLOIDS

 B, Boron
 Si, Silicon
 Ge, Germanium
 As, Arsenic
REGION: METALS  Sb, Antimony
 Te, Tellurium
 Po, Polonium

PERIODIC CLASSIFICATION OF
ELEMENTS

REGION: NONMETALS

SUMMARY
 Periodic Table: Map of the Building block
of matter
 Type: Metal, metalloid and Nonmetal
o Groupings: Representative or
main, transition and
Lanthanide/Actanides
 Family: Elements in the same column
- an element on the periodic table that does have similar chemical property because
not have the properties of a metal element of similar valence electrons
such as malubility. Usually found as gases in o Alkali, Alkaline, chalcogens,
nature or weak, brittle solids. All are halogens, noble gases
nonmetals.  Period: Elements in the same row have
valence electrons in the same shell.
GENERAL CHEMISTRY 1