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MTH 220
CALCULUS I
Monroe Community College

MTH 210 Calculus I
Monroe Community College

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Licensing
1: Review: Functions and Graphs

1.0: Prelude to Functions and Graphs
1.0E: Exercises
1.1: Review of Functions
1.1E: Exercises
1.2: Basic Classes of Functions
1.2E: Exercises
1.3: Trigonometric Functions
1.3E: Exercises
1.4: Inverse Functions
1.4E: Exercises
1.5: Exponential and Logarithmic Functions
1.5E: Exercises
Chapter 2 Limits
2.0: Introduction
2.0E: Introduction Exercises
2.1: The Idea of Limits
2.1E The Idea of Limits
2.2: Limits of Functions
2.2E: Limits of Functions Exercises
2.3: Limit Laws & Techniques for Computing Limits
2.3E: Limit Laws and Techniques for Computing Limits EXERCISES
2.4: Infinite Limits
2.4E: Infinite Limits EXERCISES
2.5: Limits at Infinity
2.5E: Limits at Infinity EXERCISES
2.6: Continuity
2.6E: Continuity EXERCISES
2.7: The Precise Definition of a Limit
2.7E: Precise Definition of Limit EXERCISES
NEW 2.3E: Limit Laws & Techniques Exercises
Chapter 3: Derivatives
3.0: Prelude to Derivatives
3.0E: Exercises
3.1: Definition of the Derivative
3.1E: Definition of the Derivative (Exercises)
3.2: The Derivative as a Function
3.2E: Derivative as a Function Exercises
3.3: (and 3.4) Differentiation Rules
3.3E: Both 3.3 and 3.4 Exercises
3.5: Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions
3.5E: Trig Derivatives Exercises
3.6: Derivatives as Rates of Change
1 https://math.libretexts.org/@go/page/23770
3.6 E: Rates of Change Exercises
3.7: The Chain Rule
3.7 E: Chain Rule Exercises
3.8: Implicit Differentiation
3.8 E: Implicit Differentiation Exercises
3.9: Derivatives of Ln, General Exponential & Log Functions; and Logarithmic Differentiation
3.9 E: Derivatives Ln, etc. Exercises
3. 10: Derivatives of Inverse Trig Functions
section 3. 10 E: Inverse Trig Derivatives Exercises
Chapter 4: Applications of Derivatives

4.0: Prelude to Applications of Derivatives
4.0E: Exercises
4.1: Related Rates
4.1E: Related Rates Exercises
4.2: Maxima and Minima
4.2E: Maxima and Minima Exercises
4.3: Derivatives and the Shape of a Graph
4.3E: Shape of the Graph Exercises
4.4: Graphing
4.4 E: Sketch the GRAPH Exercises
4.5: Optimization Problems
4.5 E: Optimization Exercises
4.6: Linear Approximations and Differentials
4.7: The Mean Value Theorem
4.8: Antiderivatives
4.8E: AntiDerivative & Indefinite Integral Exercises
Chapter 5: Integration
5.0: Prelude to Integration
5.0E: Exercises
5.1: Approximating Areas
5.1 Approximating Area (Riemann Sum) Exercises
5.2: The Definite Integral
5.2 E: Definite Integral Intro Exercises
5.3: The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus Basics
5.3 E: FTOC Exercises
5.4: Average Value of a Function
5.4E: Average Value of a Function Exercises
5.5: U-Substitution
5.5E & 5.6E U-Substitution Exercises
5.6: More U-Substitution - Exponential and Logarithmic Functions
5.6 Notes
5.7: Net Change
5.7E: Net Change Exercises
Xtra full 5.3: includes Proof of The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus
Index
Glossary
Detailed Licensing
Licensing
A detailed breakdown of this resource's licensing can be found in Back Matter/Detailed Licensing.
CHAPTER OVERVIEW
1: Review: Functions and Graphs

Calculus is the mathematics that describes changes in functions. In this chapter, we review all the functions necessary to study
calculus. We define polynomial, rational, trigonometric, exponential, and logarithmic functions. We review how to evaluate these
functions, and we show the properties of their graphs. We provide examples of equations with terms involving these functions and
illustrate the algebraic techniques necessary to solve them. In short, this chapter provides the foundation for the material to come. It
is essential to be familiar and comfortable with these ideas before proceeding to the formal introduction of calculus in the next
chapter.
1.0E: Exercises
1.1E: Exercises
1.2E: Exercises
1.3E: Exercises
1.4E: Exercises
1.5E: Exercises
Thumbnail: The graph of f (x) = e has a tangent line with slope 1 at x = 0 .

x
Contributors
Gilbert Strang (MIT) and Edwin “Jed” Herman (Harvey Mudd) with many contributing authors. This content by OpenStax is
licensed with a CC-BY-SA-NC 4.0 license. Download for free at http://cnx.org.
This page titled 1: Review: Functions and Graphs is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by
OpenStax.
1
In the past few years, major earthquakes have occurred in several countries around the world. In January 2010, an earthquake of
magnitude 7.3 hit Haiti. A magnitude 9 earthquake shook northeastern Japan in March 2011. In April 2014, an 8.2-magnitude
earthquake struck off the coast of northern Chile. What do these numbers mean? In particular, how does a magnitude 9 earthquake
compare with an earthquake of magnitude 8.2? Or 7.3? Later in this chapter, we show how logarithmic functions are used to
compare the relative intensity of two earthquakes based on the magnitude of each earthquake.
Figure 1.0.1 : A portion of the San Andreas Fault in California. Major faults like this are the sites of most of the strongest
earthquakes ever recorded. (credit: modification of work by Robb Hannawacker, NPS)
Calculus is the mathematics that describes changes in functions. In this chapter, we review all the functions necessary to study
calculus. We define polynomial, rational, trigonometric, exponential, and logarithmic functions. We review how to evaluate these
functions, and we show the properties of their graphs. We provide examples of equations with terms involving these functions and
illustrate the algebraic techniques necessary to solve them. In short, this chapter provides the foundation for the material to come. It
is essential to be familiar and comfortable with these ideas before proceeding to the formal introduction of calculus in the next
chapter.
Contributors
This page titled 1.0: Prelude to Functions and Graphs is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by
OpenStax.
Access for free at OpenStax 1.0.1 https://math.libretexts.org/@go/page/10238

1.0E: Exercises
1.0: Exercises
(0) Did you know that magnitude is related to logarithms?
1.0E: Exercises is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
1.0E.1 https://math.libretexts.org/@go/page/17195
In this section, we provide a formal definition of a function and examine several ways in which functions are represented—namely,
through tables, formulas, and graphs. We study formal notation and terms related to functions. We also define composition of
functions and symmetry properties. Most of this material will be a review for you, but it serves as a handy reference to remind you
of some of the algebraic techniques useful for working with functions.
Functions
Given two sets A and B a set with elements that are ordered pairs (x, y) where x is an element of A and y is an element of B, is a
relation from A to B . A relation from A to B defines a relationship between those two sets. A function is a special type of relation
in which each element of the first set is related to exactly one element of the second set. The element of the first set is called the
input; the element of the second set is called the output. Functions are used all the time in mathematics to describe relationships
between two sets. For any function, when we know the input, the output is determined, so we say that the output is a function of the
input. For example, the area of a square is determined by its side length, so we say that the area (the output) is a function of its side
length (the input). The velocity of a ball thrown in the air can be described as a function of the amount of time the ball is in the air.
The cost of mailing a package is a function of the weight of the package. Since functions have so many uses, it is important to have
precise definitions and terminology to study them.
Figure 1.1.1 : A function can be visualized as an input/output device

Definition: Functions
A function f consists of a set of inputs, a set of outputs, and a rule for assigning each input to exactly one output. The set of
inputs is called the domain of the function. The set of outputs is called the range of the function.
Figure 1.1.2 : A function maps every element in the domain to exactly one element in the range. Although each input can be sent
to only one output, two different inputs can be sent to the same output.
For example, consider the function f , where the domain is the set of all real numbers and the rule is to square the input. Then, the
input x = 3 is assigned to the output 3 = 9 .
2
Since every nonnegative real number has a real-value square root, every nonnegative number is an element of the range of this
function. Since there is no real number with a square that is negative, the negative real numbers are not elements of the range. We
conclude that the range is the set of nonnegative real numbers.
For a general function f with domain D, we often use x to denote the input and y to denote the output associated with x. When
doing so, we refer to x as the independent variable and \(y as the dependent variable, because it depends on x. Using function
notation, we write y = f (x), and we read this equation as “y equals f of x. ” For the squaring function described earlier, we write
f (x) = x .
2
The concept of a function can be visualized using Figures 1.1.1 - 1.1.3.

Figure 1.1.3 : In this case, a graph of a function f has a domain of 1, 2, 3 and a range of 1, 2. The independent variable is x and
the dependent variable is y .
We can also visualize a function by plotting points (x, y) in the coordinate plane where y = f (x). The graph of a function is the set
of all these points. For example, consider the function f , where the domain is the set D = 1, 2, 3 and the rule is f (x) = 3 − x . In
Figure 1.1.4, we plot a graph of this function.
Figure 1.1.4 : Here we see a graph of the function f with domain 1, 2, 3 and rule f (x) = 3 − x . The graph consists of the points
(x, f (x)) for all x in the domain.
Every function has a domain. However, sometimes a function is described by an equation, as in f (x) = x , with no specific
2
domain given. In this case, the domain is taken to be the set of all real numbers x for which f (x) is a real number. For example,
since any real number can be squared, if no other domain is specified, we consider the domain of f (x) = x to be the set of all real
2
numbers. On the other hand, the square root function f (x) = √− x only gives a real output if x is nonnegative. Therefore, the
domain of the function f (x) = √−x is the set of nonnegative real numbers, sometimes called the natural domain.
Set-Builder Notation and Interval Notation

For the functions f (x) = x and f (x) = √−
2
x , the domains are sets with an infinite number of elements. Clearly we cannot list all
these elements. When describing a set with an infinite number of elements, it is often helpful to use set-builder or interval notation.
When using set-builder notation to describe a subset of all real numbers, denoted R , we write
{x|x has some property}. (1.1.1)
We read this as the set of real numbers x such that x has some property. For example, if we were interested in the set of real
numbers that are greater than one but less than five, we could denote this set using set-builder notation by writing
{x|1 < x < 5}. (1.1.2)
A set such as this, which contains all real numbers greater than a and less than b, can also be denoted using the interval notation
(a, b) . Therefore,
(1, 5) = {x|1 < x < 5}. (1.1.3)
The numbers 1 and 5 are called the endpoints of this set. If we want to consider the set that includes the endpoints, we would
denote this set by writing
[1, 5] = {x|1 ≤ x ≤ 5}. (1.1.4)

We can use similar notation if we want to include one of the endpoints, but not the other. To denote the set of nonnegative real
numbers, we would use the set-builder notation
{x|x ≥ 0}. (1.1.5)
The smallest number in this set is zero, but this set does not have a largest number. Using interval notation, we would use the
symbol ∞, which refers to positive infinity, and we would write the set as
[0, ∞) = {x|x ≥ 0}. (1.1.6)
It is important to note that ∞ is not a real number. It is used symbolically here to indicate that this set includes all real numbers
greater than or equal to zero. Similarly, if we wanted to describe the set of all nonpositive numbers, we could write
(−∞, 0] = {x|x ≤ 0}. (1.1.7)
Here, the notation −∞ refers to negative infinity, and it indicates that we are including all numbers less than or equal to zero, no
matter how small. The set
(−∞, ∞) = {x|x is any real number} (1.1.8)
refers to the set of all real numbers.
Piecewise Functions
Some functions are defined using different equations for different parts of their domain. These types of functions are known as
piecewise-defined functions. For example, suppose we want to define a function f with a domain that is the set of all real numbers
such that f (x) = 3x + 1 for x ≥ 2 and f (x) = x forx < 2 . We denote this function by writing
2
3x + 1 x ≥2
f (x) = { (1.1.9)
2
x x <2
When evaluating this function for an input x,the equation to use depends on whether x ≥ 2 or x < 2 . For example, since 5 > 2 ,
we use the fact that f (x) = 3x + 1 for x ≥ 2 and see that f (5) = 3(5) + 1 = 16 . On the other hand, for x = −1 , we use the fact
that f (x) = x for x < 2 and see that f (−1) = 1 .
2
Example 1.1.1 : Evaluating Functions

For the function f (x) = 3x 2
+ 2x − 1 , evaluate:
a. f (−2)
–
b. f (√2)
c. f (a + h)
Solution
Substitute the given value for x in the formula for f (x).
a. f (−2) = 3(−2 2 + 2(−2) − 1 = 12 − 4 − 1 = 7
)
– – – –
b. f (√2) = 3(√2) + 2√− 2
x − 1 = 6 + 2 √2 − 1 = 5 + 2 √2
c. f (a + h) = 3(a + h) + 2(a + h) − 1 = 3(a + 2ah + h ) + 2a + 2h − 1

2 2 2 2
= 3a + 6ah + 3 h
2
+ 2a + 2h − 1
Exercise 1.1.1
For f (x) = x 2
− 3x + 5 , evaluate f (1) and f (a + h) .
Hint
Substitute 1 and a + h for x in the formula for f (x).
Answer
f (1) = 3 and f (a + h) = a 2
+ 2ah + h
2
− 3a − 3h + 5
Example 1.1.2 : Finding Domain and Range

For each of the following functions, determine the i. domain and ii. range.

a. f (x) = (x − 4) + 5
2
−−−− −
b. f (x) = √3x + 2 − 1
c. f (x) = 3x − 2
Solution
1. Consider f (x) = (x − 4) 2
+ 5.
1.Since f (x) = (x − 4) 2
+5 is a real number for any real number x, the domain of f is the interval (−∞, ∞).
2. Since (x − 4) ≥ 0 , we know f (x) = (x − 4) + 5 ≥ 5 . Therefore, the range must be a subset of {y|y ≥ 5 }. To show
2 2
that every element in this set is in the range, we need to show that for a given y in that set, there is a real number x such
that f (x) = (x − 4) + 5 = y . Solving this equation for x, we see that we need x such that
2
2
(x − 4 ) = y − 5.
This equation is satisfied as long as there exists a real number x such that
−−−−
x − 4 = ±√y − 5
−−−−
Since y ≥ 5 , the square root is well-defined. We conclude that for x = 4 ± √y − 5 ,f (x) = y , and therefore the range is
{y|y ≥ 5 }.
−−−−−
2. Consider f (x) = √3x + 2 − 1 .
1.To find the domain of f, we need the expression 3x + 2 ≥ 0 . Solving this inequality, we conclude that the domain is {
x|x ≥ −2/3 }.
−−−−− −−−−−
2.To find the range of f, we note that since √3x + 2 ≥ 0 ,f (x) = √3x + 2 − 1 ≥ −1 . Therefore, the range of f must be
a subset of the set {y|y ≥ −1}. To show that every element in this set is in the range of f , we need to show that for all y
in this set, there exists a real number x in the domain such that f (x) = y . Let y ≥ −1 . Then, f (x) = y if and only if
−−−−−
√3x + 2 − 1 = y.
Solving this equation for x, we see that x must solve the equation
−−−−−
√3x + 2 = y + 1.
Since y ≥ −1 , such an x could exist. Squaring both sides of this equation, we have 3x + 2 = (y + 1) 2
.
Therefore, we need
2
3x = (y + 1 ) − 2,
which implies
1 2 2
x = (y + 1 ) − .
3 3
We just need to verify that x is in the domain of f . Since the domain of f consists of all real numbers greater than or equal
to \frac{−2}{3}\), and
1 2 2 2
(y + 1 ) − ≥− ,
3 3 3
there does exist an x in the domain of f . We conclude that the range of f is {y|y ≥ −1}.
3.Consider f (x) = 3/(x − 2).
1.Since 3/(x − 2) is defined when the denominator is nonzero, the domain is {x|x ≠ 2}.
2.To find the range of f , we need to find the values of y such that there exists a real number x in the domain with the
property that
3
− 2 = y.
x
Solving this equation for x, we find that

3
x = + 2.
y
Therefore, as long as y ≠ 0 , there exists a real number x in the domain such that f (x) = y . Thus, the range is {y|y ≠ 0 }.

Exercise 1.1.2
−−−−−
Find the domain and range for f (x) = √4 − 2x + 5.
Hint
Use 4 − 2x ≥ 0 .
Answer
Domain = {x ∣ x ≤ 2 } and range = {y ∣ y ≥ 5 }
Representing Functions
Typically, a function is represented using one or more of the following tools:
A table
A graph
A formula
We can identify a function in each form, but we can also use them together. For instance, we can plot on a graph the values from a
table or create a table from a formula.
Tables
Functions described using a table of values arise frequently in real-world applications. Consider the following simple example. We
can describe temperature on a given day as a function of time of day. Suppose we record the temperature every hour for a 24-hour
period starting at midnight. We let our input variable x be the time after midnight, measured in hours, and the output variable y be
the temperature x hours after midnight, measured in degrees Fahrenheit. We record our data in Table 1.1.1 .
Table 1.1.1: Temperature as a Function of Time of Day
Hour After Midnight Temperature(°F) Hour After Midnight Temperature(°F)
0 58 12 84
1 54 13 85
2 53 14 85
3 52 15 83
4 52 16 82
5 55 17 80
6 60 18 77
7 64 19 74
8 72 20 69
9 75 21 65
10 78 22 60
11 80 23 58
We can see from the table that temperature is a function of time, and the temperature decreases, then increases, and then decreases
again. However, we cannot get a clear picture of the behavior of the function without graphing it.
Graphs
Given a function f described by a table, we can provide a visual picture of the function in the form of a graph. Graphing the
temperatures listed in Table 1.1.1 can give us a better idea of their fluctuation throughout the day. Figure shows the plot of the
temperature function.

Figure 1.1.5 : The graph of the data from Table shows temperature as a function of time.
From the points plotted on the graph in Figure 1.1.5, we can visualize the general shape of the graph. It is often useful to connect
the dots in the graph, which represent the data from the table. In this example, although we cannot make any definitive conclusion
regarding what the temperature was at any time for which the temperature was not recorded, given the number of data points
collected and the pattern in these points, it is reasonable to suspect that the temperatures at other times followed a similar pattern, as
we can see in Figure 1.1.6 .
Figure 1.1.6 : Connecting the dots in Figure shows the general pattern of the data.
Algebraic Formulas
Sometimes we are not given the values of a function in table form, rather we are given the values in an explicit formula. Formulas
arise in many applications. For example, the area of a circle of radius r is given by the formula A(r) = πr . When an object is
2
thrown upward from the ground with an initial velocity v ft/s, its height above the ground from the time it is thrown until it hits
0
the ground is given by the formula s(t) = −16t + v t . When P dollars are invested in an account at an annual interest rate r
2
0
compounded continuously, the amount of money after t years is given by the formula A(t) = P e . Algebraic formulas are
rt
important tools to calculate function values. Often we also represent these functions visually in graph form.
Given an algebraic formula for a function f , the graph of f is the set of points (x, f (x)), where x is in the domain of f and f (x) is
in the range. To graph a function given by a formula, it is helpful to begin by using the formula to create a table of inputs and
outputs. If the domain of f consists of an infinite number of values, we cannot list all of them, but because listing some of the
inputs and outputs can be very useful, it is often a good way to begin.

When creating a table of inputs and outputs, we typically check to determine whether zero is an output. Those values of x where
f (x) = 0 are called the zeros of a function. For example, the zeros of f (x) = x − 4 are x = ±2 . The zeros determine where the
2
graph of f intersects the x-axis, which gives us more information about the shape of the graph of the function. The graph of a
function may never intersect the x-axis, or it may intersect multiple (or even infinitely many) times.
Another point of interest is the y -intercept, if it exists. The y -intercept is given by (0, f (0)).
Since a function has exactly one output for each input, the graph of a function can have, at most, one y -intercept. If x=0 is in the
domain of a function f , then f has exactly one y -intercept. If x = 0 is not in the domain of f , then f has no y -intercept. Similarly,
for any real number c , if c is in the domain of f , there is exactly one output f (c), and the line x = c intersects the graph of f
exactly once. On the other hand, if c is not in the domain of f ,f (c) is not defined and the line x = c does not intersect the graph of
f . This property is summarized in the vertical line test.
Vertical Line Test

Given a function f , every vertical line that may be drawn intersects the graph of f no more than once. If any vertical line
intersects a set of points more than once, the set of points does not represent a function.
We can use this test to determine whether a set of plotted points represents the graph of a function (Figure 1.1.7).
Figure 1.1.7 : (a) The set of plotted points represents the graph of a function because every vertical line intersects the set of
points, at most, once. (b) The set of plotted points does not represent the graph of a function because some vertical lines intersect
the set of points more than once.
Example 1.1.3: Finding Zeros and y -Intercepts of a Function

Consider the function f (x) = −4x + 2.
a. Find all zeros of f .
b. Find the y -intercept (if any).
c. Sketch a graph of f .
Solution
1.To find the zeros, solve f (x) = −4x + 2 = 0 . We discover that f has one zero at x = 1/2.
2. The y-intercept is given by (0, f (0)) = (0, 2).
3. Given that f is a linear function of the form f (x) = mx + b that passes through the points (1/2, 0) and (0, 2), we can sketch
the graph of f (Figure 1.1.8).

Figure 1.1.8 : The function f (x) = −4x + 2 is a line with x-intercept (1/2, 0) and y -intercept (0, 2).
Example 1.1.4 : Using Zeros and y-Intercepts to Sketch a Graph

−−−−−
Consider the function f (x) = √x + 3 +1 .
a. Find all zeros of f .
b. Find the y -intercept (if any).
c. Sketch a graph of f .
Solution
−−−−− −−−−− −−−−−
1.To find the zeros, solve √x + 3 + 1 = 0 . This equation implies √x + 3 = −1 . Since √x + 3 ≥0 for all x, this equation has
no solutions, and therefore f has no zeros.
–
2.The y -intercept is given by (0, f (0)) = (0, √3 + 1) .
3.To graph this function, we make a table of values. Since we need x + 3 ≥ 0 , we need to choose values of x ≥ −3 . We choose
values that make the square-root function easy to evaluate.
x -3 -2 1
f (x) 1 2 3
Making use of the table and knowing that, since the function is a square root, the graph of f should be similar to the graph of
−
y = √x , we sketch the graph (Figure 1.1.9).
−−−−−
Figure 1.1.9 : The graph of f (x) = √x + 3 +1 has a y -intercept but no x-intercepts.
Exercise 1.1.4
Find the zeros of f (x) = x 3
− 5x
2
+ 6x.
Hint
Factor the polynomial.
Answer

x = 0, 2, 3
Example 1.1.5 : Finding the Height of a Free-Falling Object

If a ball is dropped from a height of 100 ft, its height s at time t is given by the function s(t) = −16t + 100 , where s is
2
measured in feet and t is measured in seconds. The domain is restricted to the interval [0, c], where t = 0 is the time when the
ball is dropped and t = c is the time when the ball hits the ground.
a. Create a table showing the height s(t) when t = 0, 0.5, 1, 1.5, 2,and 2.5. Using the data from the table, determine the domain
for this function. That is, find the time c when the ball hits the ground.
b. Sketch a graph of s .
Solution
t 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
s(t) 100 96 84 64 36 0
Since the ball hits the ground when t = 2.5 , the domain of this function is the interval [0, 2.5].
2.
Note that for this function and the function f (x) = −4x + 2 graphed in Figure 1.1.8, the values of f (x) are getting smaller as
x is getting larger. A function with this property is said to be decreasing. On the other hand, for the function
−−−−−
f (x) = √x + 3 + 1 graphed in Figure 1.1.9, the values of f (x) are getting larger as the values of x are getting larger. A
function with this property is said to be increasing. It is important to note, however, that a function can be increasing on some
interval or intervals and decreasing over a different interval or intervals. For example, using our temperature function plotted
above, we can see that the function is decreasing on the interval (0, 4), increasing on the interval (4, 14), and then decreasing on
the interval (14, 23). We make the idea of a function increasing or decreasing over a particular interval more precise in the next
definition.
Definition: Increasing and Decreasing on an Interval

We say that a function f is increasing on the interval I if for all x 1, x2 ∈ I ,
f (x1 ) ≤ f (x2 ) when x 1 < x2 .
We say f is strictly increasing on the interval I if for all x 1, x2 ∈ I ,
f (x1 ) < f (x2 ) when x 1 < x2 .
We say that a function f is decreasing on the interval I if for all x 1, x2 ∈ I ,

f (x1 ) ≥ f (x2 ) if x
1 < x2 .
We say that a function f is strictly decreasing on the interval I if for all x 1, x2 ∈ I ,

f (x1 ) > f (x2 ) if x
1 < x2 .
For example, the function f (x) = 3x is increasing on the interval (−∞, ∞) because 3x < 3x whenever x < x . On the other
1 2 1 2
hand, the function f (x) = −x is decreasing on the interval (−∞, ∞) because −x > −x whenever x < x (Figure 1.1.10).
3 3
1
3
2 1 2
Figure 1.1.10 : (a) The function f (x) = 3x is increasing on the interval (−∞, ∞). (b) The function f (x) = −x is decreasing 3
on the interval (−∞, ∞).
Combining Functions
Now that we have reviewed the basic characteristics of functions, we can see what happens to these properties when we combine
functions in different ways, using basic mathematical operations to create new functions. For example, if the cost for a company to
manufacture x items is described by the function C (x) and the revenue created by the sale of x items is described by the function
R(x), then the profit on the manufacture and sale of x items is defined as P (x) = R(x) − C (x) . Using the difference between two
functions, we created a new function.

Alternatively, we can create a new function by composing two functions. For example, given the functions f (x) = x
2
and
g(x) = 3x + 1 , the composite function f ∘ g is defined such that
2 2
(f ∘ g)(x) = f (g(x)) = (g(x)) = (3x + 1 ) . (1.1.10)
The composite function g∘f is defined such that

2
(g ∘ f )(x) = g(f (x)) = 3f (x) + 1 = 3 x + 1. (1.1.11)
Note that these two new functions are different from each other.
Combining Functions with Mathematical Operators
To combine functions using mathematical operators, we simply write the functions with the operator and simplify. Given two
functions f and g , we can define four new functions:
(f + g)(x) = f (x) + g(x) Sum

(f − g)(x) = f (x) − g(x) Difference
(f ⋅ g)(x) = f (x)g(x) Product

f f(x)
(
g
)(x) = forg(x) ≠ 0 Quotient
g(x)
Example 1.1.6 : Combining Functions Using Mathematical Operations

Given the functions f (x) = 2x − 3 and g(x) = x 2
−1 , find each of the following functions and state its domain.
a. (f + g)(x)
b. (f − g)(x)
c. (f ⋅ g)(x)
f
d. ( g
)(x)
Solution
1. (f + g)(x) = (2x − 3) + (x 2
− 1) = x
2
+ 2x − 4.
The domain of this function is the interval (−∞, ∞).

2.(f − g)(x) = (2x − 3) − (x 2
− 1) = −x
2
+ 2x − 2.

