Nano
Nano
Nano
Intensive Properties: These do not depend on the sample’s size or mass. Examples include
boiling point, state of matter, and density.
Extensive Properties: These depend on the amount of matter in the sample. Examples include
size, mass, and volume.
2. Nanostructures:
When the particle size becomes similar to the wavelengths of light involved, quantum effects
start to influence how the particle behaves.
The size of the particle can dominate the bulk properties of the material.
3. Quantum Effects:
In a bulk semiconductor, electronic properties depend on the band gap between occupied
electron levels and unoccupied electron levels.
However, when the particle is small enough, the electrons are more constrained and become
more like an electron confined to a small box.
This can mean that the possible energy levels of the electrons are determined by the physical size
of the box not the bulk properties of the material.
4. Color of Nanoparticles:
The color of nanoparticles can change with their size because in nanometer-scale particles, the
arrangement of atoms reflects light differently.
For instance, gold can appear dark red or purple at nanoscale, while silver can appear yellowish
or amber-colored.
5. Applications:
The possibility of shifting the resonance wavelengths by tuning the particle geometry allows using
them in various fields such as medicine, electronics, and materials science.
What are the surface plasmons, and how do the surface plasmons responsible for the change in the
properties of the material at the nanoscale? Explain it with an example
Surface plasmons are collective oscillations of electrons at the interface between a metal and a dielectric (non-
conductive) material. They can be thought of as a special type of electromagnetic wave that exists at the boundary
between these two materials. Surface plasmons can have a significant impact on the properties of materials at the
nanoscale and are widely studied in the field of nanophotonics and nanotechnology.
Localized Surface Plasmons (LSPs): These are confined to small metallic nanoparticles or nanostructures,
such as nanospheres or nanorods.
Surface Plasmon Resonance (SPR): This is associated with extended surfaces, like thin metal films.
When incident light strikes a metal-dielectric interface, it can couple with the surface plasmons, leading to
resonant conditions where energy is absorbed or scattered by the surface plasmons.
Surface plasmons can concentrate electromagnetic fields at the nanoscale, enhancing the interaction of light
with matter in the vicinity of the metal surface.
This enhanced interaction can be exploited for various applications, such as sensing, imaging, and energy
conversion.
Surface plasmons play a critical role in the phenomenon of Surface-Enhanced Raman Spectroscopy (SERS). Raman
spectroscopy is a technique used to study molecular vibrations by measuring the inelastic scattering of light. It's
sensitive to the chemical composition of materials but is often weak, making it challenging to detect signals from very
small concentrations of molecules.
1. Nanoparticle Substrates: Gold or silver nanoparticles are commonly used in SERS. These nanoparticles
support localized surface plasmons.
2. Enhanced Electromagnetic Fields: When illuminated with a laser, the localized surface plasmons generate
strong, localized electromagnetic fields at their surfaces. The incident laser light couples with the LSPs,
resulting in enhanced field strength at the nanoscale.
3. Signal Enhancement: When molecules are adsorbed or in close proximity to these nanoparticles, the
electromagnetic fields dramatically enhance the Raman scattering signal. This allows for the detection of
even single molecules, making SERS an extremely sensitive analytical technique.
2. Efficient Catalysis: High surface area nanoparticles are efficient catalysts, making them valuable in various chemical
processes.
3. Enhanced Adsorption Capacity: Nanoparticles can adsorb or absorb molecules effectively due to their increased
surface area.
4. Better Drug Delivery: High surface area nanoparticles can carry more drugs, improving drug delivery efficiency.
5. Improved Sensing and Detection: Nanoparticles with high surface area offer more sensitive and selective detection in
sensors and detectors.
6. Enhanced Optical and Electronic Properties: High surface area nanoparticles exhibit unique optical and electronic
properties, valuable in optics, electronics, and photonics.
7. Increased Stability: High surface area nanoparticles can exhibit improved stability, reducing sedimentation and
agglomeration in dispersions.
8. Greater Accessibility of Active Sites: More accessible active sites are available in high surface area nanoparticles,
crucial in catalysis and surface-dependent processes.
9. Miniaturization: Nanoparticles' small size and high surface area enable miniaturization of devices and components,
important in nanotechnology and microfabrication.
