RESEARCH PROPOSAL WRITING SKILLS

INTRODUCTION TO RESEARCH PROPOSAL WRITING SKILLS

LECTURE ONE

OBJECTIVES:

By the end of this lecture, the students should be able to

 Define a Concept Paper

 Define the term Research
 Define a Research Proposal
 Outline the importance of a research proposal
 Give qualities of an effective research proposal

What is research?
It is the scientific method of acquiring knowledge, is systematic investigation of a question,
phenomenon, and/or problem following some principle or logical process

What is a concept paper?

 It is a two or three pages document that summarizes the entire project from beginning to end.
It helps to take all of the ideas in the mind of the researcher and put them down on paper as
concisely as possible.
 Writing a concept paper is a good exercise in defining the researcher’s priorities and mission,
and can be a useful tool in obtaining valuable feedback from experts/supervisors before
embarking on writing the full proposal.
 It guides the researcher into writing a successful proposal which is well written, focused and
one with a logical progression
A good concept paper has the following main components

 A Mission Statement that explains what the researcher is trying to do in about fifty
words or less.
 A Statement of Need that explains the need is the researcher is trying to address.
 A Project Narrative that explains what the proposed activities are going to be.

A concept paper is meant to give an idea of the area of research interest in order to avail the necessary
assistance for the researcher to develop a research proposal.
It should be as specific as possible in providing information. The information should include the
following

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  Area of study:
 Title of Proposed study:
 Brief background to the study:
 Statement of the problem/ the gap in knowledge
 Why the research needs to be conducted/ the purpose of carrying out the study
 Objectives of the Study /What the study hopes to achieve

What is a research proposal?

 A research proposal is a plan that indicates the strategy the researcher intends to use in search
of answers to the main research question/ problem and specific research questions. It
demonstrate how the researcher intend to go about answering that question.
 The research proposal is able to give an overview of the research project so that other people
understand the scope of the research, the significance of the research, as well as your proposed
methodology and chosen research method
 It can also be regarded as a plan or suggestion, especially a formal or written one, put forward
for consideration or discussion by others.

The Purposes of the Research proposal

 It helps the researcher to think out the research study that he/she is about to undertake
and predict any difficulties that might arise
 It compels the researcher to state all his/ her ideas in written form so that they can be
evaluated and improved upon by the researcher and others.
 A Research proposal is an effective starting point. It can be easily submitted to
several lecturers/ supervisors for their comments and suggestions.
 It can be used as a guide for conducting the research project
 It helps the researcher to remain on track/ help the researcher to refocus in an
effective manner/ find his/her way back to the track in case of digression

Qualities of an Effective Proposal

An effective research proposal has the following characteristics

 It is innovative; it has a sense of creativity/originality. This helps the researcher to remain

motivated throughout the study and also to be eager to get to the end. It will also reduce the
chances of plagiarized work
 It states clearly what is being proposed or what the study is about. This gives the researcher an
easy time in conducting the study without losing track
 Includes specific objectives that are achievable and measurable

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 Indicates the significance of the proposal/ shows how the study could benefit various people or
groups of people so that it is worth carrying out
 Describes approach or how it will be carried out whether qualitative orquantitative
 It give the time frame that is when and for how long it will be carried out. No research study can
be carried out endlessly. The time frame should be reasonable so as to give reliable results. The
time frame should spell out the length of time that each stage of the research process will take
 It spells out the estimated budget. The budget should not be presented as block but it should be
broken down to cover each item of research, e.g. stationery, computer services, travelling
expenses, etc.

LECTURE TWO

TOPIC AND TITLE SELECTION

OBJECTIVES
 Define topic selection in research
 Outline steps followed in topic selection
 Show the challenges encountered in topic selection
Topic Selection

The term "topic" refers to subject, issue or area under discussion e.g. performance, discipline,
drug abuse, school dropouts, motivation of teachers, etc.
The researcher should carefully select the topic of study because
 The topic (subject) one selects to research determines the success of the research study
because one's interest in the topic will sustain the research.
 The researcher’s interest in a particular area, motivates him/her in reading materials relevant to
that subject.
 It helps the researcher to be keen on collecting the required data, analyzing it and finding out
the results.
 A carefully selected topic translate into an exciting venture throughout the research process as
the researcher is anxious to realize the results of the study

a) Identify what interests or puzzles one in an area of study

 This refers to those issues in life that may puzzle or interest a researcher. These may be social,
economic, health, political or cultural issues.
 However, the identified issues should be worth spending time and resources to study. They
should be issues that when studied will be of benefit to the researcher and other interested

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 parties. This not only enables the researcher to go in-depth in one's professional area, but also
to defend the researched work with authority.

Good examples in this case could include:

 A student in the department of Sociology may be puzzled as to why people still consume
illicit brews despite the dangers experienced and the warnings given by the government.
 A student in the department of Curriculum Development may be puzzled as to why, despite
the reduction of examinable subjects at the primary level, pupils are still overworked.
 A doctor may be puzzled as to why, despite awareness creation on malaria prevention and the
provisions of mosquito nets to a certain district, malaria prevalence was still high.
 A student in the department of Religious Studies may be puzzled at the mushrooming of
churches in Kenya.
 An educationist may be puzzled about free primary education and school accessibility,
retention and performance.

b) Identify keywords for the topic

The researcher should then zero down to the real aspect puzzling him/her and express it in specific
keywords. These keywords can include words repesenting the issue that has puzzled the researcher.
They should also guide the researcher on what to concentrate on. They also help the researcher to
define thee topic

 For example if the researcher is puzzled about illicit brews, the keywords may be increase of
illicit brews.
 The keywords for the student in Curriculum Development department may be curriculum
reduction verses student overwork.
 The doctor's keywords may be awareness creation verses malaria prevalence.
 For the student in education, the keywords may be free primary education, school
accessibility, retention and performance.

c) Define the topic

After identifying the keywords the researcher wants to concentrate on, he/she has to define the topic.
Defining the topic involves analyzing selected keywords keenly. Out of these keywords there are a
number of topics that can be studied. The researcher needs to filter and come up with what he/she is
going to study

For example

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  On illicit brews, the researcher has to decide on what to concentrate on, whether it is causes
and effects or the costs.
 A researcher analyzing student overwork may study the causes and effects or analyze the
implementation aspect.
 On the issue of free primary education, the researcher may decide to concentrate on free
primary education and student accessibility, or free primary education and student
retention, or free primary education and learners' performance

The researcher therefore needs to get specific on exactly what he/she wants to study. This helps to
make a research topic doable/ manageable

d) Formulate the topic

After identifying and defining the topic, the researcher should formulate it by searching for articles and
other materials relevant to the research topic.

Formulation helps the researcher in

 Develop clarity over the topic selected.

 Identify the appropriate approach to be taken in the study
 Formulation of the research problem.

Qualities of an Effective Research Topic

a) It is researchable: That means it is a subject where the research instruments can be easily formulated
and the study population sampled. The objectives that will be formulated based on the topic are
measurable.

b) It captivates the interest of the researcher. The topic selected should

be one that the researcher has an interest in.

c) It makes a contribution to knowledge: A good research topic is one in

which the researcher is aware that the findings of the study will contribute to the body of knowledge.
d) It is provocative: It is open to varied views and interpretations. It will raise questions that can
be answered in the process of the study
e) It is clear and focused: The topic is not vague or alien to the researcher.

Challenges Encountered in Topic Selection

There are various challenges encountered in topic selection, and some have resulted in researchers
abandoning the project halfway, or the project taking longer to be completed than anticipated. The
following are some of the problems encountered in topic selection.