3. (f ⋅ g)(x) = (2x − 3)(x 2
− 1) = 2 x
3
− 3x
2
− 2x + 3.

f
4. ( g
)(x) =
2x−3
2
x −1
.
The domain of this function is {x ∣∣ x ≠ ±1 }.
Exercise 1.1.6
For f (x) = x 2
+3 and g(x) = 2x − 5 , find (f /g)(x) and state its domain.
Hint
The new function (f /g)(x)(f /g)(x) is a quotient of two functions. For what values of x is the denominator zero?
Answer
2
f x +3
(
g
)(x) =
2x−5
. The domain is {x|x ≠ 5
2
}.
Function Composition
When we compose functions, we take a function of a function. For example, suppose the temperature T on a given day is described
as a function of time t (measured in hours after midnight) as in Table. Suppose the cost C , to heat or cool a building for 1 hour, can
be described as a function of the temperature T . Combining these two functions, we can describe the cost of heating or cooling a
building as a function of time by evaluating C (T (t)). We have defined a new function, denoted C ∘ T , which is defined such that
(C ∘ T )(t) = C (T (t)) for all t in the domain of T . This new function is called a composite function. We note that since cost is a
function of temperature and temperature is a function of time, it makes sense to define this new function (C ∘ T )(t) . It does not
make sense to consider (T ∘ C )(t) , because temperature is not a function of cost.
Definition: Composite Functions
Consider the function f with domain A and range B , and the function g with domain D and range E . If B is a subset of D ,
then the composite function (g ∘ f )(x) is the function with domain A such that
(g ∘ f )(x) = g(f (x)) (1.1.12)
A composite function g ∘ f can be viewed in two steps. First, the function f maps each input x in the domain of f to its output f (x)
in the range of f . Second, since the range of f is a subset of the domain of g , the output f (x) is an element in the domain of g , and

therefore it is mapped to an output g(f (x)) in the range of g . In Figure 1.1.11, we see a visual image of a composite function.
Figure 1.1.11 : For the composite function g ∘ f , we have (g ∘ f )(1) = 4 ,(g ∘ f )(2) = 5 , and (g ∘ f )(3) = 4 .
Example 1.1.7 : Compositions of Functions Defined by Formulas

Consider the functions f (x) = x 2
+1 and g(x) = 1/x .
a. Find (g ∘ f )(x) and state its domain and range.
b. Evaluate (g ∘ f )(4) ,(g ∘ f )(−1/2).
c. Find (f ∘ g)(x) and state its domain and range.
d. Evaluate (f ∘ g)(4) , (f ∘ g)(−1/2).
Solution
1. We can find the formula for (g ∘ f )(x) in two different ways. We could write
(g ∘ f )(x) = g(f (x)) = g(x
2
+ 1) =
x +1
1
2
.
Alternatively, we could write

1 1
(g ∘ f )(x) = g(f (x)) = = 2
.
f (x) x +1
Since x + 1 ≠ 0 for all real numbers x, the domain of (g ∘ f )(x) is the set of all real numbers. Since 0 < 1/(x2 + 1) ≤ 1 , the
2
range is, at most, the interval (0, 1]. To show that the range is this entire interval, we let y=1/(x2+1) and solve this equation for x
to show that for all y in the interval (0, 1], there exists a real number x such that y = 1/(x + 1) . Solving this equation for x, 2
we see that x + 1 = 1/y , which implies that

2
−−−−−
1
x = ±√ −1
y
If y is in the interval (0, 1], the expression under the radical is nonnegative, and therefore there exists a real number x such that
1/(x + 1) = y . We conclude that the range of g∘f is the interval (0, 1].
2
2. (g ∘ f )(4) = g(f (4)) = g(4 2

+ 1) = g(17) =
1
17
1 1 1 2 5 4
(g ∘ f )(− ) = g(f (− )) = g((− ) + 1) = g( ) =
2 2 2 4 5
3. We can find a formula for (f ∘ g)(x) in two ways. First, we could write
1 1 2
(f ∘ g)(x) = f (g(x)) = f ( ) =( ) + 1.
x x
Alternatively, we could write

2 1 2
(f ∘ g)(x) = f (g(x)) = (g(x)) +1 = ( ) + 1.
x
The domain of f ∘ g is the set of all real numbers x such that x ≠0 . To find the range of f , we need to find all values y for
which there exists a real number x ≠ 0 such that
1 2
( ) + 1 = y.
x
Solving this equation for x, we see that we need x to satisfy

1 2
( ) = y − 1,
x
which simplifies to

1 −−−−
= ±√y − 1
x
Finally, we obtain
x =±
1
.
√y−1
−−−−
Since 1/√y − 1 is a real number if and only if y > 1 , the range of f is the set {y ∣∣ y ≥ 1 }.
4.(f ∘ g)(4) = f (g(4)) = f ( 1
4
) =(
1
4
2
) +1 =
17
16
1 1 2
(f ∘ g)(− ) = f (g(− )) = f (−2) = (−2 ) +1 = 5
2 2
In Example, we can see that (f ∘ g)(x) ≠ (g ∘ f )(x) . This tells us, in general terms, that the order in which we compose functions
matters.
Exercise 1.1.7
Let f (x) = 2 − 5x . Let g(x) = √−
x . Find (f ∘ g)(x) .
Solution
−
(f ∘ g)(x) = 2 − 5 √x .
Example 1.1.8 : Composition of Functions Defined by Tables

Consider the functions f and g described by
x -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
f(x) 0 4 2 4 -2 0 -2 4
x -4 -2 0 2 4
g(x) 1 0 3 0 5
a. Evaluate (g ∘ f )(3) ,(g ∘ f )(0) .

b. State the domain and range of (g ∘ f )(x) .
c. Evaluate (f ∘ f )(3),(f ∘ f )(1).
d. State the domain and range of (f ∘ f )(x).
Solution:
1. (g ∘ f )(3) = g(f (3)) = g(−2) = 0
(g ∘ f )(0) = g(4) = 5
2.The domain of g ∘ f is the set {−3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4}. Since the range of f is the set {−2, 0, 2, 4}, the range of g ∘ f is the
set {0, 3, 5}.
3. (f ∘ f )(3) = f (f (3)) = f (−2) = 4
(f ∘ f )(1) = f (f (1)) = f (−2) = 4
4.The domain of f ∘ f is the set {−3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4}. Since the range of f is the set {−2, 0, 2, 4}, the range of f ∘ f is the
set {0, 4}.
Example 1.1.9 : Application Involving a Composite Function

A store is advertising a sale of 20% off all merchandise. Caroline has a coupon that entitles her to an additional 15% off any
item, including sale merchandise. If Caroline decides to purchase an item with an original price of x dollars, how much will she
end up paying if she applies her coupon to the sale price? Solve this problem by using a composite function.
Solution
Since the sale price is 20% off the original price, if an item is x dollars, its sale price is given by f (x) = 0.80x. Since the
coupon entitles an individual to 15% off the price of any item, if an item is y dollars, the price, after applying the coupon, is

given by g(y)=0.85y. Therefore, if the price is originally x dollars, its sale price will be f (x) = 0.80x and then its final price
after the coupon will be g(f (x)) = 0.85(0.80x) = 0.68x.
Exercise 1.1.9
If items are on sale for 10% off their original price, and a customer has a coupon for an additional 30% off, what will be the
final price for an item that is originally x dollars, after applying the coupon to the sale price?
Hint
The sale price of an item with an original price of x dollars is f (x) = 0.90x . The coupon price for an item that is y dollars is
g(y) = 0.70y.
Solution
(g ∘ f )(x) = 0.63x
Symmetry of Functions
The graphs of certain functions have symmetry properties that help us understand the function and the shape of its graph. For
example, consider the function f (x) = x − 2x − 3 shown in Figure 1.1.12a. If we take the part of the curve that lies to the right
4 2
of the y -axis and flip it over the y -axis, it lays exactly on top of the curve to the left of the y -axis. In this case, we say the function
has symmetry about the y-axis. On the other hand, consider the function f (x) = x − 4x shown in Figure 1.1.12b. If we take the
3
graph and rotate it 180° about the origin, the new graph will look exactly the same. In this case, we say the function has symmetry
about the origin.
Figure 1.1.12 : (a) A graph that is symmetric about the y -axis. (b) A graph that is symmetric about the origin.
If we are given the graph of a function, it is easy to see whether the graph has one of these symmetry properties. But without a
graph, how can we determine algebraically whether a function f has symmetry? Looking at Figure again, we see that since f is
symmetric about the y -axis, if the point (x, y) is on the graph, the point (−x, y) is on the graph. In other words, f (−x) = f (x). If
a function f has this property, we say f is an even function, which has symmetry about the y -axis. For example, f (x) = x is even 2
because
2 2
f (−x) = (−x ) =x = f (x).
In contrast, looking at Figure again, if a function f is symmetric about the origin, then whenever the point (x, y) is on the graph,
the point (−x, −y) is also on the graph. In other words, f (−x) = −f (x). If f has this property, we say f is an odd function, which
has symmetry about the origin. For example, f (x) = x is odd because
3
3 3
f (−x) = (−x ) = −x = −f (x).
Definition: Even and Odd Functions

If f (x) = f (−x) for all x in the domain of f , then f is an even function. An even function is symmetric about the y -axis.

If f (−x) = −f (x) for all x in the domain of f , then f is an odd function. An odd function is symmetric about the origin.
Algebraic Symmetry Test: Is the Function Even, Odd or Neither?

Evaluate f (−x) and compare it to f (x) and −f (x).
If f (x) = f (−x) for all x in the domain of f , then f is an even function.
If f (−x) = −f (x) for all x in the domain of f , then f is an odd function.
If f (−x) is not the same as f (x) and not the same as −f (x) , then \(f) is neither even nor odd.
Example 1.1.10 : Even and Odd Functions

Determine whether each of the following functions is even, odd, or neither.
a. f (x) = −5x + 7x − 2
4 2
b. f (x) = 2x − 4x + 5
5
c. f (x) = 3x
x2 +1
Solution
To determine whether a function is even or odd, we evaluate f (−x) and compare it to f (x) and −f (x).
1. f (−x) = −5(−x ) 4
+ 7(−x )
2
− 2 = −5 x
4
+ 7x
2
− 2 = f (x) . Therefore, f is even.
2.f (−x) = 2(−x ) 5
− 4(−x) + 5 = −2 x
5
+ 4x + 5 . Now, f (−x) ≠ f (x). Furthermore, noting that
−f (x) = −2 x
5
+ 4x − 5 , we see that f (−x) ≠ −f (x). Therefore, f is neither even nor odd.
3.f (−x) = 3(−x)/((−x)2 + 1)= −3x/(x 2
+ 1) = −[3x/(x
2
+ 1)] = −f (x) . Therefore, f is odd.
Exercise 1.1.10
Determine whether f(x)=4x^3−5x is even, odd, or neither.
Hint
Compare f (−x) with f (x) and −f (x) .
Answer
f(x)is odd.
One symmetric function that arises frequently is the absolute value function, written as |x|. The absolute value function is defined
as
−x x <0
f (x) = { (1.1.13)
x x ≥0
Some students describe this function by stating that it “makes everything positive.” By the definition of the absolute value function,
we see that if x < 0 , then |x| = −x > 0 , and if x > 0 , then |x| = x > 0 . However, for x = 0 ,|x| = 0. Therefore, it is more
accurate to say that for all nonzero inputs, the output is positive, but if x = 0 , the output |x| = 0. We conclude that the range of the
absolute value function is {y|y ≥ 0 }. In Figure 1.1.13, we see that the absolute value function is symmetric about the y -axis and is
therefore an even function.

Figure 1.1.13 : The graph of f (x) = |x| is symmetric about the y -axis.
Example 1.1.11 : Working with the Absolute Value Function

Find the domain and range of the function f (x) = 2|x − 3| + 4 .
Solution
Since the absolute value function is defined for all real numbers, the domain of this function is (−∞, ∞). Since |x − 3| ≥ 0 for
all x, the function f (x) = 2|x − 3| + 4 ≥ 4 . Therefore, the range is, at most, the set {y|y ≥ 4 }. To see that the range is, in fact,
this whole set, we need to show that for y ≥ 4 there exists a real number x such that
2|x − 3| + 4 = y
A real number x satisfies this equation as long as

1
|x − 3| = (y − 4)
2
Since y ≥ 4 , we know y −4 ≥ 0 , and thus the right-hand side of the equation is nonnegative, so it is possible that there is a
solution. Furthermore,
−(x − 3) if x < 3
|x − 3| = { .
x −3 if x ≥ 3
Therefore, we see there are two solutions:

x =±
1
2
(y − 4) + 3 .
The range of this function is y|y ≥ 4 .
Exercise 1.1.11 : Domain and Range

For the function f (x) = |x + 2| − 4 , find the domain and range.
Hint
|x + 2| ≥ 0 for all real numbers x .
Answer
Domain = (−∞, ∞) , range = {y|y ≥ −4 }.
Key Concepts
A function is a mapping from a set of inputs to a set of outputs with exactly one output for each input.
If no domain is stated for a function y = f (x),
the domain is considered to be the set of all real numbers x
for which the function is defined.
When sketching the graph of a function f ,
each vertical line may intersect the graph, at most, once.

A function may have any number of zeros, but it has, at most, one y-intercept.
To define the composition g ∘ f , the range of f must be contained in the domain of g .
Even functions are symmetric about the y -axis whereas odd functions are symmetric about the origin.
Key Equations
Composition of two functions
g ∘ f )(x) = g(f (x))
Absolute value function

−x x <0
f (x) = {
x x ≥0
Glossary
absolute value function

−x x <0
f (x) = {
x x ≥0
composite function
given two functions f and g , a new function, denoted g ∘ f , such that (g ∘ f )(x) = g(f (x))
decreasing on the interval II

a function decreasing on the interval I if, for all x 1, x2 ∈ I , f (x1 ) ≥ f (x2 ) if x
1 < x2
dependent variable
the output variable for a function
domain
the set of inputs for a function
even function
a function is even if f (−x) = f (x) for all x in the domain of f
function
a set of inputs, a set of outputs, and a rule for mapping each input to exactly one output
graph of a function
the set of points (x, y) such that x is in the domain of f and y = f (x)
increasing on the interval II

a function increasing on the interval I if for allx1, x2 ∈ I , f (x1) ≤ f (x2) if x1 < x2
independent variable
the input variable for a function
odd function
a function is odd if f (−x) = −f (x) for all x in the domain of f
range
the set of outputs for a function
symmetry about the origin

the graph of a function f is symmetric about the origin if (−x, −y) is on the graph of f whenever (x, y) is on the graph
symmetry about the y-axis

the graph of a function f is symmetric about the y-axis if (−x, y) is on the graph of f whenever (x, y) is on the graph
table of values
a table containing a list of inputs and their corresponding outputs
vertical line test

given the graph of a function, every vertical line intersects the graph, at most, once
zeros of a function
when a real number x is a zero of a function f , f (x) = 0
Contributors
This page titled 1.1: Review of Functions is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by OpenStax.

1.1E: Exercises
1.1E: Review of Functions
For the following exercises, (a) determine the domain and the range of each relation, and (b) state whether the relation is a function.
Exercise:
J1.1.1) Use the Algebraic Symmetry Test to see if each function is even, odd or neither.
a. f (x) = 4x 2
+1
b. f (x) = 2x 3
−x
c. f (x) = 4x + 1
−−−−−
d. f (x) = −x √x 2
+5
e. f (x) = |6x|
f. f (x) = |6x + 2|
g. f (x) = sin θ
h. f (x) = cos θ
1)
x \(y) x y
-3 9 1 1
-2 4 2 4
-1 1 3 9
0 0
Answer:
a. Domain = {−3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3}, range = {0, 1, 4, 9}
b. Yes, a function
2)
x y x y
-3 -2 1 1
-2 -8 2 8
-1 -1 3 -2
0 0
3)
x y x y
1 -3 1 1
2 -2 2 2
3 -1 3 3
0 0
Answer:
a. Domain = {0, 1, 2, 3}, range = {−3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3}
b. No, not a function
4)
x y x y
1 1 5 1
2 1 6 1
3 1 7 1
4 1
5)
x y x y
3 3 15 1
5 2 21 2
8 1 33 3
10 0
Answer:
a. Domain = {3, 5, 8, 10, 15, 21, 33
}, range = {0, 1, 2, 3}
b. Yes, a function
6)
x y x y
-7 11 1 -2
-2 5 3 4
-2 1 6 11
0 -1
Exercise:
For the following exercises, find the values for each function, if they exist, then simplify.
a. f (0) b. f (1) c. f (3) d. f (−x) e. f (a) f. f (a + h)
7) f (x) = 5x − 2
Answer:
a. −2
b. 3
c. 13
d. −5x − 2
e. 5a − 2
f. 5a + 5h − 2
8) f (x) = 4x 2
− 3x + 1
9) f (x) = 2
Answer:
a. Undefined
b. 2
c. 23
d. − 2
e 2
f. a+h
2
10) f (x) = |x − 7| + 8
−−−−−
11) f (x) = √6x + 5
Answer:
–
a. √5
−−
b. √11
−−
c. √23
−−−−−−−
d. √−6x + 5
−−−−−
e. √6a + 5
−−−−−−−−−
f. √6a + 6h + 5
x−2
12) f (x) = 3x+7
13) f (x) = 9
Answer:
a. 9 b. 9 c. 9 d. 9 e. 9 f. 9
For the following exercises, find the domain, range, and all zeros/intercepts, if any, of the functions.
14) f (x) = 2
x −16
x
−−−−−
15) g(x) = √8x − 1
Answer:
x ≥
1
8
; y ≥ 0; x =
1
8
; no y-intercept
16) h(x) = 2
3
x +4
−−−−−
17) f (x) = −1 + √x + 2
Answer:
–
x ≥ −2; y ≥ −1; x = −1; y = −1 + √2
–
18) f (x) = 1x − √9
19) g(x) = 3
x−4
Answer:
x ≠ 4; y ≠ 0 ; no x-intercept; y = − 3
20) f (x) = 4|x + 5|

21) \(g(x)=\sqrt{\frac{7}{x−5}})\
Answer:
x > 5; y > 0 ; no intercepts
For the following exercises, set up a table to sketch the graph of each function using the following values:
x = −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3.22) f (x) = x + 1
2
x y x y
-3 10 1 2
-2 5 2 5
-1 2 3 10
0 1
23) f (x) = 3x − 6
x y x y
-3 -15 1 -3
-2 -12 2 0
-1 -9 3 3
0 -6
Answer:
24) f (x) = 1
2
x +1
x y x y
-3 −
1
2
1 3
-2 0 2 2
-1 1
2
3 5
0 1
25) f (x) = 2|x|
x y x y
-3 6 1 2
-2 4 2 4
-1 2 3 6
0 0
Answer:
26) f (x) = −x 2
x y x y
-3 -9 1 -1
-2 -4 2 -4
-1 -1 3 -9
0 0
27) f (x) = x
3
x y x y
-3 -27 1 1
-2 -8 2 8
-1 -1 3 27
0 0
Answer:
Exercise:
For the following exercises, use the vertical line test to determine whether each of the given graphs represents a function. Assume
that a graph continues at both ends if it extends beyond the given grid. If the graph represents a function, then determine the
following for each graph:
Domain and range
x -intercept, if any (estimate where necessary)
y -Intercept, if any (estimate where necessary)
The intervals for which the function is increasing
The intervals for which the function is decreasing
The intervals for which the function is constant
Symmetry about any axis and/or the origin
Whether the function is even, odd, or neither
28)
29)
Answer:
Function; a. Domain: all real numbers, range: y ≥ 0 b. x = ±1 c. y = 1 d. −1 < x < 0 and 1 < x < ∞e . −∞ < x < −1
and 0 < x < 1 f. Not constant g. y-axis h. Even
30)
31)
Answer:
Function; a. Domain: all real numbers, range: −1.5 ≤ y ≤ 1.5 b. x = 0 c. y = 0 d. all real numbers e. None f. Not constant g.
Origin h. Odd
32)
33)
Answer:
Function; a. Domain: −∞ < x < ∞ , range: −2 ≤ y ≤ 2 b. x = 0 c. y = 0 d. −2 < x < 2 e. Not decreasing f.
−∞ < x < −2 and 2 < x < ∞ g. Origin h. Odd
34)
35)
Answer:
Function; a. Domain: −4 ≤ x ≤ 4 , range: −4 ≤ y ≤ 4 b. x = 1 .2 c. y = 4 d. Not increasing e. 0 < x < 4 f. −4 < x < 0 g.
No Symmetry h. Neither
Exercise:
For the following exercises, for each pair of functions, find a. f + g b. f − g c. f ⋅ g d. f /g. Determine the domain of each of these
new functions.
36) f (x) = 3x + 4, g(x) = x − 2
37) f (x) = x − 8, g(x) = 5x 2
Answer:
x−8
a. 5x 2
+x −8 ; all real numbers b. −5x 2
+x −8 ; all real numbers c. 5x 3
− 40 x
2
; all real numbers d. 5x2
;x ≠ 0
38) f (x) = 3x 2
+ 4x + 1, g(x) = x + 1
39) f (x) = 9 − x 2
, g(x) = x
2
− 2x − 3
Answer:
a. −2x + 6 ; all real numbers b. −2x 2
+ 2x + 12 ; all real numbers c. −x4
+ 2x
3
+ 12 x
2
− 18x − 27 ; all real numbers d.
x+3
− ; x ≠ −1, 3
x+1
40) f (x) = √−
x , g(x) = x − 2
41) f (x) = 6 + 1
x
, g(x) =
1
Answer:
2 1
a. 6 + ; x ≠ 0b. 6; x ≠ 0c. 6x + ; x ≠ 0d. 6x + 1; x ≠ 0
x x
2
Exercise:
For the following exercises, for each pair of functions, find a. (f ∘ g)(x) and b. (g ∘ f )(x) Simplify the results. Find the domain of
each of the results.
42) f (x) = 3x, g(x) = x + 5
43) f (x) = x + 4, g(x) = 4x − 1
Answer:
a. 4x + 3 ; all real numbers b. 4x + 15 ; all real numbers
44) f (x) = 2x + 4, g(x) = x 2
−2
45) f (x) = x 2
+ 7, g(x) = x
2
−3
Answer:
a. x − 6x
4 2
+ 16 ; all real numbers b. x 4 2
+ 14 x + 46 ; all real numbers
46) f (x) = √−
x , g(x) = x + 9
47) f (x) = 3
2x+1
, g(x) =
2
Answer:
4x+2
a. 3x
4+x
; x ≠ 0, −4 b. 3
; x ≠ −12
48) f (x) = |x + 1|, g(x) = x 2

+x −4
49) The table below lists the NBA championship winners for the years 2001 to 2012.
Year Winner
2001 LA Lakers
2002 LA Lakers
2003 Sam Antonio Spurs
2004 Detroit Pistons
2006 Miami Heat
2008 Boston Celtics
2009 LA Lakers
2010 LA Lakers
2011 Dallas Mavericks
2012 Miami Heat
1. Consider the relation in which the domain values are the years 2001 to 2012 and the range is the corresponding winner. Is this
relation a function? Explain why or why not.
2. Consider the relation where the domain values are the winners and the range is the corresponding years. Is this relation a
function? Explain why or why not.
Answer:
a. Yes, because there is only one winner for each year.
b. No, because there are three teams that won more than once during the years 2001 to 2012.
50) [T] The area A of a square depends on the length of the side s.
1.Write a function A(s) for the area of a square.
2.Find and interpret A(6.5).
3.Find the exact and the two-significant-digit approximation to the length of the sides of a square with area 56 square units.
51) [T] The volume of a cube depends on the length of the sides s.
a. Write a function V (s) for the area of a square.
b. Find and interpret V (11.8).
Answer:
a. V (s) = s 3
b. V (11.8) ≈ 1643; a cube of side length 11.8 each has a volume of approximately 1643 cubic units.
52) [T] A rental car company rents cars for a flat fee of $20 and an hourly charge of $10.25. Therefore, the total cost C to rent a car
is a function of the hours $t$ the car is rented plus the flat fee.
a. Write the formula for the function that models this situation.
b. Find the total cost to rent a car for 2 days and 7 hours.
c. Determine how long the car was rented if the bill is $432.73.
53) [T] A vehicle has a 20-gal tank and gets 15 mpg. The number of miles N that can be driven depends on the amount of gas x in
the tank.
a. Write a formula that models this situation.
b. Determine the number of miles the vehicle can travel on (i) a full tank of gas and (ii) 3/4 of a tank of gas.
c. Determine the domain and range of the function.
d. Determine how many times the driver had to stop for gas if she has driven a total of 578 mi.
Answer:
a. N (x) = 15x
b. i. N (20) = 15(20) = 300; therefore, the vehicle can travel 300 mi on a full tank of gas. Ii. N (15) = 225; therefore, the
vehicle can travel 225 mi on 3/4 of a tank of gas.
c. Domain: 0 ≤ x ≤ 20 ; range: [0, 300]
d. The driver had to stop at least once, given that it takes approximately 39 gal of gas to drive a total of 578 mi.
54) [T] The volume V of a sphere depends on the length of its radius as V = (4/3)πr3. Because Earth is not a perfect sphere, we
can use the mean radius when measuring from the center to its surface. The mean radius is the average distance from the physical
center to the surface, based on a large number of samples. Find the volume of Earth with mean radius 6.371 × 106 m.
55) [T] A certain bacterium grows in culture in a circular region. The radius of the circle, measured in centimeters, is given by
r(t) = 6− [5/(t2 + 1)], where t is time measured in hours since a circle of a 1-cm radius of the bacterium was put into the culture.
a. Express the area of the bacteria as a function of time.

b. Find the exact and approximate area of the bacterial culture in 3 hours.
c. Express the circumference of the bacteria as a function of time.
d. Find the exact and approximate circumference of the bacteria in 3 hours.
Answer:
a. A(t) = A(r(t)) = π ⋅ (6 − 2
5 2
)
t +1
b. Exact: 121π
4
; approximately 95 cm2
c. C (t) = C (r(t)) = 2π(6 − 2
5
)
t +1
d. Exact: 11π; approximately 35 cm
56) [T] An American tourist visits Paris and must convert U.S. dollars to Euros, which can be done using the function
E(x) = 0.79x, where x is the number of U.S. dollars and E(x) is the equivalent number of Euros. Since conversion rates
fluctuate, when the tourist returns to the United States 2 weeks later, the conversion from Euros to U.S. dollars is D(x) = 1.245x,
where x is the number of Euros and D(x) is the equivalent number of U.S. dollars.
a. Find the composite function that converts directly from U.S. dollars to U.S. dollars via Euros. Did this tourist lose value in the
conversion process?
b. Use (a) to determine how many U.S. dollars the tourist would get back at the end of her trip if she converted an extra $200 when
she arrived in Paris.
57) [T] The manager at a skateboard shop pays his workers a monthly salary S of $750 plus a commission of $8.50 for each
skateboard they sell.
a.Write a function y = S(x) that models a worker’s monthly salary based on the number of skateboards x he or she sells.
b. Find the approximate monthly salary when a worker sells 25, 40, or 55 skateboards.
c. Use the INTERSECT feature on a graphing calculator to determine the number of skateboards that must be sold for a worker to
earn a monthly income of $1400. (Hint: Find the intersection of the function and the line y = 1400.)
Answer:
a. S(x) = 8.5x + 750
b. $962.50, $1090, $1217.50
c. 77 skateboards
−−−−− −−−− −−
58) [T] Use a graphing calculator to graph the half-circle y = √25 − (x − 4)
2
. Then, use the INTERCEPT feature to find the
value of both the x- and y -intercepts.
We have studied the general characteristics of functions, so now let’s examine some specific classes of functions. We begin by reviewing the basic properties of linear and quadratic functions, and then
generalize to include higher-degree polynomials. By combining root functions with polynomials, we can define general algebraic functions and distinguish them from the transcendental functions we
examine later in this chapter. We finish the section with examples of piecewise-defined functions and take a look at how to sketch the graph of a function that has been shifted, stretched, or reflected
from its initial form.
Linear Functions and Slope

The easiest type of function to consider is a linear function. Linear functions have the form f (x) = ax + b , where a and b are constants. In Figure 1.2.1, we see examples of linear functions when a
is positive, negative, and zero. Note that if a > 0 , the graph of the line rises as x increases. In other words, f (x) = ax + b is increasing on (−∞, ∞). If a < 0 , the graph of the line falls as x
increases. In this case, f (x) = ax + b is decreasing on (−∞, ∞). If a = 0 , the line is horizontal.
Figure 1.2.1 : These linear functions are increasing or decreasing on (∞, ∞) and one function is a horizontal line.
As suggested by Figure, the graph of any linear function is a line. One of the distinguishing features of a line is its slope. The slope is the change in y for each unit change in x. The slope measures
both the steepness and the direction of a line. If the slope is positive, the line points upward when moving from left to right. If the slope is negative, the line points downward when moving from left to
right. If the slope is zero, the line is horizontal. To calculate the slope of a line, we need to determine the ratio of the change in y versus the change in x. To do so, we choose any two points (x , y ) 1 1
y2 − y1
and (x2, y2 ) on the line and calculate . In Figure 1.2.2, we see this ratio is independent of the points chosen.
x2 − x1
Figure 1.2.2 : For any linear function, the slope (y 2 − y1 )/(x2 − x1 ) is independent of the choice of points (x 1, y1 ) and (x
2, y2 ) on the line.
Definition: Linear Functions
Consider line L passing through points (x 1, y1 ) and (x
2, y2 ) . Let Δy = y
2 − y1 and Δx = x 2 − x1 denote the changes in y and x,respectively. The slope of the line is
y2 − y1 Δy
m = = (1.2.1)
x2 − x1 Δx
We now examine the relationship between slope and the formula for a linear function. Consider the linear function given by the formula f (x) = ax + b . As discussed earlier, we know the graph of a
linear function is given by a line. We can use our definition of slope to calculate the slope of this line. As shown, we can determine the slope by calculating (y − y )/(x − x ) for any points 2 1 2 1
(x , y ) and (x , y ) on the line. Evaluating the function f at x = 0 , we see that (0, b) is a point on this line. Evaluating this function at x = 1 , we see that (1, a + b) is also a point on this line.
1 1 2 2
Therefore, the slope of this line is

(a + b) − b
= a. (1.2.2)
1 −0
We have shown that the coefficient a is the slope of the line. We can conclude that the formula f (x) = ax + b describes a line with slope a . Furthermore, because this line intersects the y -axis at the
point (0, b), we see that the y-intercept for this linear function is (0, b). We conclude that the formula f (x) = ax + b tells us the slope, a, and the y -intercept, (0, b), for this line. Since we often use
the symbol m to denote the slope of a line, we can write
f (x) = mx + b (1.2.3)
to denote the slope-intercept form of a linear function.

Sometimes it is convenient to express a linear function in different ways. For example, suppose the graph of a linear function passes through the point (x 1, y1 ) and the slope of the line is m. Since any
other point (x, f (x)) on the graph of f must satisfy the equation
f (x) − y1
m = , (1.2.4)
x − x1
this linear function can be expressed by writing
f (x) − y1 = m(x − x1 ). (1.2.5)
We call this equation the point-slope equation for that linear function.
Since every nonvertical line is the graph of a linear function, the points on a nonvertical line can be described using the slope-intercept or point-slope equations. However, a vertical line does not
represent the graph of a function and cannot be expressed in either of these forms. Instead, a vertical line is described by the equation x = k for some constant k . Since neither the slope-intercept form
nor the point-slope form allows for vertical lines, we use the notation

ax + by = c, (1.2.6)
where a, b are both not zero, to denote the standard form of a line.
Definition: point-slope equation, point-slope equation and the standard form of a line
Consider a line passing through the point (x 1, y1 ) with slope m. The equation
y − y1 = m(x − x1 ) (1.2.7)
is the point-slope equation for that line.

Consider a line with slope m and y -intercept (0, b). The equation
y = mx + b (1.2.8)
is an equation for that line in point-slope equation.

The standard form of a line is given by the equation
ax + by = c, (1.2.9)
where a and b are both not zero. This form is more general because it allows for a vertical line, x = k .
Example 1.2.1 : Finding the Slope and Equations of Lines

Consider the line passing through the points (11, −4) and (−4, 5), as shown in Figure.
Figure 1.2.3 : Finding the equation of a linear function with a graph that is a line between two given points.
1. Find the slope of the line.
2. Find an equation for this linear function in point-slope form.
3. Find an equation for this linear function in slope-intercept form.
Solution
1. The slope of the line is
y2 − y1 5 − (−4) 9 3
m = = =− =− . (1.2.10)
x2 − x1 −4 − 11 15 5
2. To find an equation for the linear function in point-slope form, use the slope m = −3/5 and choose any point on the line. If we choose the point (11, −4), we get the equation
3
f (x) + 4 = − (x − 11). (1.2.11)
5
3. To find an equation for the linear function in slope-intercept form, solve the equation in part b. for f (x). When we do this, we get the equation
3 13
f (x) = − x+ . (1.2.12)
5 5
Exercise 1.2.1
Consider the line passing through points (−3, 2) and (1, 4).
a. Find the slope of the line.
b. Find an equation of that line in point-slope form.
c. Find an equation of that line in slope-intercept form.
Hint
The slope m = Δy/Δx.
Answer a
m = 1/2 .
Answer b
1
The point-slope form is y − 4 = (x − 1) .
2
Answer c
1 7
The slope-intercept form is y = x+ .
2 2
Example 1.2.2 :
Jessica leaves her house at 5:50 a.m. and goes for a 9-mile run. She returns to her house at 7:08 a.m. Answer the following questions, assuming Jessica runs at a constant pace.
a. Describe the distance D (in miles) Jessica runs as a linear function of her run time t (in minutes).
b. Sketch a graph of D.
c. Interpret the meaning of the slope.

Solution:
a. At time t = 0 , Jessica is at her house, so D(0) = 0 . At time t = 78 minutes, Jessica has finished running 9 mi, so D(78) = 9 . The slope of the linear function is
9 −0 3
m = = .
78 − 0 26
The y -intercept is (0, 0), so the equation for this linear function is
3
D(t) = t.
26
b. To graph D, use the fact that the graph passes through the origin and has slope m = 3/26.
c. The slope m = 3/26 ≈ 0.115 describes the distance (in miles) Jessica runs per minute, or her average velocity.
Polynomials
A linear function is a special type of a more general class of functions: polynomials. A polynomial function is any function that can be written in the form
n n−1
f (x) = an x + an−1 x + … + a1 x + a0 (1.2.13)
for some integer n ≥ 0 and constants a , a + n − 1, … , a , where a ≠ 0 . In the case when n = 0 , we allow for a = 0 ; if a = 0 , the function f (x) = 0 is called the zero function. The value n
n 0 n 0 0
is called the degree of the polynomial; the constant an is called the leading coefficient. A linear function of the form f (x) = mx + b is a polynomial of degree 1 if m ≠ 0 and degree 0 if m = 0 . A
polynomial of degree 0 is also called a constant function. A polynomial function of degree 2 is called a quadratic function. In particular, a quadratic function has the form f (x) = ax + bx + c ,
2
where a ≠ 0 . A polynomial function of degree 3 is called a cubic function.
Power Functions
Some polynomial functions are power functions. A power function is any function of the form f (x) = ax , where a and b are any real numbers. The exponent in a power function can be any real
b
number, but here we consider the case when the exponent is a positive integer. (We consider other cases later.) If the exponent is a positive integer, then f (x) = ax is a polynomial. If n is even, then
n
f (x) = ax
n
is an even function because f (−x) = a(−x ) = ax if n is even. If n is odd, then f (x) = ax is an odd function because f (−x) = a(−x ) = −ax if n is odd (Figure 1.2.3).
n n n n n
Figure 1.2.4 : (a) For any even integer n ,f (x) = ax is an even function. (b) For any odd integer n ,f (x) = ax is an odd function.
n n
Behavior at Infinity
To determine the behavior of a function f as the inputs approach infinity, we look at the values f (x) as the inputs, x, become larger. For some functions, the values of f (x) approach a finite number.
For example, for the function f (x) = 2 + 1/x , the values 1/x become closer and closer to zero for all values of x as they get larger and larger. For this function, we say “f (x) approaches two as x
goes to infinity,” and we write f(x)→2 as x→∞. The line y=2 is a horizontal asymptote for the function f (x) = 2 + 1/x because the graph of the function gets closer to the line as x gets larger.
For other functions, the values f (x) may not approach a finite number but instead may become larger for all values of x as they get larger. In that case, we say “f (x) approaches infinity as x
approaches infinity,” and we write f (x) → ∞ as x → ∞ . For example, for the function f (x) = 3x , the outputs f (x) become larger as the inputs x get larger. We can conclude that the function
2
f (x) = 3x
2
approaches infinity as x approaches infinity, and we write 3x → ∞ as x → ∞ . The behavior as x → −∞ and the meaning of f (x) → −∞ as x → ∞ or x → −∞ can be defined
2
similarly. We can describe what happens to the values of f (x) as x → ∞ and as x → −∞ as the end behavior of the function.
To understand the end behavior for polynomial functions, we can focus on quadratic and cubic functions. The behavior for higher-degree polynomials can be analyzed similarly. Consider a quadratic
function f (x) = ax + bx + c . If a > 0 , the values f (x) → ∞ as x → ±∞ . If a < 0 , the values f (x) → −∞ as x → ±∞ . Since the graph of a quadratic function is a parabola, the parabola opens
2
upward if a > 0 .; the parabola opens downward if a < 0 (Figure 1.2.4a).

Now consider a cubic function f (x) = ax + bx + cx + d . If a > 0 , then f (x) → ∞ as x → ∞ and f (x) → −∞ as x → −∞ . If
3 2
a <0 , then f (x) → −∞ as x → ∞ and f (x) → ∞ as
x → −∞ . As we can see from both of these graphs, the leading term of the polynomial determines the end behavior (Figure 1.2.4b).

Figure 1.2.5 : (a) For a quadratic function, if the leading coefficient a > 0 ,the parabola opens upward. If a < 0 , the parabola opens downward. (b) For a cubic function f , if the leading coefficient
a > 0 , the values f (x) → ∞ as x → ∞ and the values f (x) → −∞ as x → −∞ . If the leading coefficient a < 0 , the opposite is true.
Zeros of Polynomial Functions

Another characteristic of the graph of a polynomial function is where it intersects the x-axis. To determine where a function f intersects the x-axis, we need to solve the equation f (x) = 0 for n the
case of the linear function f (x) = mx + b , the x-intercept is given by solving the equation mx + b = 0 . In this case, we see that the x-intercept is given by (−b/m, 0). In the case of a quadratic
function, finding the x-intercept(s) requires finding the zeros of a quadratic equation: ax + bx + c = 0 . In some cases, it is easy to factor the polynomial ax + bx + c to find the zeros. If not, we
2 2
make use of the quadratic formula.

Rule: The Quadratic Formula
Consider the quadratic equation
2
ax + bx + c = 0, (1.2.14)
where a ≠ 0 . The solutions of this equation are given by the quadratic formula
− − −−−−−
2
−b ± √ b − 4ac
x = . (1.2.15)
2a
If the discriminant b − 4ac > 0 , Equation 1.2.15 tells us there are two real numbers that satisfy the quadratic equation. If b
2 2
− 4ac = 0 , this formula tells us there is only one solution, and it is a
real number. If b − 4ac < 0 , no real numbers satisfy the quadratic equation.
2
In the case of higher-degree polynomials, it may be more complicated to determine where the graph intersects the x-axis. In some instances, it is possible to find the x-intercepts by factoring the
polynomial to find its zeros. In other cases, it is impossible to calculate the exact values of the x-intercepts. However, as we see later in the text, in cases such as this, we can use analytical tools to
approximate (to a very high degree) where the x-intercepts are located. Here we focus on the graphs of polynomials for which we can calculate their zeros explicitly.
Example 1.2.3 : Graphing Polynomial Functions

For the following functions,
a. f (x) = −2x + 4x − 1
2
b. f (x) = x − 3x − 4x
3 2
i. describe the behavior of f (x) as x → ±∞ ,

ii. find all zeros of f , and
iii. sketch a graph of f .
Solution
1.The function f (x) = −2x 2
+ 4x − 1 is a quadratic function.
1.Because a = −2 < 0 ,as x → ±∞, f (x) → −∞.
2. To find the zeros of f , use the quadratic formula. The zeros are
−−−−−−−−−−−−
2
√4 − 4(−2)(−1) – – –
−4 ± √8 −4 ± 2 √2 2 ± 2 √2
x = −4 ± = = = .
2(−2) −4 −4 2
3.To sketch the graph of f ,use the information from your previous answers and combine it with the fact that the graph is a parabola opening downward.
2. The function f (x) = x 3

− 3x
2
− 4x is a cubic function.
1.Because a = 1 > 0 ,as x → ∞ , f (x) → ∞. As x → −∞ , f (x) → −∞ .
2.To find the zeros of f , we need to factor the polynomial. First, when we factor \(x|) out of all the terms, we find
2
f (x) = x(x − 3x − 4).
Then, when we factor the quadratic function x 2

− 3x − 4 , we find
f (x) = x(x − 4)(x + 1).

Therefore, the zeros of f are x = 0, 4, −1.
3. Combining the results from parts i. and ii., draw a rough sketch of f .
Exercise 1.2.2
Consider the quadratic function f (x) = 3x 2
− 6x + 2. Find the zeros of f . Does the parabola open upward or downward?
Hint
Ue the quadric formula
Answer
–
The zeros are x = 1 ± √3/3 . The parabola opens upward.
Mathematical Models
A large variety of real-world situations can be described using mathematical models. A mathematical model is a method of simulating real-life situations with mathematical equations. Physicists,
engineers, economists, and other researchers develop models by combining observation with quantitative data to develop equations, functions, graphs, and other mathematical tools to describe the
behavior of various systems accurately. Models are useful because they help predict future outcomes. Examples of mathematical models include the study of population dynamics, investigations of
weather patterns, and predictions of product sales.
As an example, let’s consider a mathematical model that a company could use to describe its revenue for the sale of a particular item. The amount of revenue R a company receives for the sale of n
items sold at a price of p dollars per item is described by the equation R = p ⋅ n . The company is interested in how the sales change as the price of the item changes. Suppose the data in Table show
the number of units a company sells as a function of the price per item.
Number of Units Sold n (in Thousands) as a Function of Price per Unit p (in Dollars)
1
p 6 8 10 12
4
1
2
n 19.4 18.5 16.2 13.8
.
2
In Figure, we see the graph the number of units sold (in thousands) as a function of price (in dollars). We note from the shape of the graph that the number of units sold is likely a linear function of
price per item, and the data can be closely approximated by the linear function n = −1.04p + 26 for 0 ≤ p ≤ 25 , where n predicts the number of units sold in thousands. Using this linear function,
the revenue (in thousands of dollars) can be estimated by the quadratic function
2
R(p) = p ⋅ (−1.04p + 26) = −1.04 p + 26p (1.2.16)
for 0 ≤ p ≤ 25 In Example 1.2.1, we use this quadratic function to predict the amount of revenue the company receives depending on the price the company charges per item. Note that we cannot
conclude definitively the actual number of units sold for values of p, for which no data are collected. However, given the other data values and the graph shown, it seems reasonable that the number of
units sold (in thousands) if the price charged is p dollars may be close to the values predicted by the linear function n = −1.04p + 26.

Figure 1.2.6 : The data collected for the number of items sold as a function of price is roughly linear. We use the linear function n = −1.04p + 26 to estimate this function.
Example 1.2.4 : Maximizing Revenue

A company is interested in predicting the amount of revenue it will receive depending on the price it charges for a particular item. Using the data from Table, the company arrives at the following
quadratic function to model revenue R as a function of price per item p :
2
R(p) = p ⋅ (−1.04p + 26) = −1.04 p + 26p (1.2.17)
for 0≤p≤25.
a. Predict the revenue if the company sells the item at a price of p = $5 and p = $17 .
b. Find the zeros of this function and interpret the meaning of the zeros.
c. Sketch a graph of R .
d. Use the graph to determine the value of p that maximizes revenue. Find the maximum revenue.
Solution
a. Evaluating the revenue function at p = 5 and p = 17 , we can conclude that
2
R(5) = −1.04(5 ) + 26(5) = 104, sorevenue = $104, 000;
2
R(17) = −1.04(17 ) + 26(17) = 141.44, sorevenue = $144, 440.
b. The zeros of this function can be found by solving the equation −1.04p + 26p = 0 . When we factor the quadratic expression, we get p(−1.04p + 26) = 0. The solutions to this equation
2
are given by p = 0, 25. For these values of p, the revenue is zero. When p = $0 , the revenue is zero because the company is giving away its merchandise for free. When p = $25 ,the revenue
is zero because the price is too high, and no one will buy any items.
c. Knowing the fact that the function is quadratic, we also know the graph is a parabola. Since the leading coefficient is negative, the parabola opens downward. One property of parabolas is
that they are symmetric about the axis, so since the zeros are at p = 0 and p = 25 , the parabola must be symmetric about the line halfway between them, or p = 12.5.
d. The function is a parabola with zeros at p = 0 and p = 25 , and it is symmetric about the line p = 12.5, so the maximum revenue occurs at a price of p = $12.50 per item. At that price,
the revenue is R(p) = −1.04(12.5) + 26(12.5) = $162, 500.
2
Algebraic Functions
By allowing for quotients and fractional powers in polynomial functions, we create a larger class of functions. An algebraic function is one that involves addition, subtraction, multiplication,
division, rational powers, and roots. Two types of algebraic functions are rational functions and root functions.
Just as rational numbers are quotients of integers, rational functions are quotients of polynomials. In particular, a rational function is any function of the form f (x) = p(x)/q(x),where p(x) and q(x)
are polynomials. For example,
3x − 1 4
f (x) = and g(x) = 2
5x + 2 x +1
are rational functions. A root function is a power function of the form f (x) = x , where n is a positive integer greater than one. For example, f(x)=x1/2=x√ is the square-root function and
1/n
− −−−− −
= √x ) is the cube-root function. By allowing for compositions of root functions and rational functions, we can create other algebraic functions. For example, f (x) = √4 − x is an
1/3 3 2
g(x) = x

algebraic function.
Example 1.2.5 : Finding Domain and Range for Algebraic Functions

For each of the following functions, find the domain and range.
3x − 1
a. f (x) =
5x + 2
−−−− −
b. f (x) = √4 − x 2
Solution
1.It is not possible to divide by zero, so the domain is the set of real numbers x such that x ≠ −2/5. To find the range, we need to find the values y for which there exists a real number x such that
3x − 1
y =
5x + 2
When we multiply both sides of this equation by 5x + 2 , we see that x must satisfy the equation
5xy + 2y = 3x − 1.
From this equation, we can see that x must satisfy

2y + 1 = x(3 − 5y).
If y=3/5, this equation has no solution. On the other hand, as long as y ≠ 3/5,
2y + 1
x =
3 − 5y
satisfies this equation. We can conclude that the range of f is y|y ≠ 3/5.
2. To find the domain of f , we need 4 − x ≥ 0 . When we factor, we write 4 − x
2 2
= (2 − x)(2 + x) ≥ 0 . This inequality holds if and only if both terms are positive or both terms are negative.
For both terms to be positive, we need to find x such that
2 −x ≥ 0 and 2 + x ≥ 0.
These two inequalities reduce to 2 ≥ x and x ≥ −2 . Therefore, the set x| − 2 ≤ x ≤ 2 must be part of the domain. For both terms to be negative, we need
2 −x ≤ 0 and 2 + x ≥ 0.
These two inequalities also reduce to 2 ≤ x and x ≥ −2 . There are no values of x that satisfy both of these inequalities. Thus, we can conclude the domain of this function is x| − 2 ≤ x ≤ 2.
−−−−−
If −2 ≤ x ≤ 2 , then 0 ≤ 4 − x 2
≤4 . Therefore, 0 ≤ √4 − x2 ≤2 , and the range of f is y|0 ≤ y ≤ 2.
Exercise 1.2.3
Find the domain and range for the function f (x) = (5x + 2)/(2x − 1).
Hint
The denominator cannot be zero. Solve the equation y = (5x + 2)/(2x − 1) for x to find the range.
Answer
The domain is the set of real numbers x such that x ≠ 1/2. The range is the set {y|y ≠ 5/2}.
The root functions f (x) = x have defining characteristics depending on whether n is odd or even. For all even integers n ≥ 2 , the domain of f (x) = x
1/n
is the interval [0, ∞). For all odd
1/n
integers n ≥ 1 , the domain of f (x) = x is the set of all real numbers. Since x = (−x )
1/n
for odd integers n ,f (x) = x
1/n 1/n
is an odd function ifn is odd. See the graphs of root functions for
1/n
different values of n in Figure.
[ [
Figure 1.2.7 : (a) If n is even, the domain of f (x) = √−
x is [0, ∞). (b) If n is odd, the domain of f (x) =
n
]x is (−∞, ∞) and the function f (x) = ]x is an odd function.
n n
Example 1.2.6 : Finding Domains for Algebraic Functions

For each of the following functions, determine the domain of the function.
3
a. f (x) =
x2 − 1
2x + 5
b. f (x) = 2
3x + 4
−−−− −
c. f (x) = √4 − 3x
−−−−−
d. f (x) = √2x − 1
3
Solution
a. You cannot divide by zero, so the domain is the set of values x such that x − 1 ≠ 0 . Therefore, the domain is x|x ≠ ±1.
2
b. You need to determine the values of x for which the denominator is zero. Since 3x + 4 ≥ 4 for all real numbers x, the denominator is never zero. Therefore, the domain is (−∞, ∞).
2
c. Since the square root of a negative number is not a real number, the domain is the set of values x for which 4 − 3x ≥ 0 . Therefore, the domain is x|x ≤ 4/3.
d. The cube root is defined for all real numbers, so the domain is the interval (−∞, ∞).
Exercise 1.2.4
−−−−−
Find the domain for each of the following functions: f (x) = (5 − 2x)/(x 2
+ 2) and g(x) = √5x − 1 .
Hint

Determine the values of x when the expression in the denominator of f is nonzero, and find the values of x when the expression inside the radical of g is nonnegative.
Answer
The domain of f is (−∞, ∞) . The domain of g is x|x ≥ 1/5.
Transcendental Functions
Thus far, we have discussed algebraic functions. Some functions, however, cannot be described by basic algebraic operations. These functions are known as transcendental functions because they
are said to “transcend,” or go beyond, algebra. The most common transcendental functions are trigonometric, exponential, and logarithmic functions. A trigonometric function relates the ratios of two
sides of a right triangle. They are sinx, cosx, tanx, cotx, secx, andcscx. (We discuss trigonometric functions later in the chapter.) An exponential function is a function of the form f (x) = b , x
where the base b > 0, b ≠ 1 . A logarithmic function is a function of the form f (x) = log (x) for some constant b > 0, b ≠ 1, where log (x) = y if and only if b = x . (We also discuss exponential
b b
y
and logarithmic functions later in the chapter.)
Example 1.2.7 : Classifying Algebraic and Transcendental Functions

Classify each of the following functions, a. through c., as algebraic or transcendental.
−−−−−
√x3 + 1
a. f (x) =
4x + 2
2
b. f (x) = 2 x
c. f (x) = sin(2x)
Solution
a. Since this function involves basic algebraic operations only, it is an algebraic function.
b. This function cannot be written as a formula that involves only basic algebraic operations, so it is transcendental. (Note that algebraic functions can only have powers that are rational numbers.)
c. As in part b, this function cannot be written using a formula involving basic algebraic operations only; therefore, this function is transcendental.
Exercise 1.2.5 :
Is f (x) = x/2 an algebraic or a transcendental function?
Answer
Algebraic
Piecewise-Defined Functions
Sometimes a function is defined by different formulas on different parts of its domain. A function with this property is known as a piecewise-defined function. The absolute value function is an
example of a piecewise-defined function because the formula changes with the sign of x:
−x x <0
f (x) = { . (1.2.18)
x x ≥0
Other piecewise-defined functions may be represented by completely different formulas, depending on the part of the domain in which a point falls. To graph a piecewise-defined function, we graph
each part of the function in its respective domain, on the same coordinate system. If the formula for a function is different for x < a and x > a , we need to pay special attention to what happens at
x = a when we graph the function. Sometimes the graph needs to include an open or closed circle to indicate the value of the function at x = a . We examine this in the next example.
Example 1.2.8 : Graphing a Piecewise-Defined Function

Sketch a graph of the following piecewise-defined function:
x + 3, x <1
f (x) = { 2
. (1.2.19)
(x − 2 ) , x ≥1
Solution
Graph the linear function y = x + 3 on the interval (−∞, 1) and graph the quadratic function y = (x − 2) on the interval [1, ∞). Since the value of the function at x = 1 is given by the formula
2
f (x) = (x − 2) , we see that f (1) = 1 . To indicate this on the graph, we draw a closed circle at the point (1, 1). The value of the function is given by f (x) = x + 2 for all x < 1 , but not at x = 1 .
2
To indicate this on the graph, we draw an open circle at (1, 4).
Figure 1.2.8 : This piecewise-defined function is linear for x < 1 and quadratic for x ≥ 1.
2) Sketch a graph of the function
2 − x, x ≤2
f (x) = { .
x + 2, x >2
Solution:

Example 1.2.9 : Parking Fees Described by a Piecewise-Defined Function
In a big city, drivers are charged variable rates for parking in a parking garage. They are charged $10 for the first hour or any part of the first hour and an additional $2 for each hour or part thereof
up to a maximum of $30 for the day. The parking garage is open from 6 a.m. to 12 midnight.
a. Write a piecewise-defined function that describes the cost C to park in the parking garage as a function of hours parked x.
b. Sketch a graph of this function C (x).
Solution
1.Since the parking garage is open 18 hours each day, the domain for this function is x|0 < x ≤ 18. The cost to park a car at this parking garage can be described piecewise by the function
⎧ 10, 0 <x ≤1
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪ 12, 1 <x ≤2
⎪
⎪
⎪
14, 2 <x ≤3
C (x) = ⎨ . (1.2.20)
16, 3 <x ≤4
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪⋮
⎪
⎪
⎩
⎪
30, 10 < x ≤ 18
2.The graph of the function consists of several horizontal line segments.
Exercise 1.2.6
The cost of mailing a letter is a function of the weight of the letter. Suppose the cost of mailing a letter is 49¢ for the first ounce and 21 ¢ for each additional ounce. Write a piecewise-defined
function describing the cost C as a function of the weight x for 0 < x ≤ 3 , where C is measured in cents and x is measured in ounces.
Hint
The piecewise-defined function is constant on the intervals (0,1],(1,2],….
Answer
⎧ 49, 0 <x ≤1
C (x) = ⎨ 70, 1 <x ≤2 (1.2.21)

⎩
91, 2 <x ≤3
Transformations of Functions
We have seen several cases in which we have added, subtracted, or multiplied constants to form variations of simple functions. In the previous example, for instance, we subtracted 2 from the
argument of the function y = x to get the functionf (x) = (x − 2) ). T hissubtractionrepresentsashif tof thef unction\(y = x two units to the right. A shift, horizontally or vertically, is a
2 2 2
type of transformation of a function. Other transformations include horizontal and vertical scalings, and reflections about the axes.
A vertical shift of a function occurs if we add or subtract the same constant to each output y . For c > 0 , the graph of f (x) + c is a shift of the graph of f (x) up c units, whereas the graph of f (x) − c
is a shift of the graph of f (x) down c units. For example, the graph of the function f (x) = x + 4 is the graph of y = x shifted up 4 units; the graph of the function f (x) = x − 4 is the graph of
3 3 3
y =x
3
shifted down 4 units (Figure 1.2.6).

Figure 1.2.9 : (a) For c > 0 , the graph of y = f (x) + c is a vertical shift up c units of the graph of y = f (x). (b) For c > 0 , the graph of y = f (x) − c is a vertical shift down c units of the graph of
y = f (x).
A horizontal shift of a function occurs if we add or subtract the same constant to each input x. For c > 0 , the graph of f (x + c) is a shift of the graph of f (x) to the left c units; the graph of f (x − c)
is a shift of the graph of f (x) to the right c units. Why does the graph shift left when adding a constant and shift right when subtracting a constant? To answer this question, let’s look at an example.
Consider the function f (x) = |x + 3| and evaluate this function at x − 3 . Since f (x − 3) = |x| and x − 3 < x , the graph of f (x) = |x + 3| is the graph of y = |x| shifted left 3 units. Similarly, the
graph of f (x) = |x − 3| is the graph of y = |x| shifted right 3 units (Figure 1.2.7).
Figure 1.2.10 : (a) For c > 0 , the graph of y = f (x + c) is a horizontal shift left c units of the graph of y = f (x). (b) For c > 0 , the graph of y = f (x − c) is a horizontal shift right c units of the
graph of y = f (x).
A vertical scaling of a graph occurs if we multiply all outputs y of a function by the same positive constant. For c > 0 , the graph of the function cf (x) is the graph of f (x) scaled vertically by a factor
of c . If c > 1 , the values of the outputs for the function cf (x) are larger than the values of the outputs for the function f (x); therefore, the graph has been stretched vertically. If 0 < c < 1 , then the
outputs of the function cf (x) are smaller, so the graph has been compressed. For example, the graph of the function f (x) = 3x is the graph of y = x stretched vertically by a factor of 3, whereas
2 2
the graph of f (x) = x /3 is the graph of y = x compressed vertically by a factor of 3 (Figure 1.2.8).
2 2
Figure 1.2.11 : (a) If c > 1 , the graph of y = cf (x) is a vertical stretch of the graph of y = f (x). (b) If 0 < c < 1 , the graph of y = cf (x) is a vertical compression of the graph of y = f (x).
The horizontal scaling of a function occurs if we multiply the inputs x by the same positive constant. For c > 0 , the graph of the function f (cx) is the graph of f (x) scaled horizontally by a factor of
c . If c > 1 , the graph of f (cx) is the graph of f (x) compressed horizontally. If 0 < c < 1 , the graph of f (cx) is the graph of f (x) stretched horizontally. For example, consider the function
− − − − − − −−−
f (x) = √2x and evaluate f at x/2. Since f (x/2) = √x, the graph of f (x) = √2x is the graph of y = √x compressed horizontally. The graph of y = √x/2 is a horizontal stretch of the graph of
−
y = √x (Figure 1.2.9).

Figure 1.2.12 : (a) If c > 1 , the graph of y = f (cx) is a horizontal compression of the graph of y = f (x). (b) If 0 < c < 1 , the graph of y = f (cx) is a horizontal stretch of the graph of y = f (x).
We have explored what happens to the graph of a function f when we multiply f by a constant c > 0 to get a new function cf (x). We have also discussed what happens to the graph of a function
f when we multiply the independent variable x by c > 0 to get a new function f (cx). However, we have not addressed what happens to the graph of the function if the constant c is negative. If we
have a constant c < 0), wecanwrite\(c as a positive number multiplied by −1; but, what kind of transformation do we get when we multiply the function or its argument by −1? When we multiply
all the outputs by −1, we get a reflection about the x-axis. When we multiply all inputs by −1, we get a reflection about the y -axis. For example, the graph of f (x) = −(x + 1) is the graph of
3
y = (x + 1) reflected about the x-axis. The graph of f (x) = (−x ) + 1 is the graph of y = x + 1 reflected about the y -axis (Figure 1.2.10).
3 3 3
Figure 1.2.13 : (a) The graph of y = −f (x) is the graph of y = f (x) reflected about the x-axis. (b) The graph of y = f (−x) is the graph of y = f (x) reflected about the y -axis.
If the graph of a function consists of more than one transformation of another graph, it is important to transform the graph in the correct order. Given a function f (x), the graph of the related function
y = cf (a(x + b)) + d can be obtained from the graph of y = f (x)by performing the transformations in the following order.
Horizontal shift of the graph of y = f (x). If b > 0 , shift left. If b < 0 shift right.
Horizontal scaling of the graph of y = f (x + b) by a factor of |a|. If a < 0 , reflect the graph about the y -axis.
Vertical scaling of the graph of y = f (a(x + b)) by a factor of |c|. If c < 0 , reflect the graph about the x -axis.
Vertical shift of the graph of y = cf (a(x + b)) . If d > 0 , shift up. If d < 0 , shift down.
We can summarize the different transformations and their related effects on the graph of a function in the following table.
Transformation of f (c > 0) Effect of the graph of f
f (x) + c Vertical shift up c units
f (x) − c Vertical shift down c units
f (x + c) Shift left by c units
f (x − c) Shift right by c units
Vertical stretch if c > 1 ;

cf (x)
vertical compression if 0 < c < 1
Horizontal stretch if 0 < c < 1 ;
f (cx)
horizontal compression if c > 1
−f (x) Reflection about the x -axis
−f (x) Reflection about the y -axis
Example 1.2.10 : Transforming a Function

For each of the following functions, a. and b., sketch a graph by using a sequence of transformations of a well-known function.
a. f (x) = −|x + 2| − 3
b. f (x) = √−3
x +1
Solution:
1.Starting with the graph of y = |x|, shift 2 units to the left, reflect about the x-axis, and then shift down 3 units.

Figure 1.2.14 : The function f (x) = −|x + 2| − 3 can be viewed as a sequence of three transformations of the function y = |x|.
2. Starting with the graph of y=x√, reflect about the y-axis, stretch the graph vertically by a factor of 3, and move up 1 unit.
− −
Figure 1.2.15 : The function f (x) = √x + 1 can be viewed as a sequence of three transformations of the function y = √x .
3
Exercise 1.2.7
Describe how the function f (x) = −(x + 1) 2
−4 can be graphed using the graph of y = x and a sequence of transformations
2
Answer
Shift the graph y = x to the left 1 unit, reflect about the x -axis, then shift down 4 units.
2
Key Concepts
The power function f (x) = x is an even function if n is even and n ≠ 0 , and it is an odd function if n is odd.
n
The root function f (x) = x has the domain [0, ∞) if n is even and the domain (−∞, ∞) if n is odd. If n is odd, then f (x) = x
1/n
is an odd function.
1/n
The domain of the rational function f (x) = p(x)/q(x), where p(x) and q(x) are polynomial functions, is the set of x such that q(x) ≠ 0 .
Functions that involve the basic operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, and powers are algebraic functions. All other functions are transcendental. Trigonometric, exponential,
and logarithmic functions are examples of transcendental functions.
A polynomial function f with degree n ≥ 1 satisfies f (x) → ±∞ as x → ±∞ . The sign of the output as x → ∞ depends on the sign of the leading coefficient only and on whether n is even or
odd.
Vertical and horizontal shifts, vertical and horizontal scalings, and reflections about the x- and y -axes are examples of transformations of functions.
Key Equations
Point-slope equation of a line
y − y1 = m(x − x1 )
Slope-intercept form of a line

y = mx + b
Standard form of a line

ax + by = c
Polynomial function
n
x n−1
f (x) = an + an−1 x + ⋯ + a1 x + a0
Glossary
algebraic function
a function involving any combination of only the basic operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, powers, and roots applied to an input variable x
cubic function
a polynomial of degree 3; that is, a function of the form f (x) = ax 3 2
+ bx + cx + d , where a ≠ 0
degree
for a polynomial function, the value of the largest exponent of any term
linear function
a function that can be written in the form f (x) = mx + b
logarithmic function
a function of the form f (x) = log b (x) for some base b > 0, b ≠ 1 such that y = log b (x) if and only if b
y
=x
mathematical model

A method of simulating real-life situations with mathematical equations
piecewise-defined function
a function that is defined differently on different parts of its domain
point-slope equation
equation of a linear function indicating its slope and a point on the graph of the function
polynomial function
a function of the form f (x) = a nx
n
+ an−1 x
n−1
+ … + a1 x + a0
power function
a function of the form f (x) = x for any positive integer n ≥ 1
n
quadratic function
a polynomial of degree 2; that is, a function of the form f (x) = ax 2
+ bx + c where a ≠ 0
rational function
a function of the form f (x) = p(x)/q(x) , where p(x) and q(x) are polynomials
root function
a function of the form f (x) = x 1/n
for any integer n ≥ 2
slope
the change in y for each unit change in x
slope-intercept form
equation of a linear function indicating its slope and y-intercept
transcendental function
a function that cannot be expressed by a combination of basic arithmetic operations
transformation of a function
a shift, scaling, or reflection of a function
Contributors
Gilbert Strang (MIT) and Edwin “Jed” Herman (Harvey Mudd) with many contributing authors. This content by OpenStax is licensed with a CC-BY-SA-NC 4.0 license. Download for free at
http://cnx.org.
This page titled 1.2: Basic Classes of Functions is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by OpenStax.

1.2E: Exercises
1.2E: Exercises
Exercises
For the following exercises, for each pair of points, a. find the slope of the line passing through the points and b. indicate whether
the line is increasing, decreasing, horizontal, or vertical.
59) (−2, 4) and (1, 1)
Answer:
a. −1 b. Decreasing
Answer:
a. −1
b. Decreasing
60) (−1, 4) and (3, −1)

61) (3, 5) and (−1, 2)
Answer:
a. 3/4 b. Increasing
62) (6, 4) and (4, −3)

63) (2, 3) and (5, 7)
Answer:
a. 4/3 b. Decreasing
64) (1, 9) and (−8, 5)

65) (2, 4) and (1, 4)
Answer:
a. 0 b. Horizontal
66) (1, 4) and (1, 0)

For the following exercises, write the equation of the line satisfying the given conditions in slope-intercept form.
67) Slope =−6, passes through (1, 3)
Answer:
y = −6x + 9
68) Slope =3, passes through (−3, 2)

69) Slope = , passes through (0, 4)
1
Answer:
1
y = x +4
3
70) Slope = , x-intercept =8

2
71) Passing through (2, 1 and (−2, −1)
Answer:
1
y = x
2
Solution: y = 1
2
x
72) Passing through (−3, 7) and (1, 2)

73) x-intercept =5 and y -intercept =−3
Answer:
3
y = x −3
5
74) x-Intercept =−6 and y -intercept =9

For the following exercises, for each linear equation, a. give the slope m and y -intercept b, if any, and b. graph the line.
75) y = 2x − 3
Answer:
a. (m = 2, b = −3)
b.
76) y = − 1
7
x +1
77) f (x) = −6x
Answer:
a. (m = −6, b = 0)
b.
a. (m = −6, b = 0)
b.
78) f (x) = −5x + 4
79) 4y + 24 = 0
Answer:
a. m = 0 b.
80) 8x − 4 = 0
81) 2x + 3y = 6
Answer:
a. (m = − 2
3
, b = 2)
b.
82) 6x − 5y + 15 = 0
For the following exercises, for each polynomial, a. find the degree; b. find the zeros, if any; c. find the y -intercept(s), if any; d. use
the leading coefficient to determine the graph’s end behavior; and e. determine algebraically whether the polynomial is even, odd,
or neither.
83) f (x) = 2x 2
− 3x − 5
Answer:
a. 2
5
b. , −1;
2
c. −5
d. Both ends rise
e. N either
84) f (x) = −3x 2

+ 6x
85) f (x) = 1
2
x
2
−1
Answer:
a. 2
–
b. ±√2
c. −1
d. Both ends rise
e. Even
86) f (x) = x 3
+ 3x
2
−x −3
87) f (x) = 3x − x 3
Answer:
a. 3
–
b. 0, ±√3
c. 0
d. Left end rises, right end falls
e. Odd
For the following exercises, use the graph of f (x) = x to graph each transformed function g .
2
Exercise:
88) g(x) = x 2
−1
89) g(x) = (x + 3) 2
+1
Answer:
−
For the following exercises, use the graph of f (x) = √x to graph each transformed function g .
−−−−−
90) g(x) = √x + 2
91) g(x) = −√−
x −1
Answer:
For the following exercises, use the graph of y = f (x) to graph each transformed function g .
92) g(x) = f (x) + 1

93) g(x) = f (x − 1) + 2
Answer:
For the following exercises, for each of the piecewise-defined functions, a. evaluate at the given values of the independent variable
and b. sketch the graph.
4x + 3, x ≤0
94) f (x) = { ; f (−3); f (0); f (2)
−x + 1, x >0
2
x − 3, x ≤0
95) f (x) = { ; f (−4); f (0); f (2)
4x + 3, x >0
Answer:
a. 13, −3, 5
b.
x + 1, x ≤5
96) h(x) = { ; h(0); h(π); h(5)
4, x >5
3
, x ≠2
97) g(x) = { x−2
; g(0); g(−4); g(2)
4, x =2
Answer:
−3 −1
a. 2
,
2
,4
b.
For the following exercises, determine whether the statement is true or false. Explain why.
98) f (x) = (4x + 1)/(7x − 2) is a transcendental function.
99) g(x) = √−
x is an odd root function
3
Answer:
True; n = 3
100) A logarithmic function is an algebraic function.

101) A function of the form f (x) = x , where b is a real valued constant, is an exponential function.
b
Answer:
False; f (x) = x , where b is a real-valued constant, is a power function
b
102) The domain of an even root function is all real numbers.

103) [T] A company purchases some computer equipment for $20,500. At the end of a 3-year period, the value of the equipment
has decreased linearly to $12,300.
a. Find a function y = V (t) that determines the value V of the equipment at the end of t years.
b. Find and interpret the meaning of the x- and y -intercepts for this situation.
c. What is the value of the equipment at the end of 5 years?
d. When will the value of the equipment be $3000?
Answer:
a. V (t) = −2733t + 20500
b. (0, 20, 500) means that the initial purchase price of the equipment is $20, 500;
(7.5, 0) means that in 7.5 years the computer equipment has no value.
c. $6835
d. In approximately 6.4 years.
104) [T] Total online shopping during the Christmas holidays has increased dramatically during the past 5 years. In 2012
(t = 0) ,total online holiday sales were $42.3 billion, whereas in 2013 they were $48.1 billion.
a. Find a linear function S that estimates the total online holiday sales in the year t.
b. Interpret the slope of the graph of S.
c. Use part a. to predict the year when online shopping during Christmas will reach $60 billion.
105) [T] A family bakery makes cupcakes and sells them at local outdoor festivals. For a music festival, there is a fixed cost of
$125 to set up a cupcake stand. The owner estimates that it costs $0.75 to make each cupcake. The owner is interested in
determining the total cost C as a function of number of cupcakes made.
a. Find a linear function that relates cost C to x, the number of cupcakes made.
b. Find the cost to bake 160 cupcakes.
c. If the owner sells the cupcakes for $1.50 apiece, how many cupcakes does she need to sell to start making profit? (Hint:
Use the INTERSECTION function on a calculator to find this number.)
Answer:
a. C = 0.75x + 125
b. $245
c. 167cupcakes
106) [T] A house purchased for $250,000 is expected to be worth twice its purchase price in 18 years.
a. Find a linear function that models the price P of the house versus the number of years t since the original purchase.
b. Interpret the slope of the graph of P.
c. Find the price of the house 15 years from when it was originally purchased.
107) [T] A car was purchased for $26,000. The value of the car depreciates by $1500 per year.
a. Find a linear function that models the value V of the car after t years.
b. Find and interpret V (4).
Answer:
a. V (t) = −1500t + 26, 000 b. In 4 years, the value of the car is $20,000.
108) [T] A condominium in an upscale part of the city was purchased for $432,000. In 35 years it is worth $60,500. Find the rate of
depreciation.
109) [T] The total cost C (in thousands of dollars) to produce a certain item is modeled by the function C (x) = 10.50x + 28, 500,
where x is the number of items produced. Determine the cost to produce 175 items.
Answer:
$30,337.50
110) [T] A professor asks her class to report the amount of time t they spent writing two assignments. Most students report that it
takes them about 45 minutes to type a four-page assignment and about 1.5 hours to type a nine-page assignment.
a. Find the linear function y = N (t) that models this situation, where N is the number of pages typed and t is the time in
minutes.
b. Use part a. to determine how many pages can be typed in 2 hours.
c. Use part a. to determine how long it takes to type a 20-page assignment.
111) [T] The output (as a percent of total capacity) of nuclear power plants in the United States can be modeled by the function
P (t) = 1.8576t + 68.052, where t is time in years and t = 0 corresponds to the beginning of 2000. Use the model to predict the
percentage output in 2015.
Answer:
96% of the total capacity
112) [T] The admissions office at a public university estimates that 65% of the students offered admission to the class of 2019 will
actually enroll.
a. Find the linear function y = N (x) , where N is the number of students that actually enroll and x is the number of all
students offered admission to the class of 2019.
b. If the university wants the 2019 freshman class size to be 1350, determine how many students should be admitted.
Trigonometric functions are used to model many phenomena, including sound waves, vibrations of strings, alternating electrical
current, and the motion of pendulums. In fact, almost any repetitive, or cyclical, motion can be modeled by some combination of
trigonometric functions. In this section, we define the six basic trigonometric functions and look at some of the main identities
involving these functions.
Radian Measure
To use trigonometric functions, we first must understand how to measure the angles. Although we can use both radians and
degrees, radians are a more natural measurement because they are related directly to the unit circle, a circle with radius 1. The
radian measure of an angle is defined as follows. Given an angle θ , let s be the length of the corresponding arc on the unit circle
(Figure). We say the angle corresponding to the arc of length 1 has radian measure 1.
Figure 1.3.1 : The radian measure of an angle θ is the arc length s of the associated arc on the unit circle.
Since an angle of 360° corresponds to the circumference of a circle, or an arc of length 2π, we conclude that an angle with a degree
measure of 360° has a radian measure of 2π. Similarly, we see that 180° is equivalent to π radians. Table shows the relationship
between common degree and radian values.
Table 1.3.1: Common Angles Expressed in Degrees and Radians
Degrees Radians Degrees Radians
0 0 120 2π/3
30 π/6 135 3π/4
45 π/4 150 5π/6
60 π/3 180 2π
90 π/2
Example 1.3.1 : Converting between Radians and Degrees

a. Express 225° using radians.
b. Express 5π/3 rad using degrees.
Solution
o
π rad 180
Use the fact that 180° is equivalent to π radians as a conversion factor: 1 = o
= .
180 π rad
π 5π
a. 225 °=225°⋅ °= rad
180 4
5π 5π 180°
b. rad = ⋅ =300°
3 3 π
Exercise 1.3.1
Express 210 using radians. Express 11π/6 rad using degrees.
o
Hint

π radians is equal to 180°
Answer
7π/6 ; 330°
The Six Basic Trigonometric Functions

Trigonometric functions allow us to use angle measures, in radians or degrees, to find the coordinates of a point on any circle—not
only on a unit circle—or to find an angle given a point on a circle. They also define the relationship among the sides and angles of
a triangle.
To define the trigonometric functions, first consider the unit circle centered at the origin and a point P = (x, y) on the unit circle.
Let θ be an angle with an initial side that lies along the positive x-axis and with a terminal side that is the line segment OP . An
angle in this position is said to be in standard position (Figure 1.3.2). We can then define the values of the six trigonometric
functions for θ in terms of the coordinates x and y .
Figure 1.3.2 : The angle θ is in standard position. The values of the trigonometric functions for θ are defined in terms of the
coordinates x and y .
Definition: Trigonometric functions
Let P = (x, y) be a point on the unit circle centered at the origin O. Let θ be an angle with an initial side along the positive x-
axis and a terminal side given by the line segment OP . The trigonometric functions are then defined as
1
sin θ = y cscθ =
y
1
cosθ = x secθ =
x
y x
tan θ = cot θ =
x y
If x = 0, secθ and tan θ are undefined. If y = 0 , then cot θ and cscθ are undefined.
We can see that for a point P = (x, y) on a circle of radius r with a corresponding angle θ , the coordinates x and y satisfy
x
cos θ = (1.3.1)
r
x = r cos θ (1.3.2)
and
y
sin θ = (1.3.3)
r
y = r sin θ. (1.3.4)
The values of the other trigonometric functions can be expressed in terms of x, y, and r (Figure 1.3.3).
Figure 1.3.3 : For a point P = (x, y) on a circle of radius r, the coordinates x and y satisfy x = r cos θ and y = r sin θ .

Table shows the values of sine and cosine at the major angles in the first quadrant. From this table, we can determine the values of
sine and cosine at the corresponding angles in the other quadrants. The values of the other trigonometric functions are calculated
easily from the values of sin θ and cos θ.
Table 1.3.2: Values of sin θ and cos θ at Major Angles θ in the First Quadrant
θ sin θ cos θ
0 0 1
–
π 1 √3
6 2 2
– –
π √2 √2
4
2 2
–
π √3 1
3 2
2
π
1 0
2
Example 1.3.2 : Evaluating Trigonometric Functions

Evaluate each of the following expressions.
2π
a. sin( )
3
5π
b. cos(− )
6
15π
c. tan( )
4
Solution:
– –
2π 1 √3 2π √3
a) On the unit circle, the angle θ = corresponds to the point (− , ) . Therefore, sin( ) =y = .
3 2 2 3 2
–
5π 5π √3
b) An angle θ = − corresponds to a revolution in the negative direction, as shown. Therefore, cos(− ) =x=− .
6 6 2

15π 7π
c) An angle θ = =2π+ . Therefore, this angle corresponds to more than one revolution, as shown. Knowing the fact that
4 4
– –
7π √2 √2 15π y
an angle of corresponds to the point ( , ) , we can conclude that tan( ) = = −1 .
4 2 2 4 x
Exercise 1.3.2
Evaluate cos(3π/4) and sin(−π/6).
Hint
Look at angles on the unit circle.
Answer
–
cos(3π/4) = −√2/2 (1.3.5)
sin(−π/6) = −1/2 (1.3.6)
As mentioned earlier, the ratios of the side lengths of a right triangle can be expressed in terms of the trigonometric functions
evaluated at either of the acute angles of the triangle. Let θ be one of the acute angles. Let A be the length of the adjacent leg, O be
the length of the opposite leg, and H be the length of the hypotenuse. By inscribing the triangle into a circle of radius H , as shown
in Figure, we see that A, H , and O satisfy the following relationships with θ :
O H
sin θ = cscθ =
H O
A H
cosθ = secθ =
H A
O A
tan θ = cot θ =
A O
Figure 1.3.4 : By inscribing a right triangle in a circle, we can express the ratios of the side lengths in terms of the trigonometric
functions evaluated at θ .
Example 1.3.3 : Constructing a Wooden Ramp

A wooden ramp is to be built with one end on the ground and the other end at the top of a short staircase. If the top of the
staircase is 4 ft from the ground and the angle between the ground and the ramp is to be 10°, how long does the ramp need to
be?
Solution
Let x denote the length of the ramp. In the following image, we see that x needs to satisfy the equation sin(10°) = 4/x .
Solving this equation for x, we see that x = 4/sin(10°)≈23.035 ft.
Exercise 1.3.3
A house painter wants to lean a 20-ft ladder against a house. If the angle between the base of the ladder and the ground is to be
60°, how far from the house should she place the base of the ladder?
Hint
Draw a right triangle with hypotenuse 20.
Answer
10 ft
Trigonometric Identities
A trigonometric identity is an equation involving trigonometric functions that is true for all angles θ for which the functions are
defined. We can use the identities to help us solve or simplify equations. The main trigonometric identities are listed next.
Rule: Trigonometric Identities
Reciprocal identities
sin θ
tan θ = (1.3.7)
cos θ
cos θ
cot θ = (1.3.8)
sin θ
1
cscθ = (1.3.9)
sin θ
1
secθ = (1.3.10)
cos θ
Pythagorean identities
2 2
sin θ + cos θ =1 (1.3.11)
2 2
1 + tan θ = sec θ (1.3.12)
2 2
1 + cot θ = csc θ (1.3.13)
Addition and subtraction formulas

sin(α ± β) = sin α cos β ± cos αsinβ (1.3.14)
cos(α ± β) = cos α cos β ∓ sin α sin β (1.3.15)
Double-angle formulas
sin(2θ) = 2 sin θ cos θ (1.3.16)
2 2 2 2
cos(2θ) = 2 cos θ − 1 = 1 − 2 sin θ = cos θ − sin θ (1.3.17)

Example 1.3.4 : Solving Trigonometric Equations
For each of the following equations, use a trigonometric identity to find all solutions.
a. 1 + cos(2θ) = cos θ
b. sin(2θ) = tan θ
Solution:
a) Using the double-angle formula for cos(2θ), we see that θ is a solution of
1 + cos(2θ) = cos θ (1.3.18)
if and only if
1 + 2 cos 2θ − 1 = cos θ, (1.3.19)
which is true if and only if

2
2 cos θ − cos θ = 0. (1.3.20)
To solve this equation, it is important to note that we need to factor the left-hand side and not divide both sides of the
equation by cos θ. The problem with dividing by cos θ is that it is possible that cos θ is zero. In fact, if we did divide both
sides of the equation by cos θ, we would miss some of the solutions of the original equation. Factoring the left-hand side
of the equation, we see that θ is a solution of this equation if and only if
cos θ(2 cos θ − 1) = 0. (1.3.21)
Since cos θ = 0 when

π π π
θ = , ± π, ± 2π, … , (1.3.22)
2 2 2
and cos θ = 1/2 when

π π π π
θ = , ± 2π, … orθ = − ,− ± 2π, … , (1.3.23)
3 3 3 3
we conclude that the set of solutions to this equation is

π π
θ = + nπ, θ = + 2nπ (1.3.24)
2 3
and
π
θ =− + 2nπ, n = 0, ±1, ±2, … . (1.3.25)
3
b) Using the double-angle formula for sin(2θ) and the reciprocal identity for tan(θ) , the equation can be written as
sin θ
2 sin θ cos θ = . (1.3.26)
cos θ
To solve this equation, we multiply both sides by cos θ to eliminate the denominator, and say that if θ satisfies this
equation, then θ satisfies the equation
2
2 sin θ cos θ − sin θ = 0. (1.3.27)
However, we need to be a little careful here. Even if θ satisfies this new equation, it may not satisfy the original equation
because, to satisfy the original equation, we would need to be able to divide both sides of the equation by cos θ. However,
if cos θ = 0 , we cannot divide both sides of the equation by cos θ. Therefore, it is possible that we may arrive at
extraneous solutions. So, at the end, it is important to check for extraneous solutions. Returning to the equation, it is
important that we factor sin θ out of both terms on the left-hand side instead of dividing both sides of the equation by
sin θ . Factoring the left-hand side of the equation, we can rewrite this equation as
2
sin θ(2 cos θ − 1) = 0. (1.3.28)

Therefore, the solutions are given by the angles θ such that sin θ = 0or cos θ = 1/2 . The solutions of the first equation
2
are θ = 0, ±π, ±2π, … . The solutions of the second equation are θ = π/4, (π/4) ± (π/2), (π/4) ± π, … . After
checking for extraneous solutions, the set of solutions to the equation is
θ = nπ (1.3.29)
and
π nπ
θ = + , n = 0, ±1, ±2, … . (1.3.30)
4 2
Exercise 1.3.4
Find all solutions to the equation cos(2θ) = sin θ.
Hint
Use the double-angle formula for cosine.
Answer
3π π 5π
θ = + 2nπ, + 2nπ, + 2nπ for n = 0, ±1, ±2, …
2 6 6
Example 1.3.5 : Proving a Trigonometric Identity

Prove the trigonometric identity 1 + tan 2
θ = sec θ.
2
Solution:
We start with the identity
2 2
sin θ + cos θ = 1. (1.3.31)
Dividing both sides of this equation by cos 2

θ, we obtain
2
sin θ 1
+1 = . (1.3.32)
2 2
cos θ cos θ
Since sin θ/ cos θ = tan θ and 1/ cos θ = sec θ , we conclude that

2 2
tan θ + 1 = sec θ. (1.3.33)
Exercise 1.3.5
Prove the trigonometric identity 1 + cot 2
θ = csc θ.
2
Answer
Divide both sides of the identity si n 2 2
θ + cos θ = 1 by si n θ. 2
Graphs and Periods of the Trigonometric Functions

We have seen that as we travel around the unit circle, the values of the trigonometric functions repeat. We can see this pattern in the
graphs of the functions. Let P = (x, y) be a point on the unit circle and let θ be the corresponding angle . Since the angle θ and
θ + 2π correspond to the same point P , the values of the trigonometric functions at θ and at θ + 2π are the same. Consequently,
the trigonometric functions are periodic functions. The period of a function f is defined to be the smallest positive value p such
that f (x + p) = f (x) for all values x in the domain of f . The sine, cosine, secant, and cosecant functions have a period of 2π.
Since the tangent and cotangent functions repeat on an interval of length π, their period is π (Figure 1.3.4).

Figure 1.3.5 : The six trigonometric functions are periodic.
Just as with algebraic functions, we can apply transformations to trigonometric functions. In particular, consider the following
function:
f (x) = A sin(B(x − α)) + C . (1.3.34)
In Figure, the constant α causes a horizontal or phase shift. The factor B changes the period. This transformed sine function will
have a period 2π/|B|. The factor A results in a vertical stretch by a factor of |A|. We say |A| is the “amplitude of f .” The constant
C causes a vertical shift.
Figure 1.3.6 : A graph of a general sine function.

Notice in Figure 1.3.5 that the graph of y = cos x is the graph of y = sin x shifted to the left π/2 units. Therefore, we can write
cos x = sin(x + π/2) . Similarly, we can view the graph of y = sinx as the graph of y = cos x shifted right π/2 units, and state
that sin x = cos(x − π/2).

A shifted sine curve arises naturally when graphing the number of hours of daylight in a given location as a function of the day of
the year. For example, suppose a city reports that June 21 is the longest day of the year with 15.7 hours and December 21 is the
shortest day of the year with 8.3 hours. It can be shown that the function
2π
h(t) = 3.7sin( (x − 80.5)) + 12 (1.3.35)
365
is a model for the number of hours of daylight h as a function of day of the year t (Figure 1.3.6).
Figure 1.3.7 : The hours of daylight as a function of day of the year can be modeled by a shifted sine curve.
Example 1.3.6 : Sketching the Graph of a Transformed Sine Curve

Sketch a graph of f (x) = 3 sin(2(x − π4)) + 1.
Solution
This graph is a phase shift of y = sin(x) to the right by π/4 units, followed by a horizontal compression by a factor of 2, a
vertical stretch by a factor of 3, and then a vertical shift by 1 unit. The period of f is π.
Exercise 1.3.6
Describe the relationship between the graph of f (x) = 3 sin(4x) − 5 and the graph of y = sin(x).
Hint

The graph of f can be sketched using the graph of y = sin(x) and a sequence of three transformations.
Answer
To graph f (x) = 3 sin(4x) − 5 , the graph of y = sin(x) needs to be compressed horizontally by a factor of 4, then
stretched vertically by a factor of 3, then shifted down 5 units. The function f will have a period of π/2 and an amplitude of
3.
Key Concepts
Radian measure is defined such that the angle associated with the arc of length 1 on the unit circle has radian measure 1.
An angle with a degree measure of 180° has a radian measure of π rad.
For acute angles θ ,the values of the trigonometric functions are defined as ratios of two sides of a right triangle in which
one of the acute angles is θ .
For a general angle θ , let (x, y) be a point on a circle of radius r corresponding to this angle θ . The trigonometric
functions can be written as ratios involving x, y , and r.
The trigonometric functions are periodic. The sine, cosine, secant, and cosecant functions have period 2π. The tangent
and cotangent functions have period π.
Key Equations
Generalized sine function
f (x) = Asin(B(x − α)) + C
Glossary
periodic function
a function is periodic if it has a repeating pattern as the values of x move from left to right
radians
for a circular arc of length s on a circle of radius 1, the radian measure of the associated angle θ is s
trigonometric functions
functions of an angle defined as ratios of the lengths of the sides of a right triangle
trigonometric identity
an equation involving trigonometric functions that is true for all angles θ for which the functions in the equation are defined
Contributors
This page titled 1.3: Trigonometric Functions is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by
OpenStax.

1.3E: Exercises
1.3: Exercises
For the following exercises, convert each angle in degrees to radians. Write the answer as a multiple of π.
Try to do these without a calculator.
113) 240°
Answer:
4π
rad
3
114) 15°
115) 60°
Answer:
−π
rad
3
116) −225°
117) 330°
Answer:
11π
rad
6
For the following exercises, convert each angle in radians to degrees. Try to do these without a calculator.
118) π
2
rad
119) 7π
6
rad
Answer:
210°
120) 11π
2
rad
121) −3πrad
Answer:
−540°
122) 5π
12
rad
Evaluate the following functional values. Use exact values. Try to do these without a calculator.
123) cos( 4π
3
)
Answer:
-0.5
124) tan( 19π
4
)
125) sin(− 3π
4
)
Answer:
sqrt2
−
2
126) sec(− ) π
127) sin(− π
12
)
Answer:
√3−1
2 √2
128) cos(− 5π
12
)
For the following exercises, consider triangle ABC, a right triangle with a right angle at C. a. Find the missing side of the triangle.
b. Find the six trigonometric function values for the angle at A. Where necessary, round to one decimal place.
129) a = 4, c = 7
Answer:
a. b = 5.7
4 57 40 7 70 57
b. sinA = , cosA = , tanA = , cscA = , secA = , cotA =
7 70 57 4 57 40
130) a = 21, c = 29
(#131 - #134 removed)
For the following exercises, P is a point on the unit circle. a. Find the (exact) missing coordinate value of each point and b. find the
values of the six trigonometric functions for the angle θ with a terminal side that passes through point P . Rationalize denominators.
135) P ( 7
25
, y), y > 0
Answer:
24
a. y =
25
24 7 24 25 25 7
b. sinθ = , cosθ = , tanθ = , cscθ = , secθ = , cotθ =
25 25 7 24 7 24
136) P ( −15
17
, y), y > 0
137) P ( x
√7
), y > 0
Answer:
√2
a. x = − 3
√7 −√2 √−14 3 √7 −3 √2 −√14

b. sinθ = , cosθ = , tanθ = , cscθ = , secθ = , cotθ =
3 3 2 7 2 7
138) P ( −√15
x
), y > 0
For the following exercises, simplify each expression by writing it in terms of sines and cosines, then simplify. The final answer
does not have to be in terms of sine and cosine only.
139) tan 2
x + sinxcscx
Solution: sec 2
x
140) secxsinxcotx
2
141) tan x
2
sec x
Solution: si n 2
x
142) secx − cosx

(#143- #154 removed)
For the following exercises, solve the trigonometric equations on the interval 0 ≤ θ < 2π.
155) 2sinθ − 1 = 0
Answer:
{ π
6
,
5π
6
}
156) 1 + cosθ = 1
157) 2tan 2
θ =2
Answer:
{ π
4
,
3π
4
,
5π
4
,
7π
4
}
158) 4si n 2
θ−2 = 0
–
159) √3cotθ + 1 = 0
Answer:
{ 2π
3
,
5π
3
}
–
160) 3secθ − 2√3 = 0
161) 2cosθsinθ = sinθ
Answer:
{0, π, π
3
,
5π
3
}
162) csc 2
θ + 2cscθ + 1 = 0
(#163- #172 removed)

173) [T] The diameter of a wheel rolling on the ground is 40 in. If the wheel rotates through an angle of 120 °, how many inches
does it move? Approximate to the nearest whole inch.
Answer:
Approximately 42 in.
174) [T] Find the length of the arc intercepted by central angle θ in a circle of radius r. Round to the nearest hundredth.
a. r = 12.8 cm, θ = 5π6 rad b. r = 4.378 cm, θ = 7π6 rad c. r = 0.964 cm, θ = 50 ° d. r = 8.55 cm, θ = 325 °
175) [T] As a point P moves around a circle, the measure of the angle changes. The measure of how fast the angle is changing is
called angular speed, ω, and is given by ω = θ/t , where θ is in radians and t is time. Find the angular speed for the given data.
Round to the nearest thousandth.
a. θ = rad, t = 10 sec
7π
b. θ = rad, t = 8 sec
3π
c. θ = rad, t = 1 min
2π
d. θ = 23.76 rad, t = 14 min
Answer:
a. 0.550rad/sec
b. 0.236rad/sec
c. 0.698rad/min
d. 1.697rad/min
176) [T] A total of 250,000 m2 of land is needed to build a nuclear power plant. Suppose it is decided that the area on which the
power plant is to be built should be circular.
a)Find the radius of the circular land area.
b)If the land area is to form a 45° sector of a circle instead of a whole circle, find the length of the curved side.
177) [T] The area of an isosceles triangle with equal sides of length x is 1
2
2
x sinθ ,
where is the angle formed by the two sides. Find the area of an isosceles triangle with equal sides of length 8 in. and angle
θ
θ = 5π/12 rad.
Answer:
2
≈ 30.9in
178) [T] A particle travels in a circular path at a constant angular speed ω . The angular speed is modeled by the function
ω = 9|cos(πt − π/12)| . Determine the angular speed at t = 9 sec.
179) [T] An alternating current for outlets in a home has voltage given by the function
V (t) = 150cos368t ,
where V is the voltage in volts at time t in seconds.
a) Find the period of the function and interpret its meaning.
b) Determine the number of periods that occur when 1 sec has passed.
Answer:
a. π/184; the voltage repeats every π/184 sec
b. Approximately 59 periods
180) [T] The number of hours of daylight in a northeast city is modeled by the function
N (t) = 12 + 3sin[
2π
365
(t − 79)] ,
where t is the number of days after January 1.
a) Find the amplitude and period.
b) Determine the number of hours of daylight on the longest day of the year.
c) Determine the number of hours of daylight on the shortest day of the year.
d) Determine the number of hours of daylight 90 days after January 1.
e) Sketch the graph of the function for one period starting on January 1.
181) [T] Suppose that T = 50 + 10sin[ (t − 8)] is a mathematical model of the temperature (in degrees Fahrenheit) at t hours
π
12
after midnight on a certain day of the week.

a) Determine the amplitude and period.
b) Find the temperature 7 hours after midnight.
c) At what time does T = 60 °?
d) Sketch the graph of T over 0 ≤ t ≤ 24 .
Answer:
a. Amplitude = 10; period = 24 b. 47.4°F c. 14 hours later, or 2 p.m. d.
182) [T] The function H (t) = 8sin(
π
6
t) models the height H (in feet) of the tide t hours after midnight. Assume that t =0 is
midnight.
a) Find the amplitude and period.
b) Graph the function over one period.
c) What is the height of the tide at 4:30 a.m.?
An inverse function reverses the operation done by a particular function. In other words, whatever a function does, the inverse
function undoes it. In this section, we define an inverse function formally and state the necessary conditions for an inverse function
to exist. We examine how to find an inverse function and study the relationship between the graph of a function and the graph of its
inverse. Then we apply these ideas to define and discuss properties of the inverse trigonometric functions.
Existence of an Inverse Function

We begin with an example. Given a function f and an output y = f (x), we are often interested in finding what value or values x
were mapped to y by f . For example, consider the function f (x) = x + 4 . Since any output y = x + 4 , we can solve this
3 3
− −−−
equation for x to find that the input is x = √y − 4 . This equation defines x as a function of y . Denoting this function as f , and
3 −1
− −− −
writing x = f (y) = √y − 4 , we see that for any x in the domain of f , f f (x)) = f (x + 4) = x . Thus, this new function,
−1 3 −1 −1 3
f
−1
, “undid” what the original function f did. A function with this property is called the inverse function of the original function.
Definition: Inverse Functions
Given a function f with domain D and range R , its inverse function (if it exists) is the function f −1
with domain R and range
D such that f (y) = x if f (x) = y . In other words, for a function f and its inverse f ,
−1 −1
f
−1
(f (x)) = x for all x in D, and f (f −1
(y)) = y for all y in R .
Note that f is read as “f inverse.” Here, the −1 is not used as an exponent and f
−1 −1
(x) ≠ 1/f (x) . Figure shows the relationship
between the domain and range of f and the domain and range of f . −1
Figure 1.4.1 : Given a function f and its inverse f , f (y) = x if and only if f (x) = y . The range of f becomes the domain of
−1 −1
f and the domain of f becomes the range of f .

−1 −1
Recall that a function has exactly one output for each input. Therefore, to define an inverse function, we need to map each input to
exactly one output. For example, let’s try to find the inverse function for f (x) = x . Solving the equation y = x for x, we arrive
2 2
at the equation x = ±√y . This equation does not describe x as a function of y because there are two solutions to this equation for
every y > 0 . The problem with trying to find an inverse function for f (x) = x is that two inputs are sent to the same output for
2
each output y > 0 . The function f (x) = x + 4 discussed earlier did not have this problem. For that function, each input was sent
3
to a different output. A function that sends each input to a different output is called a one-to-one function.
Definition: One-to-One functions
We say a f is a one-to-one function if f (x 1) ≠ f (x2 ) when x
1 ≠ x2 .
One way to determine whether a function is one-to-one is by looking at its graph. If a function is one-to-one, then no two inputs can
be sent to the same output. Therefore, if we draw a horizontal line anywhere in the xy-plane, according to the horizontal line test,
it cannot intersect the graph more than once. We note that the horizontal line test is different from the vertical line test. The vertical
line test determines whether a graph is the graph of a function. The horizontal line test determines whether a function is one-to-one
(Figure).
Horizontal Line Test
A function f is one-to-one if and only if every horizontal line intersects the graph of f no more than once.

Figure 1.4.2 : (a) The function f (x) = x is not one-to-one because it fails the horizontal line test. (b) The function f (x) = x is
2 3
one-to-one because it passes the horizontal line test.
Example 1.4.1 : Determining Whether a Function Is One-to-One

For each of the following functions, use the horizontal line test to determine whether it is one-to-one.
a)
b)
Solution:
a) Since the horizontal line y = n for any integer n ≥ 0 intersects the graph more than once, this function is not one-to-one.

b) Since every horizontal line intersects the graph once (at most), this function is one-to-one.
Exercise 1.4.1
Is the function f graphed in the following image one-to-one?
Solution
Use the horizontal line test.
Answer
No

Finding a Function’s Inverse
We can now consider one-to-one functions and show how to find their inverses. Recall that a function maps elements in the domain
of f to elements in the range of f . The inverse function maps each element from the range of f back to its corresponding element
from the domain of f . Therefore, to find the inverse function of a one-to-one function f , given any y in the range of f , we need to
determine which x in the domain of f satisfies f (x) = y . Since f is one-to-one, there is exactly one such value x. We can find that
value x by solving the equation f (x) = y for x. Doing so, we are able to write x as a function of y where the domain of this
function is the range of f and the range of this new function is the domain of f . Consequently, this function is the inverse of f , and
we write x = f (y) . Since we typically use the variable x to denote the independent variable and y to denote the dependent
−1
variable, we often interchange the roles of x and y , and write y = f (x) . Representing the inverse function in this way is also
−1
helpful later when we graph a function f and its inverse f on the same axes. −1
Problem-Solving Strategy: Finding an Inverse Function

1. Solve the equation y = f (x) for x.
2. Interchange the variables x and y and write y = f −1
(x) .
Example 1.4.2 : Finding an Inverse Function

Find the inverse for the function f (x) = 3x − 4. State the domain and range of the inverse function. Verify that
−1
f (f (x)) = x.
Solution
Follow the steps outlined in the strategy.
Step 1. I f y = 3x − 4, then 3x = y + 4 and x = 1
3
y+
4
3
.
Step 2. Rewrite as y = 1
3
x+
4
3
and let y = f −1
(x) .Therefore, f −1
(x) =
1
3
x+
4
3
.
Since the domain of f is (−∞, ∞) , the range of f
−1
is (−∞, ∞) . Since the range of f is (−∞, ∞) , the domain of f
−1
is
(−∞, ∞) .
You can verify that f −1

(f (x)) = x by writing
−1 −1 1 4 4 4
f (f (x)) = f (3x − 4) = (3x − 4) + =x− + = x.
3 3 3 3
Note that for f

−1
(x) to be the inverse of f (x), both f −1
(f (x)) = x and f (f −1
(x)) = x for all x in the domain of the inside
function.
Exercise 1.4.2
Find the inverse of the function f (x) = 3x/(x − 2). State the domain and range of the inverse function.
Hint
Use the Problem-Solving Strategy for finding inverse functions.
Answer
f
−1
(x) =
x−3
2x
. The domain of f −1
is x|x ≠ 3 . The range of f −1
is y|y ≠ 2.
Graphing Inverse Functions

Let’s consider the relationship between the graph of a function f and the graph of its inverse. Consider the graph of f shown in
Figure and a point (a, b) on the graph. Since b = f (a) , then f (b) = a . Therefore, when we graph f , the point (b, a) is on the
−1 −1
graph. As a result, the graph of f is a reflection of the graph of f about the line y = x .
−1

Figure 1.4.3 : (a) The graph of this function f shows point (a, b) on the graph of f . (b) Since (a, b) is on the graph of f , the point
(b, a) is on the graph of f . The graph of f is a reflection of the graph of f about the line y = x .
−1 −1
Example 1.4.3 : Sketching Graphs of Inverse Functions

For the graph of f in the following image, sketch a graph of f −1
by sketching the line y = x and using symmetry. Identify the
domain and range of f . −1
Solution
Reflect the graph about the line y = x . The domain of f is [0, ∞). The range of f is [−2, ∞). By using the preceding
−1 −1
strategy for finding inverse functions, we can verify that the inverse function is f (x) = x − 2 , as shown in the graph.
−1 2
Exercise 1.4.3
Sketch the graph of f (x) = 2x + 3 and the graph of its inverse using the symmetry property of inverse functions.
Hint

The graphs are symmetric about the line y = x
Answer
Restricting Domains
As we have seen, f (x) = x does not have an inverse function because it is not one-to-one. However, we can choose a subset of
2
the domain of f such that the function is one-to-one. This subset is called a restricted domain. By restricting the domain of f , we
can define a new function g such that the domain of g is the restricted domain of f and g(x) = f (x) for all x in the domain of g .
Then we can define an inverse function for g on that domain. For example, since f (x) = x is one-to-one on the interval [0, ∞),
2
we can define a new function g such that the domain of g is [0, ∞) and g(x) = x for all x in its domain. Since g is a one-to-one
2
function, it has an inverse function, given by the formula g (x) = √−

−1
x . On the other hand, the function f (x) = x is also one-to-
2
one on the domain (−∞, 0]. Therefore, we could also define a new function h such that the domain of h is (−∞, 0] and
h(x) = x for all x in the domain of h . Then h is a one-to-one function and must also have an inverse. Its inverse is given by the
2
formula h (x) = −√−

−1
x (Figure).
− −
Figure 1.4.4 : (a) For g(x) = x restricted to [0, ∞),g
2 −1
(x) = √x . (b) For h(x) = x restricted to (−∞, 0],h
2 −1
(x) = −√x .
Example 1.4.4 : Restricting the Domain

Consider the function f (x) = (x + 1) . 2
a. Sketch the graph of f and use the horizontal line test to show that f is not one-to-one.
b. Show that f is one-to-one on the restricted domain [−1, ∞). Determine the domain and range for the inverse of f on this
restricted domain and find a formula for f . −1
Solution
a) The graph of f is the graph of y = x shifted left 1 unit. Since there exists a horizontal line intersecting the graph more than
2
once, f is not one-to-one.

b) On the interval [−1,∞),f is one-to-one.
The domain and range of f are given by the range and domain of f , respectively. Therefore, the domain of f is [0, ∞) and
−1 −1
the range of f is [−1, ∞). To find a formula for f , solve the equation y = (x + 1) for x. If y = (x + 1) , then
−1 −1 2 2
x = −1 ± √y . Since we are restricting the domain to the interval where x ≥ −1 , we need ±√y ≥ 0 . Therefore,
− −
x = −1 + √y . Interchanging x and y , we write y = −1 + √x and conclude that f (x) = −1 + √x .
−1
Exercise 1.4.4
Consider f (x) = 1/x restricted to the domain (−∞, 0). Verify that f is one-to-one on this domain. Determine the domain and
2
range of the inverse of f and find a formula for f . −1
Hint
The domain and range of f −1
is given by the range and domain of f , respectively. To find f −1
, solve y = 1/x for x .
2
Answer
The domain of f
−1
is (0, ∞) . The range of f
−1
is (−∞, 0) . The inverse function is given by the formula
−
f
−1
(x) = −1/ √x .
Inverse Trigonometric Functions

The six basic trigonometric functions are periodic, and therefore they are not one-to-one. However, if we restrict the domain of a
trigonometric function to an interval where it is one-to-one, we can define its inverse. Consider the sine function ([link]). The sine
function is one-to-one on an infinite number of intervals, but the standard convention is to restrict the domain to the interval
].By doing so, we define the inverse sine function on the domain [−1, 1] such that for any x in the interval [−1, 1], the
π π
[− ,
2 2
inverse sine function tells us which angle θ in the interval [− , ] satisfies sinθ = x . Similarly, we can restrict the domains of the
π
2
π
other trigonometric functions to define inverse trigonometric functions, which are functions that tell us which angle in a certain
interval has a specified trigonometric value.
Definition

The inverse sine function, denoted sin or arcsin, and the inverse cosine function, denoted cos
−1 −1
or arccos, are defined on the
domain D = x| − 1 ≤ x ≤ 1 as follows:
sin
−1
(x) = y if and only if sin(y) = x and − π
2
≤y ≤
π
2
;
cos
−1
(x) = y if and only if cos(y) = x and 0 ≤ y ≤ π .
The inverse tangent function, denoted tan or arctan, and inverse cotangent function, denoted cot
−1 −1
or arccot, are defined on
the domain D = x| − ∞ < x < ∞ as follows:
tan
−1
(x) = y if and only if tan(y) = x and − π
2
<y <
π
2
;
cot
−1
(x) = y if and only if cot(y) = x and 0 < y < π .
The inverse cosecant function, denoted csc
−1
or arccsc, and inverse secant function, denoted sec
−1
or arcsec, are defined on
the domain D = x||x| ≥ 1 as follows:
csc
−1
(x) = y if and only if csc(y) = x and − π
2
≤y ≤
π
2
,y ≠0 ;
sec
−1
(x) = y if and only if sec(y) = x and0 ≤ y ≤ π, y ≠ π/2 .
To graph the inverse trigonometric functions, we use the graphs of the trigonometric functions restricted to the domains defined
earlier and reflect the graphs about the line y = x (Figure).
Figure 1.4.5 : The graph of each of the inverse trigonometric functions is a reflection about the line y = x of the corresponding
restricted trigonometric function.
When evaluating an inverse trigonometric function, the output is an angle. For example, to evaluate cos (12), we need to find an −1
angle θ such that cosθ = . Clearly, many angles have this property. However, given the definition of cos , we need the angle θ
1
2
−1
that not only solves this equation, but also lies in the interval [0, π]. We conclude that cos ( ) = . −1 1
2
π
We now consider a composition of a trigonometric function and its inverse. For example, consider the two expressions
√2
sin(sin
−1
(
2
)) and sin
−1
(sin(π)).

For the first one, we simplify as follows:
– –
√2 π √2
−1
sin(sin ( )) = sin( ) = . (1.4.1)
2 4 2
For the second one, we have

−1 −1
sin (sin(π)) = sin (0) = 0. (1.4.2)
The inverse function is supposed to “undo” the original function, so why isn’t sin (sin(π)) = π? Recalling our definition of
−1
inverse functions, a function f and its inverse f satisfy the conditions f (f (y)) = y for all y in the domain of f
−1 −1
and −1
(f (x)) = x for all x in the domain of f , so what happened here? The issue is that the inverse sine function, sin , is the
−1 −1
f
inverse of the restricted sine function defined on the domain [− , ]. Therefore, for x in the interval [− , ], it is true that
π
2
π
2
π
2
π
(sin x) = x . However, for values of x outside this interval, the equation does not hold, even though sin (sin x) is defined
−1 −1
sin
for all real numbers x.

What about sin(sin −1
y)? Does that have a similar issue? The answer is no. Since the domain of sin−1 is the interval [−1, 1] , we
conclude that sin(sin −1
y) = y if −1 ≤ y ≤ 1 and the expression is not defined for other values of y . To summarize,
sin(sin
−1
y) = y if −1 ≤ y ≤ 1
and
(sin
−1
(sin x) = x if − π
2
≤x ≤
π
2
.
Similarly, for the cosine function,

cos(cos
−1
y) = y if −1 ≤ y ≤ 1
and
cos
−1
(cos x) = x if 0 ≤ x ≤ π.
Similar properties hold for the other trigonometric functions and their inverses.
Example 1.4.5 : Evaluating Expressions Involving Inverse Trigonometric Functions

√3
a. sin (−
−1
2
)
b. tan(tan −1
(−
1
√3
))
c. cos −1
(cos(
5π
4
))
d. sin−1
(cos(
2π
3
))
Solution
– –
a. Evaluating sin (−√3/2) is equivalent to finding the angle θ such that sinθ = −√3/2 and −π/2 ≤ θ ≤ π/2 . The
−1
–
angle θ = −π/3 satisfies these two conditions. Therefore, sin (−√3/2) = −π/3. −1
–
b. First we use the fact that tan (−1/3√) = −π/6. Then tan(π/6) = −1/√3. Therefore,
−1
– –
(−1/ √3)) = −1/ √3 .
−1
tan(tan
–
c. To evaluate cos 1(cos(5π/4)),first use the fact that cos(5π/4) = −√2/2. Then we need to find the angle θ such
−
–
that cos(θ) = −√2/2 and 0 ≤ θ ≤ π . Since 3π/4 satisfies both these conditions, we have
–
(−√2√2)) = 3π/4.
−1 −1
cos(cos (5π/4)) = cos(cos
d. Since cos(2π/3) = −1/2, we need to evaluate sin (−1/2). That is, we need to find the angle θ such that
−1
sin(θ) = −1/2 and −π/2 ≤ θ ≤ π/2 . Since −π/6 satisfies both these conditions, we can conclude that
−1 −1
sin (cos(2π/3)) = sin (−1/2) = −π/6.
The Maximum Value of a Function

In many areas of science, engineering, and mathematics, it is useful to know the maximum value a function can obtain, even if
we don’t know its exact value at a given instant. For instance, if we have a function describing the strength of a roof beam, we
would want to know the maximum weight the beam can support without breaking. If we have a function that describes the speed

of a train, we would want to know its maximum speed before it jumps off the rails. Safe design often depends on knowing
maximum values.
This project describes a simple example of a function with a maximum value that depends on two equation coefficients. We will
see that maximum values can depend on several factors other than the independent variable x.
1. Consider the graph in Figure of the function y = sin x + cos x. Describe its overall shape. Is it periodic? How do you know?
Figure 1.4.6 : The graph of y=\sin x+\cos x.

Using a graphing calculator or other graphing device, estimate the x- and y -values of the maximum point for the graph (the first
such point where x > 0). It may be helpful to express the x-value as a multiple of π.
2. Now consider other graphs of the form y = A sin x + B cos x for various values of A and B. Sketch the graph when A = 2
and B = 1, and find the x- and y-values for the maximum point. (Remember to express the x-value as a multiple of π, if
possible.) Has it moved?
3. Repeat for A = 1, B = 2. Is there any relationship to what you found in part (2)?
4. Complete the following table, adding a few choices of your own for A and B:
A B x y A B x y
0 1 3 4
1 0 4 3
–
1 1 √3 1
–
1 2 1 √3
2 1 12 5
2 2 5 12
5. Try to figure out the formula for the y -values.

– –
6. The formula for the x-values is a little harder. The most helpful points from the table are (1, 1), (1, √3), (√3, 1). (Hint:
Consider inverse trigonometric functions.)
7. If you found formulas for parts (5) and (6), show that they work together. That is, substitute the x -value formula you found
into y = A sin x + B cos x and simplify it to arrive at the y -value formula you found.
Key Concepts
For a function to have an inverse, the function must be one-to-one. Given the graph of a function, we can determine whether the
function is one-to-one by using the horizontal line test.
If a function is not one-to-one, we can restrict the domain to a smaller domain where the function is one-to-one and then define
the inverse of the function on the smaller domain.
For a function f and its inverse f , f (f − 1(x)) = x for all x in the domain of f and f (f (x)) = x for all x in the
−1 −1 −1
domain of f .

Since the trigonometric functions are periodic, we need to restrict their domains to define the inverse trigonometric functions.
The graph of a function f and its inverse f are symmetric about the line y = x.
−1
Key Equations
Inverse function
f
−1
(f (x)) = x for all x in D, and f (f −1
(y)) = y for all y in R .
Glossary
horizontal line test
a function f is one-to-one if and only if every horizontal line intersects the graph of f ,at most, once
inverse function
for a function f , the inverse function f −1
satisfies f −1
(y) = x if f (x) = y
inverse trigonometric functions

the inverses of the trigonometric functions are defined on restricted domains where they are one-to-one functions
one-to-one function
a function f is one-to-one if f (x 1) ≠ f (x2 ) if x
1 ≠ x2
restricted domain
a subset of the domain of a function f
Contributors
This page titled 1.4: Inverse Functions is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by OpenStax.

1.4E: Exercises
1.4: Exercises
For the following exercises, use the horizontal line test to determine whether each of the given graphs is one-to-one.
183)
Answer:
Not one-to-one
184)
185)
Answer:
Not one-to-one
186)
187)
Answer:
One-to-one
188)
For the following exercises, a. find the inverse function, and b. find the domain and range of the inverse function.
189) f (x) = x 2
− 4, x ≥ 0
Answer:
−−−−−
a. f (x) = √x + 4
−1
b. Domain : x ≥ −4 ,range:y ≥ 0
−−−−−
190) f (x) = √x − 4
3
191) f (x) = 3
+1
Answer:
a. f (x) =
−1 3
x−1
b. Domain: all real numbers, range: all real numbers
192) f (x) = (x − 1) 2
,x ≤1
−−−−−
193) f (x) = √x − 1
Answer:
a. f (x) = x + 1
−1 2
b. Domain: x ≥ 0 , range: y ≥ 1
194) f (x) = 1
x+2
For the following exercises, use the graph of f to sketch the graph of its inverse function.
195)
Answer:
196)
197)
Answer:
198)
For the following exercises, use composition to determine which pairs of functions are inverses.
199) f (x) = 8x, g(x) = x
Answer:
These are inverses.
200) f (x) = 8x + 3, g(x) = x−3
201) f (x) = 5x − 7, g(x) = x+5
Answer:
These are not inverses.
202) f (x) = 2
3
x + 2, g(x) =
3
2
x +3
203) f (x) = x−1
1
, x ≠ 1, g(x) =
1
x
+ 1, x ≠ 0
Answer:
These are inverses.
204) f (x) = x 3
+ 1, g(x) = (x − 1 )
1/3
−
205) f (x) = x 2
+ 2x + 1, x ≥ −1, g(x) = −1 + √x , x ≥ 0
Answer:
These are inverses.
−−−−− −−−− −
206) f (x) = √4 − x 2 2
, 0 ≤ x ≤ 2, g(x) = √4 − x , 0 ≤ x ≤ 2
For the following exercises, evaluate the functions. Give the exact value. Do these without a calculator.
√3
207) tan −1
(
3
)
Answer:
π
√2
208) cos −1
(−
2
)
209) cot −1
(1)
Answer:
π
210) si n −1
(−1)
√3
211) cos −1
(
2
)
Answer:
π
–
212) cos(tan −1
(√3))
√2
213) sin(cos −1
(
2
))
Answer:
√2
214) si n −1
(sin(
π
3
))
215) tan −1
(tan(−
π
6
))
Answer:
π
−
6
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
216) The function C = T (F ) = (5/9)(F − 32) converts degrees Fahrenheit to degrees Celsius.
a) Find the inverse function F =T
−1
(C )
b) What is the inverse function used for?

217) [T] The velocity V (in centimeters per second) of blood in an artery at a distance x cm from the center of the artery can be
modeled by the function V = f (x) = 500(0.04 − x ) for 0 ≤ x ≤ 0.2. 2
a) Find x = f −1
(V ).
b) Interpret what the inverse function is used for.
c) Find the distance from the center of an artery with a velocity of 15 cm/sec, 10 cm/sec, and 5 cm/sec.
Answer:
a. x = f (V ) =\sqrt{0.04−\frac{V}{500}}\)
−1
b. The inverse function determines the distance from the center of the artery at which blood is flowing with velocity V.
c. 0.1 cm; 0.14 cm; 0.17 cm
218) A function that converts dress sizes in the United States to those in Europe is given by D(x) = 2x + 24.
a) Find the European dress sizes that correspond to sizes 6, 8, 10, and 12 in the United States.
b) Find the function that converts European dress sizes to U.S. dress sizes.
c) Use part b. to find the dress sizes in the United States that correspond to 46, 52, 62, and 70.
219) [T] The cost to remove a toxin from a lake is modeled by the function C (p) = 75p/(85 − p), where C is the cost (in
thousands of dollars) and p is the amount of toxin in a small lake (measured in parts per billion [ppb]). This model is valid only
when the amount of toxin is less than 85 ppb.
a) Find the cost to remove 25 ppb, 40 ppb, and 50 ppb of the toxin from the lake.
b) Find the inverse function. c. Use part b. to determine how much of the toxin is removed for $50,000.
Answer:
a. $31,250, $66,667, $107,143
b. (p = 85C
C +75
)
c. 34 ppb
220) [T] A race car is accelerating at a velocity given by v(t) = 25
4
t + 54,
where v is the velocity (in feet per second) at time t.

a) Find the velocity of the car at 10 sec.
b) Find the inverse function.
c) Use part b. to determine how long it takes for the car to reach a speed of 150 ft/sec.
221) [T] An airplane’s Mach number M is the ratio of its speed to the speed of sound. When a plane is flying at a constant altitude,
then its Mach angle is given by μ = 2si n ( ).
−1
M
1
Find the Mach angle (to the nearest degree) for the following Mach numbers.
a. μ=1.4
b. μ=2.8
c. μ=4.3
Answer:
a. 92°
b. 42°
c. 27°
222) [T] Using μ = 2si n −1

(
1
M
) , find the Mach number M for the following angles.
a. μ= π
b. μ= 2π
c. μ= 3π
223) [T] The temperature (in degrees Celsius) of a city in the northern United States can be modeled by the function
π
T (x) = 5 + 18sin[ 6(x − 4.6)],
where x is time in months and x = 1.00 corresponds to January 1. Determine the month and day when the temperature is 21°C .
Answer:
x ≈ 6.69, 8.51 ; so, the temperature occurs on June 21 and August 15
224) [T] The depth (in feet) of water at a dock changes with the rise and fall of tides. It is modeled by the function
D(t) = 5sin( t −
π
) + 8,
6
where t is the number of hours after midnight. Determine the first time after midnight when the
7π
depth is 11.75 ft.

225) [T] An object moving in simple harmonic motion is modeled by the function s(t) = −6cos( πt
2
), where s is measured in
inches and t is measured in seconds. Determine the first time when the distance moved is 4.5 ft.
Answer:
1.5 sec
226) [T] A local art gallery has a portrait 3 ft in height that is hung 2.5 ft above the eye level of an average person. The viewing
angle θ can be modeled by the function θ = tan − tan
x
, where x is the distance (in feet) from the portrait. Find the
−1 5.5 −1 2.5
x
viewing angle when a person is 4 ft from the portrait.

227) [T] Use a calculator to evaluate tan −1
(tan(2.1)) and cos−1
(cos(2.1)) . Explain the results of each.
Answer:
tan
−1
; the expression does not equal 2.1 since 2.1 > 1.57 ≈ —in other words, it is not in the
(tan(2.1)) ≈ −1.0416
π
restricted domain of tanx . 2.1 is in Quadrant II.

(cos(2.1)) = 2.1, since 2.1 is in the restricted domain of cosx.
−1
cos
228) [T] Use a calculator to evaluate sin(si n −1

(−2)) and tan(tan −1
(−2)) . Explain the results of each.
In this section we examine exponential and logarithmic functions. We use the properties of these functions to solve equations
involving exponential or logarithmic terms, and we study the meaning and importance of the number e .We also define hyperbolic
and inverse hyperbolic functions, which involve combinations of exponential and logarithmic functions. (Note that we present
alternative definitions of exponential and logarithmic functions in the chapter Applications of Integrations, and prove that the
functions have the same properties with either definition.)
Exponential Functions
Exponential functions arise in many applications. One common example is population growth. For example, if a population starts
with P individuals and then grows at an annual rate of 2,its population after 1 year is
0
P (1) = P0 + 0.02 P0 = P0 (1 + 0.02) = P0 (1.02). (1.5.1)
Its population after 2 years is

2
P (2) = P (1) + 0.02P (1) = P (1)(1.02) = P 0(1.02 ) . (1.5.2)
In general, its population after t years is

t
P (t) = P 0(1.02 ) , (1.5.3)
which is an exponential function. More generally, any function of the form f (x) = b , where b > 0 ,b ≠ 1 , is an exponential
x
function with base b and exponent x. Exponential functions have constant bases and variable exponents. Note that a function of the
form f (x) = x for some constant b is not an exponential function but a power function.
b
To see the difference between an exponential function and a power function, we compare the functions y = x and y = 2 . In 2 x
Table, we see that both 2 and x approach infinity as x → ∞ . Eventually, however, 2 becomes larger than x and grows more
x 2 x 2
rapidly as x → ∞ . In the opposite direction, as x → −∞ ,x → ∞ , whereas 2 → 0 . The line y = 0 is a horizontal asymptote for
2 x
y =2 .
x
x -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
x
2
9 4 1 0 1 4 9 16 15 36
x
2 1/8 1/4 1/2 1 2 4 8 16 32 64
In Figure, we graph both y = x and y = 2 to show how the graphs differ.

2 x
Figure 1.5.1 : Both 2 and x approach infinity as x → ∞ , but 2 grows more rapidly than x . As x → −∞ ,x
x 2 x 2 2
→ ∞ , whereas
2 → 0.
x

Evaluating Exponential Functions
Recall the properties of exponents: If x is a positive integer, then we define b = b ⋅ b ⋯ b (with x factors of b ). If x is a negative
x
integer, then x = −y for some positive integer y , and we define b = b = 1/b . Also, b is defined to be 1. If x is a rational
x −y y 0
−− −−
number, then x = p/q, where p and q are integers and b = b = √b . For example, 9 = √93 = 27 . However, how is b 3/2
q
x p/q p x
defined if x is an irrational number? For example, what do we mean by 2 ? This is too complex a question for us to answer fully
√2
right now; however, we can make an approximation.

–
Values of 2 for a List of Rational Numbers Approximating √2
x
x 0.4 1.41 1.414 1.4142 1.41421 1.414213

x
2 2.639 2.65737 2.66475 2.665119 2.665138 2.665143
–
In Table, we list some rational numbers approaching √2, and the values of 2 for each rational number x are presented as well. We
x
–
claim that if we choose rational numbers x getting closer and closer to √2, the values of 2 get closer and closer to some number
x
L. We define that number L to be 2 . √2
Example 1.5.1 : Bacterial Growth

Suppose a particular population of bacteria is known to double in size every 4 hours. If a culture starts with 1000 bacteria, the
number of bacteria after 4 hours is n(4) = 1000 ⋅ 2 . The number of bacteria after 8 hours is n(8) = n(4) ⋅ 2 = 1000 ⋅ 2 . In 2
general, the number of bacteria after 4m hours is n(4m) = 1000 ⋅ 2 . Letting t = 4m , we see that the number of bacteria after
m
t hours is n(t) = 1000 ⋅ 2 . Find the number of bacteria after 6 hours, 10 hours, and 24 hours.
t/4
Solution
The number of bacteria after 6 hours is given by n(6) = 1000 ⋅ 2 ≈ 2828 bacteria. The number of bacteria after 10 hours is
6/4
given by n(10) = 1000 ⋅ 2 10/4

≈ 5657 bacteria. The number of bacteria after 24 hours is given by
n(24) = 1000 ⋅ 2 = 64, 000 bacteria.
6
Exercise 1.5.1
Given the exponential function f (x) = 100 ⋅ 3 x/2
, evaluate f (4) and f (10).
Answer
f (4) = 900; f (10) = 24, 300 .
Graphing Exponential Functions

For any base b > 0 ,b ≠ 1 , the exponential function f (x) = b is defined for all real numbers x and b > 0 . Therefore, the domain
x x
of f (x) = b is (−∞, ∞) and the range is (0, ∞). To graph b , we note that for b > 1 ,b is increasing on (−∞, ∞) and b → ∞
x x x x
as x → ∞ , whereas b → 0 as x → −∞ . On the other hand, if 0 < b < 1 ,f (x) = b is decreasing on (−∞, ∞) and b → 0 as
x x x
x → ∞ whereas b → ∞ as x → −∞ (Figure).
x
Figure 1.5.2 : If b > 1 , then b is increasing on (−∞, ∞). If 0 < b < 1 , then b is decreasing on (−∞, ∞).
x x
Note that exponential functions satisfy the general laws of exponents. To remind you of these laws, we state them as rules.

Rule: Laws of Exponents
For any constants a > 0 ,b > 0 , and for all x and y,
1. b x
⋅b
y
=b
x+y
x
b
2. y
=b
x−y
b
3. (bx ) y
=b
xy
4. (ab) x
=a b
x x
x
a a
5. x
=(
x
)
b b
Example 1.5.2 : Using the Laws of Exponents

Use the laws of exponents to simplify each of the following expressions.
2/3 3
(2x )
a.
−1/3 2
(4x )
3 −1 2
(x y )
b. 2 −2
(xy )
Soution
a. We can simplify as follows:
2/3 3 3 2/3 3 2 2 2/3 8/3
(2x ) 2 (x ) 8x x x x
−1/3 2
= 2
= −2/3
= = .
−1/3 2 2 2
(4x ) 4 (x ) 16x
b. We can simplify as follows:

3 −1 2 2 −1 2 6 −2
(x y ) (x3 ) (y ) x y
2 −2
=
2 −2
=
−2 −4
=x x y
6 2 −2
y
4
=x y
8 2
.
(xy ) x − 2(y ) x y
Exercise 1.5.2 :
Use the laws of exponents to simplify (6x −3 2
y )/(12 x
−4 5
y ) .
Hint
a b a−b
x /x =x
Answer
3
x/(2 y )
The Number e
A special type of exponential function appears frequently in real-world applications. To describe it, consider the following example
of exponential growth, which arises from compounding interest in a savings account. Suppose a person invests P dollars in a
savings account with an annual interest rate r, compounded annually. The amount of money after 1 year is
A(1) = P + rP = P (1 + r) .
The amount of money after 2 years is
A(2) = A(1) + rA(1) = P (1 + r) + rP (1 + r) = P (1 + r)
2
.
More generally, the amount after t years is
A(t) = P (1 + r)
t
.
If the money is compounded 2 times per year, the amount of money after half a year is
1 r r
A( ) = P +( )P = P (1 + ( )) .
2 2 2
The amount of money after 1 year is

1 r 1 r r r r
2
A(1) = A( )+( )A( ) = P (1 + )+ (P (1 + )) = P (1 + ) .
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
After t years, the amount of money in the account is

r
A(t) = P (1 + )
2t
.
2
More generally, if the money is compounded n times per year, the amount of money in the account after t years is given by the
function
r
nt
A(t) = P (1 + ) .
n
What happens as n → ∞? To answer this question, we let m = n/r and write

r 1
nt mrt
(1 + ) = (1 + ) ,
n m
and examine the behavior of (1 + 1/m) m

as m → ∞ , using a table of values (Table).
1
Values of (1 + m
) as m → ∞
m
m 10 100 1000 10,000 100,000 1,000,000

1
(1 +
m
) 2.5937 2.7048 2.71692 2.71815 2.718268 2.718280
m
Looking at this table, it appears that (1 + 1/m) is approaching a number between 2.7 and 2.8 as m → ∞ . In fact, (1 + 1/m)
m m
does approach some number as m → ∞ . We call this number e . To six decimal places of accuracy,
e ≈ 2.718282 .
The letter e was first used to represent this number by the Swiss mathematician Leonhard Euler during the 1720s. Although Euler
did not discover the number, he showed many important connections between e and logarithmic functions. We still use the notation
e today to honor Euler’s work because it appears in many areas of mathematics and because we can use it in many practical
applications.
Returning to our savings account example, we can conclude that if a person puts P dollars in an account at an annual interest rate r,
compounded continuously, then A(t) = P e . This function may be familiar. Since functions involving base e arise often in
rt
applications, we call the function f (x) = e the natural exponential function. Not only is this function interesting because of the
x
definition of the number e , but also, as discussed next, its graph has an important property.
Since e > 1 , we know ex is increasing on (−∞, ∞). In Figure, we show a graph of f (x) = e along with a tangent line to the x
graph of at x = 0 . We give a precise definition of tangent line in the next chapter; but, informally, we say a tangent line to a graph
of f at x = a is a line that passes through the point (a, f (a)) and has the same “slope” as f at that point . The function f (x) = e x
is the only exponential function b with tangent line at x = 0 that has a slope of 1. As we see later in the text, having this property
x
makes the natural exponential function the most simple exponential function to use in many instances.
Figure 1.5.3 : The graph of f (x) = e has a tangent line with slope 1 at x = 0 .
x
Example 1.5.3 : Compounding Interest

Suppose $500 is invested in an account at an annual interest rate of r = 5.5, compounded continuously.
a. Let t denote the number of years after the initial investment and A(t) denote the amount of money in the account at time t .
Find a formula for A(t) .

b. Find the amount of money in the account after 10 years and after 20 years.
Solution
a. If Pdollars are invested in an account at an annual interest rate r, compounded continuously, then A(t) = P e
rt
. Here
= $500 and r = 0.055. Therefore, A(t) = 500e . 0.055t
P
b. After 10 years, the amount of money in the account is

A(10) = 500 e
0.055⋅10
= 500 e
0.55
≈ $866.63 .
After 20 years, the amount of money in the account is
A(20) = 500 e
0.055⋅20
= 500 e
1.1
≈ $1, 502.08 .
Exercise 1.5.3
If $750 is invested in an account at an annual interest rate of 4, compounded continuously, find a formula for the amount of
money in the account after t years. Find the amount of money after 30 years.
Hint
rt
A(t) = P e
Answer
(A(t)=750e^{0.04t}\). After 30 years, there will be approximately $2, 490.09.
Logarithmic Functions
Using our understanding of exponential functions, we can discuss their inverses, which are the logarithmic functions. These come
in handy when we need to consider any phenomenon that varies over a wide range of values, such as pH in chemistry or decibels in
sound levels.
The exponential function f (x) = b is one-to-one, with domain (−∞, ∞) and range (0, ∞). Therefore, it has an inverse function,
x
called the logarithmic function with base b . For any b > 0, b ≠ 1 , the logarithmic function with base b, denoted log , has domain b
(0, ∞) and range (−∞, ∞) ,and satisfies
logb (x) = y if and only if b y

=x .
For example,
log2 (8) = 3 since 2 3
=8 ,
1 1 1
log10 ( ) = −2 since 10 −2
=
2
= ,
100 10 100
logb (1) = 0 since b 0

=1 for any base b > 0 .
Furthermore, since y = log b (x) and y = b are inverse functions,
x
x
logb (b ) = x (1.5.4)
and
log (x)
b b
= x. (1.5.5)
The most commonly used logarithmic function is the function log . Since this function uses natural e as its base, it is called the
e
natural logarithm. Here we use the notation ln(x) or ln x to mean log (x). For example, e
3 3
ln(e) = loge (e) = 1, ln(e ) = loge (e ) = 3, ln(1) = loge (1) = 0. (1.5.6)
Since the functions f (x) = e and g(x) = ln(x) are inverses of each other,
x
x
ln(e ) = x and e ln x
=x ,
and their graphs are symmetric about the line y = x (Figure).

Figure 1.5.4 : The functions y = e and y = ln(x) are inverses of each other, so their graphs are symmetric about the line y = x .
x
In general, for any base b > 0 ,b ≠ 1 , the function g(x) = log (x) is symmetric about the line y = x with the function f (x) = b .
b
x
Using this fact and the graphs of the exponential functions, we graph functions log for several values of b>1 (Figure).
b
Figure 1.5.5 : Graphs of y = log b (x) are depicted for b = 2, e, 10 .

Before solving some equations involving exponential and logarithmic functions, let’s review the basic properties of logarithms.
Properties of Logarithms
If a, b, c > 0, b ≠ 1 , and r is any real number, then
1. log b (ac) = logb (a) + logb (c) (Product property)
a
2. log b( ) = logb (a) − logb (c) (Quotient property)
c
3. log b (a
r
) = rlogb (a) (Power property)
Example 1.5.4 : Solving Equations Involving Exponential Functions

Solve each of the following equations for x.
a. 5x
=2
b. ex
+ 6e
−x
=5
Solution
a. Applying the natural logarithm function to both sides of the equation, we have
ln 5
x
= ln 2 .
Using the power property of logarithms,
x ln 5 = ln 2.
Therefore, x = ln 2/ ln 5.
b. Multiplying both sides of the equation by e ,we arrive at the equation
x
e
2x
+ 6 = 5e
x
.

Rewriting this equation as
e
2x
− 5e
x
+6 = 0 ,
we can then rewrite it as a quadratic equation in e : x
x 2 x
(e ) − 5(e ) + 6 = 0.
Now we can solve the quadratic equation. Factoring this equation, we obtain
x x
(e − 3)(e − 2) = 0.
Therefore, the solutions satisfy e

x
=3 and e
x
=2 . Taking the natural logarithm of both sides gives us the solutions
x = ln 3, ln 2 .
Exercise 1.5.4
Solve e 2x
/(3 + e
2x
) = 1/2 .
Hint
First solve the equation for e 2x
Answer
ln 3
x = .
2
Example 1.5.5 : Solving Equations Involving Logarithmic Functions

Solve each of the following equations for x.
1
a. ln( ) =4
x
b. log 0√−x + log 0x = 2
1 1
c. ln(2x) − 3 ln(x ) = 0 2
Solution
a. By the definition of the natural logarithm function,
1 1
ln( ) =4 if and only if e 4
= .
x x
Therefore, the solution is x = 1/e . 4
b. Using the product and power properties of logarithmic functions, rewrite the left-hand side of the equation as
x x 3
log1 0 log1 0x = log1 0x log1 0 x
3/2
= log1 0x .
+ = 2
Therefore, the equation can be rewritten as

3 4
log1 0x = 2 or log 1 0x = .
2 3
[
The solution is x = 10 4/3
= 10 ]10 .
3
c. Using the power property of logarithmic functions, we can rewrite the equation as ln(2x) − ln(x 6
) =0 .
Using the quotient property, this becomes
2
ln( ) =0
x5
–
Therefore, 2/x , which implies x = √2 . We should then check for any extraneous solutions.
5
5
=1
Exercise 1.5.5
Solve ln(x 3
) − 4 ln(x) = 1 .