In bulk semiconductor materials, the electronic structure is described by energy bands, including the valence band and
the conduction band. Electrons in the valence band are bound to the atoms, while electrons in the conduction band are
free to move and participate in electrical conduction. In nanostructured semiconductors, as the size of the material
decreases, the energy levels become quantized due to the confinement. This leads to the formation of discrete energy
levels or energy states.
Quantum confinement results in a discrete set of energy levels, which are sometimes referred to as quantum dots or
energy quantization levels. The energy spacing between these levels increases as the size of the nanostructure
decreases. Electrons can only occupy these quantized energy levels, and there is a distinct energy gap between the
highest occupied energy level (valence band) and the lowest unoccupied energy level (conduction band), known as the
bandgap.
3. Bandgap Variation:
One of the most notable quantum confinement effects is the alteration of the semiconductor's bandgap. In bulk
semiconductors, the bandgap is relatively constant. However, in nanostructured semiconductors, the bandgap
increases as the size of the structure decreases. This means that smaller semiconductor nanoparticles have larger
bandgaps. The bandgap's size directly influences the semiconductor's electronic and optical properties.
The discrete energy levels created by quantum confinement allow for the tunability of electronic and optical
properties. By controlling the size and shape of the nanostructures, it is possible to precisely adjust the energy levels
and the bandgap. This tunability can be exploited for a wide range of applications, including light-emitting diodes,
photodetectors, and quantum dots.
5. Size-Dependent Emission:
Quantum confinement also affects the emission of light from these materials. Smaller nanostructures with larger
bandgaps emit light with higher energy and shorter wavelengths. This phenomenon is referred to as "size-dependent
emission" and is commonly seen in semiconductor nanoparticles and quantum dots.
In some cases, nanostructured semiconductors may exhibit enhanced carrier mobility compared to bulk materials. This
can lead to improved electronic device performance, such as faster transistors and better charge transport.
Quantum confinement effects in nanostructured semiconductors result from the size-dependent quantization of energy
levels, leading to alterations in the bandgap and tunable electronic and optical properties. These effects have led to the
development of a wide range of novel nanoscale electronic and photonic devices with enhanced performance and unique
characteristics..
How does nanomaterial’s differ from bulk materials? Explain in terms of surface to
volume ratio and briefly explain quantum confinement effect.
Nanomaterials differ from bulk materials primarily in their size, structure, and properties, largely due to their
significantly higher surface-to-volume ratio
1. Size: The most obvious distinction is size. Nanomaterials are typically composed of nanometer-scale particles,
which means their dimensions are on the order of 1-100 nanometers (1 nanometer = 1 billionth of a
meter). In contrast, bulk materials have dimensions in the macroscopic range and are made up of a large
number of atoms or molecules.
2. Surface-to-Volume Ratio: The surface-to-volume ratio of a material refers to the amount of surface area
relative to its total volume. In nanomaterials, this ratio is much higher than in bulk
materials. As the size of a material decreases, its surface area increases significantly
compared to its volume. This results in more exposed atoms or molecules at the
surface, which can have a profound impact on the material's properties.
Electrons in nanomaterials have quantized energy levels, meaning they can only occupy discrete
energy levels.
The band gap, which is the energy difference between the valence and conduction bands, increases as
the material size decreases.
Changes in the band gap lead to alterations in the material's optical and electronic properties.
Quantum dots are an example where the size of particles determines the color of light they emit.
Quantum dots find applications in technologies like LED displays and quantum dot solar cells.
4. Mechanical and Thermal Properties: Nanomaterials often exhibit enhanced mechanical and thermal
properties.
For example, carbon nanotubes and graphene, which are one-atom-thick sheets of carbon atoms,
have exceptional tensile strength and thermal conductivity due to their nanoscale structure.
5. Chemical Reactivity: Nanomaterials can exhibit altered chemical reactivity compared to their bulk
counterparts. The high surface area allows for more active sites and can lead to increased reactivity or catalytic
activity. This property is valuable in applications like catalysis and sensors.
6. Optical and Magnetic Properties: Nanomaterials can have unique optical and magnetic properties due to their
small size and the quantum confinement effect. For example, magnetic nanoparticles have applications in data
storage, medical imaging, and drug delivery.
Nanomaterials are distinct from bulk materials due to their small size, high surface-to-volume ratio, and the emergence
of quantum confinement effects. These unique properties make nanomaterials valuable for a wide range of applications
in fields like electronics, medicine, materials science, and more.
Demonstrate the surface-to-volume ratio for various shapes and discuss their
significance in nanotechnology with suitable examples.
1. Sphere:
Formula for Surface Area( A)=4 πr ²
( 43 ) πr ³
Formula for Volume (V )=
Surface−¿−Volume Ratio ( )=
A 3
V r
As the sphere's radius decreases, the surface-to-volume ratio increases, indicating that a small sphere has a
proportionally larger surface area compared to its volume.
Significance: In nanotechnology, nanoparticles are often spherical. For instance, nanoparticles made of gold can have
unique optical properties at the nanoscale, such as surface plasmon resonance. This is used in medical
imaging and drug delivery.
2. Cube:
Formula for Surface Area( A)=6 s ²
Formula for Volume (V )=s ³
Surface−¿−Volume Ratio ( VA )= 6s
As the length of the cube's side decreases, the surface-to-volume ratio increases, indicating that smaller cubes
have a larger surface area compared to their volume.
Significance: Quantum dots, which are nanoscale semiconductor particles often used in displays and solar cells, are
cube-shaped. Their unique electronic properties arise from their small size and high surface-to-volume
ratio.
3. Cylinder:
Formula for Surface Area( A)=2 πr ²+2 πrh
Formula for Volume (V )=πr ² h
Surface−¿−Volume Ratio
V
A 2 2
= +( )
r h
The surface-to-volume ratio of a cylinder depends on both its radius and height. As either or both decrease,
the ratio increases.
Significance: Carbon nanotubes are cylindrical structures with high surface-to-volume ratios. They are used in
nanotechnology for various applications, including reinforcing composite materials and drug delivery.
4. Sheet/2D Material:
In the case of 2D materials like graphene, the thickness (t) is very small compared to the lateral
dimensions.
Surface Area( A)≈ 2 L ²( assuming a rectangular sheet )
Volume (V )≈ L ² t
Surface−¿−Volume Ratio ( VA ) ≈ 2t
As the thickness approaches zero, the surface-to-volume ratio tends toward infinity.
Significance: Graphene is a prime example, with extraordinary electrical and thermal conductivity due to its high
surface-to-volume ratio. It is used in various nanotechnology applications, such as nanocomposites and
sensors.
Explain how the optical properties of nanostructured semiconductors and metal
nanoparticles change with their size.
The optical properties of nanostructured semiconductors and metal nanoparticles change significantly with their size due to
quantum confinement effects, surface plasmon resonance, and other size-dependent phenomena.
1. Nanostructured Semiconductors:
When semiconductors are reduced to nanoscale dimensions (typically less than 100 nanometers), the following size-
dependent optical properties emerge:
a) Quantum Confinement:
Bandgap Energy: In bulk semiconductors, the bandgap energy is a material property. In nanoscale
semiconductors, the bandgap increases as the particle size decreases due to
quantum confinement. This leads to a shift in the absorption and emission spectra
towards shorter wavelengths (i.e., blue-shift).
Tunable Emission: The ability to tune the size of the nanoparticles allows for the precise control of the
emitted color (from UV to visible to infrared) based on the bandgap energy. This
property is essential in applications such as quantum dots for displays and
biological imaging.
b) Enhanced Absorption:
Nanoparticles with sizes matching or close to the wavelength of incident light exhibit enhanced
absorption due to resonant effects. This phenomenon is used in photovoltaics and sensors to improve
light absorption efficiency.
2. Metal Nanoparticles:
For metal nanoparticles, particularly noble metals like gold and silver, their optical properties are dominated by surface
plasmon resonance (SPR) effects:
Metal nanoparticles exhibit a collective oscillation of conduction electrons called surface plasmon
resonance when exposed to light. The frequency at which SPR occurs is size-dependent.
Size and Shape Dependence: The exact wavelength at which SPR occurs depends on the size and
shape of the nanoparticles. Smaller particles exhibit SPR at shorter
wavelengths, resulting in color changes as the size decreases.
This property is harnessed in applications like colorimetric sensors.
Enhanced Electromagnetic Fields: At the resonance frequency, the electromagnetic field near the
nanoparticle's surface is greatly enhanced.
Localized and Propagating SPR: Smaller nanoparticles exhibit localized SPR, where the plasmon
oscillations are confined to the nanoparticle surface. Larger
nanoparticles can exhibit propagating SPR, where the plasmon waves
can travel along the nanoparticle's surface. This difference affects the
range and strength of interactions with incident light.
When we enter the nanoparticle paradigm physical and chemical properties change. Discuss the
properties of nanoparticles in detail.
2. Quantum Effects:
Quantum Confinement: Quantum effects become prominent at the nanoscale, leading to properties like size-
dependent electronic structure. For example, quantum dots exhibit size-tunable bandgaps and fluorescence.
3. Optical Properties:
Plasmonic Effects: Nanoparticles can exhibit plasmonic resonances, which make them highly efficient at
scattering and absorbing light. This property is exploited in applications like nanoscale optical sensors and
photothermal therapy.
4. Chemical Reactivity:
Enhanced Chemical Reactivity: The high surface area and the presence of unsaturated bonds on the surface of
nanoparticles make them highly reactive. This is especially useful in catalysis and in supporting chemical
reactions.
5. Magnetic Properties:
Superparamagnetism: Some nanoparticles exhibit superparamagnetic behavior, where they can be magnetized
in the presence of an external magnetic field and then become non-magnetic when the field is removed. This
property is used in applications like magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) contrast agents.
6. Thermal Properties:
Enhanced Thermal Conductivity: Nanoparticles can have improved thermal conductivity compared to bulk
materials. This property is useful in applications like thermal interface materials for electronic devices.
7. Electrical Properties:
Tunable Electrical Conductivity: Nanoparticles can be used to modify the electrical conductivity of materials.
For example, adding carbon nanotubes to polymers can make them conductive, which is useful in applications
like flexible electronics.
8. Mechanical Properties:
Enhanced Strength: Incorporating nanoparticles, such as nanoclays, into composite materials can significantly
improve their mechanical strength, stiffness, and fracture toughness.
9. Biological Properties:
Biocompatibility: Some nanoparticles, like certain types of liposomes and quantum dots, are engineered to be
biocompatible and are used in medical imaging and drug delivery.
12. Self-Assembly:
Nanoparticles can self-assemble into ordered structures, enabling the creation of nanoscale materials with
controlled properties. This is used in the fabrication of photonic crystals and metamaterials.
Gordon E. Moore cofounder of Intel made one prediction which is known as Moore’s Law. What was
that? Is Moore’s law still relevant
Gordon E. Moore, one of the co-founders of Intel, made a famous observation in 1965, which is now known as Moore's Law.
Moore's Law is not a scientific law but rather an empirical observation and prediction about the semiconductor industry. His
prediction was that the number of transistors on a microchip would double approximately every two years, leading to an
exponential increase in computing power while decreasing the cost per transistor.
"The number of transistors incorporated in a chip will approximately double every 24 months."
This prediction was remarkably accurate for several decades, and it became a guiding principle for the semiconductor industry.
The continuous doubling of transistor density led to significant advancements in computer technology and performance,
enabling the development of more powerful and efficient electronic devices.
However, as we approach the physical limits of semiconductor technology and encounter challenges related to power
consumption, heat dissipation, and miniaturization, Moore's Law has become more difficult to sustain. In recent years, the rate
of transistor doubling has slowed down, and it has become increasingly costly to develop cutting-edge semiconductor
manufacturing processes.
While Moore's Law remains relevant as a historical benchmark and a symbol of rapid technological progress, it is no longer
strictly applicable in its original form. The semiconductor industry has shifted from simple transistor count doubling to
innovations in other areas, such as three-dimensional stacking, specialized accelerators, and improvements in materials and
manufacturing techniques. These advancements continue to drive progress in computing power, albeit at a different pace than
the original Moore's Law predicted.