Lecture 6 2 GE 103 Statistics

DATA PRESENTATION
Without data, you’re just another person with an opinion.

— W. Edwards Deming
Lesson Learning Outcomes

By the end of this unit, you should be able to:
❖ explore different ways to present data;
❖ make observations, construct, compare, and interpret different graphs;
❖ make observations, construct, and interpret statistical tables.
DEFINITION
Data presentation is defined as the process of using various graphical formats to visually represent the relationship
between two or more data sets so that an informed decision can be made based on them.
METHODS OF PRESENTING DATA
1. 𝑇𝑒𝑥𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑀𝑒𝑡ℎ𝑜𝑑 - a narrative description of the data gathered

2. 𝑇𝑎𝑏𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑀𝑒𝑡ℎ𝑜𝑑 - a systematic arrangement of information into columns and rows
3. 𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑝ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑀𝑒𝑡ℎ𝑜𝑑 - an illustrative description of the data
THE FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION TABLE (FDT)
An FDT is a statistical table showing the frequency or number of observations contained in each of the defined
classes or categories
Parts of a Statistical Table

1. 𝑇𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 – includes the table number and the title of the table
2. 𝐵𝑜𝑑𝑦 – main part of the table that contains the information or figures
3. 𝑆𝑡𝑢𝑏𝑠 𝑜𝑟 𝐶𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠 – classification or categories describing the data and usually found at the left most side of
the table
4. 𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 – designations or identifications of the information contained in a column, usually found at the top
most of the column
Types Of FDT
1. Qualitative or Categorical FDT – a frequency distribution table where the data are grouped according to
some qualitative characteristics, data are grouped into non numerical categories
𝐸𝑥𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑄𝑢𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝐹𝐷𝑇
TABLE 2: Frequency Distribution of the Gender of Respondents of a Survey
Gender of Respondents Number of Respondents
Male 38
Female 62
TOTAL 100
2. Quantitative FDT – a frequency distribution table where the data are grouped according to some
numerical or quantitative characteristics
𝐸𝑥𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑄𝑢𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝐹𝐷𝑇
Table 3: Frequency Distribution for the Weights if 50 Pieces of Luggage
WEIGHT (in kilogram) Frequency
7–9 2
10 – 12 8
13 – 15 14
16 – 18 19
19 – 21 7
TOTAL 50
Steps in the Construction of a Frequency Distribution Table

1. Determine the Range (R)
𝑹 = ℎ𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 − 𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
2. Determine the number of classes (𝑘)
𝑘 = √𝑁 where, 𝑁 is the total number of observations in the data set.
3. Determine the class size (𝑐) by calculating first the preliminary class size 𝑐′
𝑅
𝑐′ =
𝑘
Conditions for the actual c:
a. It should have the same number of decimal places as in the raw data, i.e., if the observations
in the data set are all whole numbers, then your c should also be a whole number
b. It should be odd in the last digit
4. Enumerate the classes or categories
5. Tally the observations.
Sometimes the number of classes (𝑘) is not followed. An extra class will be added to accommodate the
highest observed value in the data set and a class will be deleted if it turns out to be empty.
6. Compute for values in other columns of the FDT as deemed necessary
𝑶𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒓 𝑪𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒏𝒔 𝑰𝒏 𝑻𝒉𝒆 𝑭𝑫𝑻

1. True Class Boundaries (TCB)
a. Lower true class boundaries (LTCB)
1
𝐿𝑇𝐶𝐵 = 𝐿𝐿 − 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒
2
b. Upper true class boundaries (UTCB)
1
𝑈𝑇𝐶𝐵 = 𝑈𝐿 + 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒
2
2. Class Mark (CM) - midpoint of the class interval where the observations tend to cluster about
1 1
𝐶𝑀 = (𝐿𝐿 + 𝑈𝐿) 𝑜𝑟 𝐶𝑀 = (𝐿𝑇𝐶𝐵 + 𝑈𝑇𝐶𝐵)
2 2
3. Relative Frequency (RF) the proportion of observations falling in a class and is expressed in percentage.
𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦
𝑅𝐹 = or %𝑅𝐹 = 100%
𝑁 𝑁
4. Cumulative Frequency (CF)-accumulated frequency of the classes.
a. Less than CF (<CF) – total number of observations whose values do not exceed the upper limit of
the class
b. Greater than CF (>CF) – total number of observations whose values are not less than the lower
limit of the class
5. Relative Cumulative Frequency (RCF)
c. Less than RCF (<RCF)
d. Greater than RCF (>RCF)
Drill 2
Construct the FDT of the given data set. Show the steps in the Construction of a Frequency Distribution Table
Age (in years) of 40 patients confined at a certain hospital

