SCHOOL OF BUILDING AND ENVIRONMENT

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

UNIT – I – ADVANCED CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY– SCIA7001

 UNIT I

CONCRETE MAKING MATERIALS

Cement – Manufacture – Types of cement – OPC, PPC, GBFSC – Grades of Cement, 33, 43 &
53 – Hydration process – Aggregates – Classification – Sources – Bulking of sand –
Measurement of moisture content –Thermal properties – Qualities of water for concreting.

Cement is the mixture of calcareous, siliceous, argillaceous and other substances.

Cement is a hydraulic binder and is defined as a finely ground inorganic material which, when
mixed with water, forms a paste which sets and hardens by means of hydration reactions and
processes which, after hardening retains it's strength and stability even under water.

Functions of cement:

 Popular as building material.

 Material with adhesive & cohesive properties.
 To bind the fine & coarse aggregate together
 To fill voids in between fine & coarse aggregate particle form a compact mass.

Composition of Cement

 Lime Calcium Oxide (CaO) = 60 – 65% (63%)

 Silica (SiO2) = 20 – 25% (22%)
 Aluminum Oxide = 4 - 8% (6%)
 Iron Oxide = 2 – 4 % (3%)
 Magnesium Oxide = 1 – 3 %
 Gypsum 1 to 4%

Types of cement - OPC, PPC, GBFSC

ORDINARY PORTLAND CEMENT:

it is a hydraulic cement that hardens in water to form a water-resistant compound.

The hydration products act as binder to hold the aggregates together to form concrete.

It is made by finely clinker produced by calcining to incipient fusion a mixture of argillaceous and
calcareous materials: Limestone + Shale/Clay + Heat = Clinker +CKD + Exit Gas
 OPC is environment friendly as well as economical

Ordinary Portland Cement is available in 3 grades - OPC-53, OPC-43, OPC-33

OPC-43 GRADE

The 43 grade OPC is the most popular general-purpose cement in the country today. The production
of 43 grade OPC is nearly 50% of the total production of cement in the country.

Grade 53 means a compression strength of 53 N/ mm2 is attained on its mortar with sand after a
curing period of 28 days. Same will apply to grade 43 and 33.OPC cement is used when where High
Early Strength is required and for constructing high-rise buildings. It attains early strength and is fast
setting, but has increased chances of micro cracking.

Advantages of OPC:

 Produces highly durable and sound concrete due to very low percentage of alkalis, chlorides,
magnesia and free lime in its composition.
 Almost negligible chloride content results in restraining corrosion of concrete structure in
hostile environments.
 Significant saving in cement consumption while making concrete of grades M15, M20, M25,
M35 and pre-cast segments due to high strength.

For PPC cement there is only one grade which gives a minimum compressive strength of 33
MPa after 28 days when mixed with standard sand.

PPC cement is used where Extra Durability is required and is preferred in mass construction.

PORTLAND POZZOLANA CEMENT (PPC) is manufactured by the inter-grinding of

ORDINARY PORTLAND CEMENT clinker with 15 to 35% of pozzolanic material. The Portland
Pozzolana Cement is a kind of Blended Cement which is produced by either intergrinding
of OPC clinker along with gypsum and pozzolanic materials in certain proportions or grinding the
OPC clinker, gypsum and Pozzolanic materials separately and thoroughly blending them in certain
proportions.

Pozzolana is a natural or artificial material containing silica in a reactive form. It may be further
discussed as siliceous or siliceous and aluminous material which in itself possesses little, or no
cementitious properties but will in finely divided form and in the presence of moisture, chemically
react with calcium hydroxide at ordinary temperature to form compounds possessing cementitious
properties. It is essential that pozzolana be in a finely divided state as it is only then that silica can
combine with calcium hydroxide (liberated by the hydrating Portland Cement) in the presence of
 water to form stable calcium silicates which have cementitious properties. The pozzolanic materials
commonly used are:

i. Volcanic ash
ii. Calcined clay
iii. Fly ash- The ash produced at thermal power stations by burning of coal and lignite is known
as fly ash.
iv. Silica fumes - Silica fume is a byproduct in the carbothermic reduction of high-
purity quartz with carbonaceous materials like coal, coke, wood-chips, in electric arc
furnaces in the production of silicon andferrosilicon alloys.

It is made by mixing substances containing Calcium Carbonate such as chalk / limestone, with
substances containing silica , alumina and iron oxide such as clay/ shale.

•Clay/shale: SiO2 Silica (silicon oxide) abbreviated S

Fe2O3 Ferrite (iron oxide) abbreviated F

Al2O3 Alumina (aluminium oxide) abbreviated A

Limestone/chalk CaCO3 Calcium carbonate abbreviated C

then the mixture heated and became clinker.

Clinker is then grounded to powder.

The hardening Portland cement is a chemical process during which heat is evolved.

Why is it called "portland" cement?

Joseph Aspdin, an English mason who patented the product in 1824, named it portland cement
because it produced a concrete that resembled the color of the natural limestone quarried on the Isle
of Portland, a peninsula in the English Channel

Advantages of PPC:
 Higher durability of concrete structure due to less permeability of water.
 More resistance towards the attack of alkalies, sulphates, chlorides, chemicals.
 Better work ability.
 Low heat of hydration.
 Due to high fineness, PPC has better cohesion with aggregates and makes more dense
concreteness.
 Comparative lower Water-Cement ratio provides an added advantage for the further increase of
compressive strength of the concrete.
 Better surface finish.
Ground-granulated blast-furnace slag (GGBS or GGBFS) is obtained by quenching molten
iron slag (a by-product of iron and steel-making) from a blast furnace in water or steam, to produce
a glassy, granular product that is then dried and ground into a fine powder. The main components of
blast furnace slag are CaO (30-50%), SiO2 (28-38%), Al2O3 (8-24%), and MgO (1-18%)

Two major uses of GGBS are in the production of quality-improved slag cement, namely Portland
Blast furnace cement (PBFC) and high-slag blast-furnace cement (HSBFC), with GGBS content
ranging typically from 40 to 50%; and in the production of ready-mixed or site-batched durable
concrete. Concrete made with GGBS cement sets more slowly than concrete made with ordinary
Portland cement, depending on the amount of GGBS in the cementitious material, but also continues
to gain strength over a longer period in production conditions. This results in lower heat
of hydration and lower temperature rises, and makes avoiding joints easier, but may also affect
construction schedules where quick setting is required.

Concrete containing GGBS cement has a higher ultimate strength than concrete made with Portland
cement. It has a higher proportion of the strength-enhancing calcium silicate hydrates (CSH) than
concrete made with Portland cement only, and a reduced content of free lime, which does not
contribute to concrete strength. Concrete made with GGBS continues to gain strength over time, and
has been shown to double its 28-day strength over periods of 10 to 12 years.

Since GGBS is a by-product of steel manufacturing process, its use in concrete is recognized
by LEED etc. as improving the sustainability of the project and will therefore add points towards
LEED certification.

MANUFACTURE OF PORTLAND CEMENT:-

1) Raw Materials

2) Crushing & Grinding of Raw Materials

3) Type of cement processes:

a)Wet Process

b)Dry process

4) Burning Process

5) Grinding

6) storage, packing, dispatch

1. Raw Material Extraction

Cement uses raw materials that cover calcium, silicon, iron and aluminum. Such raw materials are
limestone, clay and sand. Limestone is for calcium. It is combined with much smaller proportions of
sand and clay. Sand & clay fulfill the need of silicon, iron and aluminum.

2. Quarrying, Dredging, and Digging

Quarrying of limestone and shale is accomplished by using explosives to blast the rocks from the
ground. After blasting, huge power shovels are used to load dump trucks or small railroad cars for
transportation to the cement plant, which is usually nearby.
The ocean floor is dredged to obtain the shells, while clay and marl are dug out of the ground with
power shovels. All of the raw materials are transported to the plant.

3. Grinding

After the raw materials have been transported to the plant, the limestone and shale which have been
blasted out of the quarry must be crushed into smaller pieces. Some of the pieces, when blasted out,
are quite large. The pieces are then dumped into primary crushers which reduce them to the size of a
softball. The pieces are carried by conveyors to secondary crushers which crush the rocks into
fragments usually no larger than 3/4 inch across.
4. Blending

After the rock is crushed, plant chemists analyze the rock and raw materials to determine their
mineral content. The chemists also determine the proportions of each raw material to utilize in order
to obtain a uniform cement product. The various raw materials are then mixed in proper proportions
and prepared for fine grinding.

5. Fine Grinding

When the raw materials have been blended, they must be ground into a fine powder. This may be
done by one of two methods:
 Wet process, or
 Dry process
The wet process of fine grinding is the older process, having been used in Europe prior to the
manufacture of cement in the United States. This process is used more often when clay and marl,
which are very moist, are included in the composition of the cement. In the wet process, the blended
raw materials are moved into ball or tube mills which are cylindrical rotating drums which contain
steel balls. These steel balls grind the raw materials into smaller fragments of up to 200 of an inch.
As the grinding is done, water is added until a slurry (thin mud) forms, and the slurry is stored in
open tanks where additional mixing is done. Some of the water may be removed from the slurry
before it is burned, or the slurry may be sent to the kiln as is and the water evaporated during the
burning.
The dry process of fine grinding is accomplished with a similar set of ball or tube mills; however,
water is not added during the grinding. The dry materials are stored in silos where additional mixing
and blending may be done.

6. Burning

Burning the blended materials is the key in the process of making cement. The wet or dry mix is fed
into the kiln, which is one of the largest pieces of moving machinery in the industry. It is generally
twelve feet or more in diameter and 500 feet or more in length, made of steel and lined with
firebrick. It revolves on large roller bearings and is gradually slanted with the intake end higher than
the output end.
As the kiln revolves, the materials roll and slide downward for approximately four hours. In the
burning zone, where the heat can reach 3,000 degrees Fahrenheit, the materials become incandescent
and change in color from purple to violet to orange. Here, the gases are driven from the raw
materials, which actually change the properties of the raw materials. What emerges is “clinker”
which is round, marble-sized, glass-hard balls which are harder than the quarried rock. The clinker is
then fed into a cooler where it is cooled for storage.

7. Finish Grinding

The cooled clinker is mixed with a small amount of gypsum, which will help regulate the setting
time when the cement is mixed with other materials and becomes concrete. Here again there are
primary and secondary grinders. The primary grinders leave the clinker , ground to the fineness of
sand, and the secondary grinders leave the clinker ground to the fineness of flour, which is the final
product ready for marketing.

8. Packaging/Shipping

The final product is shipped either in bulk (ships, barges, tanker trucks, railroad cars, etc.) or in
strong paper bags which are filled by machine. In the United States, one bag of Portland cement
contains 94 pounds of cement, and a “barrel” weighs four times that amount, or 376 pounds. In
Canada, one bag weighs 87 1/2 pounds and a “barrel” weighs 350 pounds.
Masonry cement bags contain only seventy pounds of cement.
When cement is shipped, the shipping documents may include “sack weights.” This must be
verified by the auditor since only the cement is taxable. “Sack weights” must be excluded.
Aggregate is a granular material, such as sand, gravel, crushed stone, crushed hydraulic-cement
concrete, or iron blast-furnace slag, used with a hydraulic cementing medium to produce either
concrete or mortar.

Coarse Aggregate
Those particles that are predominantly retained on the 4.75 mm (No. 4) sieve, are called coarse
aggregate

Fig. Coarse aggregate fig. fine aggregate

Fine Aggregate
Those particles passing the 9.5 mm (3/8 in.) sieve, almost entirely passing the 4.75 mm (No. 4)
sieve, and predominantly retained on the 75 µm (No. 200) sieve are called fine aggregate
Purpose & Uses

1. Increases the volume of concrete, thus reduces the cost

2. Provide dimensional stability
3. Influence hardness, abrasion resistance, elastic modulus and other properties of concrete to
make it more durable, strong and cheaper.

Classification of Aggregates

class examples uses

ultra- vermiculite lightweight concrete which can be
lightweight ceramic spheres sawed or nailed, also for its
<1300 kg/m3 perlite insulating properties
Natural – pumice, diatomite, scoria, volcanic
cinders, saw dust, rice husk used primarily for making
Lightweight
Artificial – cinders, coak breeze (burnt fine coal), lightweight concrete for structures,
1300-1850
foamed slag, bloated clay (expanded clay), also used for its insulating
kg/m3
expanded shales and slate, sintered flyash, properties.
thermocoal beads
Natural – sand, gravel, crushed rock such as
normal
granite, quartzite, basalt, sandstone
weight
Artificial – broken brick, recycled concrete, used for normal concrete projects
2000-2600
sintered flyash, bloated clay and air cooled
kg/m3
slag
used for making high density
Heavyweight Barites, magnetites, lead shots, concrete for shielding against
3500 kg/m3 steel or iron shot, and steel or iron pellets nuclear radiation and in offshore
structures

Sources of aggregates

Aggregates are derived from three different sources –

a. Igneous rocks : aggregates from this type are found to be hard, tough, dense and chemically
active
b. Sedimentary rocks : Aggregates are flaky, soft to hard, porous to dense and light to heavy
c. Metamorphic rocks : Aggregates of both properties of igneous and sedimentary rocks are
found eg. Gneiss and quartzite.
Bulking of Sand:

The volume increase of fine aggregate due to presence of moisture content is known as
bulking. Fine sand bulks more as compared to coarse sand. Extremely fine sand particularly the
manufactured fine aggregate bulks as much as about 40%.Fine aggregate do not show any bulking
when it is absolutely dry or completely saturated.

The moisture present in aggregate forms a film around each particle. These films of moisture
exert a force, known as surface tension, on each particle. Due to this surface tension each particles
gets away from each other. Because of this no direct contact is possible among individual particles
and this causes bulking of the volume.

Bulking of aggregate is dependent upon two factors,

1. Percentage of moisture content

2. Particle size of fine aggregate

Bulking increases with increase in moisture content upto a certain limit and beyond that the
further increase in moisture content results in decrease in volume as shown in fig below. When the
fine aggregate is completely saturated it does not show any bulking. Fine sand bulks more as
compared to coarse sand, i.e. percentage of bulking is indirectly proportional to the size of particle.

If care is not given to the effect of bulking, in the case of volume batching, the resulting concrete is
likely to be under-sanded and harsh. It will also affect the yield of concrete for a given cement
content.

Determination of Bulking of Sand:

The extent of bulking can be estimated by a simple field test.

Fill a sample of moist fine aggregate (sand) into a measuring cylinder. Note down the level, say h1
 percentage of bulking of sand with moisture content.

 Pour water into a measuring cylinder upto top surface of sand and completely cover the sand
with water and shake it. Since the volume of the saturated sand is the same as that of the dry
sand, the saturated sand completely counteract the bulking effect. Note down the level of sand,
say h2.
 Subtract the final level h2 from initial level h1 (i.e. h1-h2), which shows the bulking of sand
under test.
 Calculate percentage of bulking using formula given below.
 Percentage of bulking = [(h1-h2)/h2]*100

Moisture Content in aggregate

It is required to determine the moisture content in aggregate to adjust the water content in concrete
mixing as per the mix proportions depending upon the various grades. The moisture is absorbed by
the pores and adsorbed on the surface of aggregates either from air or during rains.

Around 1% and 10% of surface moisture is found in coarse and fine aggregate respectively.

The moisture content of the aggregate is defined at four states. When the aggregate has no moisture
on the surface or the interior pores then the aggregate is in a dry (sometimes called oven-dry) state.
When some of the interior pores of the aggregate are filled with water and there is no moisture on
 the surface then the aggregate is in an air-dry state. When all the interior pores of the aggregate are
filled with water but there is no moisture on the surface then the aggregate is in a saturated-surface-
dry (SSD) state. When all the interior pores of the aggregate are filled with water and there is
moisture on the surface then the aggregate is in a wet state. The dry (oven-dry) and SSD conditions
are not typically found for aggregate in storage, but are used as the basis for moisture content
measurements and associated calculations.

Some of the methods that are being used for determination of moisture content of aggregate are
given below:

 Drying Method
 Calcium Carbide Method
 Automatic measurement
 Displacement Method
 Measurement by electrical meter

Drying Method
The application of drying method is fairly simple. Drying is carried out in an oven and the loss in
weight before and after drying will give the moisture content of the aggregate. If the drying is done
completely at a high temperature for a long time, the loss in weight will include not only the surface
water but also some absorbed water. Appropriate corrections may be made for the saturated and
surface dry condition. The oven drying method is too slow for field use. A fairly quick result can be
obtained by heating the aggregate quickly in an open pan. The process can also be seeded up by
pouring inflammable liquid such as methylated spirit or acetone over the aggregate and igniting it.

Calcium Carbide Method

A quick and reasonably accurate method of determining the moisture content of fine aggregate is to
mix it with an excess of calcium carbide in a strong air-tight vessel fitted with pressure gauge.
Calcium carbide reacts with surface moisture in the aggregate to produce acetylene gas. The pressure
of acetylene gas generated depends upon the moisture content of the aggregates. The pressure gauge
is calibrated by taking a measured quantity of aggregate of known moisture content and then such a
calibrated pressure gauge could be used to read the moisture content of aggregate directly. This
method is often used to find out the moisture content of fine aggregate at the site of work. The
equipment consists of a small balance, a standard scoop and a container fixed with dial gauge. The
procedure is as follows: Weigh 6 grams of representative sample of wet sand and pour it into the
container. Take one scoop full of calcium carbide powder and put it into the container. Close the lid
of the container and shake it rigorously. Calcium carbide reacts with surface moisture and produces
acetylene gas, the pressure of which drives the indicator needle on the pressure gauge. The pressure
gauge is so calibrated, that it gives directly percentage of moisture. The whole job takes only less
than 5 minutes and as such, this test can be done at very close intervals of time at the site of work.

Displacement Method
In the laboratory the moisture content of aggregate can be determined by means of pycnometer or by
using Siphon-Can Method. The principle made use of is that the specific gravity of normal aggregate
is higher than that of water and that a given weight of wet aggregate will occupy a greater volume
than the same weight of the aggregate when dry. By knowing the specific gravity of the dry
aggregate, the specific gravity of the wet aggregate can be calculated. From the difference between
the specific gravities of the dry and wet aggregates, the moisture content of the aggregate can be
calculated.

The water content (w) of the sample is obtained as

Where M1=mass of empty Pycnometer,

M2= mass of the Pycnometer with wet soil

M3= mass of the Pycnometer and soil, filled with water,

M4 = mass of Pycnometer filled with water only.

G= Specific gravity of aggregate

Electrical Meter Method

Recently electrical meters have been developed to measure instantaneous or continuous reading of
the moisture content of the aggregate. The principle that the resistance gets changed with the change
in moisture content of the aggregate has been made use of. In some sophisticated batching plant,
electrical meters are used to find out the moisture content and also to regulate the quantity of water
to be added to the continuous mixer.

Automatic Measurement
In modern batching plants surface moisture in aggregates is automatically recorded by means of
some kind of sensor arrange that the element. The arrangement is made in such a way that the
quantity of free water going with aggregate is automatically recorded and simultaneously that much
quantity of water is reduced.

Thermal properties of aggregate

The linear thermal coefficient of expansion ranges from about 5 x 10–6 per °C to 13 x 10–6 per °C
for aggregates and 11 x 10–6 per °C to 16 x 10–6 per °C for hydrated cement.

If the thermal expansion of hydrated cement paste differs too much with that of aggregates, then a
high change in temperature causes diffential movement and a break in bond between the aggregate
particles and surrounding hardened paste.

Rock and aggregate possesses three thermal properties which are significant in establishing the
quality of aggregate for concrete constructions.

They are:

(i ) Coefficient of expansion

(ii ) Specific heat

(iii ) Thermal conductivity

The ideal temperature for the promotion of alkali-aggregate reaction is in the range of 10 to 38°C. If
the temperatures condition is more than or less than the above, it may not provide an ideal situation
for the alkali-aggregate reaction.