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a) Choosing a topic that is too wide

A researcher may select a research area that is too wide and fail to limit the scope. This occurs due to
underestimating the dimension of the topic. For example,

 The effects of drought

 Truancy in schools
These topics are vague and are difficult to study. The researcher needs to be specific about
what to study in these topics so as to come up with researchable aspects.

b) Choosing a topic that is too complex

This could be a result of terms used if they are too complex that they make the problem
unresearchable. For example, a study on the mushrooming of churches in Kenya is complex in that it
requires clear definition of the term "mushrooming." A single researcher cannot usually undertake this
type of research. It may require different approaches and a lot of capital besides expertise. This topic
may present the researcher with problems particularly during data collection and analysis.

c) Poor timing

 Most research works have a limited time span for which data should be collected and
presented. Failure to adhere to this may lead to disqualifications or penalties. The researcher
requires to select a topic that is doable within the time frame of his/her academic pogramme,
for example, Effects of free primary education over a five year period may not be feasible for
a master's programme. This is mainly because these programmes usually cover a span of two
years. If for some reasons, gathering information will take many months or even years,, then
the topic may not be suitable, particularly if the researcher has a specific deadline to meet.

d) Limited accessibility to materials and respondents

The researcher should also consider the availability of sources of the required information. If the
materials or respondents are not available, then the study may be difficult to carry out, e,g.

 Materials on tribal clashes that occurred in 1992 are not easily available. Other materials may
not be available in libraries. Some research works have been delayed or changed due to the
problem of unavailability of subjects.
 A study based on Aids patients at Kenyatta National Hospital may not be easy as accessibility
to respondents may be limited. The patients may also feel an invasion of privacy and refuse to
respond-

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Topic selection is vital in proposal writing as it contributes to the success of the research. The
researcher should therefore ensure that he/she is certain about the topic to be researched, is interested
in the topic and the required materials and resources are available.

Title Selection

The term "title" refers to heading, label or tag. The title of the proposal or thesis describes what the
study is about. The title is a mini-abstract. It portrays a quick summary of the key idea(s) in a proposal
or thesis. For example the following title by Kombo (2005), Abortion in Kenya: An examination of its
causes and effects on female students in secondary schools and colleges indicates that the study is on
abortion. It also indicates that the study will analyze the causes and effects of abortion. It can be
deduced from the title that the respondents will include female students in secondary schools and
colleges.

In title selection, a researcher may discuss topical issues in society. This may include issues such as
businesses that are not making any profit, the effect of business location on the success of a business,
insecurity in urban and rural areas or the mushrooming of churches. In business management a
researcher may analyze factors hindering the success of income generating activities. The title should
be formulated after the researcher has identified the research topic.

The following steps are essential in title selection:

.1) Identify keywords for the title

Before selecting the title, the researcher should identify key issues in the topic the researcher is
interested in.

h) Reflect on the key issues

The researcher should brainstorm the key issues identified. This includes attempting to find out the
independent and dependent variables. For example if the researcher is puzzled over price increase and
commodity consumption, questions that the researcher should attempt to answer are:

Does price increase affect consumption?

Does price increase influence consumption?

Does consumption influence price increase?

The researcher will attempt to find out how these issues can be linked to form a title.

c) Formulate the title

After the researcher is clear about the independent and dependent variables, the title can be formulated.
The formulation of the title involves trying to link the key variables. This can be formulated by using

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terms such as The effect of..., The impact of..., An assessment of..., for instance, The effect of price
increase on consumption or The effect of free primary education on school accessibility.

d) Evaluation

After formulating the title, the researcher has to ensure that it is clear and specific. This means the
independent and dependent variables are easily identified (variables will be discussed later). For
example, if the title is on the effect of price increase on consumption the researcher may specify it as
The effect of price increase on sugar consumption in Kenya. If the title is on free primary education,
the title can be The effect of free primary education on student accessibility, retention and academic
performance.

Qualities of an Effective Title

An effective research title should portray the following qualities:

• It should be brief and specific: For example, The impact of drug abuse on education. This brevity
makes the title stand out and have a strong impact. It is easier to identify the independent and
dependent variables. The title becomes clear and focused.

• should be in line with the set objectives: The title is a brief summary of what the study is about. It
should portray the aims and objectives of the study. The words used in the title should clearly reflect
the focus of the study.

• It should be clear and unambiguous: The title should not lead to various interpretations of the
study.

• It should reflect a relationship between the independent and dependent variables, for example,
the effect of price increase on food consumption.

• The title should portray an issue that is researchable. The aspects in question should be measurable.

Challenges Encountered in Title Selection

There are various challenges faced by researchers in title selection. These include the following:

a Choosing a title that is not specific

A researcher may select a title that is open to varied interpretations. For example, Crime in Kenya is a
wide title that is open to various interpretations. This is because there are also varied forms of crime.
For it to be effective, it has to be specific. To avoid this in title selection, the researcher should be very
clear and focused on what the independent and dependent variables of the study are.

b) Writing a title that is too wordy

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A brief title is more effective than a long one. This is because variables are easily identified. Some
titles have too many words. To avoid this, researchers should ensure that words that are not necessary
for understanding the title are omitted. For example, the title. The effect of free primary education on
the academic performance of boys and girls in boarding and day schools in Kenya can be summarized
as The effect of free education on academic performance. When all else fails, a two-p.irl title can be
used with the parts separated by a colon.

Poorly formulated titles

Some titles are difficult to comprehend for example, Understanding drug abuse in Kenya. It is difficult
to comprehend what the term "understanding" means.

(I) Lack of consistency

Some study titles neither tally with the research objectives, nor with the problem statement or
methodology applied. For example a researcher who in a study on the effect of price increase on sugar
consumption in Kenya, concentrates on finding out about student indiscipline in schools is not
addressing the title selected

LECTURE THREE

PRELIMINARY PAGES OF THE RESEARCH PROPOSAL

OBJECTIVES

 To format the preliminary pages of the research proposal

What are preliminary pages?
Preliminary pages of the proposal are the first pages of the document. The numbering format
of these pages takes the form of roman numerals. They include the following;
i. Title page
- Should show the title of the study presented in upper case, e.g.
- Should show the identity of the researcher, e.g the name and admission number
- Should show the purpose of the proposal
- Should show the institution of learning
- The year of the study

DETERMINANTS OF MAINSTREAMING OF LIFE SKILLS EDUCATION IN PUBLIC

SECONDARY SCHOOLS OF GATANGA SUB-COUNTY, MURANGA COUNTY

MOHAMED NOOR

BEDA/2016/000042

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A Research proposal Submitted as Partial Fulfilment for the Award of a Bachelor of Education
Degree

Mount Kenya University

2016

NB. The title page is the first page of the preliminary pages but the roman numeral (i) should
not appear on the page

ii. Declaration page

This page should show a declaration by the researcher that the proposal is his /her
original work that has not been presented in any other institution of learning. It should
have a space to be signed by both the researcher and his /her supervisor(s)
A sample declaration page

This proposal is my original work and it has not been presented for any study programme in any other
institution.

TALI WYCLIFFE LUVISIA

Signature ____________________________ Date ___________________________

This proposal has been submitted for the purpose of approval to,

Course Lecturer (name)

Department of Educational Management and Curriculum Studies

Mount Kenya University.

Signature _______________________________ Date __________________

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 iii. Dedication page
The researcher dedicates his her work to the people of his/her choice who may have
contributed to his success. There should be at least two names for every dedicatees.
The list should not be unnecessarily long.
A sample dedication page

DEDICATION

I wish to dedicate this work to my beloved wife, Eva Ndunge for her endless support, inspiration and
encouragement; and our children John Musyoka and Cynthia Mutheu who have positively welcomed
my absence when I was carrying out this academic endeavor. I am very grateful for your prayers and
moral support during this highly demanding and challenging moment that resulted in this work.

iv. Acknowledgement page

The researcher acknowledges all those who in one way or another gave him/her support during the
study

Acknowledgement
Many thanks goes to the entire staff of the school of Education for making this undertaking a success.