5 15 23 27 33 38 44 52
5 15 24 30 33 40 45 53
7 20 25 31 34 42 45 55
10 20 25 31 35 42 50 57
13 21 26 32 36 43 51 57
GRAPHICAL PRESENTATION OF DATA
A 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑝ℎ or a chart is a device for showing numerical values or relationships in pictorial form
𝐴𝑑𝑣𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒𝑠:
1. main features and implications of a body of data can be seen at once;
2. can attract attention and hold the reader's interest;
3. simplifies concepts that would otherwise have been expressed in so many words, and;
4. can readily clarify data, frequently bring out hidden facts and relationships.
Qualities of a Good Graph
a. 𝑰𝒕 𝒊𝒔 𝒂𝒄𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒆
A good graph should not be deceptive, distorted, misleading, or in any way susceptible to wrong interpretations as
a result of inaccurate or careless construction. Also, care should be taken so as not to create any optical illusion.
b. 𝑰𝒕 𝒊𝒔 𝒄𝒍𝒆𝒂𝒓
An effective graph can be easily read and understood. The graph should focus on the message it is trying to
communicate There should be an unambiguous representation of the facts The graph must be able to aid the
reader in the interpretation of facts
c. 𝑰𝒕 𝒊𝒔 𝒔𝒊𝒎𝒑𝒍𝒆
The basic design of a statistical graph should be simple, straightforward, not loaded with irrelevant, superfluous,
or trivial symbols and ornamentation. There should be no distracting elements in a chart that inhibit effective
visual communication.
d. 𝑰𝒕 𝒉𝒂𝒔 𝒂 𝒈𝒐𝒐𝒅 𝒂𝒑𝒑𝒆𝒂𝒓𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆
A good graph is one that is designed and constructed to attract or catch attention by holding a neat, dignified and
professional appearance It must be artistic, i.e., it embodies harmonious composition, proportion, and balance.
𝑪𝒐𝒎𝒎𝒐𝒏 𝑻𝒚𝒑𝒆𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝑮𝒓𝒂𝒑𝒉

1. 𝑺𝒄𝒂𝒕𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝑮𝒓𝒂𝒑𝒉 – a graph used to present measurements or values that are thought to be related.
2. 𝑳𝒊𝒏𝒆 𝑪𝒉𝒂𝒓𝒕 – graphical presentation of data especially useful for showing trends over a period of time.
3. 𝑷𝒊𝒆 𝑪𝒉𝒂𝒓𝒕 – a circular graph that is useful in showing how a total quantity is distributed among a group of
categories. The "pieces of pie" represent the proportion of the total that fall into each category.
4. 𝑪𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒏 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑩𝒂𝒓 𝑮𝒓𝒂𝒑𝒉 – like pie charts, column charts and bar charts are applicable only to grouped data.
They should be used for discrete, grouped data of ordinal or nominal scale.
Graphical Presentation of the Frequency Distribution Table

1. Frequency Histogram - a bar graph that displays the classes on the horizontal axis and the frequencies of the
classes on the vertical axis, the vertical lines of the bars are erected at the class boundaries and the height of the
bars correspond to the class frequency
2. Relative Frequency Histogram a graph that displays the classes on the horizontal axis and the relative frequencies
on the vertical axis
3. Frequency Polygon a line chart that is constructed by plotting the frequencies at the class marks and connecting
the plotted points by means of straight lines, the polygon is closed by considering an additional class at each end
and the ends of the lines are brought down to the horizontal axis at the midpoints of the additional classes.
4. Ogives-graphs of the cumulative frequency distribution
a. <Ogive – the <CF is plotted against the UTCB
b. >Ogive – the >CF is plotted against the LTCB
Example:
Table: Frequency Distribution of the grade of 40 students in a Psychology test.
𝑭𝒓𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒚 𝑯𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒐𝒈𝒓𝒂𝒎
𝑭𝒓𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒚 𝑷𝒐𝒍𝒚𝒈𝒐𝒏
Ogive
https://www.statology.org/ogive-excel/

Lecture 6 2 GE 103 Statistics

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DATA PRESENTATION

Without data, you’re just another person with an opinion.

Lesson Learning Outcomes

METHODS OF PRESENTING DATA

1. 𝑇𝑒𝑥𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑀𝑒𝑡ℎ𝑜𝑑 - a narrative description of the data gathered

THE FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION TABLE (FDT)

Parts of a Statistical Table

Steps in the Construction of a Frequency Distribution Table

𝑶𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒓 𝑪𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒏𝒔 𝑰𝒏 𝑻𝒉𝒆 𝑭𝑫𝑻

Age (in years) of 40 patients confined at a certain hospital

GRAPHICAL PRESENTATION OF DATA

Qualities of a Good Graph

𝑪𝒐𝒎𝒎𝒐𝒏 𝑻𝒚𝒑𝒆𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝑮𝒓𝒂𝒑𝒉

Graphical Presentation of the Frequency Distribution Table

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