Out of these, specific heat and conductivity are found to be important only in mass concrete
construction where rigorous control of temperature is necessary. Also these properties are of
consequence in case of light weight concrete used for insulation purpose.

When we are dealing with the aggregate in general it will be sufficient at this stage to deal with only
the coefficient of expansion of the aggregate, since it interacts with the coefficient of thermal
expansion of cement paste in the body of the set-concrete.
 • An average value of the linear thermal coefficient of expansion of concrete may be taken as
9.9 x 10–6 per °C, but the range may be from about 5.8 x 10–6 per °C to 14 x 10–6 per °C
depending upon the type and quantities of the aggregates, the mix proportions and other
factors.
• The range of coefficient of thermal expansion for hydrated cement paste may vary from 10.8
x 10–6 Per °C to 16.2 x 10–6 per °C.
• Similarly, for mortar it may range from 7.9 x 10–6 per °C to 12.6 x 10–6 per °C.

Type of aggregate Coefficient of therma

expansion
10–6 per °C
Gabbro 3.6 – 9.7
Granite 1.8 – 11.9
Marble 1.1 – 16
Dolamite 6.7 – 8.6
Sandstone 11.7
Limestone 0.9-12.2
Portland stone 7.4
Blast furnace slag 10.6
Foamed slag 12.1

Hydration Process

Portland cement is a hydraulic cement, hence it derives its strength from chemical reactions between
the cement and water. The process is known as hydration.

Hardened paste consists of the following:

Ettringite - 15 to 20%
Calcium silicate hydrates, CSH - 50 to 60%
Calcium hydroxide (lime) - 20 to 25%
Voids - 5 to 6% (in the form of capillary voids and entrapped and entrained air)
Each of the following four main cement minerals reacts at a different rate and tends to form different
solid phases when it hydrates.
 i. Hydration of alite (Tricalcium silicate):
Tricalcium silicate (C3S) is the most abundant and important cement mineral in Portland
cements. It hardens rapidly and largely responsible for initial setting and early strength. A
higher percentage of this compound will produces higher heat of hydration and accounts
for faster and high early strength.

The hydration of C3S can be written as:

2C3S + 6H → C3S2H3 + 3CH + 120 Cal/g ↑

Tricalcium silicate (Alite) + Water → Calcium Silicate Hydrate (CSH) gel + Calcium
Hydroxide (lime) + Heat

Upon the addition of water, tricalcium silicate rapidly reacts to release calcium ions, hydroxide ions,
and a large amount of heat. The pH quickly rises to over 12 because of the release of alkaline
hydroxide (OH-) ions. This initial hydrolysis slows down quickly after it starts resulting in a decrease
in heat evolved.

The CSH has a short-networked fiber structure which contributes greatly to the initial strength of the
cement glue. The calcium silicate hydrates contribute to the strength of the cement paste. This
reaction generates less heat and proceeds at a slower rate, meaning that the contribution of C2S to the
strength of the cement paste will be slow initially. This compound is however responsible for the
long-term strength of portland cement concrete.

The reaction slowly continues producing calcium and hydroxide ions until the system becomes
saturated. Once this occurs, the calcium hydroxide starts to crystallize. Simultaneously, calcium
silicate hydrate begins to form. Ions precipitate out of solution accelerating the reaction of tricalcium
silicate to calcium and hydroxide ions. (Le Chatlier's principle). The evolution of heat is then
dramatically increased as shown in fig below

Rate of heat evolution during the hydration of portland cement

The formation of the calcium hydroxide and calcium silicate hydrate crystals provide "seeds" upon
which more calcium silicate hydrate can form. The calcium silicate hydrate crystals grow thicker
making it more difficult for water molecules to reach the unhydrated tricalcium silicate. The speed of
the reaction is now controlled by the rate at which water molecules diffuse through the calcium
silicate hydrate coating. This coating thickens over time causing the production of calcium silicate
hydrate to become slower and slower.

Fig. Schematic illustration of different stages of hydration.

The above diagrams represent the formation of pores as calcium silicate hydrate is formed. Note in
diagram (a) that hydration has not yet occurred and the pores (empty spaces between grains) are
filled with water. Diagram (b) represents the beginning of hydration. In diagram (c), the hydration
continues. Although empty spaces still exist, they are filled with water and calcium hydroxide.
Diagram (d) shows nearly hardened cement paste. Note that the majority of space is filled with
calcium silicate hydrate. That which is not filled with the hardened hydrate is primarily calcium
hydroxide solution. The hydration will continue as long as water is present and there are still
unhydrated compounds in the cement paste.

ii. Hydration of Dicalcium silicate (Belite) :

2C2S + 4H → C3S2H3 + CH + 62 Cal/g ↑

Dicalcium silicate (Belite) + Water → Calcium silicate hydrate + Calcium hydroxide +heat

Dicalcium silicate also affects the strength of concrete through its hydration. Dicalcium silicate
reacts with water in a similar manner compared to tricalcium silicate, but much more slowly and
contributes later strength. The heat released is less than that by the hydration of tricalcium silicate
because the dicalcium silicate is much less reactive. The products from the hydration of dicalcium
silicate are the same as those for tricalcium silicate:

iii. Hydration of Tricalcium Aluminate (Celite) :

It contributes to strength development in the first few days because it is the first compound to
hydrate. It turns out higher heat of hydration and contributes to faster gain in strength. But it results
in poor sulfate resitance and increases the volumetric shrinkage upon drying. Cements with low
Tricalcium Aluminate contents usually generate less heat, develop higher strengths and show
greater resistance to sulfate attacks. It has high heat generation and reactive with soils and water
containing moderate to high sulfate concentrations so it’s least desirable. Ettringite consists of long
crystals that are only stable in a solution with gypsum. The compound does not contribute to the
strength of the cement glue.

C3A + 3CSH2 + 13H → C6AS3H32 + 207 Cal/g ↑

Tricalcium Aluminate (Celite) + Gypsum + water → Ettringite + Heat

2C3A + 3 C6AS3H32 + 22H → 3C4ASH18

Tricalcium Aluminate + Ettringite + water → Monosulphate Aluminate Hydrate

Once all the gypsum is used up, the ettringite becomes unstable and reacts with any remaining
tricalcium aluminate to form monosulfate aluminate hydrate crystals. The monosulfate crystals are
only stable in a sulfate deficient solution. In the presence of sulfates, the crystals resort back into
ettringite, whose crystals are two-and-a-half times the size of the monosulfate. It is this increase in
size that causes cracking when cement is subjected to sulfate attack.
 iv. Hydration of Ferrite (Tetra Calcium AluminoFerrite):

It assists in the manufacture of Portland Cement by allowing lower clinkering temperature. It also act
as a filler contributes very little strength of concrete eventhough it hydrates very rapidly. It is also
responsible for grey colour of Ordinary Portland Cement.

The ferrite undergoes two progressive reactions with the gypsum:

a. in the first of the reactions, the ettringite reacts with the gypsum and water to form
ettringite, lime and alumina hydroxides

C4AF + 3CSH2 + 3H → C6(A,F)S3H32 + (A,F)H3 + CH

Ferrite (Tetra Calcium AluminoFerrite) + gypsum + water → Ettringite + Ferric Aluminium

Hydroxide + lime.

b. the ferrite further reacts with the ettringite formed above to produce garnets which
simply occupy the space and do not contribute any strength to the cement paste.
C4AF + C6(A,F)S3H32 + 2CH + 23H → 3C4(A,F)SH18 + (A,F)H3

Ferrite (Tetra Calcium AluminoFerrite) + Ettringite + lime + water → Garnets + Ferric

Aluminium Hydroxide

Qualities of Water in concreting

The purposes of water in concrete are:

1. To wet the surface of aggregates to develop adhesion because the cement pastes
adheres quickly and satisfactory to the wet surface of the aggregates than to a dry surface.
2. To prepare a plastic mixture of the various ingredients and to impart workability to
concrete to facilitate placing in the desired position and
3. Water is also needed for the hydration of the cementing materials to set and harden
during the period of curing.
The quantity of water in the mix plays a vital role on the strength of the concrete. Some water which
have adverse effect on hardened concrete. Sometimes may not be harmless or even beneficial during
mixing. So clear distinction should be made between the effect on hardened concrete and the quality
of mixing water.

Water used for mixing and curing shall be clean and free from injurious quantities of alkalies, acids,
oils , salts, sugar, organic materials, vegetable growth or other substance that may be deleterious to
bricks, stone, concrete or steel.

Potable water is generally considered satisfactory for mixing.

Sea water shall not be used for mixing or curing.

Maximum permissible limits of solids when tested in accordance with IS 456 shall be as under:

Types of solids Limits

Organic solids 200 mg/liter
Inorganic solids 3000 mg/liter
Sulphates 500 mg/liter
2000 mg/liter for concrete not containing embedded
Chlorides steel, and
500 mg/liter for reinforced concrete work
Suspended matter 2000 mg/liter
pH value >6
 SCHOOL OF BUILDING AND ENVIRONMENT
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

UNIT – II – ADVANCED CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY– SCIA7001

 UNIT II

PROPERTIES OF CONCRETE

Fresh concrete – Workability – Factors affecting workability – Measurement of

workability – Segregation – Bleeding –Concrete manufacturing – Convention – Ready mix
and Advantage of Ready mix – Finishing. Compaction – Curing – Strength of concrete –
Elasticity – Creep – Shrinkage – Durability of concrete – Factors affecting strength of
concrete and Durability of concrete – Cracks in concrete – Chemical attacks carbonation.

Fresh concrete

Fresh concrete: It is the concrete phase from time of mixing to end of time concrete
surface finished in its final location in the structure

Concrete Operations: They comprise batching, mixing, transporting, placing, compacting,

surface finishing. Then curing of in-placed concrete starts 6-10 hours after casting (placing) and
during first few days of hardening is important it is known that fresh state properties enormously
affect hardened state properties due to the following reasons:

• The potential strength and durability of concrete of a given mix proportion is very dependent
on the degree of its compaction.

• The first 48 hours are very important for the performance of the concrete structure.

• It controls the long-term behavior, influence f'c (ultimate strength), Fc’ (elastic modulus),
creep, and durability.

Concrete workability is the relative ease with which a fresh mix can be handled, placed,
compacted, and finished without segregation or separation of the individual ingredients. Fresh
concrete has good workability if it can be formed, compacted, and finished to its final shape and
texture with minimal effort and without segregation of the ingredients. Concrete with poor
workability does not flow smoothly into forms or properly envelop reinforcing steel and
embedded items, and it is difficult to compact and finish.

Factors which affect workability of concrete are:

i. Cement content of concrete
ii. Water content of concrete
iii. Mix proportions of concrete
iv. Size of aggregates
v. Shape of aggregates
vi. Grading of aggregates
 vii. Surface texture of aggregates
viii. Use of admixtures in concrete
ix. Use of supplementary cementitious materials
The primary materials of concrete are cement, fine aggregates (sand), coarse aggregates and
water. Many times admixtures are used in concrete to enhance its properties. Therefore,
properties of these materials and their content affect the workability of concrete. Following are
the general factors affecting concrete workability:

Cement Content of Concrete:

Cement content affects the workability of concrete in good measure. More the quantity of
cement, the more will be the paste available to coat the surface of aggregates and fill the voids
between them. This will help to reduce the friction between aggregates and smooth movement of
aggregates during mixing, transporting, placing and compacting of concrete. Also, for a given
water-cement ratio, the increase in the cement content will also increase the water content per
unit volume of concrete increasing the workability of concrete. Thus increase in cement content
of concrete also increases the workability of concrete.

Type and Composition of Cement:

There are also effect of type of cement or characteristics of cement on the workability of
concrete. The cement with increase in fineness will require more water for same workability than
the comparatively less fine cement. The water demand increased for cement with high Al2O3 or
C2S contents.

Water / Cement Ratio or Water Content of Concrete:

Water/cement ratio is one of the most important factor which influence the concrete workability.
Generally, a water cement ratio of 0.45 to 0.6 is used for good workable concrete without the use
of any admixture. Higher the water/cement ratio, higher will be the water content per volume of
concrete and concrete will be more workable.

Higher water/cement ratio is generally used for manual concrete mixing to make the mixing
process easier. For machine mixing, the water/cement ratio can be reduced. These generalised
method of using water content per volume of concrete is used only for nominal mixes. For
designed mix concrete, the strength and durability of concrete is of utmost importance and hence
water cement ratio is mentioned with the design. Generally designed concrete uses low
water/cement ratio so that desired strength and durability of concrete can be achieved.
Mix Proportions of Concrete:
Mix proportion of concrete tells us the ratio of fine aggregates and coarse aggregates w.r.t.
cement quantity. This can also be called as the aggregate cement ratio of concrete. The more
cement is used, concrete becomes richer and aggregates will have proper lubrications for easy
mobility or flow of aggregates. The low quantity of cement w.r.t. aggregates will make the less
paste available for aggregates and mobility of aggregates is restrained.

Size of Aggregates:
Surface area of aggregates depends on the size of aggregates. For a unit volume of aggregates
with large size, the surface area is less compared to same volume of aggregates with small sizes.
When the surface area increases, the requirement of cement quantity also increase to cover up the
entire surface of aggregates with paste. This will make more use of water to lubricate each
aggregates. Hence, lower sizes of aggregates with same water content are less workable than the
large size aggregates.

Shape of Aggregates:
The shape of aggregates affects the workability of concrete. It is easy to understand that rounded
aggregates will be easy to mix than elongated, angular and flaky aggregates due to less frictional
resistance. Other than that, the round aggregates also have less surface area compared to
elongated or irregular shaped aggregates. This will make less requirement of water for same
workability of concrete. This is why river sands are commonly preferred for concrete as they are
rounded in shape.

Grading of Aggregates:
Grading of aggregates have the maximum effect on the workability of concrete. A well graded
aggregates have all sizes in required percentages. This helps in reducing the voids in a given
volume of aggregates. The less volume of voids makes the cement paste available for aggregate
surfaces to provide better lubricating to the aggregates.

With less volume of voids, the aggregate particles slide past each other and less compacting
effort is required for proper consolidation of aggregates. Thus low water cement ratio is
sufficient for properly graded aggregates.

Surface Texture of Aggregates:

Surface texture such as rough surface and smooth surface of aggregates affects the workability of
concrete in the same way as the shape of aggregates. With rough texture of aggregates, the
surface area is more than the aggregates of same volume with smooth texture. Thus concrete
with smooth surfaces are more workable than with rough textured aggregates.
Use of Admixtures in Concrete:
There are many types of admixtures used in concrete for enhancing its properties. There are
some workability enhancer admixtures such as plasticizers and super plasticizers which increases
the workability of concrete even with low water/cement ratio. They are also called as water
reducing concrete admixtures. They reduce the quantity of water required for same value of
slump.

Air entraining concrete admixtures are used in concrete to increase its workability. This
admixture reduces the friction between aggregates by the use of small air bubbles which acts as
the ball bearings between the aggregate particles.

Use of Supplementary Cementitious Materials:

Supplementary cementitious materials are those which are used with cement to modify the
properties of fresh concrete. Fly ash, fibers, silica fume, slag cements are used as supplementary
cementitious materials.

The use of fly ash in improves the workability of concrete by reducing the water content
required for same degree of workability or slump value.

The use of steel or synthetic fibers in concrete reduces the workability of concrete as it makes
the movement of aggregates harder by reducing the lubricating effect of cement paste.
The workability of concrete is reduced and increased based on the quantity of silica fume. The
use of silica fume in concrete can improves workability when used at low replacement rates, but
can reduce workability when added at higher replacement rates. Silica fume are used as pumping
aid for concrete when used as 2 to 3% by mass of cement.

The use of slag cement also improves workability but its effect depends on the characteristics of
the concrete mixture in which it is used.

METHODS FOR WORKABILITY MEASUREMENT

Depending upon the water cement ratio in the concrete mix, the workability may be determined
by the following three methods.

1. Slump Test
2. Compaction Factor Test
3. Vee-bee Consistometer Test
1. SLUMP TEST

SUITABILITY

This method is suitable only for the concrete of high workability.

This test is carried out with a mould called slump cone whose top diameter is 10 cm, bottom
diameter is 20 cm and height is 30 cm.

Fig.Slump-Apparatus

PROCEDURE

The test is performed in the following steps:

1. Place the slump mould on a smooth flat and non-absorbent surface.

2. Mix the dry ingredients of the concrete thoroughly till a uniform colour is obtained and
then add the required quantity of water in it.
3. Place the mixed concrete in the mould to about one-fourth of its height.
4. Compact the concrete 25 times with the help of a tamping rod uniformly all over the area.
5. Place the mixed concrete in the mould to about half of its height and compact it again.
 6. Similarly, place the concrete upto its three-fourth height and then up to its top. Compact
each layer 25 times with the help of tamping rod uniformly. For the second and
subsequent layers, the tamping rod should penetrate into underlying layer.
7. Strike off the top surface of mould with a trowel or tamping rod so that the mould is filled
to its top.
8. Remove the mould immediately, ensuring its movement in vertical direction.
9. When the settlement of concrete stops, measure the subsidence of the concrete in
millimeters which is the required slump of the concrete.

RECOMMENDED SLUMP VALUES FOR VARIOUS CONCRETE WORKS

Recommend slump in mm
Type of Construction
Minimum Maximum
Pavements 25 50
Mass concrete structure 25 50
Unreinforced footings 25 75
Caissons and bridge decks 25 75
Reinforced foundation, footings and walls 50 100
Reinforced slabs and beams 30 125
Columns 75 125

LIMITATIONS OF SLUMP TEST

Following are the limitations

 Not suitable for concrete containing aggregates larger than 40 mm.

 Not suitable for concrete of dry mix.
 Not suitable for very wet concrete.
 Not reliable because slump may be of any shape.

2. COMPACTION FACTOR TEST

According to this test, the workability may be defined as the amount of applied work required to
compact the concrete to its maximum density.

SUITABILITY

This method is adopted for determining the workability of concrete mix in laboratories. It gives
fairly good results for concrete of low workability.
PROCEDURE

The apparatus required for performing the compaction factor test is shown below.

Compaction-Factor-Test-Apparatus

The test is performed in the following steps:

1. Clean and dry the internal surface of the mould.

2. With the help of hand scoop, place the concrete in upper hopper A.
3. Open the trap door of hopper in order to facilitate the falling of the concrete into lower
hopper B. the concrete sticking to the sides of the hopper A, should be pushed downward
with the help of a steel rod.
4. Open the trap door of the hopper B and allow the concrete to fall into cylinder C.
5. Remove the surplus concrete from the top of the cylinder with the help of a trowel. Wipe
and clean the outside surface of the cylinder.
6. Weigh the cylinder with partially compacted concrete nearest to 10 g.
 7. Fill in the cylinder with fresh concrete in layers not exceeding 5 cm in thickness and
compact each layer till 100 percent compaction is achievd.
8. Wipe off and clean the outside surface of the cylinder and weigh the cylinder with fully
compacted concrete nearest to 10 g.
9. Calculate the value of compaction factor using the following formula.

Compaction factor =

RECOMMENDED VALUES OF WORKABILITY FOR VARIOUS PLACING

CONDITIONS

Conditions Degree Values of Workability

Concreting of shallow sections 20 – 10 seconds Vee-Bee time

Very low
with vibrations or 0.75 to 0.80 compacting factor

Concreting of lightly reinforced 10 – 5 seconds Vee-Bee time or

Low
sections with vibrations 0.80 to 0.85 compacting factor

Concreting of lightly reinforced 5-2 seconds Vee-Bee time or

sections without vibrations or 0.85 to 0.92 compacting factor or
Medium
heavily reinforced sections with 25 – 75 mm slumps for 20 mm
vibrations aggregates

Concreting of heavily reinforced Above 0.92 compacting factor or 75 –

High
sections without vibrations 125 mm slump for 20 mm aggregates.