Hint
First use the power property, then use the product property of logarithms.
Answer
1
x =
e
When evaluating a logarithmic function with a calculator, you may have noticed that the only options are log 0 or log, called the 1
common logarithm, or \ln , which is the natural logarithm. However, exponential functions and logarithm functions can be
expressed in terms of any desired base b . If you need to use a calculator to evaluate an expression with a different base, you can
apply the change-of-base formulas first. Using this change of base, we typically write a given exponential or logarithmic function
in terms of the natural exponential and natural logarithmic functions.
Rule: Change-of-Base Formulas
Let a > 0, b > 0 , and a ≠ 1, b ≠ 1 .
1. a x
=b
xlo gb a
for any real number x.
If b = e , this equation reduces to a x
=e
xlo ge a
=e
x ln a
.
logb x
2. log ax = for any real number x > 0 .
logb a
ln x
If b = e , this equation reduces to log ax = .
ln a
Proof
For the first change-of-base formula, we begin by making use of the power property of logarithmic functions. We know that for
any base b > 0, b ≠ 1 , log (a ) = xlog a . Therefore,
b
x
b
b
lo gb ( a )
=bxlo gb a
.
In addition, we know that b and log x
b (x) are inverse functions. Therefore,
.
x
lo gb ( a ) x
b =a
Combining these last two equalities, we conclude that a x

=b
xlo gb a
.
To prove the second property, we show that
(logb a) ⋅ (loga x) = logb x.
Let u = log a, v = log x , and w = log x . We will show that u ⋅ v = w . By the definition of logarithmic functions, we know
b a b
that b = a, a = x , and b = x .From the previous equations, we see that

u v w
uv u v v w
b = (b ) =a =x =b .
Therefore, b uv
=b
w
. Since exponential functions are one-to-one, we can conclude that u ⋅ v = w .
□
Example 1.5.6 : Changing Bases

Use a calculating utility to evaluate log 37 with the change-of-base formula presented earlier.
Solution
ln 7
Use the second equation with a = 3 and e = 3 : log 37 = ≈ 1.77124 .
ln 3
Exercise 1.5.6
Use the change-of-base formula and a calculating utility to evaluate log 46 .
Hint

Use the change of base to rewrite this expression in terms of expressions involving the natural logarithm function.
Answer
1.29248
Example 1.5.7 : The Richter Scale for Earthquakes
Figure 1.5.6 : (credit: modification of work by Robb Hannawacker, NPS)

In 1935, Charles Richter developed a scale (now known as the Richter scale) to measure the magnitude of an earthquake. The
scale is a base-10 logarithmic scale, and it can be described as follows: Consider one earthquake with magnitude R on the 1
Richter scale and a second earthquake with magnitude R on the Richter scale. Suppose R > R , which means the earthquake
2 1 2
of magnitude R is stronger, but how much stronger is it than the other earthquake? A way of measuring the intensity of an
1
earthquake is by using a seismograph to measure the amplitude of the earthquake waves. If A is the amplitude measured for
1
the first earthquake and A is the amplitude measured for the second earthquake, then the amplitudes and magnitudes of the two
2
earthquakes satisfy the following equation:

A1
R1 − R2 = log10 ( ) .
A2
Consider an earthquake that measures 8 on the Richter scale and an earthquake that measures 7 on the Richter scale. Then,
A1
8 − 7 = log10 ( ) .
A2
Therefore,
A1
log10 ( ) =1 ,
A2
which implies A /A = 10 or A = 10A . Since A is 10 times the size of A , we say that the first earthquake is 10 times as
1 2 1 2 1 2
intense as the second earthquake. On the other hand, if one earthquake measures 8 on the Richter scale and another measures 6,
then the relative intensity of the two earthquakes satisfies the equation
A1
log10 ( ) = 8 −6 = 2 .
A2
Therefore, A 1 = 100 A2 .That is, the first earthquake is 100 times more intense than the second earthquake.
How can we use logarithmic functions to compare the relative severity of the magnitude 9 earthquake in Japan in 2011 with the
magnitude 7.3 earthquake in Haiti in 2010?
Solution
To compare the Japan and Haiti earthquakes, we can use an equation presented earlier:
A1
9 − 7.3 = log10 ( ) .
A2
Therefore, A /A = 10
1 2
1.7
, and we conclude that the earthquake in Japan was approximately 50 times more intense than the
earthquake in Haiti.
Exercise 1.5.7
Compare the relative severity of a magnitude 8.4 earthquake with a magnitude 7.4 earthquake.
Hint
R1 − R2 = log10 (A1/A2) .
Answer

The magnitude 8.4 earthquake is roughly 10 times as severe as the magnitude 7.4 earthquake.
Hyperbolic Functions
The hyperbolic functions are defined in terms of certain combinations of e and e . These functions arise naturally in various
x −x
engineering and physics applications, including the study of water waves and vibrations of elastic membranes. Another common
use for a hyperbolic function is the representation of a hanging chain or cable, also known as a catenary (Figure). If we introduce a
coordinate system so that the low point of the chain lies along the y-axis, we can describe the height of the chain in terms of a
hyperbolic function. First, we define the hyperbolic functions.
Figure 1.5.7 :The shape of a strand of silk in a spider’s web can be described in terms of a hyperbolic function. The same shape
applies to a chain or cable hanging from two supports with only its own weight. (credit: “Mtpaley”, Wikimedia Commons)
Definitions
Hyperbolic cosine
x −x
e +e
coshx =
2
Hyperbolic sine
x −x
e −e
sinhx =
2
Hyperbolic tangent
x −x
sinhx e −e
tanhx = =
x −x
coshx e +e
Hyperbolic cosecant
1 2
cschx = =
sinhx ex − e−x
Hyperbolic secant
1 2
sechx = =
x −x
coshx e +e
Hyperbolic cotangent
x −x
coshx e +e
cothx = =
x −x
sinhx e −e
The name cosh rhymes with “gosh,” whereas the name sinh is pronounced “cinch.” Tanh, sech, csch, and coth are pronounced
“tanch,” “seech,” “coseech,” and “cotanch,” respectively.
Using the definition of cosh(x) and principles of physics, it can be shown that the height of a hanging chain, such as the one in
Figure, can be described by the function h(x) = acosh(x/a) + c for certain constants a and c .

But why are these functions called hyperbolic functions? To answer this question, consider the quantity 2
cosh t − sinh t
2
. Using
the definition of cosh and sinh , we see that
2t −2t 2t −2t
2 2
e +2 +e e −2 +e
cosh t − sinh t = − = 1. (1.5.7)
4 4
This identity is the analog of the trigonometric identity cos 2 2

t + si n t = 1 . Here, given a value t , the point (x,y)=(cosht,sinht) lies
on the unit hyperbola x − y = 1 (Figure).
2 2
Figure 1.5.8 : The unit hyperbola cosh 2 2

t − sinh t = 1 .
Graphs of Hyperbolic Functions

To graph coshx and sinhx, we make use of the fact that both functions approach (1/2)e as x → ∞ , since e → 0 as x → ∞ .
x −x
As x → −∞, coshx approaches 1/2e , whereas sinhx approaches −1/2e . Therefore, using the graphs of 1/2e , 1/2e ,
−x −x x −x
and −1/2e as guides, we graph coshx and sinhx. To graph tanhx, we use the fact that tanh(0) = 1 ,−1 < tanh(x) < 1 for
−x
all x,tanhx → 1 as x → ∞ , and tanhx → −1 as x → −∞ . The graphs of the other three hyperbolic functions can be sketched
using the graphs of coshx ,sinhx, and tanhx (Figure).

Figure 1.5.9 : The hyperbolic functions involve combinations of e and e
x −x
.
Identities Involving Hyperbolic Functions

The identity cosh t − sinh t , shown in Figure, is one of several identities involving the hyperbolic functions, some of which are
2 2
listed next. The first four properties follow easily from the definitions of hyperbolic sine and hyperbolic cosine. Except for some
differences in signs, most of these properties are analogous to identities for trigonometric functions.
Identities Involving Hyperbolic Functions
1. cosh(−x) = coshx
2. sinh(−x) = −sinhx
3. coshx + sinhx = e x
4. coshx − sinhx = e −x
5. cosh x − sinh x = 1
2 2
6. 1 − tanh x = sech x
2 2
7. coth x − 1 = csch x
2 2
8. sinh(x ± y) = sinhxcoshy ± coshxsinhy

9. cosh(x ± y) = coshxcoshy ± sinhxsinhy
Example 1.5.8 : Evaluating Hyperbolic Functions

a. Simplify sinh(5 ln x).
b. If sinhx = 3/4, ind the values of the remaining five hyperbolic functions.
Solution:
a. Using the definition of the sinh function, we write
5 −5
5 ln x −5 ln x ln( x ) ln( x ) 5 −5
e −e e −e x −x
sinh(5 ln x) = = = .
2 2 2
b. Using the identity cosh 2 2

x − sinh x = 1 ,we see that
3 25
2
cosh x = 1 + ( )2 = .
4 16
Since coshx ≥ 1 for all x, we must have coshx = 5/4 . Then, using the definitions for the other hyperbolic
functions, we conclude that tanhx = 3/5, cschx = 4/3, sechx = 4/5, andcothx = 5/3 .
Exercise 1.5.8
Simplify cosh(2 ln x).
Hint
Use the definition of the cosh function and the power property of logarithm functions.
Answer
2 −2
(x +x )/2
Inverse Hyperbolic Functions

From the graphs of the hyperbolic functions, we see that all of them are one-to-one except coshx and sechx . If we restrict the
domains of these two functions to the interval [0,∞), then all the hyperbolic functions are one-to-one, and we can define the inverse
hyperbolic functions. Since the hyperbolic functions themselves involve exponential functions, the inverse hyperbolic functions
involve logarithmic functions.
Definitions: Inverse Hyperbolic Functions
−−−−− −−−−−
−1 −1
sinh x = arcsinhx = ln(x + √x2 + 1 ) cosh x = arccoshx = ln(x + √x2 − 1 )
1 1 +x 1 x +1
−1 −1
tanh x = arctanhx = ln( ) coth x = arccotx = ln( )
2 1 −x 2 x −1
−−−− − −−−− −
2 √1 + x2
1 + √1 − x 1
−1 −1
sec h x = arcsechx = ln( ) csc h x = arccschx = ln( + )
x x |x|
Let’s look at how to derive the first equation. The others follow similarly. Suppose y = sinh
−1
x . Then, x = sinhy and, by the
y −y
e −e
definition of the hyperbolic sine function, x = . Therefore,
2
y −y
e − 2x − e = 0.
Multiplying this equation by e , we obtain

y
e
2y
− 2x e
y
−1 = 0 .
This can be solved like a quadratic equation, with the solution
−−−−− −
2x ± √4 x2 + 4 −−−−−
e
y
= = x ± √x2 + 1 .
2
Since e > 0 ,the only solution is the one with the positive sign. Applying the natural logarithm to both sides of the equation, we
y
conclude that
−−−−−
2
y = ln(x + √x + 1 ).
Example 1.5.9 : Evaluating Inverse Hyperbolic Functions

−1
sinh (2)
−1
tanh (1/4)
Solution:
−−−−− –
−1 2
sinh (2) = ln(2 + √ 2 + 1 ) = ln(2 + √5) ≈ 1.4436 (1.5.8)
1 1 + 1/4 1 5/4 1 5
−1
tanh (1/4) = ln( ) = ln( ) = ln( ) ≈ 0.2554 (1.5.9)
2 1 − 1/4 2 3/4 2 3
Exercise 1.5.9
Evaluate tanh −1
(1/2) .
Hint
Use the definition of tanh −1
x and simplify.
Answer
1
ln(3) ≈ 0.5493 .
2
Key Concepts
The exponential function y = b is increasing if b > 1 and decreasing if 0 < b < 1 . Its domain is (−∞, ∞) and its range
x
is (0, ∞).
The logarithmic function y = log (x) is the inverse of y = b . Its domain is (0, ∞) and its range is (−∞, ∞).
b
x
The natural exponential function is y = e and the natural logarithmic function is y = ln x = log x .
x
e
Given an exponential function or logarithmic function in base a , we can make a change of base to convert this function to
any base b > 0 , b ≠ 1 . We typically convert to base e .
The hyperbolic functions involve combinations of the exponential functions e and e . As a result, the inverse x −x
hyperbolic functions involve the natural logarithm.
Glossary
base
the number b in the exponential function f (x) = b and the logarithmic function f (x) = log
x
bx
exponent
the value x in the expression b x
hyperbolic functions
the functions denoted sinh, cosh, tanh, csch, sech,and coth, which involve certain combinations of e and e x −x
inverse hyperbolic functions

the inverses of the hyperbolic functions where cosh and sech are restricted to the domain [0, ∞);each of these functions can be
expressed in terms of a composition of the natural logarithm function and an algebraic function
natural exponential function

the function f (x) = e x
natural logarithm
the function ln x = log ex
number e

as m gets larger, the quantity (1 + (1/m) m
gets closer to some real number; we define that real number to be e; the value of e
is approximately 2.718282
Contributors
This page titled 1.5: Exponential and Logarithmic Functions is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or
curated by OpenStax.

1.5E: Exercises
Exercise:
For the following exercises, evaluate the given exponential functions as indicated, accurate to two significant digits after the
decimal.
–
229) f (x) = 5 a. x = 3 b. x =
x 1
2
c. x = √2
Solution: a. 125b. 2.24c. 9.74
230) f (x) = (0.3) a. x = −1 b. x = 4 c. x = −1.5
x
231) f (x) = 10 a. x = −2 b. x = 4 c. x =
x 5
Solution: a. 0.01b. 10, 000c. 46.42

232) f (x) = e a. x = 2 b. x = −3.2 c. x = π
x
For the following exercises, match the exponential equation to the correct graph.
a. y = 4 −x
b. y = 3 x−1
c. y = 2 x+1
d. y = ( 1
2
)
x
+2
e. y = −3 −x
f. y = 1 − 5 x
233)
Solution: d
234)
235)
Solution: b
236)
237)
Solution: e
238)
For the following exercises, sketch the graph of the exponential function. Determine the domain, range, and horizontal asymptote.
239) f (x) = e x
+2
Solution: Domain: all real numbers, range: (2, ∞), y = 2

240) $f(x)=−2^x$
241) f (x) = 3 x+1
Solution: Domain: all real numbers, range: (0, ∞), y = 0
242) f (x) = 4x
−1
243) f (x) = 1 − 2 −x
Solution: Domain: all real numbers, range: (−∞, 1), y = 1

244) f (x) = 5x+1
+2
245) f (x) = e −x
−1
Solution: Domain: all real numbers, range: (−1, ∞), y = −1

For the following exercises, write the equation in equivalent exponential form.
246) log3 81 =4
247) log82 =
1
Solution: 8 1/3
=2
248) log51 =0
249) log5 25 =2
Solution: 5 2
= 25
250) log0.1 = −1
251) ln( 1
e
3
) = −3
Solution: e −3
=
1
e
3
252) log93 = 0.5
253) ln1 = 0
Solution: e 0
=1
For the following exercises, write the equation in equivalent logarithmic form.
254) 2 3
=8
255) 4 −2
=
16
1
Solution: log 4(
1
16
) = −2
256) 10 2
= 100
257) 9 0
=1
Solution: log 91 =0
258) ( 1
3
)
3
=
27
1
−−
259) √64 = 4
3
Solution: log 64 4 =
1
260) e x
=y
261) 9 y
= 150
Solution: log 9 150 =y
262) b 3
= 45
263) 4 −3/2
= 0.125
Solution: log 4 0.125 =−

3
For the following exercises, sketch the graph of the logarithmic function. Determine the domain, range, and vertical asymptote.
264) f (x) = 3 + lnx
265) f (x) = ln(x − 1)
Solution: Domain: (1, ∞), range: (−∞, ∞), x = 1
266) f (x) = ln(−x)
267) f (x) = 1 − lnx
Solution: Domain: (0, ∞), range: (−∞, ∞), x = 0
268) f (x) = logx − 1
269) f (x) = ln(x + 1)
Solution: Domain: (−1, ∞), range: (−∞, ∞), x = −1

For the following exercises, use properties of logarithms to write the expressions as a sum, difference, and/or product of
logarithms.
270) logx 4
y
271) log 3
9a
Solution: 2 + 3log 3a − log3 b
272) lna√b 3
−−−−−−
273) log 5 √125xy
3
Solution: 3
2
+
1
2
log5 x +
3
2
log5 y
274) log 3
√xy
64
275) ln( 6
)
√e3
Solution: − 3
2
+ ln6
For the following exercises, solve the exponential equation exactly.

276) 5 x
= 125
277) e 3x
− 15 = 0
Solution: ln15
278) 8x
=4
279) 4x+1
− 32 = 0
Solution: 3
280) 3x/14
=
1
10
281) 10 x
= 7.21
Solution: log7.21
282) 4 ⋅ 2 3x
− 20 = 0
283) 73x−2
= 11
log11
Solution: 2
3
+
3log7
For the following exercises, solve the logarithmic equation exactly, if possible.
284) log 3x =0
285) log 5x = −2
Solution: x = 1
25
286) log 4 (x + 5) = 0
287) log(2x − 7) = 0
Solution: x = 4
−−−−−
288) ln√x + 3 =2
289) log 6 (x + 9) + log6 x = 2
Solution: x = 3
290) log 4 (x + 2) − log4 (x − 1) = 0
291) lnx + ln(x − 2) = ln4

–
Solution: 1 + √5
(#292 - #298 removed)
299) [T] The number of bacteria N in a culture after t days can be modeled by the function N (t) = 1300 ⋅ (2) t/4
. Find the number
of bacteria present after 15 days.
Solution: 17, 491
300) [T] The demand D (in millions of barrels) for oil in an oil-rich country is given by the function D(p) = 150 ⋅ (2.7) ,
−0.25p
where p is the price (in dollars) of a barrel of oil. Find the amount of oil demanded (to the nearest million barrels) when the price is
between $15 and $20.
301) [T] The amount A of a $100,000 investment paying continuously and compounded for t years is given by
A(t) = 100, 000 ⋅ e . Find the amount A accumulated in 5 years.
0.055t
Solution: Approximately $131,653 is accumulated in 5 years.

j
302) [T] An investment is compounded monthly, quarterly, or yearly and is given by the function A = P (1 + ) , where A is the
n
nt
value of the investment at time t , P is the initial principle that was invested, j is the annual interest rate, and n is the number of
time the interest is compounded per year. Given a yearly interest rate of 3.5% and an initial principle of $100,000, find the amount
A accumulated in 5 years for interest that is compounded a. daily, b., monthly, c. quarterly, and d. yearly.
303) [T] The concentration of hydrogen ions in a substance is denoted by [H +], measured in moles per liter. The pH of a substance
is defined by the logarithmic function pH = −log[H +] . This function is used to measure the acidity of a substance. The pH of
water is 7. A substance with a pH less than 7 is an acid, whereas one that has a pH of more than 7 is a base.
a. Find the pH of the following substances. Round answers to one digit.
b. Determine whether the substance is an acid or a base.
i. Eggs: [H +] = 1.6 × 10 −8
mol/L
ii. Beer: [H +] = 3.16 × 10 −3
mol/L
iii. Tomato Juice: [H +] = 7.94 × 10 −5
mol/L
Solution: i. a. pH = 8 b. Base ii. a. pH = 3 b. Acid iii. a. pH = 4 b. Acid
304) [T] Iodine-131 is a radioactive substance that decays according to the function Q(t) = Q ⋅ e 0, where Q is the initial
−0.08664t
0
quantity of a sample of the substance and t is in days. Determine how long it takes (to the nearest day) for 95% of a quantity to
decay.
305) [T] According to the World Bank, at the end of 2013 (t = 0) the U.S. population was 316 million and was increasing
according to the following model:
P (t) = 316e ,
0.0074t
where P is measured in millions of people and t is measured in years after 2013.

a. Based on this model, what will be the population of the United States in 2020?
b. Determine when the U.S. population will be twice what it is in 2013.
Solution: a. 333 million b. 94 years from 2013, or in 2107
306) [T] The amount A accumulated after 1000 dollars is invested for t years at an interest rate of 4% is modeled by the function
A(t) = 1000(1.04) .
t
a. Find the amount accumulated after 5 years and 10 years.

b. Determine how long it takes for the original investment to triple.
307) [T] A bacterial colony grown in a lab is known to double in number in 12 hours. Suppose, initially, there are 1000 bacteria
present.
a. Use the exponential function Q = Q 0e
kt
to determine the value k , which is the growth rate of the bacteria. Round to four
decimal places.
b. Determine approximately how long it takes for 200,000 bacteria to grow.
Solution: a. k ≈ 0.0578 b. ≈92 hours
308) [T] The rabbit population on a game reserve doubles every 6 months. Suppose there were 120 rabbits initially.
a. Use the exponential function P t
= P0 a to determine the growth rate constant a . Round to four decimal places.
b. Use the function in part a. to determine approximately how long it takes for the rabbit population to reach 3500.
309) [T] The 1906 earthquake in San Francisco had a magnitude of 8.3 on the Richter scale. At the same time, in Japan, an
earthquake with magnitude 4.9 caused only minor damage. Approximately how much more energy was released by the San
Francisco earthquake than by the Japanese earthquake?
Solution: The San Francisco earthquake had 10 3.4
or 2512 times more energy than the Japan earthquake.
Chapter Review Exercises

True or False? Justify your answer with a proof or a counterexample.
310) A function is always one-to-one.
311) f ∘ g = g ∘ f , assuming f and g are functions.
Solution: False
312) A relation that passes the horizontal and vertical line tests is a one-to-one function.
313) A relation passing the horizontal line test is a function.
Solution: False
For the following problems, state the domain and range of the given functions:
f =x
2
+ 2x − 3 , g = ln(x − 5) , h = 1
x+4
314) h
315) g
Solution: Domain: x > 5 , range: all real numbers
316) h ∘ f
317) g ∘ f
Solution: Domain: x > 2 and x < −4 , range: all real numbers
Find the degree, y-intercept, and zeros for the following polynomial functions.
318) f (x) = 2x 2
+ 9x − 5
319) f (x) = x 3
+ 2x
2
− 2x
– –
Solution: Degree of 3, y -intercept: 0, zeros: 0, √3 − 1, −1 − √3
Simplify the following trigonometric expressions.
2
320) tan x
sec2 x
+ cos x
2
321) cos(2x) = si n 2
x
Solution: cos(2x) or 1
2
(cos(2x) + 1)
Solve the following trigonometric equations on the interval θ = [−2π, 2π] exactly.
322) 6cos2x − 3 = 0
323) sec 2
x − 2secx + 1 = 0
Solution: 0, ±2π
Solve the following logarithmic equations.
324) 5 x
= 16
325) \log_2(x+4)=3\)
Solution: 4
Are the following functions one-to-one over their domain of existence? Does the function have an inverse? If so, find the inverse
(x) of the function. Justify your answer.
−1
f
326) f (x) = x 2
+ 2x + 1
327) f (x) = 1
Solution: One-to-one; yes, the function has an inverse; inverse: f −1

(x) =
1
For the following problems, determine the largest domain on which the function is one-to-one and find the inverse on that domain.
−−−−−
328) f (x) = √9 − x
329) f (x) = x 2
+ 3x + 4
−−−−−
Solution: x ≥ − 3
2
,f
−1
(x) = −
3
2
+
1
2
√4y − 7
330) A car is racing along a circular track with diameter of 1 mi. A trainer standing in the center of the circle marks his progress
every 5 sec. After 5 sec, the trainer has to turn 55° to keep up with the car. How fast is the car traveling?
For the following problems, consider a restaurant owner who wants to sell T-shirts advertising his brand. He recalls that there is a
fixed cost and variable cost, although he does not remember the values. He does know that the T-shirt printing company charges
$440 for 20 shirts and $1000 for 100 shirts.
331) a. Find the equation C = f (x) that describes the total cost as a function of number of shirts and b. determine how many shirts
he must sell to break even if he sells the shirts for $10 each.
Solution: a. C (x) = 300 + 7x b. 100 shirts
332) a. Find the inverse function x = f −1
(C ) and describe the meaning of this function. b. Determine how many shirts the owner
can buy if he has $8000 to spend.
For the following problems, consider the population of Ocean City, New Jersey, which is cyclical by season.
333) The population can be modeled by P (t) = 82.5 − 67.5cos[(π/6)t], where t is time in months (t = 0 represents January 1)
and P is population (in thousands). During a year, in what intervals is the population less than 20,000? During what intervals is the
population more than 140,000?
Solution: The population is less than 20,000 from December 8 through January 23 and more than 140,000 from May 29 through
August 2
334) In reality, the overall population is most likely increasing or decreasing throughout each year. Let’s reformulate the model as
P (t) = 82.5 − 67.5cos[(π/6)t] + t , where t is time in months (t = 0 represents January 1) and P is population (in thousands).
When is the first time the population reaches 200,000?

