1] Draw and label sketch of IPv6 packet format?

2] State the importance of IPv6 over IPv4?

1. Larger Address Space: IPv6 offers a 128-bit address space, allowing for an
exponentially greater number of unique IP addresses compared to IPv4's 32-bit
space. This addresses the imminent issue of address exhaustion as more devices
connect to the internet.
2. Scalability for Growing IoT: With the rise of IoT devices, IPv6's scalability is crucial. It
ensures that the increasing number of internet-connected devices can be
accommodated without running out of available addresses.
3. Efficient Routing and Processing: IPv6's streamlined packet header structure reduces
the burden on routers and network devices, leading to faster and more efficient
routing and packet processing throughout the network.
4. Enhanced Security with IPsec: IPv6 includes built-in support for IPsec, providing
improved data packet security through authentication, integrity, and confidentiality
features. This bolsters the overall security posture of internet communications.
5. Seamless Mobility and Quality of Service: IPv6 incorporates features that are
essential for modern applications and services, such as better support for quality of
service prioritization and native multicast capabilities, ensuring smoother
experiences for users, especially in mobile and multimedia scenarios.
6.Auto-Configuration: IPv6's automatic address configuration (SLAAC) simplifies device
setup, especially useful for IoT and mobile environments.
7.Mobile-Friendly: IPv6's mobility support ensures seamless communication for mobile
devices shifting between networks.
3] State the concept of fragmentation in IPv4?

4] For the block of IPv4 address given below built a subnet Mask, broadcast
address and number of host possible.
(i)10.0.199.237/22
(ii)192.168.14.87/22
Ans: To determine the subnet mask, broadcast address, and number of possible hosts for
the given IPv4 addresses and subnet masks, you need to understand how subnetting works.
(i) 10.0.199.237/22:
First, let's calculate the subnet mask:
A /22 subnet mask means that the first 22 bits of the IPv4 address are network bits, and the
remaining bits are host bits. In binary form, it looks like this:
11111111.11111111.11111100.00000000

Now, convert this binary subnet mask back to decimal form:

255.255.252.0
So, the subnet mask is 255.255.252.0.
Next, let's calculate the broadcast address:
To find the broadcast address, you flip all the host bits to 1 within the subnet. In this case,
since the subnet mask is /22, the last 10 bits (32 - 22) are host bits, so flip all of them to 1:
10.0.199.237 in binary: 00001010.00000000.11000111.11101101
Subnet mask in binary: 11111111.11111111.11111100.00000000
Broadcast address in binary: 00001010.00000000.11000111.11111111
Convert the broadcast address back to decimal form:
10.0.199.255
So, the broadcast address is 10.0.199.255.
Now, let's calculate the number of possible hosts:
With a /22 subnet, there are 32 - 22 = 10 host bits.
So, the number of possible hosts is 2^10 - 2 (subtracting 2 for the network and broadcast
addresses):
1024 - 2 = 1022 hosts.
(ii) 192.168.14.87/22:
Again, let's calculate the subnet mask:
A /22 subnet mask means that the first 22 bits of the IPv4 address are network bits, and the
remaining bits are host bits. In binary form, it looks like this:
11111111.11111111.11111100.00000000
Now, convert this binary subnet mask back to decimal form:
255.255.252.0
So, the subnet mask is 255.255.252.0.
Next, let's calculate the broadcast address:
To find the broadcast address, you flip all the host bits to 1 within the subnet. In this case,
since the subnet mask is /22, the last 10 bits (32 - 22) are host bits, so flip all of them to 1:
192.168.14.87 in binary: 11000000.10101000.00001110.01010111
Subnet mask in binary: 11111111.11111111.11111100.00000000
Broadcast address in binary: 11000000.10101000.00001111.11111111

Convert the broadcast address back to decimal form:

192.168.15.255

So, the broadcast address is 192.168.15.255.

Now, let's calculate the number of possible hosts:
With a /22 subnet, there are 32 - 22 = 10 host bits.
So, the number of possible hosts is 2^10 - 2 (subtracting 2 for the network and broadcast
addresses):
1024 - 2 = 1022 hosts.
5] Explain RIP in detail?
Advantages:

1. Simplicity: RIP is relatively easy to configure and manage, making it suitable for small networks and
those without dedicated network administrators.

2. Low Resource Usage: RIP uses minimal network resources in terms of bandwidth and processing
power, which can be beneficial in low-capacity environments.

