Supplementary Materials for

Two thousand years of garden urbanism in the Upper Amazon

Stéphen Rostain et al.

Corresponding author: Stéphen Rostain, stephen.rostain@cnrs.fr

Science 383, 183 (2024)

DOI: 10.1126/science.adi6317

The PDF file includes:

Materials and Methods

Figs. S1 to S13
Tables S1 to S3
References
 Supplementary Material

Two Thousand Years of Green Urbanism in the Upper Amazon

Stéphen Rostain, Antoine Dorison, Geoffroy de Saulieu, Heiko Prümers, Jean-Luc Le Pennec,
Fernando Mejía Mejía, Philippe Descola

Materials and Methods

S1: Field work

Surveys and excavations
Apart from the debatable information published by Pedro Porras in 1987 (25), most of our
knowledge about the pre-Columbian occupation of the Kilamope/Upano cultures comes from the
archaeological investigations of Stéphen Rostain and his team (18). These have been designed
from the start within an interdisciplinary framework, bringing together geoscientists and
archaeobotanists in particular, and thus have yielded exceptional results in various fields: the pre-
Hispanic cultural sequence, the habitat and food consumption pattern of these ancient
populations, as well as the past volcanic activity and geomorphological formation of the valley.
The first excavations were carried out in the Sangay site, one of the most extensive sites with
earthen platforms in the region. It is located on the alluvial terrace of the Upano at the edge of
the cliff of almost 100 m height above the river. The site consists of several hundred platforms
clustered into groups or complexes (Fig. S1). A network of excavated streets extends throughout
the entire settlement and some of these streets continue outside of the agglomeration to connect
other cities.

At Sangay archaeological site, the excavations were concentrated in the Complex XI (Fig. S2)
located about 600 m southeast of the central complexes of the core area, on the banks of the
Huapula Creek. The complex covers an area of 70 x 50 m (0.35 hectares). Its organization
corresponds to the typical spatial pattern of Upano sites, with several anthropogenic reliefs
delineating low plazas. An excavated pathway links the complex to the stream below. A dump
was discovered on the northeast side, at the edge of the ravine (Fig. S3).

Other excavations were carried out in the settlement of Kilamope, on the left bank of the Upano,
ca. 9 km north of Macas. Only the westernmost part of this large site was explored and
particularly one platform complex was excavated (Fig. S4). It is located 320 m east of the edge
of the cliff plunging into the bed of the Upano. The platforms of this complex are built on the
highest point where they dominate a pond, about thirty meters to the south, which gives rise to a
stream flowing southward. This architectural complex, which covers nearly 0.6 hectares, is
organized according to a precise spatial pattern: two rectangular sunken plazas, separated by a
central oval platform, are delimited by four elongated peripheral mounds. Open area excavations
summing up to nearly 100 m² were carried out at the top of the southern mound, where a housing
structure was uncovered (Fig. S5). Two black layers cutting the stratigraphy were interpreted as
possible volcanic ashes that would have fallen on the site (Fig. S6).

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Fig. S1. Map of Sangay site (the black circle delimits the excavated platform complex XI)

Fig. S2. Archaeological excavation of the central platform of complex XI in Sangay

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Fig. S3. Map of complex XI in Sangay

TOP BOTTOM HIGH EXCAVATIONS

Central platform 16 x 8 m 24 x 20 m 200-350 cm 4 areas 90 m2, 2 test pits, 1 trench
South-east platform 40 x 2-4 m 44 x 11 m 100-200 cm -
North-east platform 13 x 3-4 m 20 x 10 m 100-200 cm 1 test pit
North platform 33 x 4 m - 100-300 cm 2 test pits
North-west platform 11 x 3 m 18 x12 m 100-200 cm 1 test pit
South-west platform 17 x 9 m - 300-500 cm -
South platform 19 m - 100-300 cm -
South plaza - 20 x 18 m - -
North plaza - 20 x 20 m - 1 area 25 m2, 2 test pits, 1 trench
Excavated pathway 102 x 5-7 m 400 x 80 cm 0-200 cm 1 trench