ADVANTAGES OF COMPACTION FACTOR TEST

Following are the advantages:

 Suitable for testing workability in laboratories

 Suitable for concrete of low workability
 Suitable to detect the variation in workability over a wide range
 Its results are more precise and sensitive.
3. VEE-BEE CONSISTOMETER TEST

The apparatus used in this method of test is shown below.

Fig. Vee-Bee-Consistometer

SUITABILITY

This method is suitable for dry concrete having very low workability
PROCEDURE
The test is performed as given described below

1. Mix the dry ingredients of the concrete thoroughly till a uniform colour is obtained and
then add the required quantity of water.
2. Pour the concrete into the slump cone with the help of the funnel fitted to the stand.
3. Remove the slump mould and rotate the stand so that transparent disc touches the top of
the concrete.
4. Start the vibrator on which cylindrical container is placed.
5. Due to vibrating action, the concrete starts remoulding and occupying the cylindrical
container. Continue vibrating the cylinder till concrete surface becomes horizontal.
6. The time required for complete remoulding in seconds is the required measure of the
workability and it is expressed as number of Vee-bee seconds.

COMPARISON OF WORKABILITY MEASUREMENTS BY VARIOUS METHODS

Workability Vee-bee Time in Compacting

Slump in mm
Description Seconds Factor

Extremely dry – 32 – 18

Very stiff – 18 – 10 0.70

Stiff 0 – 25 10 – 5 0.75

Stiff plastic 25 – 50 5–3 0.85

Plastic 75 – 100 3–0 0.90

Flowing 150 – 175 – 0.95

Segregation of concrete is separation of ingredients of concrete from each other. In good

concrete all concrete aggregates are evenly coated with sand and cement paste and forms a
homogeneous mass.
During handling, transporting and placing, due to jerks and vibrations the paste of cement and
sands gets separated from coarse aggregate. If concrete segregates during transit it should be
remixed properly before depositing. However a concrete where initial setting time is over, should
not be used.
Causes of Segregation of Concrete:
1) Use of high water-cement ratio in concrete. This general happens in case of concrete mixed at
site by unskilled workers.

2) Excessive vibration of concrete with mechanical needle vibrators makes heavier particles
settle at bottom and lighter cement sand paste comes on top.

3) When concreting is done from height in case of underground foundations and rafts, which
causes concrete to segregate.

Prevention of Segregation of Concrete:

Wherever depth of concreting is more than 1.5 meters it should be placed through temporary
inclined chutes. The angle of inclination may be kept between 1:3 and 1:2 so that concrete from
top of chutes travels smoothly to bottom, use of small quantity of free water from top at intervals
helps in lubricating the path of flow of concrete to bottom smoothly. The delivery end of chute
should be as close as possible to the point of deposit.

Segregation in deep foundations and rafts of thickness more than 1 meter, there is every
possibility of presence of segregated concrete near bottom or in center if proper supervision is
not there. Such segregation can be detected by advanced method of testing like ultrasonic testing.
In case of doubt random ultrasonic testing should be conducted and if it is present, designer’s
opinion should be taken. This type of segregation can be rectified by pressure grounding with
special chemical compounds.

After any defect rectified by pressure grouting core test has to be performed to ensure that the
strength of concrete has reached to the desired level.

Concrete bleeding is defined as the appearance of water on the surface of concrete after it has
consolidated but before it is set. This is a type of segregation where water appears at the concrete
surface after placing and compacting, but before it is set. Water may also form a film under
aggregate and reinforcing bar. Some bleeding is useful for finishing operations and to reduce
plastic shrinkage cracking.
Problems due to Concrete Bleeding

Concrete bleeding can cause problems including the followings.

 It can delay in finishing.

 Bleeding of concrete can cause high water-cement ratio at the top.
 It will result in poor bond between two layers.
 It can result in poor pump ability.
Concrete Bleeding Causes

Bleeding of concrete occurs due to the causes stated below.

 The lack of fines,

 Too much water content in the mix.

Bleeding Remedies

Remedies for bleeding of concrete are as follows.

 More fines,
 Adjust grading,
 Entrained air,
 Reduce water content.

Manufacture of Concrete:

It is interesting to note that the ingredients of good concrete and bad concrete are the same. If
meticulous care is not exercised, and good rules are not observed, the resultant concrete is going
to be of bad quality. With the same material if intense care is taken to exercise control at every
stage, it will result in good concrete. The various stages of manufacture of concrete are: (a )
Batching (b) Mixing (c ) Transporting (d ) Placing (e) Compacting (f ) Curing (g) Finishing.

Volume Batching:

 Volume batching is not a good method for proportioning the material because of the
difficulty it offers to measure granular material in terms of volume.
 Volume of moist sand in a loose condition weighs much less than the same volume of dry
compacted sand.
 The effect of bulking should be consider for moist fine aggregate.
 For unimportant concrete or for any small job, concrete may be batched by volume.
Weigh Batching:

 Weigh batching is the correct method of measuring the materials.

 Use of weight system in batching, facilitates accuracy, flexibility and simplicity.
 Large weigh batching plants have automatic weighing equipment.
 On large work sites, the weigh bucket type of weighing equipment's are used.

Mixing: Hand mixing

 Hand mixing is practiced for small scale unimportant concrete works.

 As the mixing cannot be thorough and efficient, it is desirable to add 10 per cent more
cement to cater for the inferior concrete produced by this method.
 Hand mixing should be done over an impervious concrete or brick floor of sufficiently
large size to take one bag of cement.
 Spread out the measured quantity of coarse aggregate and fine aggregate in alternate
layers.

 Pour the cement on the top of it, and mix them dry by shovel, turning the mixture over
and over again until uniformity of colour is achieved.
 Water is taken in a water-can fitted with a rose-head and sprinkled over the mixture and
simultaneously turned over.
 This operation is continued till such time a good uniform, homogeneous concrete is
obtained.
Mixing: Machine Mixing

 Mixing of concrete is almost invariably carried out by machine, for reinforced concrete
work and for medium or large scale mass concrete work.
 Machine mixing is not only efficient, but also economical, when the quantity of concrete
to be produced is large.
 They can be classified as batch-mixers and continuous mixers.
 Batch mixers produce concrete, batch by batch with time interval, whereas continuous
mixers produce concrete continuously without stoppage till such time the plant is
working.

In normal concrete work, it is the batch mixers that are used.

Batch mixer may be of pan type or drum type.
 The drum type may be further classified as tilting, non-tilting, reversing or forced action
type.
 As per I.S. 1791–1985, concrete mixers are designated by a number representing its
nominal mixed batch capacity in litres.
The following are the standardized sizes of three types:
a. Tilting: 85 T, 100 T, 140 T, 200 T
b. Non-Tilting: 200 NT, 280 NT, 375 NT, 500 NT, 1000 NT
c. Reversing: 200 R, 280 R, 375 R, 500 R and 1000 R

Nominal mix design

In the past the specifications for concrete prescribed the proportions of cement, fine and
coarse aggregates. These mixes of fixed cement-aggregate ratio which ensures adequate strength
are termed nominal mixes. These offer simplicity and under normal circumstances, have a
margin of strength above that specified. However, due to the variability of mix ingredients the
nominal concrete for a given workability varies widely in strength.
The nominal mixes of fixed cement-aggregate ratio (by volume) vary widely in strength and may
result in under- or over-rich mixes. For this reason, the minimum compressive strength has been
included in many specifications. These mixes are termed standard mixes. IS 456-2000 has
designated the concrete mixes into a number of grades as M10, M15, M20, M25, M30, M35 and
M40. In this designation the letter M refers to the mix and the number to the specified 28 day
cube strength of mix in N/mm2 M10, M15, M20 and M25 correspond approximately to the mix
proportions (1:3:6), (1:2:4), (1:1.5:3) and (1:1:2) respectively.
Ready Mix concrete
• Ready Mix Concrete (RMC) is a specialized material in which the cement aggregates and
other ingredients are weigh-batched at a plant in a central mixer or truck mixer, before
delivery to the construction site in a condition ready for placing by the builder.
• Thus, `fresh' concrete is manufactured in a plant away from the construction site and
transported within the requisite journey time.
• The RMC supplier provides two services, firstly one of processing the materials for
making fresh concrete and secondly, of transporting a product within a short time.
MIXING PROCESS:
• Thorough mixing of the materials is essential for the production of uniform concrete. The
mixing should ensure that the mass becomes homogeneous, uniform in color and
consistency. There are three methods adopted for mixing Ready Mix Concrete.
• Following are the three types of mixing process of RMC
1. Transit Mixed (or "truck-mixed") Concrete
2. Shrink Mixed Concrete
3. Central Mixed Concrete

1. TRANSIT MIXING:-
It is also called dry batched concrete because all the basic ingredients including water are
charged directly into the truck mixer. The mixer drum is revolved fast at charging speed during
the loading of the material and after that it continues rotating at a normal agitating speed. In this
type of ready mix concrete, also three types of variations are possible as given below:
i) Concrete mixed at job site:
While being transported towards the destination, the drum is revolved at a slow or
agitating speed of 2 rpm, but after reaching the site just before discharging the material, it
is revolved at maximum speed of 12 to 15 rpm for nearly 70 to 100 revolution for
ensuring homogeneous mixing.

ii) Concrete mixed in transit

The drum speed is kept medium during the transit time, i.e. approximately 8 rpm for
about 70 revolutions. After 70 revolutions, it is slowed down to agitating speed of 2 rpm
till discharging the concrete.
iii) Concrete mixed in the yard
The drum is turned at high-speed of 12 to 15 rpm for about 50 revolutions in the yard
itself. The concrete is then agitated slowly during transit time.

2. Shrink mixed concrete:

The concrete is partially mixed in the plant mixer and then balance mixing is done in the truck
mounted drum mixer during transit time. The amount of mixing in transit mixer depends upon
the extent of mixing done in the central mixing plant. Tests should be conducted to establish the
requirement of mixing the drum mixer.

3. Central mixed concrete:

It is also called central batching plant where the concrete is thoroughly mixed before loading into
the truck mixer. Sometimes the plant is also referred as wet-batch or pre-mix plants. While
transporting the concrete, the truck mixer acts as agitator only. Sometimes, when workability
requirement is low or the lead is less, non-agitating units or dump trucks can also be used.

Fig. Ready mix batching plant

Advantages of Ready Mixed Concrete:
 Quality assured concrete:- Concrete is produced under controlled conditions using
consistent quality of raw material.
 High speed of construction- Speed of construction can be vary fast in case RMC is
used.
 Reduction in cement consumption by 10 – 12 % due to better handling and proper
mixing. Further reduction is possible if mineral admixtures or cementitious materials
are used.
 Versatility in uses and methods of placing: The mix design of the concrete can be
tailor made to suit the placing methods of the contractor.
 Since ready mixed concrete (RMC) uses bulk cement instead of bagged cement, dust
pollution will be reduced and cement will be saved.
 Conservation of energy and resources because of saving of cement.
 Environment pollution is reduced due to less production of cement.
 With better durability of structure, their overall service life increase and there is
saving in life-cycle cost.
 Eliminating or minimizing human error and reduction in dependency on labour.
 Timely deliveries in large as well as small pours.
 No need for space for storing the materials like coarse and fine aggregate, cement,
water and admixtures.
 No delay due to site based batching plant erection/ dismantling; no equipment to hire;
no depreciation of costs.
 Reduced noise and air pollution; less consumption of petrol and
diesel and less time loss to business.
Disadvantages
• The materials are batched at a central plant, and the mixing begins at that plant, so the
traveling time from the plant to site is critical over longer distances.
• Access roads, and site access have to be able to carry the weight of the truck and load
concrete is approx 2.5 tonne.
• concrete’s limited time span between mixing and going-off means that ready-mix should
be placed within 2hours of batching at the plant

Finishing
Finishing is the operation of creating a concrete surface of a desired texture, smoothness
and durability. The finishing can be functional and decorative.

Compaction
The concrete as a whole contain voids can be caused by inadequate compaction. Usually
it being governed by the compaction equipments used, type of formworks, and density of the
steelwork.

Strength of concrete
Concrete has relatively high compressive strength, but significantly lower tensile
strength, and as such is usually reinforced with materials that are strong in tension . The elasticity
of concrete is relatively constant at low stress levels but starts decreasing at higher stress levels
as matrix cracking develops. Concrete has a very low coefficient of thermal expansion, and as it
matures concrete shrinks. All concrete structures will crack to some extent, due to shrinkage and
tension. Concrete which is subjected to long-duration forces is prone to creep.

Tests can be made to ensure the properties of concrete correspond to specifications for the
application. The density of concrete varies, but is around 2,400 kilograms per cubic metre. As a
result, without compensating, concrete would almost always fail from tensile stresses – even
when loaded in compression. The practical implication of this is that concrete elements subjected
to tensile stresses must be reinforced with materials that are strong in tension.
Elasticity
The modulus of elasticity of concrete is a function of the modulus of elasticity of the
aggregates and the cement matrix and their relative proportions. The modulus of elasticity of
concrete is relatively constant at low stress levels but starts decreasing at higher stress levels as
matrix cracking develops. The elastic modulus of the hardened paste may be in the order of 10-
30 GPa and aggregates about 45 to 85 GPa. The concrete composite is then in the range of 30 to
50 GPa.

Creep in concrete

Concrete creep is defined as: deformation of structure under sustained load. Basically, long term
pressure or stress on concrete can make it change shape. This deformation usuall occurs in the
direction the force is being applied. Creep does not necessarily cause concrete to fail or break
apart. Creep is factored in when concrete structures are designed.

Factors Affecting Creep:

1. Aggregate

2. Mix Proportions

3. Age of concrete

1. Influence of Aggregate
Aggregate undergoes very little creep. It is really the paste which is responsible for the creep.
However, the aggregate influences the creep of concrete through a restraining effect on the
magnitude of creep. The paste which is creeping under load is restrained by aggregate which do
not creep. The stronger the aggregate the more is the restraining effect and hence the less is the
magnitude of creep. The modulus of elasticity of aggregate is one of the important factors
influencing creep. It can be easily imagined that the higher the modulus of elasticity the less is
the creep. Light weight aggregate shows substantially higher creep than normal weight
aggregate.

2. Influence of Mix Proportions

The amount of paste content and its quality is one of the most important factors influencing
creep. A poorer paste structure undergoes higher creep. Therefore, it can be said that creep
increases with increase in water/cement ratio. In other words, it can also be said that creep is
inversely proportional to the strength of concrete. Broadly speaking, all other factors which are
affecting the water/cement ratio are also affecting the creep.
3. Influence of Age
Age at which a concrete member is loaded will have a predominant effect on the magnitude of
creep. This can be easily understood from the fact that the quality of gel improves with time.
Such gel creeps less, whereas a young gel under load being not so stronger creeps more. What is
said above is not a very accurate statement because of the fact that the moisture content of the
concrete being different at different age also influences the magnitude of creep.

Effects of Creep on Concrete and Reinforced Concrete:

In reinforced concrete beams, creep increases the deflection with time and may be a critical
consideration in design. In eccentrically loaded columns, creep increases the deflection and can
load to buckling. In case of statically indeterminate structures and column and beam junctions
creep may relieve the stress concentration induced by shrinkage, temperatures changes or
movement of support. Creep property of concrete will be useful in all concrete structures to
reduce the internal stresses due to non-uniform load or restrained shrinkage.

In mass concrete structures such as dams, on account of differential temperature conditions at the
interior and surface, creep is harmful and by itself may be a cause of cracking in the interior of
dams. Therefore, all precautions and steps must be taken to see that increase in temperature does
not take place in the interior of mass concrete structure. Loss of pre stress due to creep of
concrete in pre stressed concrete structure.

Shrinkage in Concrete

change is one of the most detrimental properties of concrete, which affects the long-term
strength and durability. To the practical engineer, the aspect of volume change in concrete is
important from the point of view that it causes unsightly cracks in concrete. We have discussed
elsewhere the effect of volume change due to thermal properties of aggregate and concrete, due
to alkali/aggregate reaction, due to sulphate action etc. Presently we shall discuss the volume
change on account of inherenet properties of concrete “shrinkage”. One of the most
objectionable defects in concrete is the presence of cracks, particularly in floors and pavements.
One of the important factors that contribute to the cracks in floors and pavements is that due to
shrinkage. It is difficult to make concrete which does not shrink and crack. It is only a question
of magnitude. The term shrinkage is loosely used to describe the various aspects of volume
changes in concrete due to loss of moisture at different stages due to different reasons.
Types of Shrinkage in Concrete

To understand this aspect more closely, shrinkage can be classified in the following way:

(a) Plastic Shrinkage

(b) Drying Shrinkage

(c) Autogeneous Shrinkage

(d) Carbonation Shrinkage

a. Plastic Shrinkage

Shrinkage of this type manifests itself soon after the concrete is placed in the forms while
the concrete is still in the plastic state. Loss of water by evaporation from the surface of concrete
or by the absorption by aggregate or subgrade, is believed to be the reasons of plastic shrinkage.
The loss of water results in the reduction of volume. The aggregate particles or the reinforcement
comes in the way of subsidence due to which cracks may appear at the surface or internally
around the aggregate or reinforcement.

In case of floors and pavements where the surface area exposed to drying is large as compared to
depth, when this large surface is exposed to hot sun and drying wind, the surface of concrete
dries very fast which results in plastic shrinkage. Sometimes even if theconcrete is not subjected
to severe drying, but poorly made with a high water/cement ratio, large quantity of water bleeds
and accumulates at the surface. When this water at the surface dries out, the surface concrete
collapses causing cracks.

b. Drying Shrinkage

Just as the hydration of cement is an ever lasting process, the drying shrinkage is also an
ever lasting process when concrete is subjected to drying conditions. The drying shrinkage of
concrete is analogous to the mechanism of drying of timber specimen. The loss of free water
contained in hardened concrete, does not result in any appreciable dimension change. It is the
loss of water held in gel pores that causes the change in the volume. Under drying conditions, the
gel water is lost progressively over a long time, as long as the concrete is kept in drying
conditions. Cement paste shrinks more than mortar and mortar shrinks more than concrete.
Concrete made with smaller size aggregate shrinks more than concrete made with bigger size
aggregate. The magnitude of drying shrinkage is also a function of the fineness of gel. The finer
the gel the more is the shrinkage.
 c. Autogeneous Shrinkage

In a conservative system i.e. where no moisture movement to or from the paste is

permitted, when temperature is constant some shrinkage may occur. The shrinkage of such a
conservative system is known as autogeneous shrinkage .Autogeneous shrinkage is of minor
importance and is not applicable in practice to many situations except that of mass of concrete in
the interior of a concrete dam.

d. Carbonation Shrinkage

Carbon dioxide present in the atmosphere reacts in the presence of water with hydrated
cement. Calcium hydroxide [Ca(OH)2] gets converted to calcium carbonate and also some other
cement compounds are decomposed. Such a complete decomposition of calcium compound in
hydrated cement is chemically possible even at the low pressure of carbon dioxide in normal
atmosphere. Carbonation penetrates beyond the exposed surface of concrete very slowly. The
rate of penetration of carbon dioxide depends also on the moisture content of the concrete and
the relative humidity of the ambient medium. Carbonation is accompanied by an increase in
weight of the concrete and by shrinkage.
Carbonation shrinkage is probably caused by the dissolution of crystals of calcium hydroxide
and deposition of calcium carbonate in its place. As the new product is less in volume than the
product replaced, shrinkage takes place.