I am grateful to my supervisor Madam Purity who worked tirelessly to ensure that my project was
submitted on time. I also wish to acknowledge my dear parents and Brother Abdi Rahman for his
inspiration and utmost support. He indeed proved to be a good role model worth to be imitated.

Many thanks also goes to the school heads and teachers who accepted to spend their precious time
filling their questionnaires which enabled me to analyze the data.

Lastly I take this opportunity to thank the respondents and especially the persons with intellectual
disabilities and their families for permitting me to share their intimate experiences and thoughts. I
assure them that the information shall be used as purposed and with utmost confidentiality.

v. Table of contents
It directs the readers on where to find then content

TABLE OF CONTENTS

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Content Page

Title Page……………………………………………………………………………….. I

Dedication…………………………………………………………………………….... ii

Declaration……………………………………………………………………………... iii

Acknowledgement……………………………………………………………………… iv

Table of Contents………………………………………………………………………. v

List of Tables…………………………………………………………………………… vii

List of Figures…………………………………………………………………………. viii

List of Abbreviations and Acronyms…………………………………………………… ix

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.0 Introduction to the Study ......................................................................................................... 1

1.1 Background to the Study ........................................................................................................ 1
1.2 Statement of the Problem ........................................................................................................ 3
1.3 The purpose of the Study ........................................................................................................ 4
1.4 Objectives of the Study ........................................................................................................... 4

vi. List of tables

It shows all the tables that are in the document. Note that the tables are numbered
according to the chapters in which they are found, e.g. the first table in chapter one
will be Table 1.1, the first table in chapter two will be Table 2.1.
A sample list of tables page
Table
Page
Table 1.1. Performance of Mathematics among Girls for the Last Three
Years………………..27

vii. List of figures

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 It shows all the figures that are in the document. Note that the figures are numbered
according to the chapters in which they are found, e.g. the first figure in chapter one
will be Figure 1.1, the first figure in chapter two will be Figure 2.1.
A sample list of figures page
Figure
Page
Figure 1.1. Conceptual
Framework……………………………………………..………………..27

viii. List of Abbreviations and Acronyms

 It shows the abbreviations and acronyms used in the document and their
interpretations
 Note that they should be presented followed alphabetical order
 The abbreviations should be bolded

A sample list of abbreviations and acronyms

List of Abbreviations and Acronyms

EFA Education for All

FPE Free Primary Education

FSE Free Secondary Education

GER Gross Enrolment Rate

KESSP Kenya Education Sector Support Programme

KIPPRA Kenya Institute for Public Policy Research and Analysis

MDGs Millennium Development Goals

ix. Abstract

It is a page that summarises in about five hundred words what the reader is going to find in the
document. The content is presented in one paragraph showing the problem addressed by the
researcher, objectives, methods to be employed, and the potential impact of the study.

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LECTURE FIVE

THE CHAPTER ONE OF THE RESEARCH PROPOSAL

OBJECTIVE:
 To develop the introduction chapter of the research proposal
1.1 Background to the Study
Preparing background for the problem is important in highlighting the justification for
selection of a particular topic. The reader wants to know why the study was undertaken in
general and specifically why it was conducted the way it was with the sample taken. This
is what is meant by the rationale of the study. The researcher taps different sources for
preparing background for selected study. The analysis of the related studies may help in
writing the rationale of the study. When one goes through the researches
conducted in a particular area, one may locate several gaps there, one may find
inconsistencies in the results reported and one may find data from which some more
information may be extracted, if these were reviewed in a different way. These become
the background for the problem.
Characteristic of a good background information
 It’s brief, specific and gives an overview of the problem.
• The language used is simple and straightforward.
• This section engages the interest of the reader and previous studies that justify what the
authors are proposing are cited.
• The researcher portrays their familiarity with current happening in relation to the problem
being addressed.

A sample of a background to the study based on the research title below

Olembo (2005): Factors influencing effective communication in event management services
industry in Kenya: A case study of Safariquip Limited

The term communication refers to the transfer or sharing of information through the transmission of
symbolic messages, writing or speaking. Communication is the giving, receiving or exchanging of
information, opinions or ideas by writing, speech or visual means (Sillars, 1988). Effective
communication on the other hand is an attempted effort in ensuring that the messages sent are well
understood.

The ability to communicate effectively has a great impact on an organization's success. This is because
it affects teamwork and collaboration. Effective communication enables positive interaction between
two or more individuals working together to solve problems, create novel products, or learn and master

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required skills. It helps in the achievement of interpersonal skills particularly the ability to manage
one's emotions, motivations and behaviour. Effective communication also enhances personal and
social responsibility. The importance of effective communication in organizations is paramount. It
facilitates coordination and control of activities, builds teamwork and creates a supportive attitude in
organizations (Evans, 1990).

In organizations, the way workers perceive and interact with one another has a lot of impact on the
success of that organization. There are three basic ways in which people can interact and communicate
with each other in an organization. They can compete to see who is "best," they can work
individualistically toward a goal without paying attention to others, or they can work cooperatively
with a vested interest in each other's progress as well as their own. Of the three interaction patterns,
competition is presently the most dominant. Research indicates that a vast majority of workers view
organizations as competitive enterprises where one tries to do better than others. This competitive
expectation affects effective communication (Johnson & Johnson, 1991). Effective communication
results in positive interaction. This may be defined as individuals encouraging and facilitating each
other's efforts to complete tasks and produce in order to achieve organizational goals. Effective
communication is characterized by individuals providing each other with efficient and effective help
and assistance, exchanging needed resources, such as information and materials, and processing
information more efficiently and effectively. It also involves providing each other with feedback in
order to improve their subsequent performance. Effective communication encompasses challenging
each other's conclusions and reasoning in order to promote higher quality decision-making and greater
insight into the problems being considered. Advocating efforts to achieve mutual goals, influencing
each other's efforts to achieve the group's goals and acting in trusting and trustworthy ways enhances
effective communication. In business organizations, effective communication with clients contributes
to positive responses to the products and services offered (Miller, 1997).

Effective communication produces positive self-esteem in workers. However, on the other hand poor
communication results in low productivity due to workers setting low goals for themselves, lacking
confidence in their ability, and assuming that they will fail no matter how hard they try. Poor
communication can also result in workers being very critical of others as well as themselves. Workers
may be on the lookout for flaws in others and try to "tear others down." Poor communication within
organizations can result in workers withdrawing socially due to feeling awkward, self-conscious, and
vulnerable to rejection. Some become conforming, agreeable, highly gullible, and highly influenced by
criticism. They may develop psychological problems such as anxiety, nervousness, insomnia,
depression, and psychosomatic symptoms. This may affect their efficiency (Johnson, 1990).

The hiring service industry in Kenya mainly deals with service rendering in the hiring sector. The
industry lends out on hire functional tents, camping tents, and equipment. The industry also

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participates in functions such as outside catering. Since most of the services offered by this sector
involve interaction with clients, effective communication is paramount to its success in business.

Profile of Safariquip Limited

Safariquip Limited is a hiring service organization that mainly deals with the lending out on hire of
functional and camping tents and equipment. It also offers hiring services during functions such as
weddings. This includes catering services. Camping services are also provided on hire. Safariquip
Limited runs a campsite known as Sunshade Safari Camp in the Masai Mara. It was established in
1995. It offers hiring services to institutions, hospitals, schools, rallies and for campers. Safariquip
Limited is located in Nairobi in the industrial area.

The company comprises of the following departments: management and administration, sales and
marketing, camping and party tent stores, repair workshops and the accounts department. The mission
of the company is to provide quality and timely services. Its vision is to be the best provider of hiring
services in Kenya and worldwide.

The company has developed strong business relationships with both local and international clients.
Every year, Safariquip hosts the Rhino Charge and the East African Safari Rally. Its services are also
hired by the University of Nairobi during graduation. The company has participated in various trade
fairs such as the Karibu Trade Fair in Arusha and the Saba Saba Trade Far in Dar-es-salaam. Some of
the products provided on hire include party tents, camping and mountaineering tents, camping
equipment, tarpaulins, temporary shelters, beddings, water bladders, tables and chairs, cutlery, swings
and bouncing castles.

Statement of the Problem

Once the background for undertaking the study has been put forth, the researcher should write the
statement of the problem generally in bold letters. Statement of the problem should come without
any unnecessary introduction. It presents an overview of the problem that researcher has in
his/her mind.

Steps in Writing an Effective Statement of the Problem

There are various steps that should be taken in order to write an effective research problem.

(a) Reflection - The statement of a problem usually starts with an idea the researcher might have
as to what kind of a problem he/she wants to solve or what questions the researcher wants to answer in
a selected topic. Everyday practices and experiences usually bring up questions the researcher wants to
answer. These are fertile grounds for identifying the research problem. The researcher should write
down some research ideas/puzzles he/she has been debating based on the selected topic. Reflection

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involves assessing the selected research topic and title and thinking of the best way to reflect the riddle
in the topic/title. The researcher should also attempt to reflect on key issues in the topic and the
independent and dependent variables of the study.

(b) Identification - After identifying the key variables, the researcher should attempt to identify
the key uncertainties. The researcher should attempt to answer the following: Is there something wrong
or disturbing in society, theoretically unclear or in dispute related to the topic/title selected? Why is
this a problem?

b) Logical proof: The researcher should also show logical proof that the problem exists

(c) Formulation - After identifying the problem, the researcher should formulate it by clearly
explaining why this is a problem and how it affects people or institutions. The researcher should
indicate what it is he/she knows about the problem, through personal observation and research.

(d) Justification - After stating what the researcher thinks is the problem, he/she should explain
briefly the repercussions likely to follow in the long run if the problem is not addressed. The
researcher should use the statement of the problem to show that the research is definitely needed.

Challenges Faced in Articulating the Research Problem

(a) Defining the research problem - One problem faced by researchers in stating the research
problem is lack of clarity. The issue being addressed is hardly noticeable in the research problem. Let
us take the example of problems faced by street children in Nairobi. In this statement the reader will
not be made aware of the definite issue that needs to be solved. This is mainly because the problem is
not clearly stated. There are many problems faced by street children both social, economic and health
related.

(b) Lack of consistency between the research problem, objectives and literature review -
Sometimes there is hardly any relationship between the research problem, the objectives and the
literature review. For example in a study on the impact of abortion on education, the problem may be
that little has been done to create awareness on the effect of abortion in schools. However, if the
literature review simply concentrates on the health implication of abortion then it is not addressing the
research question raised. The literature review should attempt to clarify what is raised in the problem
statement. The research problem should have an influence on the whole topic being investigated.

(c) Lack of urgency - Some research problems do not reflect urgency for the study. The problem
at times lacks any supportive evidence that if not tackled, the repercussions could be serious for the
country in general and individuals in particular.

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(d) Emotional language - Some research statements lack objectivity and only reinforce the
researcher's emotional views over the selected topic, some of the emotionally identified problems
cannot be easily investigated through the collection and analysis of data

A sample statement of the problem based on the title below

Olembo (2005): Factors influencing effective communication in event management services
industry in Kenya: A case study of Safariquip Limited

The hiring service sector in Kenya is a business sector that fully depends on its clients for its success
and development. The attitude of clients towards the companies can either help increase or decrease
the profit margin. Several meetings and workshops have been held within the hiring sector to improve
on communication techniques.

However, despite various meetings, complaints have been raised by clients and workers at Safariquip
in relation to poor communications. Complaints have been made in relation to poor language use
among the workers and between the workers and clients. There have also been complaints due to
unhealthy competition among workers and among the various departments. This has contributed to
poor teamwork and hostility. It was pointed out that the various departments were not communicating
effectively and these had contributed to low sales. Some of the seasoned customers had opted for other
hiring firms (Safariquip Magazine, 2004). The company was losing a lot of sales. There were also
delays and damages caused in delivering items, broken promises and lack of cooperation among
various departments.

Although training had been carried out by Safariquip to develop and help workers achieve appropriate
interaction amongst themselves and among cli¬ents, factors contributing to poor communication and
its effect on the industry has not been assessed. However, since communication had a lot of influence
on sale of services within this industry, it was necessary to find out the factors affecting effective
communication at Safariquip Limited.

Purpose of the Study

It shows precisely why the study is being carried out by simply rephrasing the research
title, e.g.
The study is meant to influence the factors influencing effective communication in event
management services industry in Kenya

Objectives of the Study

Objectives play a vital role in research. This includes the following:

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  Objectives guide decisions in the selection of respondents, research instruments and the study
area. This assists the researcher to avoid the collection of data, which are not strictly necessary
for understanding and solving the problem identified.
• Objectives influence all components of the research design including data analysis and report
writing.
• A clear statement of objectives helps to limit the scope of the litera¬ture review. This is
necessary for valid outcomes. They assist the researcher to be precise about what to accomplish.
They help organize the study in clearly defined parts or phases.

• Objectives serve to clarify the variables of the study. This helps in the evaluation of the study.

• Objectives break up the aim into achievable and measurable components. They serve as a
guide for evaluation.

• Objectives provide a common consistent focus for the many activities in research. Some unity
in emphasis and some common focus are needed to achieve the goal of the study. This facilitates
sequencing.
Qualities of Effective Objectives
Effective objectives display the following qualities:
(a) They are specific - This means that the objectives selected clearly state what the
researcher will do in order to fulfill the purpose of the study.
(b) They are measurable - Thus can be evaluated.
(c) They are focused - The objectives should narrow the study to essentials. They should
also cover the different aspects of the problem and its contributing factors in a coherent way and
in a logical sequence. They should systematically address the various aspects of the problem,
particularly the key factors that are assumed to influ¬ence or cause the problem.
(d) They are operational - They should be clearly phrased in operational terms, specifying
exactly what the researcher will do.
(e) They are realistic - Therefore achievable.
Guidelines in Writing Objectives
In order to write specific objectives that will be effective to the researcher, the following
guidelines should be followed:
Reflection - This involves analyzing the aim of the study, the topic, and title before formulating
the specific objectives. Specific objectives should relate to all these aspects.
Formulation - The researcher should write down the specific objec¬tives ensuring that they are
measurable and if accomplished will an¬swer the research question.
Evaluation -After the formulation of objectives, the researcher should attempt to answer the
following questions: Do the objectives address all parts of the research problem? Do the

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 objectives measure what is being researched? Are the objectives feasible? If too ambitious, could
the scope of the study be reduced? Answers to these questions will assist the researcher
formulate effective objectives.