3. Automatic Route Updates: RIP routers automatically exchange routing updates at regular intervals,
making it convenient for maintaining routing tables.

Disadvantages:

1. Limited Scalability: RIP's effectiveness diminishes in larger networks due to its slow
convergence and inability to handle complex topologies effectively.
2. Slow Convergence: In larger networks or networks with frequent changes, RIP's slow
convergence can lead to longer periods of network instability.
3. Hop Count Limitation: RIP uses hop count as a metric, which can lead to suboptimal routing
decisions. It cannot differentiate between paths with the same hop count but varying speeds
or capacities.
6] Use Bellman fort algorithm to find the shortest distance for all the notes in
the graph ?
7] Explain the process of transition from IPv4 to IPv 6 for a network?
8] With a suitable example explain distance vector routing algorithm. What is
the serious drawback of distance algorithm?
9] State why IPv4 is called connectionless protocol?
IPv4 is called a connectionless protocol because it does not establish a
dedicated, continuous connection between sender and receiver before sending
data.
Instead, each packet of data (or datagram) in IPv4 is treated as an independent
unit, containing its own source and destination addresses.
This means that each packet can take a different route to reach its destination,
and there is no guarantee of delivery or order.
The connectionless nature of IPv4 allows for more flexibility and efficiency in
routing and handling network traffic, but it also means that the application
layer needs to manage reliability, error handling, and ordering if those
features are required.
10] Describe different classes of IPv4 address ?
Class A:

IP address belonging to class A are assigned to the networks that contain a large
number of hosts.
• The network ID is 8 bits long.
• The host ID is 24 bits long.

The higher order bit of the first octet in class A is always set to 0.
The remaining 7 bits in first octet are used to determine network ID.
The 24 bits of host ID are used to determine the host in any network. The default
subnet mask for class A is 255.x.x.x. Therefore, class A has a total of:
• 2^7= 128 network ID
• 2^24 – 2 = 16,777,214 host ID
IP addresses belonging to class A ranges from 0.x.x.x – 127.x.x.x

Class B:
IP address belonging to class B are assigned to the networks that ranges from
medium-sized to large-sized networks.
• The network ID is 16 bits long.
• The host ID is 16 bits long.
The higher order bits of the first octet of IP addresses of class B are always set to
10. The remaining 14 bits are used to determine network ID. The 16 bits of host
ID is used to determine the host in any network. The default sub-net mask for
class B is 255.255.x.x. Class B has a total of:
• 2^14 = 16384 network address
• 2^16 – 2 = 65534 host address
IP addresses belonging to class B ranges from 128.0.x.x – 191.255.x.x.

Class C:
IP address belonging to class C are assigned to small-sized networks.
• The network ID is 24 bits long.
• The host ID is 8 bits long.

The higher order bits of the first octet of IP addresses of class C are always set to
110. The remaining 21 bits are used to determine network ID. The 8 bits of host
ID is used to determine the host in any network. The default sub-net mask for
class C is 255.255.255.x. Class C has a total of:
• 2^21 = 2097152 network address
 • 2^8 – 2 = 254 host address
IP addresses belonging to class C ranges from 192.0.0.x – 223.255.255.x.

Class D:
IP address belonging to class D are reserved for multi-casting. The higher order
bits of the first octet of IP addresses belonging to class D are always set to 1110.
The remaining bits are for the address that interested hosts recognize.
Class D does not posses any sub-net mask. IP addresses belonging to class D
ranges from 224.0.0.0 – 239.255.255.255.

Class E:
IP addresses belonging to class E are reserved for experimental and research
purposes. IP addresses of class E ranges from 240.0.0.0 – 255.255.255.254.

This class doesn’t have any sub-net mask. The higher order bits of first octet of
class E are always set to 1111.
11] Describe the features of IPv6?

2] Describe the need for network address translation?

• It enables private IP networks that use unregistered IP addresses to
connect to the Internet.
• NAT operates on a router, usually connecting two networks together, and
translates the private (not globally unique) addresses in the internal
network into legal addresses, before packets are forwarded to another
network.
• NAT works by translating private IP addresses used within a local
network to a single public IP address when communicating with external
networks, such as the internet.
• NAT serves two main purposes: to enable multiple devices to share a
single public IP address due to address scarcity, and to enhance network
security by acting as a barrier between the internal network and the
external internet.
13] Compare class full and classless address?
14] For the given IP address 172.16.10.22 and mask is 255.255.255.240, find
the following: subnet Mask, broadcast address and wide range of IP address
in this network?