Curing
Curing of concrete is defined as the process of maintaining the moisture and temperature
conditions of concrete for hydration reaction to normally so that concrete develops hardened
properties over time. The main components which needs to be taken care are moisture, heat and
time during curing process.
Curing of concrete is required for the following reasons:

 To prevent the concrete to dry out prematurely due to solar radiation and wind. This
prevents plastic shrinkage of concrete.
 It helps to maintain the concrete temperature by allowing the hydration process.
Hydration process requires water to carry on and releases heat.
 Curing helps the concrete to harden and bond with internal materials and reinforcement.
This helps to prevent damage to bond between concrete and reinforcement due to vibration and
impact.
 This helps development of impermeable, crack free and durable concrete.
Duration of curing

The Indian Standard IS 456 – 2000 recommends that curing duration of concrete must be at
least 7 days in case of ordinary Portland Cement, at least 10 days for concrete with mineral
admixtures or blended cements are used. It also recommends that the curing duration should not
be less than 10 days for concrete exposed to dry and hot weather conditions and 14 days for
concrete with mineral admixtures or blended cement in hot and dry weather.

Elasticity

FACTORS AFFECTING CONCRETE STRENGTH

Concrete strength is effected by many factors, such as quality of raw materials, water/cement
ratio, coarse/fine aggregate ratio, age of concrete, compaction of concrete, temperature, relative
humidity and curing of concrete.

1. Quality of Raw Materials:

Cement: Provided the cement conforms with the appropriate standard and it has been stored
correctly (i.e. in dry conditions), it should be suitable for use in concrete.
Aggregates: Quality of aggregates, its size, shape, texture, strength etc determines the strength
of concrete. The presence of salts (chlorides and sulphates), silt and clay also reduces the
strength of concrete.
Water: frequently the quality of the water is covered by a clause stating “..the water should be
fit for drinking..”. This criterion though is not absolute and reference should be made to
respective codes for testing of water construction purpose.

2. Water / Cement Ratio:

The relation between water cement ratio and strength of concrete is shown in the plot as shown
below:
 The higher the water/cement ratio, the greater the initial spacing between the cement grains and
the greater the volume of residual voids not filled by hydration products.

There is one thing missing on the graph. For a given cement content, the workability of the
concrete is reduced if the water/cement ratio is reduced. A lower water cement ratio means less
water, or more cement and lower workability.

However if the workability becomes too low the concrete becomes difficult to compact and the
strength reduces. For a given set of materials and environment conditions, the strength at any age
depends only on the water-cement ratio, providing full compaction can be achieved.

3. Coarse / fine aggregate ratio:

Following points should be noted for coarse/fine aggregate ratio:
 If the proportion of fines is increased in relation to the coarse aggregate, the overall
aggregate surface area will increase.

 If the surface area of the aggregate has increased, the water demand will also increase.

 Assuming the water demand has increased, the water cement ratio will increase.

 Since the water cement ratio has increased, the compressive strength will decrease.

4. Aggregate / Cement Ratio:

Following points must be noted for aggregate cement ratio:

 If the volume remains the same and the proportion of cement in relation to that of sand is
increased the surface area of the solid will increase.

 If the surface area of the solids has increased, the water demand will stay the same for the
constant workability.

 Assuming an increase in cement content for no increase in water demand, the water
cement ratio will decrease.

 If the water cement ratio reduces, the strength of the concrete will increase.

The influence of cement content on workability and strength is an important one to remember
and can be summarized as follows:
1. For a given workability an increase in the proportion of cement in a mix has little effect on the
water demand and results in a reduction in the water/cement ratio.

2. The reduction in water/cement ratio leads to an increase in strength of concrete.

3. Therefore, for a given workability an increase in the cement content results in an increase in
strength of concrete.

5. Age of concrete:
The degree of hydration is synonymous with the age of concrete provided the concrete has not
been allowed to dry out or the temperature is too low.

In theory, provided the concrete is not allowed to dry out, then it wil always be increasing albeit
at an ever reducing rate. For convenience and for most practical applications, it is generally
accepted that the majority of the strength has been achieved by 28 days.

6. Compaction of concrete:
Any entrapped air resulting from inadequate compaction of the plastic concrete will lead to a
reduction in strength. If there was 10% trapped air in the concrete, the strength will fall down in
the range of 30 to 40%.

7. Temperature:
The rate of hydration reaction is temperature dependent. If the temperature increases the reaction
also increases. This means that the concrete kept at higher temperature will gain strength more
quickly than a similar concrete kept at a lower temperature.
However, the final strength of the concrete kept at the higher temperature will be lower. This is
because the physical form of the hardened cement paste is less well structured and more porous
when hydration proceeds at faster rate.

This is an important point to remember because temperature has a similar but more pronounced
detrimental effect on permeability of the concrete.

8. Relative humidity:
If the concrete is allowed to dry out, the hydration reaction will stop. The hydration reaction
cannot proceed without moisture. The three curves shows the strength development of similar
concretes exposed to different conditions.

9. Curing:
It should be clear from what has been said above that the detrimental effects of storage of
concrete in a dry environment can be reduced if the concrete is adequately cured to prevent
excessive moisture loss.
The ability of concrete to withstand the conditions for which it is designed without deterioration
for a long period of years is known as durability.

Durability of concrete may be defined as the ability of concrete to resist weathering action,
chemical attack, and abrasion while maintaining its desired engineering properties.

Durability is defined as the capability of concrete to resist weathering action, chemical attack and
abrasion while maintaining its desired engineering properties. It normally refers to the duration
or life span of trouble-free performance. Different concretes require different degrees of
durability depending on the exposure environment and properties desired. For example, concrete
exposed to tidal seawater will have different requirements than indoor concrete.

Concrete will remain durable if:

 The cement paste structure is dense and of low permeability

 Under extreme condition, it has entrained air to resist freeze-thaw cycle.
 It is made with graded aggregate that are strong and inert
 The ingredients in the mix contain minimum impurities such as alkalis, Chlorides,
sulphates and silt

Factors Affecting Durability of Concrete

Durability of Concrete depends upon the following factors:

i. Cement content

Mix must be designed to ensure cohesion and prevent segregation and bleeding. If
cement is reduced, then at fixed w/c ratio the workability will be reduced leading to
inadequate compaction. However, if water is added to improve workability, water /
cement ratio increases and resulting in highly permeable material.

ii. Compaction

The concrete as a whole contain voids can be caused by inadequate compaction. Usually
it is being governed by the compaction equipments used, type of formworks, and density
of the steelwork

iii. Curing

It is very important to permit proper strength development aid moisture retention and to
ensure hydration process occur completely
 iv. Cover

Thickness of concrete cover must follow the limits set in codes

v. Permeability

It is considered the most important factor for durability. It can be noticed that higher
permeability is usually caused by higher porosity .Therefore, a proper curing, sufficient
cement, proper compaction and suitable concrete cover could provide a low permeability
concrete.

Causes for the Lack of Durability in Concrete

1. External Causes:

a. Extreme Weathering Conditions

b. Extreme Temperature
c. Extreme Humidity
d. Abrasion
e. Electrolytic Action
f. Attack by a natural or industrial liquids or gases

2. Internal Causes
a) Physical

 Volume change due to difference in thermal properties of aggregates and cement paste

 Frost Action

b) Chemical

 Alkali Aggregate Reactions

i. Alkali Silica Reaction

ii. Alkali Silicate Reaction

iii. Alkali Carbonate Reaction

 Corrosion of Steel

Sulfate attack in concrete: Sulfate attack can be external or internal.

External: due to penetration of sulfates in solution, in groundwater for example, into the concrete
from outside.

Internal: due to a soluble source being incorporated into the concrete at the time of mixing,
gypsum in the aggregate, for example. External sulfate attack.This is the more common type and
typically occurs where water containing dissolved sulfate penetrates the concrete. A fairly well-
defined reaction front can often be seen in polished sections; ahead of the front the concrete is
normal, or near normal. Behind the reaction front, the composition and microstructure of the
concrete will have changed. These changes may vary in type or severity but commonly include:

• Extensive cracking
• Expansion
• Loss of bond between the cement paste and aggregate

• Alteration of paste composition, with mono sulfate phase converting to ettringite and, in later
stages, gypsum formation. The necessary additional calcium is provided by the calcium
hydroxide and calcium silicate hydrate in the cement paste. The effect of these changes is an
overall loss of concrete strength.

Internal sulfate attack

Occurs where a source of sulfate is incorporated into the concrete when mixed. Examples
include the use of sulfate-rich aggregate, excess of added gypsum in the cement or
contamination. Proper screening and testing procedures should generally avoid internal sulfate
attack.

Chlorides
Chloride Resistance : Chloride present in plain concrete that does not contain steel is
generally not a durability concern. Concrete protects embedded steel from corrosion through its
highly alkaline nature. The high pH environment in concrete (usually greater than 12.5) causes a
passive and non corroding protective oxide film to form on steel. However, the presence of
chloride ions from deicers or seawater can destroy or penetrate the film. Once the chloride
corrosion threshold is reached, an electric cell is formed along the steel or between steel bars and
the electrochemical process of carrions begins.

Corrosion:
Corrosion of reinforcing steel and other embedded metals is one of the leading causes of
deterioration of concrete. When steel corrodes, the resulting rust occupies a greater volume than
steel. The expansion creates tensile stresses in the concrete, which can eventually cause cracking
and spalling.
 SCHOOL OF BUILDING AND ENVIRONMENT
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

UNIT – III – ADVANCED CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY– SCIA7001

 UNIT 3

MIX DESIGN

Concrete Mix Design

Introduction

The process of selecting suitable ingredients of concrete and determining their relative
amounts with the objective of producing a concrete of the required, strength, durability, and
workability as economically as possible, is termed the concrete mix design.

The proportioning of ingredient of concrete is governed by the required performance of

concrete in 2 states, namely the plastic and the hardened states. If the plastic concrete is
not workable, it cannot be properly placed and compacted. The property of workability,
therefore, becomes of vital importance.

The compressive strength of hardened concrete which is generally considered to be an index

of its other properties, depends upon many factors, e.g. quality and quantity of cement, water
and aggregates; batching and mixing; placing, compaction and curing. The cost of concrete is
made up of the cost of materials, plant and labour.

The variations in the cost of materials arise from the fact that the cement is several times
costly than the aggregate, thus the aim is to produce as lean a mix as possible. From technical
point of view the rich mixes may lead to high shrinkage and cracking in the structural
concrete, and to evolution of high heat of hydration in mass concrete which may cause
cracking.

The actual cost of concrete is related to the cost of materials required for producing a
minimum mean strength called characteristic strength that is specified by the designer of the
structure. This depends on the quality control measures, but there is no doubt that the quality
control adds to the cost of concrete.

The extent of quality control is often an economic compromise, and depends on the size and
type of job. The cost of labour depends on the workability of mix, e.g., a concrete mix of
inadequate workability may result in a high cost of labour to obtain a degree of compaction
with available equipment.

Requirements of concrete mix design

The requirements which form the basis of selection and proportioning of mix ingredients are :

a) The minimum compressive strength required from structural consideration

b) The adequate workability necessary for full compaction with the compacting equipment
available.
c) Maximum water-cement ratio and/or maximum cement content to give adequate durability
for the particular site conditions

d) Maximum cement content to avoid shrinkage cracking due to temperature cycle in mass
concrete.

Types of Mixes

1. Nominal Mixes

In the past the specifications for concrete prescribed the proportions of cement, fine and
coarse aggregates. These mixes of fixed cement-aggregate ratio which ensures adequate
strength are termed nominal mixes. These offer simplicity and under normal circumstances,
have a margin of strength above that specified. However, due to the variability of mix
ingredients the nominal concrete for a given workability varies widely in strength.

2. Standard mixes

The nominal mixes of fixed cement-aggregate ratio (by volume) vary widely in strength and
may result in under- or over-rich mixes. For this reason, the minimum compressive strength
has been included in many specifications. These mixes are termed standard mixes.

IS 456-2000 has designated the concrete mixes into a number of grades as M10, M15, M20,
M25, M30, M35 and M40. In this designation the letter M refers to the mix and the number to
the specified 28 day cube strength of mix in N/mm2. The mixes of grades M10, M15, M20
and M25 correspond approximately to the mix proportions (1:3:6), (1:2:4), (1:1.5:3) and
(1:1:2) respectively.

3. Designed Mixes

In these mixes the performance of the concrete is specified by the designer but the mix
proportions are determined by the producer of concrete, except that the minimum cement
content can be laid down. This is most rational approach to the selection of mix proportions
with specific materials in mind possessing more or less unique characteristics. The approach
results in the production of concrete with the appropriate properties most economically.
However, the designed mix does not serve as a guide since this does not guarantee the correct
mix proportions for the prescribed performance.

For the concrete with undemanding performance nominal or standard mixes (prescribed in the
codes by quantities of dry ingredients per cubic meter and by slump) may be used only for
very small jobs, when the 28-day strength of concrete does not exceed 30 N/mm2. No control
testing is necessary reliance being placed on the masses of the ingredients.
Factors affecting the choice of mix proportions

The various factors affecting the mix design are:

1. Compressive strength

It is one of the most important properties of concrete and influences many other describable
properties of the hardened concrete. The mean compressive strength required at a specific
age, usually 28 days, determines the nominal water-cement ratio of the mix. The other factor
affecting the strength of concrete at a given age and cured at a prescribed temperature is the
degree of compaction. According to Abraham’s law the strength of fully compacted concrete
is inversely proportional to the water-cement ratio.

2. Workability

The degree of workability required depends on three factors. These are the size of the section
to be concreted, the amount of reinforcement, and the method of compaction to be used. For
the narrow and complicated section with numerous corners or inaccessible parts, the concrete
must have a high workability so that full compaction can be achieved with a reasonable
amount of effort. This also applies to the embedded steel sections. The desired workability
depends on the compacting equipment available at the site.

3. Durability

The durability of concrete is its resistance to the aggressive environmental conditions. High
strength concrete is generally more durable than low strength concrete. In the situations when
the high strength is not necessary but the conditions of exposure are such that high durability
is vital, the durability requirement will determine the water-cement ratio to be used.

4. Maximum nominal size of aggregate

In general, larger the maximum size of aggregate, smaller is the cement requirement for a
particular water-cement ratio, because the workability of concrete increases with increase in
maximum size of the aggregate. However, the compressive strength tends to increase with the
decrease in size of aggregate.

IS 456:2000 and IS 1343:1980 recommend that the nominal size of the aggregate should be
as large as possible.

5. Grading and type of aggregate

The grading of aggregate influences the mix proportions for a specified workability and
water-cement ratio. Coarser the grading leaner will be mix which can be used. Very lean mix
is not desirable since it does not contain enough finer material to make the concrete cohesive.

The type of aggregate influences strongly the aggregate-cement ratio for the desired
workability and stipulated water cement ratio. An important feature of a satisfactory
aggregate is the uniformity of the grading which can be achieved by mixing different size
fractions.

6. Quality Control

The degree of control can be estimated statistically by the variations in test results. The
variation in strength results from the variations in the properties of the mix ingredients and
lack of control of accuracy in batching, mixing, placing, curing and testing. The lower the
difference between the mean and minimum strengths of the mix lower will be the cement-
content required. The factor controlling this difference is termed as quality control.

Mix Proportion designations

The common method of expressing the proportions of ingredients of a concrete mix is in the
terms of parts or ratios of cement, fine and coarse aggregates. For e.g., a concrete mix of
proportions 1:2:4 means that cement, fine and coarse aggregate are in the ratio 1:2:4 or the
mix contains one part of cement, two parts of fine aggregate and four parts of coarse
aggregate. The proportions are either by volume or by mass. The water-cement ratio is
usually expressed in mass

Factors to be considered for mix design

1. The grade designation giving the characteristic strength requirement of concrete.

2. The type of cement influences the rate of development of compressive strength of
concrete.
3. Maximum nominal size of aggregates to be used in concrete may be as large as
possible within the limits prescribed by IS 456:2000.
4. The cement content is to be limited from shrinkage, cracking and creep.
5. The workability of concrete for satisfactory placing and compaction is related to the
size and shape of section, quantity and spacing of reinforcement and technique used
for transportation, placing and compaction.

Methods of proportioning

1. Arbitrary proportion
2. Fineness modulus method
3. Maximum density method
4. Surface area Method
5. Indian Road Congress, IRC 44 method
6. High strength concrete mix design
7. Mix design baed on flexural strength
8. Road Note.4 (Grading curve method)
9. ACI committee 211 method
10. DOE method
11. Mix design for pumpable concrete
12. Indian standard recommended method IS 10262-82
 Indian standard recommended method IS 10262-82
Procedure

1. Determine the mean target strength ft from the specified characteristic compressive
strength at 28-day fck and the level of quality control.

ft = fck + 1.65 S

where S is the standard deviation obtained from the Table of approximate contents given after
the design mix.

2. Obtain the water cement ratio for the desired mean target using the emperical relationship
between compressive strength and water cement ratio so chosen is checked against the
limiting water cement ratio. The water cement ratio so chosen is checked against the limiting
water cement ratio for the requirements of durability given in table and adopts the lower of
the two values.

3. Estimate the amount of entrapped air for maximum nominal size of the aggregate from the
table.

4. Select the water content, for the required workability and maximum size of aggregates (for
aggregates in saturated surface dry condition) from table.

5. Determine the percentage of fine aggregate in total aggregate by absolute volume from
table for the concrete using crushed coarse aggregate.

6. Adjust the values of water content and percentage of sand as provided in the table for any
difference in workability, water cement ratio, grading of fine aggregate and for rounded
aggregate the values are given in table.

7. Calculate the cement content form the water-cement ratio and the final water content as
arrived after adjustment. Check the cement against the minimum cement content from the
requirements of the durability, and greater of the two values is adopted.

8. From the quantities of water and cement per unit volume of concrete and the percentage of
sand already determined in steps 6 and 7 above, calculate the content of coarse and fine
aggregates per unit volume of concrete from the following relations:
where V = absolute volume of concrete
= gross volume (1m3) minus the volume of entrapped air
Sc = specific gravity of cement
W = Mass of water per cubic metre of concrete, kg
C = mass of cement per cubic metre of concrete, kg
p = ratio of fine aggregate to total aggregate by absolute volume
fa, Ca = total masses of fine and coarse aggregates, per cubic metre of concrete,
respectively, kg, and
Sfa, Sca = specific gravities of saturated surface dry fine and coarse aggregates,
respectively
9. Determine the concrete mix proportions for the first trial mix.

10. Prepare the concrete using the calculated proportions and cast three cubes of 150 mm size
and test them wet after 28-days moist curing and check for the strength.

11. Prepare trial mixes with suitable adjustments till the final mix proportions are arrived at.

Evaluation of Statistical Quality Control of Concrete

1 Variation in strength of concrete

The strength of concrete produced in sites is varied between mixes and even in the same mix due to the
following reasons:
 2- Analysis of Strength Data
2. 1 Definitions

 Concrete sample—a portion of concrete, taken at one time, from a single batch
or single truckload of concrete.
 Single cylinder ( cube) s t r e n g t h o r i n d i v i d u a l s t r e n g t h —the strength o f
a s i n g l e Cylinder; a single cylinder strength does not constitute a test result.
 Companion cylinders—cylinders made from the same sample of concrete.
 Strength test or strength test result—the average of two or more single-
cylinder strengths of specimens made from the same concrete sample (companion
cylinders) and tested at the same age.
 Range or within-test range—the difference between the maximum and
minimum strengths of individual concrete specimens comprising one strength test
result.
 Test record—a collection of strength test results of a single concrete mixture.

2. 2 Statistical Functions
A sufficient number of tests are needed to indicate accurately the variation in the concrete
produced and to permit appropriate statistical procedures for interpreting the test results.
Statistical procedures provide a sound basis for determining from such results the potential
quality and strength of the concrete and for expressing results in the most useful form.
A strength test result is defined as the average strength of all specimens of the same age,
fabricated from a sample taken from a single batch of concrete. A strength test cannot be
based on only one cylinder; a minimum of two cylinders is required for each test.
Concrete tests for strength are typically treated as if they fall into a distribution pattern
similar to the normal frequency distribution curve illustrated in Fig. 3.1.
When there is good control, the strength test values will tend to cluster near to the average
value, that is, the histogram of test results is tall and narrow. As variation instrength results
increases, the spread in the data increases and the normal distribution curve becomes
lower and wider (Fig. 3.2).