Table S1. Archaeological excavations in the platform complex XI of the Sangay site

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Fig. S4. Western complex in Kilamope

Fig. S5. Large-scale excavation of the southern platform of the western complex in Kilamope

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Fig. S6. Large-scale excavation of the southern platform of the western complex in Kilamope

TOP SURFACE BOTTOM HIGH EXCAVATIONS

Central platform 16 x 8 m 128 m2 26 x 16 m 190 cm 3 test pits, 1 trench
South platform 44 x 8 m 352 m2 54 x 14 m 130 cm 5 test pits, 1 trench, 3 areas 92 m2
West platform 46 x 8 m 368 m2 56 x 18 m 116 cm -
North platform 48 x 8 m 384 m2 56 x 15 m 137 cm -
East platform 52 x 8 m 416 m2 62 x 16 m 105 cm 2 test pits
West plaza - 832 m2 52 x 16 m - 19 shovel tests
East plaza - 728 m2 52 x 14 m - 2 test pits

Table S2. Archaeological excavations in the western Kilamope complex

S2. Datings
Cultural sequence
The chrono-stylistic ceramic sequence has long remained unclear. Pedro Porras’ (25) attemps to
classify the Upano style and those of various other regions of Amazonia are now seriously
questioned (18).
Almost 70 radiocarbon dates have been made during our program and led to the complete
revision of the previous chronology (27). Here, we propose a new sequence based on a re-
examination of the stratigraphic sequences of Sangay and Kilamope archaeological sites. The
excavations in the platforms of these two sites yielded two complex and comparable
stratigraphies (Fig. S11), resulting from different successive events: cultural occupations,
building and embankments, black layer formation, etc.
Based on radiocarbon dating mentioned above and on the stylistic and stratigraphic classification
of the remains discovered during our excavations, a cultural chronology of 2700 years could be
established for the region. This sequence was recently revised and will be presented in a
subsequent paper. It presents the succession of four or five cultural assemblages:
1. Sangay culture: from around 700 to 500 BCE. This first occupation left few remains.
2. Kilamope Culture: from 500 BCE. These were the first mound builders. Pottery of Kilamope
culture is characterized by curvilinear incised decorations, the use of reddish slip and various
fine prints and incisions.

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3. Upano Culture: probably from 500 BCE to 300/600 CE. They built earthen mounds and they
were contemporaneous or successors of the Kilamope groups. Pottery of the Upano culture is
mainly characterized by rectilinear incisions and painted decorations.
4. Huapula Culture: from 800 to 1200 CE. After the disappearance of the Upano, Huapula groups
reused the mounds abandoned by their predecessors. Huapula ceramic is characterized by
decorations based on the corrugated modality using wavy patterns, and marks the appearance of
modern Jivaroan-speaking populations in the region.
5. Shuar Culture: They follow the Huapula of whom they are the direct heirs.
The cultural evolution of this region is comparable with that known in other Amazonian areas:
after sparse occupation, appearance of dense societies during the first phases (Kilamope and
Upano cultures) while around 800 CE, the archaeological record indicates a fragmentation of the
system with the emergence of smaller and dispersed groups. Since the European contact and
until the end of the 19th century at least, the Upano basin has been occupied by Shuar groups of
the Chicham-Aents culture (recent self-naming to replace the previous inadequate term “Jivaro”).
Then came the Spaniards and, later, settlers coming from the Andean high plateaus.