Ans: To find the subnet mask, broadcast address, and the range of IP addresses
for the given IP address 172.16.10.22 with a subnet mask of 255.255.255.240
(also expressed as a /28 subnet), follow these steps:

1. Subnet Mask:

The subnet mask 255.255.255.240 in binary is:

11111111.11111111.11111111.11110000

So, the subnet mask is 255.255.255.240 in decimal notation.

2. Broadcast Address:

To calculate the broadcast address, set all host bits in the subnet to 1:

- The last 4 bits in the subnet mask are 1111.

- The IP address in binary is 172.16.10.22, which is
10101100.00010000.00001010.00010110 in binary.

Now, perform a bitwise OR operation between the subnet mask and the IP
address to find the broadcast address:

Subnet Mask: 11111111.11111111.11111111.11110000

IP Address: 10101100.00010000.00001010.00010110

----------------------------------------------------

Broadcast Address: 10101100.00010000.00001010.00011111

Convert the binary broadcast address back to decimal notation:

172.16.10.31

So, the broadcast address is 172.16.10.31.

3. Range of IP Addresses:

To find the range of IP addresses within this subnet, you'll start from the
network address (which is the first address in the subnet) and end at the
broadcast address (which is the last address in the subnet). In this case:

Network Address: 172.16.10.16

Broadcast Address: 172.16.10.31

So, the range of usable IP addresses in this subnet is from 172.16.10.17 to

172.16.10.30, excluding the network and broadcast addresses.

The usable IP addresses in the subnet are:

- 172.16.10.17 … 172.16.10.30

There are 14 usable IP addresses in this /28 subnet.

15] Explain intra domain routing? Explain any one routing protocol belonging
to intra domain routing?

16] Difference between multicast, unicast, broadcast?

17] With neat diagram explain IPv4 datagram?

Ans:
VERSION: Version of the IP protocol (4 bits), which is 4 for IPv4
HLEN: IP header length (4 bits), which is the number of 32 bit words in the
header. The minimum value for this field is 5 and the maximum is 15.
Type of service: Low Delay, High Throughput, Reliability (8 bits)
Total Length: Length of header + Data (16 bits), which has a minimum value 20
bytes and the maximum is 65,535 bytes.
Identification: Unique Packet Id for identifying the group of fragments of a
single IP datagram (16 bits)
Flags: 3 flags of 1 bit each : reserved bit (must be zero), do not fragment flag,
more fragments flag (same order)
Fragment Offset: Represents the number of Data Bytes ahead of the particular
fragment in the particular Datagram. Specified in terms of number of 8 bytes,
which has the maximum value of 65,528 bytes.
Time to live: Datagram’s lifetime (8 bits), It prevents the datagram to loop
through the network by restricting the number of Hops taken by a Packet
before delivering to the Destination.
18] Explain the concept of mobile IP?
Ans: Mobile IP is a communication protocol (created by extending Internet
Protocol, IP) that allows the users to move from one network to another with
the same IP address. It ensures that the communication will continue without
the user’s sessions or connections being dropped.
The correspondent node sends the data to the mobile node. Data packets
contain the correspondent node’s address (Source) and home address
(Destination). Packets reach the home agent. But now mobile node is not in the
home network, it has moved into the foreign network. The foreign agent sends
the care-of-address to the home agent to which all the packets should be sent.
Now, a tunnel will be established between the home agent and the foreign
agent by the process of tunneling. The home agent encapsulates the data
packets into new packets in which the source address is the home address and
destination is the care-of-address and sends it through the tunnel to the
foreign agent. Foreign agent, on another side of the tunnel, receives the data
packets, decapsulates them, and sends them to the mobile node. The mobile
node in response to the data packets received sends a reply in response to the
foreign agent. The foreign agent directly sends the reply to the correspondent
node.

19] Explain dual stack, tunnelling with neat diagram?

Ans:
20] Explain the rule for creating CIDR?
Ans:
21] Explain virtual private network?

Ans:
22] With neat diagram explain network addressing translation?
Ans:

23] Explain the concept of class full addressing?

24] IP options with respect to IP datagram?
Ans:

The IP header can have a variable-length field called the "Options" field. It
follows the standard 20-byte fixed-length header if present. The Options field is
typically used to carry one or more IP options. The structure of the Options
field is as follows: