Instructional Module in EL 114

Afro-Asian Literature
First Semester AY 2022-2023

Module No. 8
Hebrew Literature

Time Allotment: 5 hours

I. Introduction

From the Land of Prayer in the South Asia, you will now continue your
journey to the Southwest Asia where the Jewish Republic is found, Israel.

In the following discussion, you will be presented once again with the
beliefs, characteristics and philosophies of the people of Israel which will lead
you to better understanding of the people who are responsible of the
religious belief of almost 80% of the Filipino, Christianity.

II. Learning Outcomes

In this module, you must have:

1. traced the history of Hebrew Literature;

2. discussed the historical development of the Bible;
3. identified the decisions of the Bible and the book under each;
4. narrated one of the parables of Jesus; and
5. appreciated the literary masterpiece of the Jews.

III. Learning Content/Topic

Israel – Jewish Republic

Historical Background of Israel

The State of Israel an independent republic in Southwest Asia, is

located between the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea and the head
of Gulf of Aqaba, an arm of the Red Sea.

Israel was established on May 14, 1948 as a Jewish state. Historically,

it is considered the Holy Land for Christians, Jews and Muslims.

Israli’s land extends from the northern border with Lebanon and Syria
in the Golan Heights to Elat (Eliat) the country’s part on the Gulf of Aqaba in
the South.

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 The southern half of Israel west of the Rift Valley, mostly desert, is
known as the Negev. North of the Negev is a mountains region.

The South and East of Phoenicia was Palestine, the Holy Land of the
Hebrews. It stood at the crossroads between the river valleys of the Nile and
the Tigris – Euphrates. Its climate is healthful. The land was fertile. There
were rich pastures in the valleys. The plains were good farmlands.

The Hebrews did not always live in Palestine. It is to them the

“Promised Land”. Among the peoples of antiquity, the Hebrews have the
most completely recorded history.

Hebrews have monotheistic religion. They believed in Jehovah, an

unseen God who was never identified with images or sacrifices. The worship
of Jehovah tied with right behavior in compliance with the Ten
Commandments.

The first rulers of the Hebrews were the patriarchs. The first king of Israel
was Saul. Saul was succeeded by David after 40 years rule.

David became king of Judah. He united the people of Judah and Israel
into a strong kingdom with Jerusalem as the capital and religious center.
David is remembered as a gifted poet and harpist aside from his great
military exploits. Many of David’s poems are in the Book of Psalms in the Old
Testament.

Hebrews have a strong has a strong faith in one God who demanded
justice and punish wickedness.

A change in the standard of morality of the world came with the new
religion. Judaism established the foundation of Christian morality. Palestine
was the seat of these two religions, Judaism and Christianity.

The ancient writings of their patriarchs, the teaching of the prophets

and their hymns were collectively become the sacred scripture of the Jews,
which form the first part of the Christian Bible, the Old Testament.

This literature, of which the Book of Ruth, the Book of Job, the Psalms
of David and the Prophecy of Isiah are of greatest literary charm and merit,
with its idea of one god is our greatest and most lasting religious and moral
heritage from the Hebrews.

The Old Testament is read and loved by all Christian nations and
remain the bestseller among all books published in the world.

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 The Bible is a collection of 39 books which are chiefly dedicated to the
ancient history of the Jews, to their laws, and to their social aspiration. Some
critics say, it is formless, while others insist that there is form, especially in
the poetic books. The form is simple with endless variation. It is a perfectly
Eastern form of poetry. It relies on “symmetry of members”, syntactic unit of
verse, rather than on symmetry of form and content, which is the cherished
ideal of Hebrew poets.

Historical Development of Hebrew Literature

I. The Biblical Period

Ancient Hebrew historiography is a union of legend and fact,
imagination and speculation. The greater part of the Bible is history. This
historical narrative was interrupted by the legal narrative. The style is terse.
It is written in rhythmic prose. Prophecy is written in the parallelistic form of
poetry.

II. The Post Biblical Period

It is merely the extension of the Biblical period. Many apocryphal
and
apocalyptic books were patterned after the biblical prototype. These books
belong to a literature of epigones. Its newness considered in a radical
departure from pagan philosophy. Its belief was centered in the superiority of
reason contained in the scripture.

There is a Greek translation of the Bible, the Septuagint, which

became the cornerstone of Hellenistic Literature of the Jews.

The Septuagint may be regarded as the work of apologetics.

The Halakah, from Hebrew “halak” meaning “go or a rule to go by”,

was perhaps the most popular Hebrew literature in the 1st century.

Haggadah is another Hebrew branch of literature, from Hebrew

“higgid” meaning “to tell”. It can only be explained but not translated for it
embodies folklore, theology, ethics, history, poetry, science and extra
nonlegal material. It uses biblical verse, essentially investigative and its
didacticism is subtle.

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 III. The Middle Ages
The Hebrews were forced to follow the Arabs in Science and Literature
when Islam became widespread in almost all parts of the world. They
patterned their own intellectual movements after Arab models.

Cultural changes in Western countries affected the Jews, and again

they adapt themselves to Western culture.

Under the impact of Arabic influences, latest and new poetic devices
came to the form. Rhyme and meter were introduced. Arabic influences
permeated even the themes of poetry. These themes are wine, nature,
sensual love, and friendship.

European forms of literature like the sonnet were also introduced.

The Bible
The Bible is considered as the widely read book in the world. The Bible
has been translated into more languages and dialects.

The Bible is a collection of 36 (72 for the Catholics) books from c.750
B.C. to c. A.D.100. It is divided into three parts: The Old Testament, The
New Testament, and The Apocrypha.

I. The Old Testament

It is made up of 39 books, which are classified in six groups: History,
Prophetic Books, Lyric Poetry, Drama, Wisdom Literature and Tales.

History
These books trace the history of the Hebrews from the creation
of the world down through the rebuilding of Jerusalem after the return from
the Babylonian exile
.
The six history books: Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers,
Deuteronomy and Joshua – from a group known as the Hexateuch. The first
five books are called the Pentateuch. The Hexateuch is based on four
principal sources, the so-called J, E, P and D Documents.

Genesis
This book contains the accounts of the creation of the world, the
fall of Adam and Eve, Cain’s murder of Abel, Noah’s flood and the Tower of
Babel and also the four cycle of legends, revolving respectively around the
central figures of Abraham, Isaac, Jacob and Joseph.

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 Exodus
This book deals with the Hebrews’ escape from Egypt and their
journey back to Palestine under the leadership of Moses. Most famous
sections include the plagues of Egypt, the origin of the Passover, the sending
of Mana and the Ten Commandments.

Leviticus
This book embodies a legal and religious system of law, codes,
rites, and sacrifices. It emphasizes righteousness and goodness of motive.

Numbers
This book contains an unreliable census, more religious laws and
customs and more narratives concerning Moses.

Deuteronomy
This is based on a “Book of Law” found in the Temple of
Jerusalem in 621 B.C. It repeats the Leviticus. It also contains some original
narrative about the wanderings of the Hebrews and tells the death of Moses.

Joshua
It tells about Joshua’s assuring leadership of the Hebrews after
the death of Moses. Its most famous sections describe the fall of the walls of
Jericho and the standing still of the sun and the moon.

Prophetic Books
The prophet was not primarily a soothsayer rather he was a
religious and social reformer and he was a spokesman of God. Elijah and
Elisha were considered the first two prophets though they wrote nothing.

Amos
This is the oldest complete books in the Bible. Amos voices a
storm warning to the kingdom of Israel utter annihilation unless social
reforms are immediately effected. He was first to emphasize the justness of
God.

Hosea
Hosea stresses God’s mercy and forgiveness rather his justice,
and he entreats instead of denouncing. He emphasizes God’s love and
willingness to forgive.

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 Micah
Micah foretells not only the punishment of the wicked but also
an era of redemption and prosperity. He was the first to express hope for
universal peace.

Isaiah
He was generally recognized as the greatest of the prophets. He
was a statesman and a religious leader. Tradition holds that he was executed
by being sawed in half during the reign of the King Manasseh of Judah. Isaiah
has hope for a saving remnant form whom a Messiah will arise.

Habakkuk
This contains the earliest Hebrew discussion of the problem of
evil. He foresee that tyranny in Babylon would succeed that of Assyria.

Habakkuk wonders whether the wicked will really be punished

and the righteous rewarded. He attacks social and religious evils.

Jeremiah
This is a book of gloomy prophecy. He held no hope for the
survival of his nations, but placed his only reliance on personal
righteousness.

Lamentations
This poem bemoans the fall of Jerusalem. It is extremely
artificial in form; the original was on acrostic, the lines are arranged in
regular triplets or couplets. The whole form a series of dirges within a dirge.

Ezekiel
This was written in Babylon by an exiled priest. It helps the
Hebrews maintain their moral by emphasizing the importance of ritualistic
practices. The author is visionary and mystic. He stresses personal,
individual responsibility.

Lyric Poetry
Ancient Hebrew poetry employs parallelism of structure and
idea, repetition and balance. There is no rhyme and no regular meter, but
usually there is a distinct rhythm.

Book of Psalms

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 The Psalms is an anthology 150 hymns compiled c. 150 B.C. a
few of these hymns were probably written by David c. 100 B.C.
The Psalms vary in tone, contentment and style. Some are
personal, others are antiphonal and liturgical and noble.

Drama
There are two examples of dramatic writing in Hebrew
literature.

Job
This book is a philosophical drama, principally in poetic form. It
was not intended to be acted. Its theme is problem about evil.

The Song of Songs or Song of Solomon

This is a semi - dramatic poem intended to presented with
songs and dance as part of a wedding ceremony. This is supposedly spoken
by the groom, the bride and choruses. It is considered by some to be an
allegory of Christ love for the church.

Wisdom Literature

Proverbs
This a book of prudential sayings, chiefly poetic. It is
erroneously ascribed to Solomon. Some of the sayings are on a morally high
plane but some are selfishly practical. Perhaps the whole book “smacks too
much of the Ben Franklin ethics – it pays to be honest”.

Ecclesiastes
This is series of heretical essay of profound pessimism, fatalism
and skepticism. The tone is that of a disillusioned old man who has found
existence to futile and meaningless.

Tales
Several stories are included in the Old Testament.

Ruth
A short story containing a tactful protest against the forbidding
of racial inter-marriages. It is famous for Ruth’s declaration of love for her
mother-in-law.

Jonah

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 This is widely misunderstood tale about an early Jewish
missionary who rebels when sent to Nineveh, who repeats and caries out his
mission, but who rebels a second time when God forgives Nineveh.

This religious and ethical lessons found in this are story the
wickedness of the rebelliousness and selfishness of Jonah; the universality
and mercifulness of God; the virtue of repentance and the need for religious
and racial tolerance.

Daniel
This is an allegorical tale written for the purpose of encouraging
the Jews during the Maccabean struggle.

The story is partially based on old legends about an Exilic

prophet. It has an apocalyptic ending.

One of the famous passages is “Daniel in the lion’s den.”

Esther
This is probably the latest of all the Old Testament books and
also the least moral.
The purpose of this book is to supply historical basis for the
Jewish feast of Purim.
The tale is blood thirsty and revengeful but artistic and
effectively written.

II. The New Testament

The New Testament is an account of the origin and early
development of Christianity. It is made up of four biographies of Jesus
(Gospels), a Church history, twenty-one epistles and an Apocalypse. There
are 27 books in all.

Most of these (if not all) were written originally in Greek,

perhaps
the Gospels appeared first in Aramaic.

All the books were composed in A.D. 40 – 125.

The Gospel
This is the four accounts of the life of Christ.

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 Matthew
The Greek version was written in c. A.D. 80; Aramaic version, c.
A. D. 55.
This is attributed to Apostle Matthew based to a large extent on
the gospel of Mark.
This book has two main purpose;
 to prove to the Jews that Christ was a fulfillment of the
old prophecies – that he was the Messiah; and
 to record the ethical teaching of Jews.

This book begins with the genealogy of Joseph. It also gives the
account of the birth life, crucifixion, resurrection and accession of Christ.

Mark
The Greek version was in c. A.D. 20 – 100 and Aramaic version
in c. A.D. 40 – 70.

It is the earliest, shortest, and perhaps the most authentic of

the gospels.
Mark is the source for Matthew and Luke. These three books are
called the “Synoptic Gospels.

The book of Mark tells of only the last three years of the life of
Christ, his ministry, death, and resurrection.

Luke
The Greek version, c. A.D. 90 and Aramaic version, c. A.D. 65.

This book was written by Luke, physician and the companion of

Paul on some missionary journeys. Luke uses Mark and Matthew as source.
The book was written for Greeks and Romans.

This book stresses the humanity of Jesus. It also gives the

entire life of Jesus and the most famous account of his birth.

John
This book shows the influence of Greek and Alexandrian
philosophy.
Its emphasis is on the divinity of Christ, his personification of
logos, faith, the identification of the love for God with the love of man, and
the mystical union with the Deity.

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 It tells about John the Baptist’s baptizing of Jesus. It also talks
about Jesus’ ministry, death, and resurrection. It does not mention the
ascension.

Church History

The Acts of the Apostles

This is authored by Luke. This is a vivid and moving narrative of
the spread of Christianity. It tells of the Pentecost, the struggles of the young
Church and the conversion and missionary journey of Paul.

Epistles
These are all written by Paul. These letters were considered the
most influential letters ever written as an account of later Christian doctrine
and practice.

The tone and style of the epistles vary. Some are cool, clean
and rational, others are eloquent, passionate or even rhapsodic.

Some of these letters are: I and I Thessalonians, Galatians, I

and II Corinthians, Romans, etc.

The Apocalypse

The Revelation to St. John The Divine

This book was written by some unidentified Ephesian
mystic instead of by the Apostle John.

It is addressed to the seven churches in Asia. This was

written soon after widespread persecution of the Christian began under the
Roman Emperor Domitian.

This Apocalypse foretells the fall of Rome (the Whore of

Babylon), the Second Coming of Christ, the resurrection of the saints, the
Chaining of Satan, the Millennium, the Final Battle (of Armageddon) between
the powers of The Apocrypha God on Evil – the Judgment Day and the
Establishment of the New Jerusalem.

III. The Apocrypha

IV.

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 This is a collection of 14 books which were included in the
Septuagint (Greek) of the Vulgate (Latin) version of the Old Testament.
These books were not considered by the Palestinian Jews to have genuinely
inspired and which were not in the original Hebrew.

The books were excluded from the Sacred Canon by the

Protestant during the Reformation but were included in the King James
version and placed between the Old and New Testament.
The church of England admitted them into the Canon for the
purpose of edification.

Since 1890, these books have been dropped from most

protestant Bibles.
The Apocrypha consists of 4 books of history, 5 tales, 2 books of
wisdom, one epistle, one song, and one prayer.

As literature these books are most noteworthy: I and II Esdras,

I and II Macabees, Judith, Susanna and the Elders and Tobit.

Wisdom Literature
Ecclesiasticus or the Wisdom of Jesus, Son of Sirah

This is a group of poetic pithy proverbs, which are just like in

the Book of Proverbs in the Sacred Canon.

Wisdom of Solomon
This is another collection of maxims and sayings. Its moral tone
is on a higher level than that of either Proverbs of Ecclesiasticus and it
actually approaches the nobility found in Christian ethics.

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