Fig. S7. Stratigraphy of the central platform of complex XI in Sangay

S3. Methodology of the LiDAR analysis

LiDAR Acquisition and equipment
The LiDAR coverage was conducted by the company Technoproject commissioned by the
INPC. The aircraft used was a Cessna 206 equipped with a 2008 Optech Gemini laser scanner,
calibrated at a scan rate of 100 kHz, a scan frequency of 40 kHz and a scan angle of 50°. These
parameters yielded an average of 12.7 returns per square meter (no precisions were given by the
team concerning average ground returns). Geolocation was ensured by three GNSS Leica GS09
receivers. A total of 20 flights were conducted in the course of 17 days, between July 25 and
August 10, 2015, at a mean altitude of 305 m (1000 feet) and a mean speed of 180 km/h (100
knots). The operation team report (35) states that the equipment and parameters available were
unfortunately not optimal for the Amazonian context, nor were the climatic and environmental
conditions. The main constraints were the pre-mountainous environment and the areas of marked
difference in altitude (the cliff-like terraces of the Upano river) to which the aircraft model was
not well adapted, as well as the climatic conditions, which changed during the day. This led to a
heterogeneous coverage. However, the resulting processed datasets are of fairly good quality and
the technical constraints could be generally overcome during the interpretation phase.

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Fig. S8. Comparison of different sizes of complexes. Left: Kunguints small residential
complexes. Middle: Sangay southernmost monumental complex. Right: vast monumental
complex with seven earthen platforms at Copueno

DEM processing and remote sensing strategy.

Pre-processing was conducted by Technoproject using the automated point cloud classification
of the Terramodeler Terrascan software.
The archaeological team therefore inherited a LiDAR dataset consisting of 300 one-square-
kilometer tiles of raw data (LAS point cloud, 300 files), the corresponding tiles with the pre-
processed digital elevation model (DEM) (ASCII raster format) with a resolution of one meter
and a single orthophotography. The DEM tiles were combined into a single DEM covering the
entire area.
Table S3 summarizes the main visualizations that we used, which were produced using RVT,
SAGA, and QGIS software. Examples are given in Fig. S8.

Visualization Parameters
Multiple hill shading MHS Sun azimuth 315°; Sun elevation 35°; 16 directions
Slopes No parameters; color reclassification (see Dorison et al. 2022: 40)
SLRM 10 Radius 10 px (10 m)
SLRM 50 Radius 50 px (50 m)
Sky View Factor SVF Radius 10 px; 16 search directions
Table S3. Visualizations used and corresponding parameters produced using RVT, SAGA, and
QGIS software

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Fig. S9. Examples of the main visualizations used showing complex XI in the Sangay site
excavated by the team

All were used during the desk-based interpretation. The overlay of a 10-px radius SLRM, a 50-
px SLRM and the MHS emerged as the standard visualization best suited to our case at the first
level of interpretation. Another visualization based on the reclassification of slopes according to
“natural” breaks as defined by geomorphological models (40) also proved relevant. In addition,
some dense forest areas, where the algorithms gave poor results, could be partially interpreted by
varying the color gradient applied to elevations. Finally, 3D views generated in QGIS provided
useful tools to complete the interpretation process.
To limit misinterpretations, any identification of an object as pre-Hispanic was validated by
systematically overlaying satellite images of various dates and origins upon the DEM. Images
from Google, Bing, Mapbox, and ESRI world imagery, loaded through the QuickMap Services
plugin on QGIS, as well as the orthophotography generated during the LiDAR coverage were
used. In addition, open-access geographic and cadastral data were integrated into the GIS to help
distinguish recent (as roads, fields or pools that have another orientation) and current features
from pre-Hispanic ones on lidar-derived visualizations. Original data for the latter can be
accessed here:
- WMS geopedologic dataset:
<http://geoportal.agricultura.gob.ec/fisiografia/E25k/wms?version=1.3.0>
- WMS cadastral dataset:
<http://geoportal.agricultura.gob.ec/sigtierras/catastro_rural/wms?version=1.3.0>
- General maps repository:
<http://geoportal.agricultura.gob.ec/geonetwork/srv/fre/catalog.search#/home>

Digitization and spatial analysis

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The digitization was conducted on QGIS. First, we single-pointed all the earthen platforms
(locally called tolas) to assess the extent of this cultural phenomenon, which is typical of the area
(Fig. S9). The existing count undertaken by the team that carried out the LiDAR coverage (35)
was completed and corrected, and served as a base file to create heat maps and categorize the
settlements.
Then, we recorded the ground extent of anthropogenic features and remarkable landforms with
polygons (as in Fig. 4 in the main article). All footpaths were systematically recorded, taking
into account the degree of reliability of each digitization according to the quality of the image
and the visible morphological characteristics. For other features, such as platforms and mounds,
only a selection was digitized in order to provide a diagnostic sample of each type of feature
throughout the area.