Challenges Faced in Specific Objective Formulation

There are various challenges faced in objective formulation. These include the following:
(a) Lack of clarity - In some studies, the objectives are not clearly ar¬ticulated. The
objectives do not focus clearly what the study hopes to accomplish.
(b) Overambitious objectives - At times the objectives stated by the re¬searcher are too
many and cannot be achieved within the time frame stated and the finance implied. The scope
may also be too wide.
(c) The objectives do not follow a logical order.
(d) Unrelated objectives - Formulating objectives that do not deal with all aspects of the
research problem.
(e) Not specific - Some stated objectives are not specific and therefore difficult to
evaluate. Objectives stated by non-action verbs such as, to appreciate, to understand or to study,
are difficult to assess.
For example

FACTORS INFLUENCING THE PERFOMANCE OF MATHEMATICS AMONNG GIRLS IN

PUBLIC SECONDARY SCHOOLS IN PUBLIC SECONDARY SCHOOLS IN THIKA WEST
SUB-COUNTY, KIAMBU COUNTY

A sample objectives would be

(i) To determine the attitude of girls towards Mathematics among girls in public secondary
schools in public secondary schools in Thika West sub-county, Kiambu county
(ii) To establish the level of availability of resource materials for Mathematics in public
secondary schools in public secondary schools in Thika West sub-county, Kiambu county
 NB; Every objective must reflect the title of study and must show study locale
 The numbering format for the objectives should be different from what the
researcher has used to number his/her
sub-titles, e.g. roman numerals or letters of the alphabet
 Each objective addresses a single idea (do not put two ideas in one objective)

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Research questions
These are questions prompted by the objectives. Every objective should raise a research
question. The question should not be simplistic so that it can only be answered by yes or
no. it should be provocative enough to enable the researcher to gather substantial
information. E.g.
(i) What is the attitude of girls towards Mathematics in public secondary schools in public
secondary schools in Thika West sub-county, Kiambu county
(ii) What is the level of availability of resource materials for Mathematics in public secondary
schools in public secondary schools in Thika West sub-county, Kiambu county

NB

 The number of questions should be the same as the number of objectives

 Each research question should correspond to an objective

Limitations to the Study

This shows the challenges that the researcher is likely to face in the process of the study.
The researcher should point them out and briefly show how he or she will deal with them.
The challenges should be presented in continuous prose.
e.g. The researcher is likely to experience lack of co-operation from the respondents. This
will be taken care of by ensuring that appealing language is used to request for the
required information.
NB: The research language requires that
 The researcher does not use first person or second i.e. ‘I’ or ‘We’. He
/she should always refer to himself or herself as if it is somebody
else……. ‘The researcher will…………, or , ‘The researcher
intends…….(using third person)
 At the proposal stage, the language should be futuristic because the
researcher is yet to go to the field

1.7 Delimitations for the study

Delimitations are the boundary limitations. This section should show why he/she chose to
work with a particular target population, e.g. why public secondary schools and not
private, why Thika West and not anywhere else,

e.g The researcher will to carry out the study in public secondary schools because he will
find schools of various categories such as national, county and sub-county schools.

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Significance of the Study
This should show how the study is likely to benefit the various parties that may be
interested. The researcher should use moderate and not absolute language. This is because
the researcher should not imagine that the parties must benefit from his finding.
Statements such as ‘the teachers will benefit’, or ‘the Ministry of Education will be made
aware’…… should not be used, instead the researcher should use statements such as ‘the
teachers may benefit……….’. or ‘the findings of this study could………………….’

Assumptions of the Study

This shows the expectations of the researcher in the field. The assumptions are numbered.
e.g. The following are the researcher’s assumptions about the study
i. That the respondents will be willing to co-operate
ii. That the level of the literacy of the respondents will enable them to respondent
to the questionnaires

Theoretical Framework
A theoretical framework is a collection of interrelated ideas based on theories. It is a reasoned set
of prepositions, which are derived from and supported by data or evidence. A theoretical
framework accounts for or explains phenomena. It attempts to clarify why things are the way they
are based on theories. A theoretical framework is a general set of assumptions about the nature of
phenomena. To understand theoretical frameworks, an analysis of theories has to be made.
Theories in Research
A theory is a reasoned statement or groups of statements, which are supported by evidence, meant
to explain phenomena. They are a systematic explanation of the relationship among phenomena.
Theories provide a generalized explanation to an occurrence. There are several kinds of theories in
all disciplines. It is impossible for a researcher to know all these theories. Therefore a researcher
should be conversant with those applicable to one's area of research. When a theory fails to be
supported by data/ it can be rejected, or is revised. Theories are testable in a practical situation.
Theories provide indicators and examples of what is incorporated in the framework. Theories
provide tentative theoretical answers to questions, issues and problems before the researcher
practically confirms through research that the answer is correct. Theories have proponents.
Researchers apply theories to guide their work and help interpret findings. They provide a
foundation for inquiries.

Importance of Theoretical Frameworks

A theoretical framework plays a major role in research. These include the following:

Page 22 of 40
 a) It introduces the researcher to a new view of the research problem. This enables the researcher
to understand the total realm of the problem.
b) It enables the researcher to conceptualize the topic in its entirety as an outgrowth of the larger
society. This helps the researcher to acknowledge the problem from a wider perspective and not
from a narrow personalized self-interest approach. This enhances the researcher's objectivity.

Qualities of in Effective Theoretical Framework

An effective theoretical framework should:
a) Account for and explain a phenomenon,
b) Be specific and well-articulated.
c) Reflect the research problem being addressed.
d) Be measured in a practical situation.
e) Provide tentative answers to questions, issues and problems addressed in the research problem.
f) Should systematically address the various aspects of the problem, particularly the key factors
that are assumed to influence or cause the problem.

Guidelines in Formulating a Theoretical Framework

In formulating an effective theoretical framework, the researcher should adhere to the following:)

a) Reflect - On the existing theories for the purpose of identifying a fitting context.
b) Analyze the research title to identify the independent and dependent variables. The researcher
should then reflect on the relationship between these variables.
c) Find out which theories best explain the relationship between the variables. This can be
achieved by using the library and reading books and articles related to the topic selected. The
researcher should read through various theories related to one's research topic. The sources include
professional publications, journals in education, theses, abstracts from doctoral dissertations and
masters' theses and psychological abstracts. These readings will present various studies related to
one's study area. This will assist in the formulation of the theoretical framework.

d) Formulation - The researcher should then write down the theories applicable, link the ideas
and identify the relationship. After this the researcher should formulate the theoretical framework.
This will involve discussing the selected theories in an attempt to answer the research question.

e) Evaluation - After formulating the theoretical framework, the researcher should evaluate it to
find out if it addresses all sections of the research problem.

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 Challenges Faced in Formulation of Theoretical Frameworks
Lack of differentiation between a theory and a theoretical framework. While a theory simply states
what proponents have discovered in relation to a certain issue, a theoretical framework uses this
theory to account for and clarify why things are the way they are. The researcher should therefore
avoid simply stating the theories applicable to the study. Moreover, some researchers quote
theories that do not explain the phenomenon under study.

The researcher requires to select an established theory appropriate to the study depending
on the nature of the study. He /she should indicate what the theory is, it proponent, the
year of its establishment and the relationship it has with the variables of his study.
E.g.
 a researcher carrying out a study on curriculum implementation could use the
Leadership Obstacle Model by Neil Gross which shows the requirements and
challenges of implanting a particular curriculum.
 A study on the retention of learners in school could use the Maslow’s Hierarchy
of needs theory by Abraham Maslow.

NB; the variables in the study must be consistent with those in the selected theory

Conceptual Framework

A CONCEPT is an abstract or general idea inferred or derived from specific instances. A concept
is a word or phrase that symbolizes several interrelated ideas. Unlike a theory, a concept does not
need to be discussed to be understood (Smyth, 2004).
CONCEPTUALIZATION is inventing or contriving an idea or explanation and formulating it
mentally. It is the act of creating or formulating something by thinking up particular ideas or
actions intended to deal with a problem or situation. A conceptualization is an abstract, simplified
view of the world that we wish to represent for some purpose. Every knowledge base, knowledge-
based system, or knowledge-level agent is committed to some conceptualization, explicitly or
implicitly (Genesereth and Nilsson, 1987).
Framing is the formulation of plans and important details. It is a way of conceiving something.
A conceptual framework can be defined as a set of broad ideas and principles taken from relevant
fields of enquiry and used to structure a subsequent presentation (Reichel and Ramey, 1987).
A conceptual framework is a research tool intended to assist a researcher to develop awareness and
understanding of the situation under scrutiny and to communicate this. When clearly articulated, a
conceptual framework has potential usefulness as a tool to assist a researcher to make meaning of

Page 24 of 40
 subsequent findings. It forms part of the agenda for negotiation to be scrutinized and tested,
reviewed and informed as a result of investigation (Cuba and Lincoln, 1989).