The normal distribution can be fully defined mathematically by two statistical parameters:
the mean and standard deviation. These statistical parameters of the strength can be
calculated as shown below:
- Mean ̅ , The average strength tests result ̅ is calculated using the following
equation
Standard deviations, the standard deviation is the most generally recognized
measure of dispersion of the individual test data from their average.

Coefficient of variation V - the sample standard deviation expressed as a percentage of

the average strength is called the coefficient of variation

The coefficient of variation is less affected by the magnitude of the strength level, and is
therefore more useful than the standard deviation in comparing the degree of control for a
wide range of compressive strengths. The coefficient of variation is typically used
when

Coefficient of variation V - the sample standard deviation expressed as a percentage of

the average strength is called the coefficient of variation
The coefficient of variation is less affected by the magnitude of the strength level, and is
therefore more useful than the standard deviation in comparing the degree of control for a
wide range of compressive strengths. The coefficient of variation is typically used
when
2- Analysis of Strength Data
be fully defined mathematically by two statistical parameters: the mean and standard
deviation. These statistical parameters of the strength can be calculated as shown below:

- Mean ̅ , The average strength tests result ̅ is calculated using the following
equation

- Standard deviations, the standard deviation is the most generally

recognized measure of dispersion of the individual test data from their average.

- Coefficient of variation V - the sample standard deviation expressed as a

percentage of the average strength is called the coefficient of variation
The coefficient of variation is less affected by the magnitude of the strength level, and is
therefore more useful than the standard deviation in comparing the degree of control for a
wide range of compressive strengths. The coefficient of variation is typically used
when

2.3
Strength
variation
s
Variations in strength test results can be traced to two different
sources:
1. Variations in testing methods; and
2. Variations in the properties or proportions of the constituent materials in the
concrete mixture, variations in the production, delivery or handling procedures, and
variations in climatic conditions.
It is possible to compute the variations attributable to each source using analysis of
variance (ANOVA) techniques or with simpler techniques.
1- Within-test variation—Variability due to testing is estimated by the within-test
variation based on differences in strengths of companion (replicate) cylinders
comprising a strength test result. The within-test variation is affected by variations in
sampling, molding, consolidating, transporting, curing, capping, and testing specimens.
A single strength test result of a concrete mixture, however, does not provide
sufficient data for statistical analysis. As with any statistical estimator, the confidence
in the estimate is a function of the number of test results.
2-Batch-to-Batch variation - These variations reflect differences in strength from batch to
batch, which can be attributed to variations in:

(a) Characteristics and properties of the ingredients; and

(b) Batching, mixing, and sampling.
Batch-to-batch variation can be estimated from strength test results of a concrete mixture if
each test result represents a separate batch of concrete.

The overall variation s has two component variations, the within-test s1 , and batch-to-
batch s2 variations. The sample variance—the squareof the sample standard deviation—is the
sum of the sample within-test and sample batch-to-batch variances

From which the batch – to – batch standard deviation can be computed as

The within-test sample standard deviation estimates the variation attributable to sampling,
specimen preparation, curing and testing, assuming proper testing methods are used. The batch-
to-batch sample standard deviation estimates the variations attributable to constituent material
suppliers, and the concrete producer.
2.4 Interpretation of statistical
parameters
Once the statistical parameters have been computed, and with the assumption or verification
that the results follow a normal frequency distribution curve, additional analysis of the test
results is possible. Figure 3.3 indicates an approximate division of the area under the normal
frequency distribution curve. For example, approximately 68% of the area (equivalent to 68%
of the results) lies within ±1σof the average, and 95% lies within ±2σ.

This permits an estimate of the portion of the test results expected to fall within given multiples
z of σ of the average or of any other specific value.

Table 3.4 was adapted from the normal cumulative distribution (the normal probability
integral) and shows the probability of a fraction of tests falling below fc′in terms of the average
strength of the population of test results when the population average strength μ equals fc′ + zσ.
2.4 Standards
of Control
One of the primary purposes of statistical evaluation of concrete data is to identify sources of
variability. This knowledge can then be used to help determine appropriate steps to maintain
the desired level of control. Several different techniques can be used to detect variations in
concrete production, materials processing and handling, and contractor and testing agency
operations. One simple approach is to compare overall variability and within-test
variability, using eitherstandard deviation or coefficient of variation, as appropriate, with
previous performance.

Table 3.2 gives the standards of control whichare appropriate for concrete having specified
strengths up to 35 MPa (5000 psi), whereas Table 3.3 gives the appropriate standards of control
for specified strengths over 35 MPa (5000 psi). These standards of control were adopted based
on examination and analysis of compressive strength data by ACI Committee 214 and ACI
Committee 363. The strength tests were conducted using 150 x 300 mm (6 x12 in.) cylinders.
 Criteria
The strength of concrete in a structure and the strength of test cylinders cast from a sample of
that concrete are not necessarily the same. The strength of the cylinders obtained from that
sample of concrete and used for contractual acceptance are to be cured and tested under tightly
controlled conditions. The strengths of these cylinders are generally the primary evidence
of the quality of concrete used in the structure. The engineer specifies the desired strength, the
testing frequency, and the permitted tolerance in compressive strength.

Any specified quantity, including strength, should also have a tolerance. It is impractical to
specify an absolute minimum strength, because there is always the possibility of even lower
strengths simply due to random variation, even when control is good. There will always be a
certain probability of tests falling below fc′. ACI 318 and most other building codes and
specifications establish tolerances for meeting the specified compressive strength acceptance
criteria, analogous to the tolerances for other building materials.

To satisfy statistically based strength-performance requirements, the average strength of the

concrete should be in excess of the specified compressive strength fc′. The required average
strength fcr′ which is the strength used in mixture proportioning, depends on the expected
variability of test results as measured by the coefficient of variation or standard deviation, and
on the allowable proportion of tests below the appropriate, specified acceptance criteria.
3.1 Data used to establish the minimum required average
strength

To establish the required average strength fcr′ (target strength), an estimate of the
variability of the concrete to be supplied for construction is needed. The strength test
record used to estimate the standard deviation or coefficient of variation should represent a
group of at least 30 consecutive tests.

The requirement for 30 consecutive strength tests can be satisfied by using a test record of 30
consecutive batches of the same class of concrete or the statistical average of two test records
totaling 30 or more tests. If the number of test results available is less than 30, a more
conservative approach is needed. Test records with as few as 15 tests can be used to estimate
the standard deviation; however, the calculated standard deviation should be increased by as
much as 15% to account for the uncertainty in the estimate of the standard deviation. In the
absence of sufficient information, a very conservative approach is required and the concrete is
proportioned to produce relatively high average strengths.

If only a small number of test results are available, the estimates of the standard deviation and
coefficient of variation become less reliable. When the number of strength test results is
between 15 and 30, the calculated standard deviation, multiplied by the appropriate
modification factors obtained from Table 4.1, which was taken from ACI 318, provides a
Sufficiently conservative estimate to account for the uncertainty in the calculated standard
deviation.
3.2 Criteria for strength requirements

The minimum required average strength fcr′can be computed using Eq. (4-1a), (4-1b), Table
4.2, depending on whether the coefficient of variation or standard deviation is used. The value
of fcr′will be the same for a given set of strength test results regardless of whether the
coefficient of variation or standard deviation is used.

where z is selected to provide a sufficiently high probability of meeting the specified strength,
assuming a normal distribution of strength test results. In most cases, fc′ is replaced by
a specified acceptance criterion, such as fc′ – 3.5 MPa or 0.90fc′.
Figure 4.3 shows that as the variability increases, fcr′ increases and thereby illustrates the
economic value of good control.

Table 4.3 provides values of z for various percentages of tests falling between the mean + zσ
and the mean –zσ.
The amount by which the required average strength fcr′ should exceed the specified
compressive strength fc′ depends on the acceptance criteria specified for a particular
project.
The following are criteria examples used to determine the required average
strength for various specifications or elements of specifications. The numerical examples
are presented in both SI and inch-pound units in a parallel format that have been hard
converted and so are not exactly equivalent numerically.

Criterion no. 1—The engineer may specify a stated maximum percentage of individual,
random strength tests results that will be permitted to fall below the specified compressive
strength. This criterion is no longer used in the ACI 318 Building Code, but does occur from
time to time in specifications based on allowable strength methods or in situations where the
average strength is a fundamental part of the design methodology, such as in some pavement
specifications. A typical requirement is to permit no more than 10%of the strength tests to fall
below fc′. The specified strength in these situations will generally be between 21 and 35 MPa.

Standard deviation method—Assume sufficient data exist for which a standard

deviation of 3.58 MPa has been calculated for a concrete mixture with a specified
strength of 28 MPa. From Table 4.3, 10% o f the normal probability
distribution lies more than 1.28 standard deviations below the mean. Using Eq. (4-1b)

Therefore, for a specified compressive strength of 28 MPa, the concrete mixture should
be proportioned for an average strength of not less than 32.6 MPa so that, on average,
no more than 10% of the results will fall below fc′.
Coefficient of variation method—Assume sufficient data exist for which a
coefficient of variation of 10.5% has been calculated for a concrete mixture with a
specified strength of 28 MPa. From Table 4.3, 10% of the normal
probability distribution lies more than 1.28 standard deviations below the
mean. Using Eq. (4-1a)

Therefore, for a specified compressive strength of 28 MPa, the concrete mixture should
be proportioned for an averagestrength of not less than 32.3 MPa so that, on average, no
morethan 10% of the results will fall below fc′.
4- EVALUATION OF DATA

Evaluation of strength data is required in many situations.Three commonly required

applications are:

 Evaluation for mixture submittal purposes;

 Evaluation of level of control (typically called quality control); and
 Evaluation to determine compliance with specifications.

A major purpose of these evaluations is to identify departures from desired target values
and, where possible, to assist with the formulation of an appropriate response. In all cases, the
usefulness of the evaluation will be a function of the amount of test data and the statistical rigor
of the analysis.
Numbers of tests - For a particular project, a sufficient number of tests should be made to
ensure accurate representation of the concrete. A test is defined as the average strength of at
least two specimens of the same age fabricated from a sample taken from a single batch of
concrete. The frequency of concrete tests can be established on the basis of time elapsed or
volume placed. The engineer should establish the number of tests needed based on job
conditions.
Rejection of doubtful specimens - The practice of arbitrary rejection of strength test results
that appear too far out of line is not recommended because the normal distribution anticipates
the possibility of such results. Discarding test results indiscriminately can seriously distort the
strength distribution, making analysis of results less reliable. Occasionally, the strength of one
cylinder from a group made from a sample deviates so far from the others as to be highly
improbable. If questionable variations have been observed during fabrication, curing, or testing
of a specimen, the specimen should be rejected on that basis alone.

ASTM E 178 provides criteria for rejecting the test result for one specimen in a set of
specimens. In general, the result from a single specimen in a set of three or more specimens can
be discarded if its deviation from a test mean is greater than three times the previously
established within-test standard deviation, and should be accepted with suspicion if its
deviation is greater than two times the within test standard deviation. The test average should
be computed from the remaining specimens. A test, that is, the average of all specimens
of a single sample tested at the same age, should not be rejected unless it is very likely that the
specimens are faulty. The test represents the best available estimate for the sample.

Applications
1- Calculate the required average strength (fcr') for a mix design if the specified
compressive strength (characteristic strength) is 25 MPa. Assume sufficient data exist
for which a standard deviation of 5.61 MPa has been calculated. Assume 10% of the
normal probability distribution lies below the average compressive strength (i.e. 10 %
of the results below the average strength, 90% confidence)
 From Table
(4.3) 10 % probability corresponds to z=1.28, therefore,
Fcr' = 25 + 1.28*5.61 = 32.2 MPa

2- It is required to comment on the quality of a concrete for a raft foundation, the

measurement of compressive strength of 17 test results. What is the actual compressive
strength if the degree of confidence is 95% and do approve or disapprove this
concrete, knowing that the specified (characteristic strength is 20
MPa).

Test Result No Fc', MPa Deviation Squared deviation

1 21.8 2.8 7.84
2 18.4 -0.6 0.36
3 17.7 - 1.3 1.69
4 21.5 2.5 6.25
5 18.6 - 0.4 1.6
6 17.3 -1.7 2.89
7 20.9 1.9 3.61
8 14.2 -4.8 23.04
9 15.3 -3.7 13.69
10 18.7 - 0.3 0.09
11 18.1 - 0.9 0.81
12 19.3 0.3 0.09
13 14.7 - 4.3 18.49
14 21.3 2.3 5.29
15 23.1 4.1 16.81
16 20 1.0 1.0
17 22.1 3.1 9.61
Average=19 Sum = 111.72

]
 Therefore this concrete is disapproved. Redesign should be carried out based on fc' =
14.7MPa.
3- Evaluate the results of compressive strength of two groups of concrete samples
consider 95% degree of confidence. Then calculate the specified compressive
strength of both groups of concrete based on only 90% degree of confidence.

Concrete samples, Concrete samples,

Group 1 Group 2
Measured compressive strength 395, 410, 412, 415 305, 385, 402, 540
2
Average, kg/cm 408 408
Range, kg/cm2 20 (4.9 % from average) 235 (57.6 from average)
2
Deviations, kg/cm -13, 2, 4, 7 -103, -23, -6, 132
2
Standard deviations, kg/cm 7.7 (0.77 MPa) 84.6 (8.46 MPa)
Coefficient of deviation, % 1.9 20.7
Level of quality control Excellent (Table 3.2) Poor (Table 3.3)
Specified strength (95% confidence) 395 269
Specified strength (90% confidence) 398 300

4- Comment on the following test results of samples of a concrete cover for raft
foundation
 7-day test 28-day results, Additional 28-day
2 2 2
result, kg/cm kg/cm results, kg/cm
1 209.5 230 192.6
2 179.7 269.1 115.3
3 147.6 121.4 212.5
4 106.4 306 157.1
5 76.7 158 189.6
6 187.9 202.2 173.1
7 167.3 145.5 129.4
8 176 146 200.6
9 135 130.6 102.5
10 135.4 198.4 178
11 130 150.5 170.3
12 57.9 217.2 248.2
13 129.3 178.8 237
14 123.4 182.3 228.6
15 118.9 172.4 89.6
16 112.6 131.5 157.3
17 123.1 247.5 161.2
18 123.9 186.8 144.1
19 104.6 142.7 167.4
20 93.6 163.1 141.3
21 105.3 82
22 181.6 147.5
23 182.2 150.3
24 150.8 183.1
25 204.3 243.6
Statistical Functions
2
Average of the 45 test results at 28 day = 175.16 kg/cm
2
Standard deviation = 47.37 kg/cm (4.7
MPa) Coefficient of variation = 27.05 %
2
Max value = 306 kg/cm
2
Min value = 82 kg/cm
2
Range = 224 kg/cm

Analysis of Results
- Based on Table 3.2 for standard deviation 4.7 MPa, the concrete is at the upper limit
of "Fair"
- Based on Table 3.3, for coefficient of variation of 27.05 %, the concrete is "Poor"

Specified strength = 175.16 (1-1.28*.2705) = 114.5 kg/cm2 (90 %

confidence) Specified strength = 175.16 (1-1.64*.2705) = 97.5 kg/cm2 (95 %
confidence)

% of discount = (target strength – actual average specified strength)/ Target strength

2
Assume target strength = 225 kg/cm
% discount = (200-114.5)/200 = 0.4275

3
Total discount inUSD = cost per 1m *amount of concrete* % of discount
= 204 USD * 155 * 0.4275 =
13517.6 USD
 SCHOOL OF BUILDING AND ENVIRONMENT
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

UNIT – IV – ADVANCED CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY– SCIA7001

 UNIT-IV

SPECIAL CONCRETE

Light weight concrete, Fly ash concrete, Fibre reinforced concrete, Sulphur impregnated
concrete, Polymer Concrete, Super plasticized concrete, hyper plasticized concrete, Epoxy resins
and screeds for rehabilitation - properties and applications - high performance concrete. High
performance fiber reinforced concrete, self compacting-concrete.

LIGHTWEIGHT CONCRETE

The use of LWC (Lightweight concrete) has been a feature in the construction industry for
centuries, but like other material the expectations of the performance have raised and now we are
expecting a consistent, reliable material and predictable characteristics.

Structural LWC has an in-place density (unit weight) on the order of 90 to 115 lb / ft³ (1440 to
1840 kg/m³) compared to normal weight concrete a density in the range of 140 to 150 lb/ft³
(2240 to 2400 kg/m³). For structural applications the concrete strength should be greater than
2500 psi (17.0 MPa). The concrete mixture is made with a lightweight coarse aggregate. In some
cases a partion or the entire fine aggregates may be a lightweight product. Lightweight
aggregates used in structural lightweight concrete are typically expanded shale, clay or slate
materials that have been fired in a rotary kiln to develop a porous structure. Other products such
as air-cooled blast furnace slag are also used. There are other classes of non-structural LWC with
lower density made with other aggregate materials and higher air voids in the cement paste
matrix, such as in cellular concrete.

HISTORICAL OF LWC

Generally, the properties of LWC can be indicated by doing laboratory testing, but the overall
performance of the material can only be demonstrated adequately by its performance in the field
by testing LWC structure under service. LWC has been successfully used for marine applications
and in shipbuilding. LWC ships were produced in the USA during the 1914-1918 war, and their
success led to the production of the USS Selma (a war ship). In both 1953 and 1980 the Selma‟s
durability was assessed by taking cored samples from the water line area. On both occasion little
corrosion was noted.

In 1984, Thomas A. Holm estimated that there were over 400 LWC bridges throughout the world
especially in USA and Canada. The research carried out by The Expanded Clay and Slate
Institute proves that most of the bridges appeared to be in good condition. According to ACI
Material Journal by Diona Marcia, Andrian Loani, Mihai Filip and Ian Pepenar (1994), it was
found that in Japan LWC had been used since 1964 as a railway station platform. The study on
durability was carried out in 1983 has proven that LWC exhibited similar carbonation depths as
normal concrete. Even though some cracks were reported, but these posed no structure problems.
A second structure comprising both LWC and normal concrete which had been in sea water for
13 years was examined for salt penetration.

CLASSIFICATION OF LWC

It is convenient to classify the various types of lightweight concrete by their method of

production. These are:

1. By using porous lightweight aggregate of low apparent specific gravity, i.e. lower than
2.6. This type of concrete is known as lightweight aggregate concrete.
 2. By introducing large voids within the concrete or mortar mass; these voids should be
clearly distinguished from the extremely fine voids produced by air entrainment. This
types of concrete is variously knows as aerated, cellular, foamed or gas concrete.
3. By omitting the fine aggregate from the mix so that a large number of interstitial voids is
present; normal weight coarse aggregate is generally used. This concrete as no-fines
concrete.

LWC can also be classified according to the purpose for which it is to be used: it can distinguish
between structural lightweight concrete (ASTM C 330-82a), concrete used in masonry units
(ASTM C 331-81), and insulating concrete (ASTM C 332-83). This classification of structural
lightweight concrete is based on a minimum strength: according to ASTM C 330-82a, the 28-day
cylinder compressive strength should not be less than 17 MPa (2500 psi). The density (unit
weight) of such concrete (determined in the dry state) should not exceed 1840 kg/m³ (115 lb/ft³),
and is usually between 1400 and 1800 kg/m³ (85 and 110 lb/ft³). On the other hand, masonry
concrete generally has a density between 500 and 800 kg/m³ (30 and 50 lb/ft³) and a strength
between 7 and 14 MPa (1000 and 2000 psi).

TYPES OF LWC

1. LWA CONCRETE

In the early 1950s, the use of lightweight concrete blocks was accepted in the UK for load
bearing inner leaf of cavity walls. Soon thereafter the development and production of new types
of artificial LWA (Lightweight aggregate) made it possible to introduce LWC of high strength,
suitable for structural work. These advances encouraged the structural use of LWA concrete,
particularly where the need to reduce weight in a structure was in a structure was an important
consideration for design or for economy.