Fig. S10. Platforms count in the whole study area. Each red dot represents the center of an
earthen platform

Criteria for the definition of the hierarchy of settlements

Clusters of complexes were defined as settlements based on three criteria: density, connectivity
at regional scale and size of the platforms that compose them (Fig. S10). A site was considered
“dense” as soon as it had more than 40 platforms per km² on an area of 50 hectares or more. It
was considered “monumental” when two or more large complexes (over 100 m long) were
registered within a 500 m radius. Regional-scale connectivity constituted a final criterion. Where
known, settlements were named after bibliographic references or, otherwise, after the nearest
river.

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Fig. S11. Comparison of four main Upano sites

Hummocks
Hummocks are large clastic materials issued during violent volcanic debris avalanche events that
may be encountered several dozens of kilometers away from the eruption epicenter. Sangay
volcano experienced several of these violent events, and hummocks are therefore common
formations in the study area, shaping hilly landscapes (33). Some of these present a flat summit
that may be the result of anthropogenic levelling in some cases to create domestic areas (41).
In the Upano valley, hummocky formations are clustered within specific areas. The highest
densities occur between Kilamope and Sangay, north of Copueno, and around Wampim and
Ampush.

S4. Comparison with Amazonian sites

Cotoca, Llanos de Mojos, Bolivia (6, 14)

Many pre-Hispanic artificial mounds are located in the southern floodplains of the Llanos of
Mojos, especially east of the Mamoré River. A total of 189 large monumental sites, 273 smaller
sites and 957 km of canals and causeways have been identified. Only six large mounds have
been partially excavated. Two large settlement sites and 24 smaller sites have been documented
in detail with LiDAR by Heiko Prümers and his team. The two major sites are Cotoca (147
hectares) and Landívar (315 hectares). The Cotoca site is enclosed by massive ditches and
ramparts of eminent defensive character. The core is occupied by a 22.5-hectare artificial terrace
rising 2 m above the surrounding land. Upon the terrace stand a series of rectangular earth-
platform buildings, which together with a 20 m high truncated pyramid in the southern part of
the terrace, form the civic-ceremonial center. Rectilinear causeways built on straight
embankments, generally 6-9 m wide, radiate from the center to connect other sites. These
monumental sites were not solely ceremonial cores but settlement area too. They were inhabited
by farmers that also used the residential mounds to bury their dead, sometimes with a special
treatment that most likely reflects their elevated status within a stratified society.

Hertenrits, Western coastal plain, Suriname (3)

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The Guianas coastal zone is a sedimentary and low swampy plain bordered by mangroves on the
mud flats along the seashore. Circa 300 CE, a Barrancoid group raised two earth-mounds. From
650 CE, Arauquinoid communities built new mounds. Their territory extended for over 210 km
along the coast and 25 km inland. Hertenrits is the largest of the six Arauquinoid known mounds.
It measures 200 to 320 m in diameter, is 2.5 m high, and presents a levelled area of about 4
hectares. The Hertenrits mound was occupied during a long period of time between 650 and
1250 CE. It has been built progressively, layer by layer. A moat of 20-100 m wide surrounds the
mound. Five wharves of 20 m long and at least 1 m deep are disposed on the periphery to receive
canoes. Rectangular or elongated raised fields have been built in the buffer zones in-between
mounds. Shallow, seasonally inundated pathway/canals run radially, linking the Hertenrits
mound to the raised-field area and to two smaller satellite mounds – Wageningen-1 and 3 –,
which are equidistant from Hertenrits to the NW and SE. The canals were used as pathways
during the dry season and as waterways during the rainy season, strongly suggesting that the
three mounds were occupied at the same time.