Usefulness of Conceptual Frameworks

According to Goetz and LeCompte (1984), and Bliss, Monk and Ogborn (1983) a conceptual
framework increasingly strengthens and keeps the research on track by:

• Providing clear links from the literature to the research goals and questions.
• Contributing to the formulation of the research design.
• Providing reference points for discussion of literature, methodol¬ogy and analysis of data.
• Contributing to the trustworthiness of the study.
• Giving a broad scope to thinking about the research.
• Conceptualizing the problem and providing a means to link ideas and data so that deeper
connections can be revealed.
A conceptual framework should assist a researcher to organize his/her thinking and complete an
investigation successfully. It must explain the relationship among interlinked concepts. It explains
the possible connection between the variables and answers the why questions. To find out how
effective one's conceptual framework is, one should analyze whether the set objectives have been
addressed (Smyth, 2004).
When we understand a concept we understand the links and associations that go with that concept.
Researchers who understand concepts become more knowledgeable in their area of research.
Understanding is greater and of higher quality if we understand the dynamics. In research if one
can understand a concept one becomes very close to "owning" it.
Strategies of Designing Effective Conceptual Frameworks
Learners at all levels of education consistently find the process of designing a conceptual
framework a demanding, abstract and frustrating experience. To come up with an effective
conceptual framework, one has to analyze a set of broad ideas and principles taken from relevant
fields of inquiry, and study various works illuminating experiences where several threads of
thought combine. Extensive bodies of knowledge could be used as cornerstones for organizing
one's thinking (Smyth, 2002).

The extent and currency of these bodies of literature provided a sound foundation for a conceptual
framework. This is because one can draw on this extensive and collaborated theorizing, to devise a
common language, guiding principles and reference points from which to structure discussions and
analysis (Smyth, 2002). It is also useful for a researcher to understand what a conceptual framework is
and entails before attempting to conceptualize.

The following strategies are useful in designing an effective conceptual framework.

Page 25 of 40
(a) Reflection - Assessing situations from social, economic and philosophical perspectives. One
has to be clear about what the research is about (title, objectives). Factors such as the independent
and dependent variables, and research questions should also be put into perspective.
(b) Defining the key issue (problem) to be addressed and defining its practical boundaries.
(c) Identifying key uncertainties (gaps in understanding/knowledge) about the situation or the
social/economic systems, and so on (The questions that need to be answered by the study).
(d) Identifying and assessing different possibilities for action.
A well-constructed conceptual framework can guide the entire research writing process, keep the
researcher on track, save time and enable researchers to defend their arguments soundly and
readily.
Qualities of an Effective Conceptual Framework
An effective conceptual framework should have the following qualities:
• Should be clear and concise.
• Language used should be simple and straight forward.
• The conceptual framework should be self-explanatory.
 Should have supportive evidence of ideas used,
• It should be logical and address the title, research objectives, and statement of the problem.
• It should be consistent with the literature review.
• It should also show a link between the literature review and the study problem.
• It should develop a set of guiding principles against which judgments and prediction might be
made.
• It should act as a reference point from which to locate the research questions within
contemporary theorizing.
• It should provide a structure within which to organize the content of research and to frame
conclusions within the context.
Challenges Faced in Designing an Effective Conceptual Framework
There are various challenges faced in designing an effective conceptual framework and this should
be addressed by researchers.
Choosing the language for the descriptions needs careful consideration. One of the major
challenges is in structuring the framework so that one can communicate through it effectively is
the language used. It must therefore be language that the readers can understand
Disunity in themes is a major weakness in conceptual frameworks. Some researchers write ideas
that are isolated, yet in a conceptual framework elements of each theme should overlap.
Literature review that is not supportive. The literature review should support the investigation
through the conceptual framework. It should provide reference points from which judgments can
be made following the data analysis in subsequent chapters.

Page 26 of 40
Inconsistency with research objectives; Planning and finalizing the conceptual framework
without the planner being conversant with the research objectives. Another major challenge is
copying conceptual frameworks of other researchers without a keen study to find out if the
framework fits in the current study.
Limitations of Conceptual Frameworks
A researcher should be aware of the following limitations when designing a conceptual
framework. A conceptual framework is a construction of knowledge bound by the life-world
experiences of the person developing it and should not be attributed a power that it does not have
(Miles and Huberman, 1994). Moreover, the nature of a conceptual framework means that it
consciously or unconsciously informs thought and practice by increasing personal sensitivity to
particular occurrences, and so this must be taken into account (Mason and Waywood, 1996). No
researcher can expect that all data will be analyzed using the framework without the risk of
limiting the results from the investigation.
By considering these cautions, one should remain open to new or unexpected occurrences in the
data and the investigation.

Steps in Preparing an Effective Conceptual Framework

There are various steps in preparing an effective conceptual framework. These are as follows:
 Selection of concepts - A person selects the concepts to be used in relation to the problem. At
this level of abstraction, the focus is on alternative ideas that bear directly on the problem or
situation. These ideas relate directly to the problem.
 Creation of options - the construction of possible actions prior to selection. It addresses the
act of creating the sequences for creating ideas. The perception of the circumstances or
imagining the circumstances immediately gives rise to mental sets in relation to those
circumstances. These mental sets include our knowledge of what to do, and potential outcomes
- these are prior knowledge.
 Seek the tools to conceptualize - the very tools for the highest level of abstract thought. At
this level ideas are linked and their relation¬ ship identified.
 Direct the conceptualization process - offering certain types of insight and write the
conceptual framework.
The researcher requires to present the framework as diagrammatic form to show the
relationship among the variables of the study based on the way the researcher conceives them.
This helps the readers a clearer understanding of the relationship. Conceptual framework is
therefore very subjective. It is dependent on the mind of the researcher. The researcher
introduces the framework, presents the diagrammatic representation, and gives an
interpretation of the framework to help the reader to understand it.
NB: The conceptual framework must show the input, the process and the output

Page 27 of 40
1.11 Operational Definition of Terms
This shows the definition of significant terms as used in the study. The terms being
defined should be presented in alphabetical order

LECTURE SEVEN

LITERATURE REVIEW
OBJECTIVES
 Define Literature Review
 Show the importance of literature review
 Outline the steps followed in literature review
 Explain how literature review is presented in a research proposal

Page 28 of 40
Review of Related Literature
Literature review should show what others have said about the topic.
Review of pertinent literature serves four main purposes:
1. It enables you to determine studies that have already been done, thus avoiding duplication.
2. It makes it possible for you to identify research strategies and instruments which have been
found effective in investigating your problem. This will help you to profit from the
experiences of other researchers and to avoid their mistakes
3. It facilitates interpretation of the finding of your study
4. It enables you to identify gaps in knowledge as well as weakness in previous studies. These
weakness help to select and define your research problem.

The following are some sources of literature

1. Relevant textbooks
2. Relevant professional journals e.g. Journal of (Education, medicine, psychology etc)
3. Dissertation abstracts
4. Student’ undergraduate and postgraduate dissertations
5. Psychological abstracts
6. Currents index to journals of psychology
7. Dissertation abstracts international
8. Encyclopedia of psychological research
9. Review of psychology research
10. Reference list in textbook and article

Steps followed in Literature

1. Choose a topic. Define the research question.

The literature review should be guided by a central research question. It is not a collection of loosely
related studies in a field but instead represents background and research developments related to a
specific research question, interpreted and analyzed in a synthesized way.

NB;

 The research question is not too broad or too narrow. Is should be manageable.

Page 29 of 40
  Terms related to the research question should be written down to assist in conducting the
searches later on.

2. Decide on the scope of the review: The researcher needs to decide on how many previous studies
he should look at.
He also needs to determine how comprehensive the literature should be depending on the researcher
assignment.
3. Selection of the databases/ sources to be used in searches: the researcher needs to make a list of
the databases to use in the review. The data bases must be comprehensive.
4. Conducting the searches and find the literature. The researcher should ensure that he keeps track
of the searches
5. Review the literature.
Some questions to help you analyze the research:

 What was the research question of the study you are reviewing? What were the authors trying
to discover?
 What were the research methodologies? Analyze its literature review, the samples and
variables used, the results, and the conclusions. Does the research seem to be complete? Could
it have been conducted more soundly? What further questions does it raise?
 How are the authors viewed in the field? Has this study been cited?; if so, how has it been
analyzed?

Tips:

6. Code the literature:

Coding is an analytical process in which data, in both quantitative form (such as questionnaires
results) or qualitative (such as interview transcripts) is categorised to facilitate analysis. Coding means
the transformation of data into a form understandable by computer software. It is putting the data in
numerical terms

Presenting Literature review in a research proposal.

Literature review forms the second chapter of a research proposal. It should presented thematically so
as to provide a harmonised flow of the research process.

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  How to present literature review in a research proposal
2.0. Introduction
This section shows very briefly what the chapter contains. It highlights the sub- titles in the
chapter.
2.1. Overview of the main concept
The researcher gives some background information of the main concept. The overview should
not be unnecessarily long.

2.3. (To address the first objective)

This section gives information that covers the first objective. If the objective is on the attitude
of learners, the information should reflect the attitude of learners in the subject being
addressed. Any subsection under this section should be numbered as 2.3.1, 2.3.2….

2.4.( to address the second objective)

This section addresses the second objectives

2.5 (to address the third objective)

This section addresses the third objective

2.6 (summary of reviewed literature)

The researchers summarises the reviewed literature showing gaps that he/she may have come
across that may need to be addressed.

(NB. The number of sections in literature review is determined by the number of the objectives)

LECTURE EIGHT

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
OBJECTIVE:

 Outline the steps in the Research Methodology

 Prepare and format a research methodology chapter of a research proposal

The Research Methodology forms the chapter three of the research proposal. It starts with

3.0. Introduction

This sections show the readers what is in the chapter. It highlights the subtitles in the chapter.

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3.1. Research Design
The researcher identifies the design he/she will use in the study, defines it and shows the
source of definition, i.e. the author and the year of authorship. He/she should justify his
choice, i.e. why he/she thinks it’s the most appropriate design for his/her study. This
information should be brief. The researcher ought not to give more than one definition. He
should go for the one that most appropriately fits his study.

The following are essential points that researchers should adhere to while selecting a research design:

a) Identify the research questions to be addressed by the study: The researcher should identify and
reflect on the research questions raised in the study.

b) After identifying the research design to be used, read materials related to that design to understand
its advantages and disadvantages. It is also important to determine the validity and reliability of the
selected design to the current research.

Mistakes made in selection of research designs

a) Choosing a design that cannot assist in meeting the research objectives.

b) Choosing a design that is too complex for research at the level at which the student is
studying.

c) Choosing a design that requires extensive study and a lot of time

while the time assigned to the research is limited.

d) Lack of clarity about the design.

e) A research design that lacks flexibility.

3.2. Area of Study/Locale of Study

This section show the area or the locale within which the researcher will conduct his study.
He/she should include a simple description of the area.

The selection of a research site is essential. It influences the usefulness of the information produced.
The idea is to start with a larger population and through progressive elimination, end up with the actual
site where data is collected (Orodho and Kombo, 2002). It is important to do the following:

• Identify the largest areas which are relevant to your research questions and objectives.

• Consider the heterogeneity of the potential study population and choose areas or communities
which represent the range of variations on the most important characteristics.

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• Identify and select actual communities which fulfill these criteria by making site visits,
discussing with community leaders.

• Issues of accessibility should also be considered.

3.3. Target Population

The researcher should define the concept target population and then identify the people, events
or objects that form his target population upon which he/she is going to form a generalisation.
The various categories in the target population should be given numerical values so as to give
the researcher some direction during sampling; e.g. the number of teachers, schools,
learners/students, etc.

Selection of the population should be guided by

a) Reflection on the research title particularly the independent and dependent variables and
the study objectives.

b) Identification of the largest population which can relevantly be used as respondents in

addressing the research questions and meeting the specific objectives.

c) Heterogeneity of a potential study population which represent the range of variations with
the most important characteristics.

d) Evaluation of the effectiveness of the selected population in meeting the objectives of the
study. Issues of accessibility to the respondents should also be considered during
evaluation.

3.4 Sample and Sampling procedures

This section shows the sample size, the formula that has been used to determine the size and
the sampling method that has been used to select the sample, the researcher needs to ensure
that the size of the selected sample is representative of the target population, and that the
formula used is valid and from a credible source.

Challenges Faced in Population Sampling

In population identification, researchers are sometimes faced with various challenges- These include
the following:

Page 33 of 40
• Scope: A very wide scope for example a study of the whole country may hinder effective
sampling of the population. A narrow scope for example a study on one school affects the
validity and reliability of the findings. The scope therefore should not be too narrow or too
wide

• Lack of representation. The selected sample should be representative of the population under
study

• Bias in sampling: some researchers select a population that is convenient for them in terms of
accessibility. Such considerations may affect the validity of the study

• Poor accessibility to the population: Some population samples are difficult to access.

3.5 Research Instruments

The researcher identifies the instruments to be used in the study, defines them and gives the source of
definitions and justifies their use in the study. He/she also describes the instruments to be used in the
study.

In formulating research instruments the researcher should ensure the following:

a) The objectives of the study are clear. This will assist the researcher to anticipate the type of
information needed.

b) The population sample. The researcher should be select the instruments that are most
appropriate for the samples in the study. He/she should consider factors such as literacy levels,
profession and culture.

c) Geographical distribution. The span of the study dictates the type of instrument to be used. A
countrywide study may require the use of postal questionnaires and telephone interviews.

d) A researcher should be careful about the questions he/she asks. For example,

 He/she should start with a few interesting but non-threatening questions.

 Use simple language
 Limit each question to a single idea. Ensure each item included has a specific purpose.
 Only include questions that are directly relevant to the study.
 Have a logical sequence.
 Do not put the key questions at the end of the questionnaire. It is best to have them in the
middle.
 Avoid emotionally charged words.
 Avoid leading questions, for example, "Do you think students……….”

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 3.5.1 Validity of Research Instruments
The researcher explains the method that he/she will use to determine whether his /her
instruments will gather the required information, e.g. use of content validity, face validity, etc.

3.5.2 Reliability of Research Instruments

The researcher explain how he will determine whether his/her instruments can be relied upon.
The best way to establish this could be through piloting after which the methods of testing
reliability are applied, e.g. test-retest, split-half, etc.

3.6. Data collection procedures

The researcher outlines the procedure he/she will follow to gather the required information.
This may start with seeking permission from the relevant authorities, how the instruments will
be distributed, for how long the instruments will remain with the instruments in case of
questionnaires, etc.

3.7. Data Analysis

The researcher explains how the collected data will be analysed using quantitative/statistical
methods such as mean, mode, median, standard deviation, variance, etc. depending the nature
of the study. He/she explains how qualitative analysis will be done by analysin the content of
the gathered data

3.8. Ethical considerations

The researcher points out some of the key ethical considerations he/she will make during the
study such as keeping confidentiality of the respondents, avoiding plagiarism, seeking
informed consent from the respondents, etc.

LECTURE NINE

REFERENCES, TIME PLAN AND BUDGET

OBJECTIVE:

 To develop skills in various types of referencing

 To format the time plan

 To prepare the research budget

References

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The term "reference" applies to materials that have been referred to or quoted in the study. The
reference list is a compilation of the books and articles referred based on the Literature Review. The
reference list should contain the most relevant and important publications.

The References in the Body of the Text

The appropriate point at which to indicate the source of an idea is as soon as is convenient. E.g.

 At the beginning or middle of a sentence, the researcher should indicate the surname of the
author and year of publication. The year of publication should be enclosed inside brackets, for
instance, "Orodho (2003) pointed out that...," "Kombo (2005) indicated that...."
 At the end of a sentence or paragraph, one needs to enclose the surname of the author and year
of publication in brackets. The name and year should be separated by a comma, for example
(Orodho, 2003); (Kombo, 2005).

Direct Quotations

Direct quotations should be accurate. If there is need to omit some words within a quotation, the writer
should use three ellipses (...) to indicate the omissions. If the quotation is short, that is, a maximum of
three sentences then use quotation marks within the text. Longer quotations are usually indented and
typed in single spacing, without quotation marks. In both cases, the pages from which the quotation
comes must be indicated at the end of the quotation (Kombo, 2004:69).

Paraphrase

The use of another author's idea, but expressed in the writer's words is referred to as paraphrasing. In
this case the writer indicates the source author and year, for example (Kombo, 2004).

Citation Styles

There are two types of citation styles

• The number system

• The name-year system

The number system

With this system, references to published work are by use of numbers where numbers are used to
locate the various point of reference.

e.g There are many undergraduate texts on Process Control [1-4]. The most popular seems to be the
book by Kombo [2]. However, the only one to deal with process design and process control in an
integrated manner is that by Orodhol4].

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or

There are many undergraduate texts on Process Control 1-4. The most popular seems to be the book by
Kombo 2. However, the only one to deal with process design and process control in an integrated
manner is that by Orodho 4.

In both examples above, three citations were made. The first referred to publication numbers 1, 2, 3.
and 4; the second citation referred to publication number 2, while the last citation referred to
publication number 4. The fact that the numbers relate to items in the reference list is indicated by the
square parentheses [..,] or by the superscripts. The convention a researcher follows will depend on the
guidelines and regulations of one's institution.

When using the number-system citation style, the order of the corresponding reference list is
important. By convention, the first cited publication will be the first on the list and assigned the
number "1." The second cited publication will be the second on the list and as¬signed the number "2"
and so on. That is, the publications in the reference list are presented in the order that they were cited.
However, the reference list must not contain duplicates. This means that the researcher will have to
keep track of th-a publications that have been cited and their associated order in the reference list, so
that he/she can use the appropriate number when he/she citing a publication more than once, as in the
above examples.

The name-year system

Using the name-year citation style, the above example becomes:

There are many undergraduate texts on Process Control (Kombo, 1991; Orodho, 1990; Paul, 1995;
Wamahiu, 1988). The most popular seems to be the book by Kombo (1991). However, the only one to
deal with process design and process control in an integrated manner is that by Orodho (1995).

The first citation named 4 authors using their surname. Associated with each surname is the year of the
publication. Notice that they are presented in alphabetical order, within round parantheses, (...). The
author is separated from the year by a comma. Author-year pairs are separated by semi-colons. The
next two citations named the authors using their surnames with the publication year of the cited
publications enclosed in parentheses. Therefore, there are two ways to use the name-year citation style.
When using this citation style, the reference list is presented in alphabetical order.

How a publication is cited also depends on the number of au¬thors. If there are two authors, then cite
as follows: "Orodho and Konrbo (2002) modified the Minimum Variance objective function to
include..."

Listing of References
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There are a number of types of publications used in research. These materials include articles,
magazines, journals, conference proceed¬ings, books, dissertations, theses and research reports. Each
category of materials requires a different presentation format. However the general order of organizing
the references is as follows:

1. Surname of the author

2. Initials of the author

3. Date of publication

4. Title of the material

5. Place of publication

6. Publishers

Author's surname/ initials, (year of publication). Title of material. Place of Publication: Publishers.

Presentation Format

There are various presentation formats for different materials. This is as follows:

a) Journal Articles - These are the most common sources of cited material and include specialist
technical journals as well as trade journals. They are presented in the following format:

1. Surname of the author

2. Initials of the author

3. Year (date) of publication

4. Title of article: The first letter of the title is capitalized while the rest are in lower case.

5. Name of journal (underlined or italicized). You may use an abbreviated form for the journal
name/ but make sure that it is the recognized one. Most journals will have the "official" abbreviated
title printed at the top of its pages.

6. Volume/ followed by number of issue. Instead of issue num¬bers, some journals have a month
of issue. In such cases/ substitute the month for the issue number.

7. Pages in the journal where the article appears.

Author's surname/ initials. (Year of publication). Title of article. Name of Journal, Volume (number,
pages). For example:

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Garner, R. (1990). When children and adults do not use learning strategies: Towards a theory of
settings. Review of Educational Research, 60, 517-529.

Johnson, U.W., Johnson, H,, Stanne, M, and Garibaldi, A. (1990J. Impact of group processing on
achievement in cooperative groups. Journal of Social Psy¬chology, 130, 507-516.

b) Conference Proceedings - Papers presented at conferences are also common sources of research
information. The format is as follows; Author(s), (year). Article title, Name of conference, Location of
conference/ page range. For example:

Dore, S.D., Perkins, J.D. and Kershenbaum, L.S. (1994). Application of geometric nonlinear control in
the process industries: a case study, JProc. IFAC Symposium/ ADCHEM '94, Kyoto, Japan, pp 501-
506.

The author(s) surname appears first/ followed by initials. The year is enclosed in parentheses and
terminated with a full-stop. The first letter of the title is capitalized while the rest are in lower case.
You may use abbreviations to indicate the type of publication and the name of the conference. For
example "Proc." is usually used in place of "Proceedings"; "Pre." for "Preprints"; "Conf." for
"Conference"; "Symp." for "Symposium" and so on.

c) Books - To list books/ use the following format:

Surname of the author/ initials of the author, (year of publication.) title of book, edition number/ place
of publication, publishers. For example:

Awuondo, C.O. (1993). Introduction to Sociology. Nairobi: Basic Books Limited.

Kombo, D. and Waiyaki, M. (2002). Sociology of Education. Nairobi: Kenyatta University Press.

Orodho, A.J. (2003). Essentials of Educational and Social Science Research Methods. Nairobi:
Masola Publishers.

Gay, L.R. (1992). Educational Research: Competence for Analysis and Applications, 4"' Edition, New
York: Macmillan Publishers.

In referencing books, the first letters of keywords in the main title are in capitals/ and the title is in
italics. There is no need to indicate the edition of the book if it is the first edition. Note that the list of
references should follow alphabetical order and they are not numbered

APPENDICES

This presents research instruments, charts, graphs, illustration, time plan, and budget. These also form
part of the proposal and should have page numbers

Instruments

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The researcher needs to present all the instruments that are to be used in the research as appendices.

The time plan is presented in form of a guntt chart showing the allocated time for each activity in the
research process.

E.g

Activity Month
Jan Feb March April May June
Proposal Writing
Data Collection
Data Analysis
Report Writing
Submission of Report

Budget

The research budget is important so that the readers will be able to have an idea of the cost of the
study. It is presented in a manner that is broken down to show the estimated cost of the various items
of research. E.g

Item Estimated cost in Ksh

Stationary 5,000

Computer Services 10,000

Travelling 5,000

Miscellaneous 5,000

Total 25,000

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