Listed below are several types of LWA suitable for structural reinforced concrete:-

i. Pumice – is used for reinforced concrete roof slab, mainly for industrial roofs in Germany.
ii. Foamed Slag – was the first LWA suitable for reinforced concrete that was produced in large
quantity in the UK.

iii. Expanded Clays and Shales – capable of achieving sufficiently high strength for prestressed
concrete. Well established under the trade names of Aglite and Leca (UK), Haydite, Rocklite,
Gravelite and Aglite (USA).

iv. Sintered Pulverised – fuel ash aggregate – is being used in the UK for a variety of structural
purposes and is being marketed under the trade name Lytag.

1. AERATED CONCRETE

Concrete of this type has the lowest density, thermal conductivity and strength. Like timber it
can be sawn, screwed and nailed, but there are non-combustible. For works insitu the usual
methods of aeration are by mixing in stabilized foam or by whipping air in with the aid of an air
entraining agent. The precast products are usually made by the addition of about 0.2 percent
aluminums powder to the mix which reacts with alkaline substances in the binder forming
hydrogen bubbles. Air-cured aerated concrete is used where little strength is required e.g. roof
screeds and pipe lagging. Full strength development depends upon the reaction of lime with the
siliceous aggregates, and for the equal densities the strength of high pressure steam cured
concrete is about twice that of air-cured concrete, and shrinkage is only one third or less.

Aerated concrete is a lightweight, cellular material consisting of cement and/or lime and sand or
other silicious material. It is made by either a physical or a chemical process during which either
air or gas is introduced into a slurry, which generally contains no coarse material. Aerated
concrete used as a structural material is usually high-pressure steam-cured. It is thus factory-
made and available to the user in precast units only, for floors, walls and roofs. Blocks for laying
in mortar or glue are manufactured without any reinforcement. Larger units are reinforced with
steel bars to resist damage through transport, handling and superimposed loads. Autoclaved
aerated concrete, which was originally developed in Sweden in 1929, is now manufactured all
over the world.
 2. NO-FINES CONCRETE

The term no-fines concrete generally means concrete composed of cement and a coarse (9-
19mm) aggregate only (at least 95 percent should pass the 20mm BS sieve, not more than 10
percent should pass the 10mm BS sieve and nothing should pass the 5mm BS sieve), and the
product so formed has many uniformly distributed voids throughout its mass. No-fines concrete
is mainly used for load bearing, cast in situ external and internal wall, non load bearing wall and
under floor filling for solid ground floors (CP III: 1970, BSI). No-fines concrete was introduced
into the UK in 1923, when 50 houses were built in Edinburgh, followed a few years later by 800
in Liverpool, Manchester and London.

This description is applied to concrete which contain only a single size 10mm to 20mm coarse
aggregate (either a dense aggregate or a light weight aggregate such as sintered PFA). The
density is about two-third or three quarters that of dense concrete made with the same
aggregates. No-fines concrete is almost always cast in situ mainly as load bearing and non load
bearing walls including in filling walls, in framed structures, but sometimes as filling below
solids ground floors and for roof screeds.

No-fines concrete is thus an agglomeration of coarse aggregate particles, each surrounded by a

coating of cement paste up to about 1·3 mm (0·05 in.) thick. There exist, therefore, large pores
within the body of the concrete which are responsible for its low strength, but their large size
means that no capillary movement of water can take place. Although the strength of no-fines
concrete is considerably lower than that of normal-weight concrete, this strength, coupled with
the lower dead load of the structure, is sufficient in buildings up to about 20 storeys high and in
many other applications.

LWC CLASSIFICATION
LWC can be classification:-
i. Low density concrete
ii. Moderate strength concrete
iii. Structural concrete
 i. LOW DENSITY CONCRETE

These are employing chiefly for insulation purposes. With low unit weight, seldom exceeding
800 kg/m³, heat insulation value are high. Compressive strength are low, regarding from about
0.69 to 6.89 N/mm2.

ii. MODERATE STRENGTH CONCRETE

The use of these concrete requires a fair degree of compressive strength, and thus they fall about
midway between the structural and low density concrete. These are sometimes designed as „fill‟
concrete. Compressive strength are approximately 6.89 to 17.24 N/mm² and insulation values are
intermediate.

iii. STRUCTURAL CONCRETE

Concrete with full structural efficiency contain aggregates which fall on the other end of the
scale and which are generally made with expanded shale, clay, slates, slag, and fly-ash.
Minimum compressive strength is 17.24 N/mm². Most structural LWC are capable of producing
concrete with compressive strength in excess of 34.47 N/mm². Since the unit weight of structural
LWC are considerably greater than those of low density concrete, insulation efficiency is lower.
However, thermal insulation values for structural LWC are substantially better than NWC.

THE USE OF LWC

 Screeds and thickening for general purposes especially when such screeds or
thickening and weight to floors roofs and other structural members.
 Screeds and walls where timber has to be attached by nailing.
 Casting structural steel to protect its against fire and corrosion or as a covering for
architectural purposes.
 Heat insulation on roofs.
 Insulating water pipes.
 Construction of partition walls and panel walls in frame structures.
  Fixing bricks to receive nails from joinery, principally in domestic or domestic type
construction.
 General insulative walls.
 Surface rendered for external walls of small houses.
 It is also being used for reinforced concrete.

ADVANTAGES OF USING LWC

1. Reduced dead load of wet concrete allows longer span to be poured unpropped.
This save both labour and circle time for each floor.
2. Reduction of dead load, faster building rates and lower haulage and handling
costs. The eight of the building in term of the loads transmitted by the foundations
is an important factor in design, particular for the case of tall buildings. The use of
LWC has sometimes made its possible to proceed with the design which
otherwise would have been abandoned because of excessive weight. In frame
structures, considerable savings in cost can be brought about by using LWC for
the construction floors, partition and external cladding.
3. Most building materials such as clay bricks the haulage load is limited not by
volume but by weight. With suitable design containers much larger volumes of
LWC can haul economically.
4. A less obvious but nonetheless important characteristics of LWC is its relatively
low thermal conductivity, a property which improves with decreasing density in
recent years, with the increasing cost and scarcity of energy sources, more
attention has been given the formerly to the need for reducing fuel consumption
while maintaining, and indeed improving, comfort conditions buildings. The point
is illustrated by fact that a 125mm thick solid wall of aerated concrete will give
thermal insulation about four times greater than that of a 230mm clay brick wall.

DURABILITY OF LWC

Durability is defined as the ability of a material to withstand the effect of its environment. In a
building material as chemical attack, physical stress, and mechanical assault:-
 1. Chemical attack is as aggregate ground-water particularly sulphate, polluted air, and
spillage of reactive liquids LWC has no special resistant to these agencies: indeed, it
is generally move porous than the ordinary Portland cement. It is not recommended
for use below damp-course. A chemical aspects of durability is the stability of the
material itself, particularly at the presence of moisture.
2. Physical stresses to which LWC is exposed are principally frost action and shrinkage
and temperature stresses. Stressing may be due to the drying shrinkage of the concrete
or to differential thermal movements between dissimilar materials or to other
phenomena of a similar nature. Drying shrinkage commonly causes cracking of LWC
if suitable precautions are not taken.
3. Mechanical damage can result from abrasion or impact excessive loading of flexural
members. The lightest grades of LWC are relatively soft so that they subject to some
abrasion were they not for other reasons protected by rendering.

POLYMER CONCRETE

INTRODUCTION

Polymer concrete is part of group of concretes that use polymers to supplement or

replace cement as a binder. The types include polymer-impregnated concrete, polymer concrete,
and polymer-Portland-cement concrete. Polymers in concrete have been overseen by Committee
548 of the American Concrete Institute since 1971

COMPOSITION:

In polymer concrete, thermosetting resins are used as the principal polymer component due to
their high thermal stability and resistance to a wide variety of chemicals. Polymer concrete is
also composed of aggregates that include silica, quartz, granite, limestone, and other high quality
material. The aggregate must be of good quality, free of dust and other debris, and dry. Failure to
fulfill these criteria can reduce the bond strength between the polymer binder and the aggregate.

USES:

Polymer concrete may be used for new construction or repairing of old concrete.
The adhesive properties of polymer concrete allow repair of both polymer and conventional
cement-based concretes. The low permeability and corrosive resistance of polymer concrete
allows it to be used in swimming pools, sewer structure applications, drainage
channels, electrolytic cells for base metal recovery, and other structures that contain liquids or
corrosive chemicals. It is especially suited to the construction and rehabilitation of manholes due
to their ability to withstand toxic and corrosive sewer gases and bacteria commonly found in
sewer systems. Unlike traditional concrete structures, polymer concrete requires no coating or
welding of PVC-protected seams. It can also be used as a bonded wearing course for asphalt
pavement, for higher durability and higher strength upon a concrete substrate.

Polymer concrete has historically not been widely adopted due to the high costs and difficulty
associated with traditional manufacturing techniques. However, recent progress has led to
significant reductions in cost, meaning that the use of polymer concrete is gradually becoming
more widespread

Advantages of polymer concrete include:

 Good adhesion to most surfaces

 Good long-term durability with respect to freeze and thaw cycles
 Low permeability to water and aggressive solutions
 Good chemical resistance
 Good resistance against corrosion
 Lighter weight (only somewhat less dense than traditional concrete, depending on the resin
content of the mix)
 May be vibrated to fill voids in forms
 Allows use of regular form-release agents (in some applications)
 Dielectric

DISADVANTAGES:

 Product hard to manipulate with conventional tools such as drills and presses due to its
density. Recommend getting pre-modified product from the manufacturer

Small boxes are more costly when compared to its precast counterpart however pre cast
concretes induction of stacking or steel covers quickly bridge the gap
Polymer-impregnated concrete

Introduction:

Polymers have been employed as concrete admixtures to improve durability of the concrete
structures that have degraded due to exposure to weather and polluted environments. Based on
the mode of their addition polymer cement concrete is classified as – Polymer Modified Cement
Concrete or Mortars (PMC/PMM), Polymer Concrete or Mortars (PC/PM), Polymer
Impregnated Concrete or Mortars (PIC/PIM) . The latter is one the oldest polymer cement
composites and is prepared by impregnating the monomer into the concrete or mortar structures
and then by polymerizing the monomer. PICs possess superior strength, chemical resistance and
low water absorption compared to other polymer cement composites. Some of the applications
where these composites find use are reactors, bridges, pipes, storage bunkers for chemicals and
structures in marine environments. Conventionally PICs are prepared by immersing the precast
concrete structure in a mixture of a monomer and an initiator for a few hours at room
temperature and polymerizing the monomer by thermal methods. This results in monomer loss
during polymerization at high temperature thus affecting the properties of the PIC. In this work
we describe a method to increase the monomer impregnation thereby reducing such losses. The
monomer is introduced into the voids and pores of the precast concrete by subjecting the
experimental setup to ultrasonic vibrations thereby enhancing the chances of monomer
impregnation to a greater degree than the conventional procedure. The impregnated specimens
are dried, vacuum packed to prevent monomer loss and subsequently polymerized using
microwaves. When compared with composites prepared by conventional methods and ordinary
precast concrete, it was observed that this procedure increased the degree of polymerization of
the monomer in the concrete structures thereby improving both the mechanical and chemical
resistant properties of the composite.
Experimental program

The precast cement mortar specimens used were first impregnated with methyl methacrylate and
then polymerized using two different procedures. The mechanical and chemical resistant
properties of these PICs after exposure to sulphuric acid for different periods were evaluated and
their microstructures analyzed. Materials Compressive strength was evaluated for precast cement
mortars cubical specimens of dimensions 5cm X 5cm X 5cm weighing around 250g and flexural
strength for specimens of dimensions 4cm X 4cm X 16cm weighing 530g approximately.
Ordinary Portland cement and sand conforming to Korean standard KS L 5100 were used in the
preparation of the specimens. The water to cement ratio was 0.48 while the cement, sand and
water were mixed in the proportion 1:2.45:0.48. Impregnation and Polymerization The precast
mortar specimens were dried in a hot air oven (Sam woo Science make ) at 80̊C for 12 hours.
These were annealed to room temperature and weighed before impregnation. The monomer,
Methyl methacrylate (MMA) was mixed with 1% by weight of 2, 2‟‐Azobisisobutyronitrile
(AIBN) as initiator using a magnetic stirrer. The mortar samples were immersed into this mixture
and impregnated by placing the setup in a water bath inside an ultrasound vibration system for
4.5 hours at room temperature. The samples were dried, weighed and vacuum packed in PET
packets to prevent loss of monomer during polymerization. The samples were thermally
polymerized by two different procedures viz. using conventional methods and microwaves. In
the conventional method the packed impregnated mortar samples were immersed in hot water at
80̊C to achieve uniform heating for three hours . Polymerization of the specimens in the
microwave reactor was done at a frequency of 2450MHz (400W) at 80̊C for two hours. After
polymerization the samples were removed from the PET packets, cooled to room temperature
and weighed. Performance The mechanical properties evaluated for the PIC specimens were
compressive and flexural strengths. The durability of these composites when exposed to various
chemical environments was evaluated by calculating the weight loss. Compressive strength is a
basic property used to assess the performance of hardened concrete made for a particular
application. It is calculated by dividing the maximum load applied when the cubical specimen
fails by its cross sectional area resisting the load. In this work the cubical specimens of 5cm X
5cm X 5cm were employed and the evaluation of these properties was performed in accordance
to KS L 5105 standards (5). The maximum load needed to break the conventional cement mortar
and PIC samples was determined using a Servo UTM US‐200. In concrete, cracks can propagate
very easily in tension and excessive cracking of concrete causes serviceability and durability
problems. In this work, the flexural strengths of conventional cement mortar and PIC specimens
of dimensions 4cm X 4cm X 16cm were evaluated according to ASTM C293 ‐ 08. A Digital
Flexure Tensile Tester HJ‐1171 was employed to calculate the flexural strengths of the
conventional cement mortar and the PIC specimens. The decrease in durability of concrete
structures due to increasing environmental pollution is a matter of great concern. Many
admixtures including polymers are employed to increase this durability. In this work, two series
of specimens viz. conventional cement mortar and PIC, were weighed and immersed in 5M
sulphuric acid for different periods of exposure time – 3,5,7 and 14 days to assess the extent of
damage caused due to the interaction of the samples with the external chemicals. The cumulative
weight losses of the PIC specimens on exposure to the acid were compared to those obtained for
ordinary Portland cement mortar samples

Polymer-cement concrete (PCC):

Polymer-cement concrete also called polymer-Portland-cement concrete (PPCC) and latex-

modified concrete (LMC), is made by Portland cement and aggregate just like ordinary concrete
but organic polymers dispersed in water (latex) are added at the time of mixing. The organic
polymer is a substance composed of thousands of simple molecules, called monomers, combined
into large molecules in a process called polymerization. The polymer is called a homopolymer if
it is made by the polymerization of one monomer, and a copolymer if two or more monomers are
polymerized. By adding polymer dispersions to the concrete mixtures, bond strength to concrete
substrates, flexibility and impact resistance, resistance to penetration by water and by dissolved
salts, and resistance to freezing and thawing are improved. Polymers made by emulsion
polymerization are the most widely used. Styrene butadiene and acrylic latexes are the most
effective and widely used materials for concrete restoration, but vinyl acetate is also used.
Generally, 10 to 20% of polymer solids are usually added with respect to the mass of cement and
typical w/c for workable materials used for repair range from 0.30 to 0.40 for mixes with latexes,
and 0.25 to 0.35 for mixtures with epoxies.
Fiber-reinforced concrete:

(FRC) is concrete containing fibrous material which increases its structural integrity. It contains
short discrete fibers that are uniformly distributed and randomly oriented. Fibers include steel
fibers, glass fibers, synthetic fibers and natural fibers – each of which lend varying properties to
the concrete. In addition, the character of fiber-reinforced concrete changes with varying
concretes, fiber materials, geometries, distribution, orientation, and densities.

Historical perspective

The concept of using fibers or as reinforcement is not new. Fibers have been used as
reinforcement since ancient times. Historically, horsehair was used in mortar and straw in
mud bricks. In the 1900s, asbestos fibers were used in concrete. In the 1950s, the concept
of composite materials came into being and fiber-reinforced concrete was one of the topics of
interest. Once the health risks associated with asbestos were discovered, there was a need to find
a replacement for the substance in concrete and other building materials. By the
1960s, steel, glass (GFRC), and synthetic fibers such as polypropylene fibers were used in
concrete. Research into new fiber-reinforced concretes continues today.

Effect of fibers in concrete

Fibers are usually used in concrete to control cracking due to plastic shrinkage and to drying
shrinkage. They also reduce the permeability of concrete and thus reduce bleeding of water.
Some types of fibers produce greater impact–, abrasion–, and shatter–resistance in concrete.
Generally fibers do not increase the flexural strength of concrete, and so cannot replace moment–
resisting or structural steel reinforcement. Indeed, some fibers actually reduce the strength of
concrete.

The amount of fibers added to a concrete mix is expressed as a percentage of the total volume of
the composite (concrete and fibers), termed "volume fraction" (Vf). Vf typically ranges from 0.1
to 3%. The aspect ratio (l/d) is calculated by dividing fiber length (l) by its diameter (d). Fibers
with a non-circular cross section use an equivalent diameter for the calculation of aspect ratio. If
the fiber's modulus of elasticity is higher than the matrix (concrete or mortar binder), they help to
carry the load by increasing the tensile strength of the material. Increasing the aspect ratio of the
fiber usually segments the flexural strength and toughness of the matrix. However, fibers that are
too long tend to "ball" in the mix and create workability problems.

Some recent research indicated that using fibers in concrete has limited effect on the impact
resistance of the materials. This finding is very important since traditionally, people think that
ductility increases when concrete is reinforced with fibers. The results also indicated that the use
of micro fibers offers better impact resistance to that of longer fibers.

The High Speed tunnel linings incorporated concrete containing 1 kg/m³ of polypropylene fibers,
of diameter 18 & 32 μm, giving the benefits noted below.

As for pavements, the most prevalent use for FRC is at toll plazas where nonmetallic fibers are
used in lieu of metallic reinforcement since they can disrupt electronic toll reader‟s signals.

FIBER TYPES

Fiber types for use in FRC Applications come in many sizes, shapes, colors and flavors. Please
contact the various manufacturers, listed in the “CONTACT US” section for additional technical
literature and dosage recommendations.

Steel Fibers: These fibers are generally used for providing concrete with enhanced toughness
and post-crack load carrying capacity. Typically loose or bundled, these fibers are generally
made from carbon or stainless steel and are shaped into varying geometries such as crimped,
hooked-end or with other mechanical deformations for anchorage in the concrete. Fiber types are
classified within ACI 544 as Types I through V and have maximum lengths ranging from 1.5” to
3” (30 – 80 mm) and can be dosed at 10 to 100 lbs/yd (6 to 67 kg/m3).

Micro-synthetic fibers: These fibers are generally used for the protection and mitigation of
plastic shrinkage cracking in concrete. Most fiber types are manufactured from polypropylene,
polyethylene, polyester, nylon and other synthetic materials such as carbon, aramid and other
acrylics. These fiber types are generally dosed at low volumes ranging from 0.03 to 0.2% by
volume of concrete – 0.5 to 3.0 lbs/yd (0.3 to 0.9 kg/m3).

Macro-synthetic fibers: This newer class of fibers has emerged over the past 15 years as a
suitable alternate to steel fibers when dosed properly. Typical materials include polypropylene
and other polymer blends having the same physical characteristics as steel fibers (length, shape,
etc.), These fibers can be dosed from 3 to 20 lbs/yd (1.8 to 12 kg/m3).

Glass Fibers: GFRC (Glass Fiber Reinforced Concrete) has been predominantly used in
architectural applications and modified cement based panel structures.