Kuhikugu, Upper Xingu, Brazil (8, 13)

The Upper Xingu is a forested region of the southern Amazon, Mato Grosso, Brazil. Pre-
Hispanic ring-villages have been documented along the Xingu River. They are similar to modern
villages such as Kuikuro, where malocas (larges collective houses) are disposed in circle around
a huge circular, central plaza. The largest archaeological sites can reach up to 50 hectares
delimited by peripheral ditches 500 to over 2000 m long, 1 to 3 m deep and 5 to 10 m wide.
These ditches are bordered by a raised interior berm where a wooden fence was originally built.
The ancient plazas measure 120 to 150 m in diameter. Wide roads (up to 40 m wide) radiate
from this central space toward various directions to connect to other settlements or locations that
may have been important for the provision of the inhabitants. Major political ritual centers
structure a macro-local network comprising large towns (≥40 hectares), medium-sized villages
(<30 ha) and smaller ones (<10 ha), as well as small villages without central plaza. Settlements
are typically separated by 5-10 km following rivers. In each cluster of sites, the same spatial
pattern connects a major political and ritual settlement to equidistant satellites smaller villages
located in the hinterland areas. These territorial polities organize a hierarchical anthropized
landscape.

El Gaván, Llanos de Barinas, Venezuela (5)

The El Gaván site is located in the high Llanos de Barinas, at the foot of the Eastern Andes, in
Venezuela. The llanos are grass-covered plains of dry savannah with a few patches of forest. The
archaeological sites found in this area are classified into four categories: regional centers of over
10 hectares, with mounds, plazas and raised paths leading to the other two types of settlement;
second-order centers, from 5 to 10 hectares, with artificial mounds; third-order settlements, from
1 to 5 hectares, without architecture; and drained field areas. The earthworks are dated to the late
Gaván phase (550-1000 CE) and are thought to correspond to the emergence of chiefdoms and of
a strong population growth. The sites range in size from 1 to 33 hectares, though the majority (28
of them) measures only 1 to 5 hectares. The largest site, B-12 or El Gaván, features impressive
earthworks with numerous mounds of varying dimensions, including one with an access ramp,
an enclosing embankment and raised paths leading to secondary sites. Two irregular rows of
small house mounds delimit a wide central alley leading to the main mound. The encircling
causeway of the site has been destroyed on the western side by a meander of the Caño Mitaio
Hondo.

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Fig. S12. Comparison of one of the main Upano sites, Sangay, and four low-density urbanism
sites in Amazonia: Cotoca in Bolivia, Hertenrits in Suriname, Kuhikugu in Brazil, El Gaván in
Venezuela (redrawn from 3, 5, 8, 14)

Fig. S13. Core of the mounded site of Eden, Upano Valley

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Figures

Fig. S1. Map of Sangay site (the black circle delimits the excavated platform complex XI)

Fig. S2. Archaeological excavation of the central platform of complex XI in Sangay

Fig. S3. Map of complex XI in Sangay

Fig. S4. Western complex in Kilamope

Fig. S5. Map of western complex in Kilamope

Fig. S6. Large-scale excavation of the southern platform of the western complex in Kilamope

Fig. S7. Stratigraphy of the central platform of complex XI in Sangay

Fig. S8. Comparison of different sizes of complexes. Left: Kunguints small residential
complexes. Middle: Sangay southernmost monumental complex. Right: vast monumental
complex with seven earthen platforms at Copueno

Fig. S9. Examples of the main visualizations used showing complex XI in the Sangay site
excavated by the team.

Fig. S10. Platforms count in the whole study area. Each yellow dot represents the center of an
earthen platform

Fig. S11. Comparison of four main Upano sites

Fig. S12. Comparison of one of the main Upano sites, Sangay, and four low-density urbanism
sites in Amazonia: Cotoca in Bolivia, Hertenrits in Suriname, Kuhikugu in Brazil, El Gaván in
Venezuela (redrawn from 3, 5, 8, 14)

Fig. S13. Core of the mounded site of Eden, Upano Valley

Tables

Table S1. Archaeological excavations in the platform complex XI of the Sangay site

Table S2. Archaeological excavations in the western Kilamope complex

Table S3. Visualizations used and corresponding parameters produced using RVT, SAGA, and
QGIS software

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