Cellulose Fibers: manufactured from processed wood pulp products, cellulose fibers are used in
a similar manner to micro-synthetic fibers for the control and mitigation of plastic shrinkage
cracking.

Natural Fibers: Not typically used in commercial applications of fiber reinforced concrete,
natural fibers are used to reinforce cement based products in applications around the world and
include materials such as coconut, sisal, jute and sugarcane. These materials come in varying
lengths, geometries and material characteristics.

PVA Fibers: Poly-vinyl alcohol fibers are synthetic made fibers that when used at higher
volumes, can alter the flexural and compressive performance of concrete

Specialty Fibers: This classification of fibers covers materials not described above and generally
pertains to newly manufactured or specified materials not common to the above categories.

Steel & Micro / Macro blends: A recent development in the field of fiber reinforced concrete
that has emerged in the marketplace has been the combination or blending of steel and / or
macro-synthetic fibers with various types of micro-fibers to help control plastic shrinkage
cracking (ie: micro-synthetics) while at the same time providing concrete with enhanced
toughness and post-crack load carrying capacity achieved only with the use of steel and macro-
synthetic fibers. These fibers are typically dosed at the prevailing

Benefits

Polypropylene and Nylon fibers can:

 Improve mix cohesion, improving pumpability over long distances

 Improve freeze-thaw resistance

 Improve resistance to explosive spalling in case of a severe fire

  Improve impact resistance– and abrasion–resistance

 Increase resistance to plastic shrinkage during curing

 Improve structural strength

 Reduce steel reinforcement requirements

 Improve ductility

 Reduce crack widths and control the crack widths tightly, thus improving durability

Steel fibers can:

 Improve structural strength

 Reduce steel reinforcement requirements

 Improve ductility

 Reduce crack widths and control the crack widths tightly, thus improving durability

 Improve impact– and abrasion–resistance

 Improve freeze-thaw resistance

Blends of both steel and polymeric fibers are often used in construction projects in order to
combine the benefits of both products; structural improvements provided by steel fibers and the
resistance to explosive spalling and plastic shrinkage improvements provided by polymeric
fibers.

In certain specific circumstances, steel fiber or macro synthetic fibers can entirely replace
traditional steel reinforcement bar ("rebar") in reinforced concrete. This is most common in
industrial flooring but also in some other precasting applications. Typically, these are
corroborated with laboratory testing to confirm that performance requirements are met. Care
should be taken to ensure that local design code requirements are also met, which may impose
minimum quantities of steel reinforcement within the concrete. There are increasing numbers of
tunnelling projects using precast lining segments reinforced only with steel fibers.
Micro-Rebar has also been recently tested and approved to replace traditional reinforcement in
vertical walls designed in accordance with ACI 318.

Mixing of fibers in concrete:

The mix should have a uniform dispersion of the fibers in order to prevent segregation or balling
of the fibers during mixing. Most balling occurs during the fiber addition process. Increase of
aspect ratio, volume percentage of fiber, and size and quantity of coarse aggregate will intensify
the balling tendencies and decrease the workability. To coat the large surface area of the fibers
with paste, experience indicated that a water cement ratio between 0.4 and 0.6, and minimum
cement content of 400 kg/m are required. Compared to conventional concrete, fiber reinforced
concrete mixes are generally characterized by higher cement factor, higher fine aggregate
content and smaller size coarse aggregate.

A mix generally requires more vibration to consolidate the mix. External vibration is preferable
to prevent fiber segregation. Metal trowels, tube floats, and rotating power floats can be used to
finish the surface. Mechanical Properties of FRC Addition of fibers to concrete influences its
mechanical properties which significantly depend on the type and percentage of fiber.

APPLICATIONS

Potential projects suited to the use of fiber reinforced concrete are listed below. Where possible,
the members of the FRCA have submitted project profiles with the use of fibers in the following
applications

Residential: including driveways, sidewalks, pool construction with shotcrete, basements,

colored concrete, foundations, drainage, etc.

Commercial: exterior and interior floors, slabs and parking areas, roadways and

Warehouse / Industrial: light to heavy duty loaded floors and roadways

Highways / Roadways / Bridges: conventional concrete paving, SCC, white-toppings, barrier

rails, curb and gutter work, pervious concrete, sound attenuation barriers, etc.
Ports and Airports: runways, taxiways, aprons, seawalls, dock areas, parking and loading
ramps.

Waterways: dams, lock structures, channel linings, ditches, storm-water structures, etc.

Mining and Tunneling: Precast segments and schotcrete, which may include tunnel lining,
shafts, slope stabilization, sewer work, etc.

Elevated Decks: including commercial and industrial composite metal deck construction and
elevated formwork at airports, commercial buildings, shopping centers, etc.

Agriculture: farm and animal storage structures, walls, silos, paving, etc.

Precast Concrete and Products: architectural panels, tilt-up construction, walls, fencing, septic
tanks, burial vaults, grease trap structures, bank vaults and sculptures

The following are some of the advantages fibers in structural behavior:

Fibers with end anchorage and Properties and Applications of Fiber Reinforced Concrete 51 high
aspect ratio were found to have improved effectiveness.

It was shown that for the same length and diameter, crimped-end fibers can achieve the same
properties as straight fibers using 40 percent less fibers.

The presence of fibers may alter the failure mode of cylinders, but the fiber effect will be minor
on the improvement of compressive strength values (0 to 15 percent).

Modulus of elasticity of FRC increases slightly with an increase in the fibers content. It was
found that for each 1 percent increase in fiber content by volume there is an increase of 3 percent
in the modulus of elasticity.

The flexural strength was reported to be increased by 2.5 times using 4 percent fibers.

Toughness For FRC, toughness is about 10 to 40 times that of plain concrete. Splitting Tensile
Strength The presence of 3 percent fiber by volume was reported to increase the splitting tensile
strength of mortar about 2.5 times that of the unreinforced one.
The addition of fibers increases fatigue strength of about 90 percent and 70 percent of the static
strength at 2 x 106 cycles for non-reverse and full reversal of loading, respectively. Impact
Resistance The impact strength for fibrous concrete is generally 5 to 10 times that of plain
concrete depending on the volume of fiber.

Corrosion of Steel and fibrous mortar to outdoor weathering in an industrial atmosphere showed
no adverse effect on the strength properties. Corrosion was found to be confined only to fibers
actually exposed on the surface. Steel fibrous mortar continuously immerse in seawater for 10
years exhibited a 15 percent loss compared to 40 percent strength decrease of plain mortar.

The use of fibers eliminates the sudden failure characteristic of plain concrete beams. It increases
stiffness, torsional strength, ductility, rotational capacity, and the number of cracks with less
crack width. Shear Addition of fibers increases shear capacity of reinforced concrete beams up to
100 percent. Addition of randomly distributed fibers increases shear-friction strength, the first
crack strength, and ultimate strength. Column The increase of fiber content slightly increases the
ductility of axially loaded specimen. The use of fibers helps in reducing the explosive type
failure for columns. High Strength Concrete Fibers increases the ductility of high strength
concrete.

The use of high strength concrete and steel produces slender members. Fiber addition will help in
controlling cracks and deflections. Cracking and Deflection Tests have shown that fiber
reinforcement effectively controls cracking and deflection, in addition to strength improvement.
In conventionally reinforced concrete beams, fiber addition increases stiffness, and reduces
deflection. Applications The uniform dispersion of fibers throughout the concrete mix provides
isotropic properties not common to conventionally reinforced concrete.

Some developments in fiber-reinforced concrete

An FRC sub-category named High-Performance Fiber Reinforced Concrete (HPFRC) claims 500
times more resistance to cracking and 40 percent lighter than traditional concrete. HPFRC
claims it can sustain strain-hardening up to several percent strain, resulting in a
material ductility of at least two orders of magnitude higher when compared to normal concrete
or standard fiber-reinforced concrete. HPFRC also claims a unique cracking behavior. When
loaded to beyond the elastic range, HPFRC maintains crack width to below 100 µm, even when
deformed to several percent tensile strains. Field results with HPFRC and The Michigan
Department of Transportation resulted in early-age cracking.

Recent studies performed on a high-performance fiber-reinforced concrete in a bridge deck

found that adding fibers provided residual strength and controlled cracking. There were fewer
and narrower cracks in the FRC even though the FRC had more shrinkage than the control.
Residual strength is directly proportional to the fiber content.

A new kind of natural fiber-reinforced concrete (NFRC) made of cellulose fibers processed from
genetically modified slash pine trees is giving good results. The cellulose fibers are longer and
greater in diameter than other timber sources. Some studies were performed using waste carpet
fibers in concrete as an environmentally friendly use of recycled carpet waste. A carpet typically
consists of two layers of backing (usually fabric from polypropylene tape yarns), joined by
CaCO3 filled styrene-butadiene latex rubber (SBR), and face fibers (majority being nylon 6 and
nylon 66 textured yarns). Such nylon and polypropylene fibers can be used for concrete
reinforcement. Other ideas are emerging to use recycled materials as fibers:
recycled Polyethylene terephthalate (PET) fiber, for example.

Steel fibre-reinforced shotcrete (SFRS) is a kind of spray concrete (shotcrete) with steel fibres
added

SULPHUR IMPREGNATED CONCRETE

Sulphur, sand and coarse aggregate are the ingredients of this concrete. Molten sulphur is added
to the preheated aggregates in a mixture. The hot mix is immediately transferred into the moulds
to fill them completely. The products manufactured with sulphur concrete need no curing and the
moulds can be stripped immediately as the sulphur solidifies rapidly under normal temperatures.
One of the major advantages of these products is that they can be remoulded and concrete can be
reused with minimum or no wastage. These products have very low absorption and less
permeability.

Strength upto 44 MPa have been reported when 30 % of sulphur, 50% of sand and 20% of coarse
aggregate are mixed. These are therefore versatile for use as precast slab elements of canal and
tunnel linings.
Plasticizers / Water Reducers

Plasticizers, also called Water Reducers, impart Plasticizing effect in wet concrete; are organic
substances or combination of organic and inorganic substances. Basic constituents of Plasticizers
are lignosulphonates, their derivatives; acid of hydroxylated carboxylic acids, their derivatives;
and Carbohydrates. These are primarily used for their water reducing capacity; maintaining the
desired workability of a concrete mix. In other words it has a property of enhancing workability
at a given water-cement ratio in compare to concrete mix without Plasticizers.

Plasticizers indirectly add strength to hardened concrete by enhancing workability of a concrete

mix during its mixing and placing thereby allowing reduction in water-cement (W/C) ratio.
Reduction in water cement ratio increases the strength of concrete. Also, reduction in cement
content for a given strength thereby decreases in heat of hydration and cost saving is also
possible by the use of Plasticizers.

Plasticizers are added in the amount of 0.1% to 0.5% by weight of cement. The reduction in
water content for the given degree of workability is in the range of 5% to 15% by addition of
these Plasticizers in above doses.

Plasticizers, from the above origin could also entrain air more than the acceptable limit while
increasing workability that may result in decrease in strength. So, only prescribed dosages should
be used.

Super plasticizers / High Range Water Reducers

Superplasticizers are the improved chemical admixtures over Plasticizers with highly effective
Plasticizing effects on wet concrete. Superplasticizers result in substantial enhancement in
workability at a given water-cement ratio. For a constant workability, reduction of water content
up to 30% may be achieved by the use of Superplasticizers. Superplasticizers can be used at the
higher dosages than conventional Plasticizers in the range of 0.5% to 3% by weight of cement.
Superplasticizers are organic poly-electrolytes; that belong to the category of polymeric
dispersants. Some of the Superplasticizers are synthetic while others are derived from natural
products.
High Performance Concrete (HPC)

Concrete has renewed its definition from just being a mixture of cement, sand and aggregate
along with water. It used to be so. Advancement in Concrete Technology has revolutionized this
"mixture" of above mentioned various conventional ingredients in the fulfillment of several
desired properties.

Concrete nowadays has become much more worker friendly, stronger & more durable; than ever
before with various other desirable properties. Concrete with such advanced diversified
properties is referred as High Performance (HPC). HPC signifies superior concrete performance
during wet stage (mixing & placing process); with higher strength in hardened stage along with a
greater durability in long-term with respect to Normal concrete.

High-performance concrete characteristics are developed for particular applications and

environments; some of the properties that may be required include:

 High strength
 High early strength
 High modulus of elasticity
 High abrasion resistance
 High durability and long life in severe environments
 Low permeability and diffusion
 Resistance to chemical attack
 High resistance to frost and deicer scaling damage
 Toughness and impact resistance
 Volume stability
 Ease of placement
 Compaction without segregation
 Inhibition of bacterial and mold growth

High-performance fiber-reinforced cementitious composites

High-performance fiber-reinforced cementitious composites (HPFRCCs) are a group of

fiber-reinforced cement-based composites which possess the unique ability to flex and self-
strengthen before fracturing. This particular class of concrete was developed with the goal of
solving the structural problems inherent with today‟s typical concrete, such as its tendency to fail
in a brittle manner under excessive loading and its lack of long-term durability. Because of their
design and composition, HPFRCCs possess the remarkable ability to strain harden under
excessive loading. In layman‟s terms, this means they have the ability to flex or deform before
fracturing, a behavior similar to that exhibited by most metals under tensile or bending stresses.
Because of this capability, HPFRCCs are more resistant to cracking and last considerably longer
than normal concrete. Another extremely desirable property of HPFRCCs is their low density. A
less dense, and hence lighter material means that HPFRCCs could eventually require much less
energy to produce and handle, deeming them a more economic building material. Because of
HPFRCCs‟ lightweight composition and ability to strain harden, it has been proposed that they
could eventually become a more durable and efficient alternative to typical concrete.

HPFRCCs are simply a subcategory of ductile fiber-reinforced cementititous composites

(DFRCCs) that possess the ability to strain harden under both bending and tensile loads, not to
be confused with other DFRCCs that only strain harden under bending loads.

Composition

Because several specific formulas are included in the HPFRCC class, their physical
compositions vary considerably. However, most HPFRCCs include at least the following
ingredients: fine aggregates, a superplasticizer, polymeric or metallic fibers, cement, and water.
Thus the principal difference between HPFRCC and typical concrete composition lies in
HPFRCCs' lack of coarse aggregates. Typically, a fine aggregate such as silica sand is used in
HPFRCCs.

Material properties

Strain hardening, the most coveted capability of HPFRCCs, occurs when a material is loaded
past its elastic limit and begins to deform plastically. This stretching or „straining‟ action actually
strengthens the material. This phenomenon is made possible through the development of
multiple microscopic cracks, opposed to the single crack/strain softening behavior exhibited by
typical fiber-reinforced concretes. It occurs in HPFRCCs as several fibers slip past one another.
One aspect of HPFRCC design involves preventing crack propagation, or the tendency of a crack
to increase in length, ultimately leading to material fracture. This occurrence is hindered by the
presence of fiber bridging, a property that most HPFRCCs are specifically designed to possess.
Fiber bridging is the act of several fibers exerting a force across the width of a crack in an
attempt to prevent the crack from developing further. This capability is what gives bendable
concrete its ductile properties.

Design methodology

The basis for the engineered design of different HPFRCCs varies considerably despite their
similar compositions. For instance, the design of one type of HPFRCC called ECC stems from
the principles of micromechanics. This field of study is best described as relating macroscopic
mechanical properties to a composite's microstructure, and is only one specific method used to
design HPFRCCs. Another design methodology used in other formulas of HPFRCCs is based on
the material‟s ability to withstand seismic loading.

Applications

Proposed uses for HPFRCCs include bridge decks, concrete pipes, roads, structures subjected to
seismic and non-seismic loads, and other applications where a lightweight, strong and durable
building material is desired.

Though HPFRCCs have been tested extensively in the lab and been employed in a few
commercial building projects, further long-term research and real-world application is needed to
prove the true benefits of this material.

Epoxy resin screeds and self-smoothers are hard wearing resin systems which can provide
properties such as chemical resistance, slip resistant and hygienic finishes. Decorative finishes
can also be achieved by adding coloured flakes or aggregates.

Epoxy Resins and screeds

Epoxy resin screeds and self-smoothers are hard wearing resin systems which can provide
properties such as chemical resistance, slip resistant and hygienic finishes. Decorative finishes
can also be achieved by adding coloured flakes or aggregates.
Epoxy resin systems are ideal for heavy duty industrial areas as well as food environments and
other areas where cleanliness is key.

Resuflor is a self-smoothing, epoxy resin seamless floor finish, combining outstanding wearing
properties with chemical resistance and a decorative finish. Resuflor is available in a range of
colours and is ideally suited to areas where jointed finishes (tile, sheet) are not acceptable and
where maximum cleanliness is essential. Additional decorative effects can be produced by the
introduction of coloured plastic flakes, lightly scattered on the surface and sealed.

An anti-slip finish can be created by applying one coat of Resutop or Resucoat HB to the cured
surface, and then scattering a fine aggregate onto the surface whilst wet. This can then be sealed
with a top coat of Resutop or Resucoat HB. Resutile or Resutop LV is recommended as a top
coat in areas where very high chemical resistance is required. Please use the free RSL
specification service for more information.

Product Benefits:

 Seamless
 Easy to clean & maintain (do not steam clean or use hot water above 60'C)
 Chemical resistance
 Hard-wearing
 Decorative
 Hygienic; does not support fungus or bacterial growth
 Non-Dusting
  Available in a range of attractive colours

Where to use:

Resuflor is ideal for areas where maximum cleanliness and durability is paramount, including
food processing, laboratories, clean rooms, operating theatres and general light industry.

Resuscreed 43 is a heavy duty, epoxy resin floor screed, with high chemical resistance and
strong colour definition. Sealing is necessary where impervious finishes are required. Resuscreed
43 is normally laid from 4-6mm nominal thickness.

Product Benefits:

 Low odour
 Hard wearing
 Durable
 Easy to apply and work to achieve good quality smooth surfaces
 Suitable for localised repairs prior to resurfacing
 Decorative
 Good slip-resistance
 Abrasion resistant
 Impact resistant
 Non-Dusting
 Can be feather-edged

Where to use:

Resuscreed 43 is ideal for heavy duty industrial applications including engineering and chemical
production, food production and preparation, automotive and hygiene conscious environments.

Resuscreed 50

Resuscreed 50 is a general purpose, epoxy resin screed, with good wearing properties and strong
colour definition.
Resuscreed 50 is a three component epoxy resin screed comprising base resin, hardener, and two
bags of aggregate. Surface sealing with R.S. Screed Seal Coating is recommended.

Product Benefits:

 Hard wearing
 Durable
 Easy to apply and work to achieve a good quality smooth surface
 Suitable for localised repairs prior to resurfacing
 Decorative
 Abrasion resistant
 Impact resistant

Where to use:

Resuscreed 50 is ideal for light to medium duty industrial applications including engineering,
warehouses, fork truck lanes and aerospace environments; where good abrasion resistance is
required.

RSL also produce a proven range of Maintenance products to repair existing subfloors and to use
sealants for joints.

All of our maintenance products adhere well to most surfaces and are easy to use with long life
expectancies.
Resupatch is an easy to use epoxy Resin Mortar which has exceptional adhesive properties. This
makes it ideal for rapid repair of concrete surfaces in heavy duty environments

Resupatch is non-dusting and highly resistant to damage by abrasion, chemicals, water or oil.

Product Benefits:

 Minimum surface preparation

 Easy to use
 Cures rapidly
 Bonds to concrete, steel, wood or stone
 Concrete-like in appearance
 Dust-free and permanent
 Impact Resistant

Where to Use:

Resupatch is designed for general application as a concrete repair compound, especially for
filling in wide cracks and holes in concrete floors, broken steps, walls and other concrete
surfaces. It can also be used on worn floors and inclines.

Self-Compacting Concrete (SCC):

Defined by researchers as: “concrete that is able to flow and consolidate under its own weight,
completely fill the formwork of any shape, even in the presence of dense reinforcement, while
maintaining homogeneity and without the need for any additional compaction”

Origin

 Introduced to the concrete industry, in Japan, primarily, through the work of

Professor Okamura in the late 1980‟s.
 Motivation behind this was the gradual reduction of skilled labor, which led to the
reduction in the quality of construction work, affecting adversely, the durability of
concrete due to poor compaction.
MATERIALS

SELF-COMPACTING CONCRETE

 SCC has more powder content and less coarse aggregate

 Fillers used can be flyash, ground granulated blast furnace slag, condensed silica fume,
rice husk ash, lime powder, chalk powder & quarry dust
 SCC incorporates high range water reducers (HRWR, Superplasticizers) & frequently,
viscosity modifying agent in small amount.

From traditional concrete to SCC

Potential Benefits of SCC

Contractor

• Reduced labor requirement & cost

• Reduced plant requirement

• Reduced remedial work

• Reduced noise, improved site health & safety

• No vibrating equipment required, Reduces placing costs

Designer / client

• Use in more complex design & heavy reinforcement

• Improved aesthetics & durability

• Quicker construction time

• Less variation in the production of concrete & more homogeneous concrete

• Better surface finish

FRESH SCC REQUIREMENTS

Fresh SCC Properties

Filling ability

“The ability of SCC to flow into and fill completely all spaces within the formwork, under its
own weight.”

Fresh SCC Properties

Passing ability

“The ability of SCC to flow through tight openings such as spaces between steel reinforcing bars
without segregation or blocking

“The ability of SCC to remain homogeneous in composition during transport and placing.”

Segregation resistance

CHARACTERSTICS OF SCC

 If SCC should not segregate- it must have mortar rich in fines & is also able to transport
the coarse aggregate & keep them in viscous suspension
 Cement cannot be the only finer/filler material
 Mineral admixtures are used to enhance the deformability & stability of concrete
  Chemical admixtures are a must for achieving excellent flow at low water content. VMA
reduces bleeding & improves the stability of the concrete mixture
 Compared to Conventional Concrete, SCC has Higher powder content in the order of
450-600 Kg/m3
 Lower water/cement ratio. Typical range of water is 160 to 185 kg/ m3 & water/binder
ratio, by volume in the range of 0.7 to 1.25. Volume of paste 0.36 to 0.43
 Lower coarse/fine aggregate ratio
 Use of superplasticizers & VMA compatible with cement in small percentages.

TEST METHODS FOR DETERMINIG FRESH SCC PROPERTIES

FILLING ABILITY

 Slump flow & T

50CM slump flow

 V- Funnel

PASSING ABILITY

 L-Box
 U-box
 J-ring
 Fill Box

SEGREGATION RESISTANCE

 V-Funnel at T5 Minutes
 GTM Screen stability test
U-Box Test

 Also called as „Box-shaped‟

 Measures the filling ability of concrete.
 The difference in height of two sections is measured.
 Recommended value:

0 difference in the height of the limbs < 30 mm

J-Ring Test

 Measures passing ability of concrete

 Can be used in conjunction with Slump flow test, combination can test filling
ability & passing ability
 The difference in height, in between the concrete inside and that just outside the J-
ring is measured
 Difference in height of maximum of 10 mm is considered appropriate
J-ring Test

 Simple test.
 Bars can be of different diameters and also varied spacing:
 0 Preferably three times the maximum aggregate size
 Used in conjunction with slump flow test
 V5min flow time
 This is secondary parameter of the V-funnel test
 Measures time of flow of concrete after time gap of 5min
 Indicates the tendency for segregation
 Recommended value is:
0 < +3 sec of time at zero hours
Acceptance of SCC
Combinations may be-
• Slump flow , V-funnel and U-box tests (Japan)
• Slump flow and L-Box (Sweden)
• J-ring and U-box
Slump flow, U-Box/L-Box, V-funnel (at 5min.)
Characteristics of SCC in Hardened state
Typical Properties of hardened SCC
APPLICATIONS OF SELF COMPACTING CONCRETE IN JAPAN
Osaka Gas Station
First Application of SCC (1997-1998)
Akashi-Kaikyo

Summary

 One of the outcomes of using High Strength Concrete is slender members and
Consequently, very dense reinforcement. Normal methods of vibration are not
effective, Hence SCC.
 SCC has various other applications. It is especially suited to pre-cast/prefab
products. In Japan, they now use for casting composite columns, steel tubes with
shear lugs inside filled with SCC and no other reinforcement. Very tall columns
have been made.
 Very few national standards exists as of now for SCC (Japan, Europe, Italy etc.,)
 SCC mixes are very sensitive to variation in water.
 Water curing is absolutely necessary for 3 to 7 days.
 SCC should be treated as high quality concrete and not meant for low strength
applications
 SCC can be advantageously used for all types of work with proper understanding
 of itsbehavior
 It is a matter of time SCC replacing Normal Concrete even in INDIA
 SCHOOL OF BUILDING AND ENVIRONMENT
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

UNIT – V – ADVANCED CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY– SCIA7001

 UNIT 5

CONCRETING METHODS

Process of manufacturing of concrete, methods of transportation, placing and curing. Extreme

weather concreting, special concreting methods. Vacuum dewatering - underwater concrete,
special form work.

Process of Manufacture of Concrete

 It is interesting to note that the ingredients of good concrete and bad concrete are the
same.

 If meticulous care is not exercised, and good rules are not observed, the resultant concrete
is going to be of bad quality.

 With the same material if intense care is taken to exercise control at every stage, it will
result in good concrete.

 The various stages of manufacture of concrete are:

(a) Batching (b) Mixing (c ) Transporting (d ) Placing (e) Compacting (f ) Curing (g) Finishing

Batching:

1. Volume Batching:

 Volume batching is not a good method for proportioning the material because of the
difficulty it offers to measure granular material in terms of volume.

 Volume of moist sand in a loose condition weighs much less than the same volume of dry
compacted sand.

 The effect of bulking should be consider for moist fine aggregate.

 For unimportant concrete or for any small job, concrete may be batched by volume.
Batching:

1. Volume batching: Materials can be measured by using gauge box or measuring box,
usually it is made of steel or wooden lanks.

Gauge Box
2. Weigh Batching:

 Weigh batching is the correct method of measuring the materials.

 Use of weight system in batching, facilitates accuracy, flexibility and simplicity.

 Large weigh batching plants have automatic weighing equipment.

 On large work sites, the weigh bucket type of weighing equipment's are used.

Batching: Weigh Batching equipments

Mixing

 Thorough mixing of the materials is essential for the production of uniform concrete.
 The mixing should ensure that the mass becomes homogeneous, uniform in colour and
consistency.
 There are two methods adopted for mixing concrete:

(i) Hand mixing (ii) Machine mixing

Mixing: Hand mixing

 Hand mixing is practiced for small scale unimportant concrete works.

 As the mixing cannot be thorough and efficient, it is desirable to add 10 per cent more
cement to cater for the inferior concrete produced by this method.
 Hand mixing should be done over an impervious concrete or brick floor of sufficiently
large size to take one bag of cement.
 Spread out the measured quantity of coarse aggregate and fine aggregate in alternate
layers.
Mixing: Machine Mixing

 Mixing of concrete is almost invariably carried out by machine, for reinforced concrete
work and for medium or large scale mass concrete work.
 Machine mixing is not only efficient, but also economical, when the quantity of concrete
to be produced is large.
 They can be classified as batch-mixers and continuous mixers.
 Batch mixers produce concrete, batch by batch with time interval, whereas continuous
mixers produce concrete continuously without stoppage till such time the plant is
working.
 In normal concrete work, it is the batch mixers that are used. Batch mixer may be of pan
type or drum type.
 The drum type may be further classified as tilting, non-tilting, reversing or forced action
type.
 As per I.S. 1791–1985, concrete mixers are designated by a number representing its
nominal mixed batch capacity in litres. The following are the standardized sizes of three
types:

a. Tilting: 85 T, 100 T, 140 T, 200 T

b. Non-Tilting: 200 NT, 280 NT, 375 NT, 500 NT, 1000 NT

c. Reversing: 200 R, 280 R, 375 R, 500 R and 1000 R

PLACING:
Needle Vibrator
FINISHING
EXTREME WEATHER CONCRETING

In countries which experience extreme weather conditions special problems are

encountered in preparation, placement and curing of concrete. India has regions
of extreme hot weather (hot -humid and hot-arid) as well as cold weather. The
Indian Standards deal ing with extreme weather concreting are: IS: 7861 (Part 1 -
1975 Reaff. 2007)-Hot weather concreting and IS: 7861 (Part 2 -1981 Reaff.
2007) -Cold weather concreting.
HOT WEATHER CONCRETING:

Special problems are encountered in the preparation, placement and curing of

concrete in hot weather. High temperatures result in:

 Rapid hydration of cement

 Increased evaporation of mixing water
 Greater mixing water demand
 Large volume changes in concrete resulting in cracks.
 Reduction in strength.

The climatic factors affecting concrete in hot weather are:

1. High ambient temperature

2. Reduced relative humidit y
3. Increased wind velocit y

Problems associated with hot weather concreting shall be addressed as follows:

1. controlling the temperature of concrete ingredients

2. Suitable proportioning of concrete mixes.
3. Controlling the temperature of concrete as placed.
4. Controlling the processes such as concrete production and delivery
5. Carrying out effective protection and curing of placed concrete.

Controlling the temperature of concrete ingredients:

The most direct approach to keep concrete temperature down is by controlling

the temperature of its ingredients. The contribution of each ingredient to the
temperature of concrete is a function of the temperature, specific heat and
quantit y used of that ingredient. The aggregates and mixing water exert the most
pronounced effect on temperature of concrete. Thus, in hot weather all available
means shall be used for maintaining these materials at as low t emperatures as
practicable.

Aggregates

Any one of the procedures or a combination of the procedures given below may
be used for lowering the temperature or at least for preventing excessive heating
of aggregates.

Shading stockpiles from direct rays o f the sun.

Sprinkling the stockpiles of coarse aggregate with water and keeping them
moist.
This results in cooling by evaporation, and this procedure is speciall y effective
when relative humidit y is low. Such sprinkling should not be done haphazardl y
because it leads to excessive variation in surface moisture and thereby impairs
uniformit y of workabilit y. When coarse aggregates are stockpiled during hot
weather, successive layers should be sprinkled as the stockpile is -built up. If
cold water is availabl e, heavy spraying of coarse aggregate immediatel y before
use may also be done to have a direct cooling action. Coarse aggregates may
also be cooled by methods, such as inundating them in cold water or by
circulating refrigerated air through pipes or by oth er suitable methods.

Water

Efforts shall be made to obtain cold water, and to keep it cold by protecting
pipes, water storage tanks, etc. Tanks or trucks used for transporting water shall
be insulated and/or coloured and maintained white or yellow the mixing water
has the greatest effect on temperature of concrete, since it has a specific heat of
about 4.5 to 5 times that of cement or aggregate. The temperature of water is
easier to control than that of other ingredients and, even though water is used in
smaller quantities than the other ingredients, the use of cold mixing water will
effect a moderate reduction in concrete placing temperatures. For a nominal
concrete mixture containing 336 kg of cement, 170 kg water, 1850 kg of
aggregate per ma, a chang e in 2°C water temperature will effect a 0.5 º C
change in the concrete temperature.

Under certain circumstances, reduction in water temperature may be most

economicall y accomplished by mechanical’ refrigerator or mixing with crushed
ice. Use of ice as a part of the mixing water is highl y effective in reducing
concrete temperature since, on melting alone, it takes up heat at the rate of 80
kcal/kg. To take advantage of heat of fusion, the ice shall be incorporated
directl y into the concrete as part of the mixing water. Conditions shall be such
that the ice is completel y melted by the time mixing is completed.

NOTE :- If the ice is not melted completel y by the time mixing is completed,
there can be a possibilit y of Ice melting after consolidation of concre te and thus
leaving hollow pockets in concrete, with detrimental effects.

Recommended procedure for concreting during hot weather conditions is given

below:

Ambient temperature shall be below 40 degree Celsius at the time of placement

of concrete. Concreting may be planned during morning and evening hours.
The period between mixing and delivery (placing) shall be kept an absolute
minimum.

Keep aggregates under shade and cool aggregates by sprinkling water.

Formwork, reinforcement shall be sprinkled with cool water just prior to
placement of concrete.
COLD WEATHER CONCRETING:
The production of concrete in cold weather introduces special and peculiar
problems which do not arise while concreting at normal tempe ratures. Quite
apart from the problems associated with setting and hardening of cement
concrete, severe damage may occur if concrete which is still in the plastic state
is exposed to low temperature, thus causing ice lenses to form and expansion to
occur within the pore structure. Hence it is essential to keep the temperature of
the concrete above a minimum value before it is placed in the formwork. After
placing, concrete may be kept above a certain temperature with the help of
proper insulating methods be fore the protection is removed. During periods of
low ambient temperature, special techniques are to be adopted to cure the
concrete while it is in the formwork or after its removal.
The Precautions to be taken and methods adopted for concreting in sub -zero
temperature is listed below.
a. Utilization of the heat developed by the hydration of cement and practical
methods of insulation.
b. Selection of suitable t ype of cement
c. Economical heating of materials of concrete

(Heating of water is the easiest to be adopted)

d. Admixtures of anti -freezing materials
e. Electrical heating of concrete mass

VACUUM DEWATERING SYSTEM

A high quality concrete floor or pavement requires not only being level but it should also have
high wear resistance, high compressive strength, reduced shrinkage and minimum water
permeability.
THE CONCEPT

The TREMIX method, pioneered by TREMIX AB, SWEDEN and introduced by

Aquarius in India in 1987 is system for laying high quality concrete floors with superior cost-
effectiveness. Aquarius subsequently entered into a technical collaboration with TREMIX AB, in
1991 to start production of Vacuum System in India. The key to the use of this method is the
dewatering of concrete by vacuum process. Surplus water from the concrete is removed
immediately after placing and vibration, reducing the water: cement ratio to an optimum level.
Therefore, adopting the TREMIX method facilitates use of concrete with better work ability than
what is normally possible

A lowered water: cement ratio automatically leads to a noticeable improvement in almost each of
the concrete properties.

THE OPERATION

In order to obtain a high quality concrete floor using this method, it is essential to follow the
various operations in the correct sequence. Initially, poker vibration is essential, especially at the
panel edges. This results in proper compaction of the concrete and hence elimination of voids
and entrapped air. Poker vibration never really gives a levelled surface. It is therefore essential to
combine this vibration with surface vibration (screeding), in order to obtain a vibrated concrete
with a levelled surface. Two passes with surface vibrator are normally recommended. The
Surface Vibrator is guided by two men, standing on either side of the panel.

Vacuum dewatering process removes surplus water always present in the concrete. This is done
using the Vacuum Equipment comprising of Suction Mat Top Cover, Filter pads and Vacuum
Pump.

The process starts immediately after surface vibration. Filter pads are placed on the fresh
concrete leaving about 4 inches of fresh concrete exposed on all sides. The Top Cover is then
placed on the filter pads and rolled out till it covers the strips of exposed concrete on all sides.
The Top Cover is then connected to the vacuum pump through a suction hose and the pump is
started.

Vacuum is immediately created between the filter pads and the top cover. Atmospheric pressure
compresses the concrete and the surplus water is squeezed out. This process lowers the water
content in the concrete by 15-25%.

The dewatering operation takes approx.1.5 - 2 minutes per centimeter thickness of the floor. The
dewatered concrete is compacted and dried to such an extent that it is possible to walk on it
without leaving any foot prints. This is the indication of concrete being properly dewatered and
ready for finishing.

The finishing operations - Floating & Trowelling take place right after dewatering. Floating
operation is done with Floating disc. This ensures after mixing of sand & cement particles,
further compaction and closing the pores on the surface. Floating operation generates skid-free
finish. Trowelling is done with Trowelling blades in order to further improve the wear resistance,
minimize dusting and obtain smoother finish. Repeated passes with disc and blades improve the
wear resistance substantially.
UNDERWATER CONCRETE

f. Use of air-entraining agents.

g. Concrete is the premier construction material across the world and the most widely used
in all types of civil engineering works.
h. During the construction of bridges , dams or any other structure where the foundation
part of the structure is lie underwater, we have to opt for underwater construction
i. When concrete is placed under water, it induces concrete to deteriorate uniformity
j. Therefore should be follow proper mix design, concrete production and placement and
quality control.
PRODUCTION OF UNDER WATER CONCRETE

Proper mix design

 Proportioning underwater concrete are same as conventional concrete

 According to its performance there are two classes of concrete mixture
 standard mixture
 high-performance mixture
 Concrete placed underwater is susceptible to
 cement washout
 laitance
 Segregation
 Mix design influence certain workability characteristics such as
 Flowability
 Self-consolidation
 Cohesion
 Mix design also influence by rheology
 It describes flow and deformation of materials
 The behaviour of fresh concrete can be described by two parameters-yield stress and

plastic viscosity

 water content is the important factor affecting the rheology of concrete

 water content in a mixture can be classified into two categories
 water absorbed in the aggregate
 free water
 water content is the important factor affecting the rheology of concrete
 water content in a mixture can be classified into two categories
 water absorbed in the aggregate
 free water
 PLACEMENT METHODS
 Tremie method.

 Pump method

 Toggle bags

 Bags work.

Laying of concrete by using Tremie

TOGGLE BAGS

• Toggle bags are ideal for small amounts of concrete placement.

• The bag is filled in the dry with wet concrete

• Used for repair work.

• The concrete is squeezed out by a diver.

BAGWORK

• Bags are made of open weave material.

Diver-handled bags are usually of 10 to 20 litres capacity but 1cub.m bags can be placed using a
crane

Concrete production

 The standard requirements of underwater concrete is same as conventional concrete

 Production and delivery system be capable of producing concrete at the required

placement rate

 It is essential that the materials can be supplied to the batch plant at the required rate
  The logistical planning should include

 Provision for alternative supplies

 Provision of all the accessory items

CONSTRUCTION TECHNIQUES

Caissons

 Watertight retaining structure .

 Permanent in nature.

 Used to work on foundation of bridge pier, construction of concrete dam or for the repair
of ships.

 Constructed in such a manner so that the water can be pumped out.

 Keeps working environment dry.

 Box caisson

 Pre fabricated concrete box, it is set down on the prepared bases

 Once in place it is filled with concrete as part of placement work

 Must be ballasted or anchored to prevent this phenomenon the floating of hollow

concrete structures

 Open caisson

 similar to a box caisson but does not have bottom face

 Used in soft clays not having large obstructions beneath

 During sinking it may filled with water

 Compressed-air caisson

 It has the advantage of providing dry working conditions

 Compressed air is used to keep the water and mud out

 Used to work on river bed

 Monolithic caisson

 It is more suitable for off shore construction

 larger than the other types of caisson, but similar to open caissons

Cofferdam

 Temporary enclosure

 Built within or in piers across a body of water

 Allows the enclosed space to be pumped out, creating a dry work environment.

 Cofferdams are usually welded steel structures

 With components consisting of sheet piles, and cross braces

 For dam construction, two cofferdams are usually built, one upstream and one
downstream
Coffer dam

Special Form work

Steel Formwork

Special Formwork is a specializing in the design and manufacture of steel formwork for the
casting of concrete.

Column Formwork Inc Circular , rectangular , tapered, oval and elliptical

Sea Defence Formwork

Windfarm Formwork

Tunnel Formwork

Pier & Bridge Formwork

Wall formwork

Formwork for Construction Equipment

Adjustable Column
Adjustable Column

Piers & Bridges

Windfarms

Flexible Windfarm Formwork

Flexible shutters for circular applications can be used to form any diameter upwards of 3 metres.
They are ideal for forming circular turbine bases are lightweight and have a high re-use factor.
Make-up panels can be supplied to form exactly the diameter required.

Each panel has provision for staking down and attaching purpose made guardrails or standard
scaffold can be used.
Column Formwork

Tunnel Formwork
Curved Wall