For the following problems, consider radioactive dating. A human skeleton is found in an archeological dig. Carbon dating is
implemented to determine how old the skeleton is by using the equation y = e , where y is the percentage of radiocarbon still
rt
present in the material, t is the number of years passed, and r = −0.0001210 is the d78.51%ecay rate of radiocarbon.
335) If the skeleton is expected to be 2000 years old, what percentage of radiocarbon should be present?
Solution: 78.51%
336) Find the inverse of the carbon-dating equation. What does it mean? If there is 25% radiocarbon, how old is the skeleton?
CHAPTER OVERVIEW
Chapter 2 Limits
2.0: Introduction
2.6: Continuity
Chapter 2 Limits is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
1
2.0: Introduction
Science fiction writers often imagine spaceships that can travel to far-off planets in distant galaxies. However, back in 1905, Albert
Einstein showed that a limit exists to how fast any object can travel. The problem is that the faster an object moves, the more mass
it attains (in the form of energy), according to the equation
m0
m = −−−−−− (2.0.1)
2
v
√1 −
2
c
where m is the object’s mass at rest, v is its speed, and c is the speed of light. What is this speed limit? (We explore this problem
0
further in the chapter)
Figure 2.0.1 :The vision of human exploration by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) to distant parts of
the universe illustrates the idea of space travel at high speeds. But, is there a limit to how fast a spacecraft can go? (credit: NASA)
The idea of a limit is central to all of calculus. We begin this chapter by examining why limits are so important. Then, we go on to
describe how to find the limit of a function at a given point. Not all functions have limits at all points, and we discuss what this
means and how we can tell if a function does or does not have a limit at a particular value. This chapter has been created in an
informal, intuitive fashion, but this is not always enough if we need to prove a mathematical statement involving limits. The last
section of this chapter presents the more precise definition of a limit and shows how to prove whether a function has a limit.
Contributors
2.0: Introduction is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
2.0.1 https://math.libretexts.org/@go/page/10098
2.0: Introduction Exercise
exercise (0) Did you read the introduction to Chapter 2?
2.0E: Introduction Exercises is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
As we embark on our study of calculus, we shall see how its development arose from common solutions to practical problems in
areas such as engineering physics—like the space travel problem posed in the chapter opener. Two key problems led to the initial
formulation of calculus: (1) the tangent problem, or how to determine the slope of a line tangent to a curve at a point; and (2) the
area problem, or how to determine the area under a curve.
The Tangent Problem and Differential Calculus

Rate of change is one of the most critical concepts in calculus. We begin our investigation of rates of change by looking at the
1
graphs of the three lines f (x) = −2x − 3, g(x) = x +1 , and h(x) = 2 , shown in Figure 2.1.1.
2
Figure 2.1.1 : The rate of change of a linear function is constant in each of these three graphs, with the constant determined by
the slope.
As we move from left to right along the graph of f (x) = −2x − 3 , we see that the graph decreases at a constant rate. For every 1
unit we move to the right along the x-axis, the y-coordinate decreases by 2 units. This rate of change is determined by the slope
(−2) of the line. Similarly, the slope of 1/2 in the function g(x) tells us that for every change in x of 1 unit there is a corresponding
change in y of 1/2 unit. The function h(x) = 2 has a slope of zero, indicating that the values of the function remain constant. We
see that the slope of each linear function indicates the rate of change of the function.
Compare the graphs of these three functions with the graph of k(x) = x (Figure 2.1.1). The graph of k(x) = x starts from the
2 2
left by decreasing rapidly, then begins to decrease more slowly and level off, and then finally begins to increase—slowly at first,
followed by an increasing rate of increase as it moves toward the right. Unlike a linear function, no single number represents the
rate of change for this function. We quite naturally ask: How do we measure the rate of change of a nonlinear function?

Figure 2.1.2 : The function k(x) = x does not have a constant rate of change.
2
We can approximate the rate of change of a function f (x) at a point (a, f (a)) on its graph by taking another point (x, f (x)) on the
graph of f (x), drawing a line through the two points, and calculating the slope of the resulting line. Such a line is called a secant
line. Figure shows a secant line to a function f (x) at a point (a, f (a)).
Figure 2.1.3 : The slope of a secant line through a point (a, f (a)) estimates the rate of change of the function at the point
(a, f (a)) .
We formally define a secant line as follows:

Definition: Secant Line
The secant to the function f (x) through the points (a, f (a) and (x, f (x)) is the line passing through these points. Its slope is
given by
f (x) − f (a)
msec = . (2.1.1)
x −a
The accuracy of approximating the rate of change of the function with a secant line depends on how close x is to a . As we see in
Figure 2.1.4, if x is closer to a, the slope of the secant line is a better measure of the rate of change of f (x) at a .

Figure 2.1.4 : As x gets closer to a, the slope of the secant line becomes a better approximation to the rate of change of the
function f (x) at a.
The secant lines themselves approach a line that is called the tangent to the function f (x) at a (Figure 2.1.5). The slope of the
tangent line to the graph at a measures the rate of change of the function at a. This value also represents the derivative of the
function f (x) at a, or the rate of change of the function at a. This derivative is denoted by f '(a). Differential calculus is the field
of calculus concerned with the study of derivatives and their applications.
For an interactive demonstration of the slope of a secant line that you can manipulate yourself, visit this applet (Note: this site
requires a Java browser plugin):
Figure 2.1.5 : Solving the Tangent Problem: As x approaches a, the secant lines approach the tangent line.
Example illustrates how to find slopes of secant lines. These slopes estimate the slope of the tangent line or, equivalently, the rate
of change of the function at the point at which the slopes are calculated.
Example 2.1.1 : Finding Slopes of Secant Lines

Estimate the slope of the tangent line (rate of change) to f (x) = x at x = 1 by finding slopes of secant lines through (1, 1) and
2
each of the following points on the graph of f (x) = x . 2
a. (2, 4)
3 9
b. ( , )
2 4
Solution:
Use the formula for the slope of a secant line from the definition.
4 −1
a. msec = =3
2 −1

9
−1
4 5
b. m sec = = = 2.5
3 2
−1
2
The point in part b. is closer to the point (1, 1), so the slope of 2.5 is closer to the slope of the tangent line. A good estimate for
the slope of the tangent would be in the range of 2 to 2.5 (Figure).
3 9
Figure 2.1.6 : The secant lines to f (x) = x at (1, 1) through (a) (2, 4) and (b) (
2
, ) provide successively closer
2 4
approximations to the tangent line to f (x) = x at (1, 1).
2
Exercise 2.1.1
Estimate the slope of the tangent line (rate of change) to f (x) = x at x = 1 by finding slopes of secant lines through (1, 1) and
2
5 25
the point ( , ) on the graph of f (x) = x .
2
4 16
Answer
2.25
We continue our investigation by exploring a related question. Keeping in mind that velocity may be thought of as the rate of
change of position, suppose that we have a function, s(t) , that gives the position of an object along a coordinate axis at any given
time t. Can we use these same ideas to create a reasonable definition of the instantaneous velocity at a given time t = a? We start
by approximating the instantaneous velocity with an average velocity. First, recall that the speed of an object traveling at a constant
rate is the ratio of the distance traveled to the length of time it has traveled. We define the average velocity of an object over a time
period to be the change in its position divided by the length of the time period.
Definition: Average Velocity
Let \(s(t)\ be the position of an object moving along a coordinate axis at time t. The average velocity of the object over a time
interval [a, t] where a < t (or [t, a] if t < a) is
s(t) − s(a)
vave = . (2.1.2)
t −a
As t is chosen closer to a, the average velocity becomes closer to the instantaneous velocity. Note that finding the average velocity
of a position function over a time interval is essentially the same as finding the slope of a secant line to a function. Furthermore, to
find the slope of a tangent line at a point a, we let the x-values approach a in the slope of the secant line. Similarly, to find the

instantaneous velocity at time a, we let the t-values approach a in the average velocity. This process of letting x or t approach a in
an expression is called taking a limit. Thus, we may define the instantaneous velocity as follows.
Definition: Instantaneous Velocity
For a position function s(t) , the instantaneous velocity at a time t = a is the value that the average velocities approach on
intervals of the form [a, t] and [t, a] as the values of t become closer to a, provided such a value exists.
Example 2.1.2 illustrates this concept of limits and average velocity.
Example 2.1.2 : Finding Average Velocity

A rock is dropped from a height of 64 ft. It is determined that its height (in feet) above ground t seconds later (for 0 ≤ t ≤ 2 ) is
given by s(t) = −16t + 64 . Find the average velocity of the rock over each of the given time intervals. Use this information
2
to guess the instantaneous velocity of the rock at time t = 0.5 .

a. [0.49, 0.5]
b. [0.5, 0.51]
Solution
Substitute the data into the formula for the definition of average velocity.
a. s(0.49) − s(0.5)
vave = = −15.84 (2.1.3)
0.49 − 0.5
b. s(0.51) − s(0.5)
vave = = −16.016 (2.1.4)
0.51 − 0.5
The instantaneous velocity is somewhere between −15.84 and −16.16 ft/sec. A good guess might be −16 ft/sec.
Exercise 2.1.2
An object moves along a coordinate axis so that its position at time t is given by s(t) = t . Estimate its instantaneous velocity at
3
time t = 2 by computing its average velocity over the time interval [2, 2.001].
Hint
s(2.001) − s(2)
Use vave = .
2.001 − 2
Answer
12.006001
The Area Problem and Integral Calculus:

This is an interesting look ahead, but you do not need to focus on this part for now.
We now turn our attention to a classic question from calculus. Many quantities in physics—for example, quantities of work—may
be interpreted as the area under a curve. This leads us to ask the question: How can we find the area between the graph of a
function and the x-axis over an interval (Figure 2.1.7)?
Figure 2.1.7 : The Area Problem: How do we find the area of the shaded region?

As in the answer to our previous questions on velocity, we first try to approximate the solution. We approximate the area by
dividing up the interval [a, b] into smaller intervals in the shape of rectangles. The approximation of the area comes from adding up
the areas of these rectangles (Figure 2.1.8).
Figure 2.1.8 : The area of the region under the curve is approximated by summing the areas of thin rectangles.
As the widths of the rectangles become smaller (approach zero), the sums of the areas of the rectangles approach the area between
the graph of f (x) and the x-axis over the interval [a, b]. Once again, we find ourselves taking a limit. Limits of this type serve as a
basis for the definition of the definite integral. Integral calculus is the study of integrals and their applications.
Example 2.1.3 : Estimation Using Rectangles

Estimate the area between the x-axis and the graph of f (x) = x
2
+1 over the interval [0, 3] by using the three rectangles
shown in Figure.
Figure 2.1.9 : The area of the region under the curve of f (x) = x 2
+1 can be estimated using rectangles.
Solution:
The areas of the three rectangles are 1 unit2, 2 unit2, and 5 unit2. Using these rectangles, our area estimate is 8 unit2.
Exercise 2.1.3
Add exercises text here. For the automatic number to work, you need to add the "AutoNum" template (preferably at the end) to
the page.
Hint
Use Example 2.1.3as a guide
Answer

16 unit 2
Other Aspects of Calculus

This is an interesting look ahead, but you do not need to focus on this part for now.
So far, we have studied functions of one variable only. Such functions can be represented visually using graphs in two dimensions;
however, there is no good reason to restrict our investigation to two dimensions. Suppose, for example, that instead of determining
the velocity of an object moving along a coordinate axis, we want to determine the velocity of a rock fired from a catapult at a
given time, or of an airplane moving in three dimensions. We might want to graph real-value functions of two variables or
determine volumes of solids of the type shown in Figure. These are only a few of the types of questions that can be asked and
answered using multivariable calculus. Informally, multivariable calculus can be characterized as the study of the calculus of
functions of two or more variables. However, before exploring these and other ideas, we must first lay a foundation for the study of
calculus in one variable by exploring the concept of a limit.
Figure 2.1.10 : We can use multivariable calculus to find the volume between a surface defined by a function of two variables and
a plane.
Key Concepts:
Differential calculus arose from trying to solve the problem of determining the slope of a line tangent to a curve at a
point. The slope of the tangent line indicates the rate of change of the function, also called the derivative. Calculating a
derivative requires finding a limit.
Integral calculus arose from trying to solve the problem of finding the area of a region between the graph of a function
and the x-axis. We can approximate the area by dividing it into thin rectangles and summing the areas of these rectangles.
This summation leads to the value of a function called the integral. The integral is also calculated by finding a limit and,
in fact, is related to the derivative of a function.
Multivariable calculus enables us to solve problems in three-dimensional space, including determining motion in space
and finding volumes of solids.
Key Equations:
Slope of a Secant Line
f (x) − f (a)
msec =
x −a
Average Velocity over Interval [a,t]

s(t) − s(a)
vave =
t −a
Glossary
average velocity

the change in an object’s position divided by the length of a time period; the average velocity of an object over a time interval [
s(t) − s(a)
t, a] (if t < a or [a, t] if t > a ), with a position given by s(t), that is v
ave =
t −a
differential calculus
the field of calculus concerned with the study of derivatives and their applications
instantaneous velocity
The instantaneous velocity of an object with a position function that is given by s(t) is the value that the average velocities on
intervals of the form [t, a] and [a, t] approach as the values of t move closer to a , provided such a value exists
integral calculus
the study of integrals and their applications
limit
the process of letting x or t approach a in an expression; the limit of a function f (x) as x approaches a is the value that f (x)
approaches as x approaches a
multivariable calculus
the study of the calculus of functions of two or more variables
secant
A secant line to a function f (x) at a is a line through the point (a, f (a)) and another point on the function; the slope of the
f (x) − f (a)
secant line is given by m sec =
x −a
tangent
A tangent line to the graph of a function at a point (a, f (a)) is the line that secant lines through (a, f (a)) approach as they are
taken through points on the function with x-values that approach a; the slope of the tangent line to a graph at a measures the rate
of change of the function at a
Contributors
This page titled 2.1: The Idea of Limits is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by OpenStax.

2.1E: A Preview of Calculus
For the following exercises, P (1, 2) and Q(x, y) are on the graph of the function f (x) = x 2
+1 .
1) [T] Complete the following table with the appropriate values: y-coordinate of Q, the point Q(x, y) , and the slope of the secant
line passing through points P and Q. Round your answer to eight significant digits.
x y Q(x, y) msec
1.1 a. e. i.
1.01 b. f. j.
1.001 c. g. k.
1.0001 d. h. l.
Answer:
a. 2.2100000
b. 2.0201000
c. 2.0020010
d. 2.0002000
e. (1.1000000, 2.2100000)
f. (1.0100000, 2.0201000)
g. (1.0010000, 2.0020010)
h. (1.0001000, 2.0002000)
i. 2.1000000
j. 2.0100000
k. 2.0010000
l. 2.0001000
2) Use the values in the right column of the table in the preceding exercise to guess the value of the slope of the line tangent to f at
x = 1.
3) Use the value in the preceding exercise to find the equation of the tangent line at point P. Graph f (x) and the tangent line.
Answer:
y = 2x
For the following exercises, points P (1, 1) and Q(x, y) are on the graph of the function f (x) = x . 3
x y Q(x, y) msec
1.1 a. e. i.
1.01 b. f. j.
1.001 c. g. k.
1.0001 d. h. l.2
5) Use the values in the right column of the table in the preceding exercise to guess the value of the slope of the tangent line to f at
x = 1.
Answer:
3
For the following exercises, points P (4, 2) and Q(x, y) are on the graph of the function f (x) = √−
x.
x y Q(x, y) msec
4.1 a. e. i.
4.01 b. f. j.
4.001 c. g. k.
4.0001 d. h. l.
Answer:
a. 2.024845
b. 2.0024984
c. 2.0002500
d. 2.0000250
e. (4.1000000,2.0248457)
f. (4.0100000,2.0024984)
g. (4.0010000,2.0002500)
h. (4.00010000,2.0000250)
i. 0.24845673
j. 0.24984395
k. 0.24998438
l. 0.24999844
x = 4.
9) Use the value in the preceding exercise to find the equation of the tangent line at point P.
Answer:
x
y = +1
4
For the following exercises, points P (1.5, 0) and Q(ϕ, y) are on the graph of the function 9f (ϕ) = cos(πϕ) .
10) [T] Complete the following table with the appropriate values: y-coordinate of Q, the point Q(x, y), and the slope of the secant
x y Q(x, y) msec
1.4 a. e. i.
1.49 b. f. j.
1.499 c. g. k.
1.4999 d. h. l.
x = 4.
Answer:
π
For the following exercises, points P (−1, −1) and Q(x, y) are on the graph of the function f (x) = 1
x
.
13) [T] Complete the following table with the appropriate values: y-coordinate of Q, the point Q(x, y), and the slope of the secant
x y Q(x, y) msec
-1.05 a. e. i.
-1.01 b. f. j.
-1.005 c. g. k.
-1.001 d. h. l.
Answer:
a. −0.95238095
b. −0.99009901
c. −0.99502488
d. −0.99900100
e. (−1;.0500000,−0;.95238095)
f. (−1;.0100000,−0;.9909901)
g. (−1;.0050000,−0;.99502488)
h. (1.0010000,−0;.99900100)
i. −0.95238095
j. −0.99009901
k. −0.99502488
l. −0.99900100
x = −1 .
Answer:
y = −x − 2
For the following exercises, the position function of a ball dropped from the top of a 200-meter tall building is given by
s(t) = 200 − 4.9t , where position s is measured in meters and time t is measured in seconds. Round your answer to eight
2
significant digits.
16) [T] Compute the average velocity of the ball over the given time intervals.
1. a. [4.99,5]
2. b. [5,5.01]
3. c. [4.999,5]
4. d. [5,5.001]
17) Use the preceding exercise to guess the instantaneous velocity of the ball at t = 5 sec.
Answer:
−49 m/sec (velocity of the ball is 49 m/sec downward)
For the following exercises, consider a stone tossed into the air from ground level with an initial velocity of 15 m/sec. Its height in
meters at time t seconds is h(t) = 15t − 4.9t .2
18) [T] Compute the average velocity of the stone over the given time intervals.
1. a. [1,1.05]
2. b. [1,1.01]
3. c. [1,1.005]
4. d. [1,1.001]
19) Use the preceding exercise to guess the instantaneous velocity of the stone at t = 1 sec.
Answer:
5.2m/sec
For the following exercises, consider a rocket shot into the air that then returns to Earth. The height of the rocket in meters is given
by h(t) = 600 + 78.4t − 4.9t , where t is measured in seconds.
2
20) [T] Compute the average velocity of the rocket over the given time intervals.
1. a. [9,9.01]
2. b. [8.99,9]
3. c. [9,9.001]
4. d. [8.999,9]
21) Use the preceding exercise to guess the instantaneous velocity of the rocket at t = 9 sec.
Answer:
-9.8m/sec
3
For the following exercises, consider an athlete running a 40-m dash. The position of the athlete is given by d(t) = t
6
+ 4t , where
d is the position in meters and t is the time elapsed, measured in seconds.
22) [T] Compute the average velocity of the runner over the given time intervals.
1. a. [1.95,2.05]
2. b. [1.995,2.005]
3. c. [1.9995,2.0005]
4. d. [2,2.00001]
23) Use the preceding exercise to guess the instantaneous velocity of the runner at t = 2 sec.
Answer:
6 m/sec
For the following exercises, consider the functionf (x) = |x|.

24) Sketch the graph of f over the interval [−1, 2] and shade the region above the x-axis.
25) Use the preceding exercise to find the exact value of the area between the x-axis and the graph of f over the interval [−1, 2]
using rectangles. For the rectangles, use the square units, and approximate both above and below the lines. Use geometry to find
the exact answer.
Answer:
Under, 1 unit ; over: 4 unit . The exact area of the two triangles is
2 2 1
2
(1)(1) +
1
2
(2)(2) = 2.5units
2
.
−−−−−
For the following exercises, consider the function f (x) = √1 − x . (Hint: This is the upper half of a circle of radius 1 positioned
2
at (0, 0).)
26) Sketch the graph of f over the interval [−1, 1].
27) Use the preceding exercise to find the exact area between the x-axis and the graph of f over the interval [−1, 1] using
rectangles. For the rectangles, use squares 0.4 by 0.4 units, and approximate both above and below the lines. Use geometry to find
the exact answer.
Answer:
2
π(1)
Under, 0.96 unit ; over, 1.92 unit . The exact area of the semicircle with radius 1 is
2 2
2
=
π
2
2
uni t
For the following exercises, consider the function f (x) = −x 2
+1 .
29) Approximate the area of the region between the x-axis and the graph of f over the interval [−1, 1].
Answer:
Approximately 1.3333333 unit 2
2.1E The Idea of Limits is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
The concept of a limit or limiting process, essential to the understanding of calculus, has been around for thousands of years. In
fact, early mathematicians used a limiting process to obtain better and better approximations of areas of circles. Yet, the formal
definition of a limit—as we know and understand it today—did not appear until the late 19th century. We therefore begin our quest
to understand limits, as our mathematical ancestors did, by using an intuitive approach. At the end of this chapter, armed with a
conceptual understanding of limits, we examine the formal definition of a limit.
We begin our exploration of limits by taking a look at the graphs of the functions
2
f (x) =
x −4
x−2
,
|x − 2|
g(x) = , and
x −2
h(x) =
1
2
,
(x−2)
which are shown in Figure 2.2.1. In particular, let’s focus our attention on the behavior of each graph at and around x = 2 .
Figure 2.2.1 : These graphs show the behavior of three different functions around x = 2 .
Each of the three functions is undefined at x = 2 , but if we make this statement and no other, we give a very incomplete picture of
how each function behaves in the vicinity of x = 2 . To express the behavior of each graph in the vicinity of 2 more completely, we
need to introduce the concept of a limit.
Intuitive Definition of a Limit

Let’s first take a closer look at how the function f (x) = (x − 4)/(x − 2) behaves around x = 2 in Figure 2.2.1. As the values of
2
x approach 2 from either side of 2, the values of y = f (x) approach 4. Mathematically, we say that the limit of f (x) as x
approaches 2 is 4. Symbolically, we express this limit as
lim f (x) = 4 .
x→2
From this very brief informal look at one limit, let’s start to develop an intuitive definition of the limit. We can think of the limit of a
function at a number a as being the one real number L that the functional values approach as the x-values approach a, provided
such a real number L exists. Stated more carefully, we have the following definition:
Definition (Intuitive): Limit
Let f (x) be a function defined at all values in an open interval containing a , with the possible exception of a itself, and let L be
a real number. If all values of the function f (x) approach the real number L as the values of x(≠ a) approach the number a,
then we say that the limit of f (x) as x approaches a is L. (More succinct, as x gets closer to a , f (x) gets closer and stays close
to L.) Symbolically, we express this idea as
lim f (x) = L. (2.2.1)
x→a
We can estimate limits by constructing tables of functional values and by looking at their graphs. This process is described in the
following Problem-Solving Strategy.
Problem-Solving Strategy: Evaluating a Limit Using a Table of Functional Values
1. To evaluate lim f (x) , we begin by completing a table of functional values. We should choose two sets of x-values—one set
x→a
of values approaching a and less than a, and another set of values approaching a and greater than a . Table 2.2.1 demonstrates
what your tables might look like.
Table 2.2.1
x f(x) x f(x)
a − 0.1 f (a − 0.1) a + 0.1 f (a + 0.1)
a − 0.01 f (a − 0.01) a + 0.001 f (a + 0.001)
a − 0.001 f (a − 0.001) a + 0.0001 f (a + 0.001)
a − 0.0001 f (a − 0.0001) a + 0.00001 f (a + 0.0001)
Use additional values as necessary. Use additional values as necessary.
2. Next, let’s look at the values in each of the f (x) columns and determine whether the values seem to be approaching a single
value as we move down each column. In our columns, we look at the sequence f (a − 0.1) , f (a − 0.01) , f (a − 0.001),
f (a − 0.0001), and so on, and f (a + 0.1), f (a + 0.01), f (a + 0.001), f (a + 0.0001), and so on. (Note: Although we have
chosen the x-values a ± 0.1, a ± 0.01, a ± 0.001, a ± 0.0001 , and so forth, and these values will probably work nearly every
time, on very rare occasions we may need to modify our choices.)
3. If both columns approach a common y-value L, we state lim f (x) = L . We can use the following strategy to confirm the
x→a
result obtained from the table or as an alternative method for estimating a limit.
4. Using a graphing calculator or computer software that allows us graph functions, we can plot the function f (x), making sure
the functional values of f (x) for x-values near a are in our window. We can use the trace feature to move along the graph of the
function and watch the y-value readout as the x-values approach a. If the y-values approach L as our x-values approach a from
both directions, then lim f (x) = L. We may need to zoom in on our graph and repeat this process several times.
x→a
We apply this Problem-Solving Strategy to compute a limit in Examples 2.2.1A and 2.2.1B.
Example 2.2.1A : Evaluating a Limit Using a Table of Functional Values

sin x
Evaluate lim using a table of functional values.
x→0 x
Solution
We have calculated the values of f (x) = (sin x)/x for the values of x listed in Table 2.2.2.
Table 2.2.2
si n x si n x
x x
x x
-0.1 0.998334166468 0.1 0.998334166468
-0.01 0.999983333417 0.01 0.999983333417
-0.001 0.999999833333 0.001 0.999999833333
-0.0001 0.999999998333 0.0001 0.999999998333
Note: The values in this table were obtained using a calculator and using all the places given in the calculator output.
(sin x)
As we read down each x
column, we see that the values in each column appear to be approaching one. Thus, it is fairly
sin x (sinx)
reasonable to conclude that lim =1 . A calculator-or computer-generated graph of f (x) = x
would be similar to that
x→0 x
shown in Figure 2.2.2, and it confirms our estimate.
Figure 2.2.2 : The graph of f (x) = (sin x)/x confirms the estimate from Table.
Example 2.2.1B : Evaluating a Limit Using a Table of Functional Values

−
√x − 2
Evaluate lim using a table of functional values.
x→4 x −4
Solution
As before, we use a table—in this case, Table 2.2.3—to list the values of the function for the given values of x.
Table 2.2.3
√x−2 √x−2
x x
x−4 x−4
3.9 0.251582341869 4.1 0.248456731317
3.99 0.25015644562 4.01 0.24984394501
3.999 0.250015627 4.001 0.249984377
3.9999 0.250001563 4.0001 0.249998438
3.99999 0.25000016 4.00001 0.24999984
After inspecting this table, we see that the functional values less than 4 appear to be decreasing toward 0.25 whereas the
−
√x − 2
functional values greater than 4 appear to be increasing toward 0.25. We conclude that lim = 0.25 . We confirm this
x→4 x −4
√x−2
estimate using the graph of f (x) = x−4
shown in Figure 2.2.3.
√x−2
Figure 2.2.3 : The graph of x−4
confirms the estimate from table
Exercise 2.2.1
1
−1
x
Estimate lim using a table of functional values. Use a graph to confirm your estimate.
x→1 x −1
Hint
Use 0.9, 0.99, 0.999, 0.9999, 0.99999 and 1.1, 1.01, 1.001, 1.0001, 1.00001 as your table values.
Answer
1
−1
x
lim = −1 (2.2.2)
x→1 x −1
At this point, we see from Examples 2.2.1A and 2.2.1b that it may be just as easy, if not easier, to estimate a limit of a function by
inspecting its graph as it is to estimate the limit by using a table of functional values. In Example 2.2.2, we evaluate a limit
exclusively by looking at a graph rather than by using a table of functional values.
Example 2.2.2 : Evaluating a Limit Using a Graph

For g(x) shown in Figure 2.2.4, evaluate lim g(x) .
x→−1
Figure 2.2.4 : The graph of g(x) includes one value not on a smooth curve.
Solution:
Despite the fact that g(−1) = 4 , as the x-values approach −1 from either side, the g(x) values approach 3. Therefore,
lim g(x) = 3 . Note that we can determine this limit without even knowing the algebraic expression of the function.
x→−1
Based on Example 2.2.2A, we make the following observation: It is possible for the limit of a function to exist at a point, and for
the function to be defined at this point, but the limit of the function and the value of the function at the point may be different.
Exercise 2.2.2
Use the graph of h(x) in Figure 2.2.5 to evaluate lim h(x), if possible.
x→2
Figure 2.2.5 :
Hint
What y-value does the function approach as the x-values approach 2?
Solution
lim h(x) = −1.
x→2
Looking at a table of functional values or looking at the graph of a function provides us with useful insight into the value of the
limit of a function at a given point. However, these techniques rely too much on guesswork. We eventually need to develop
alternative methods of evaluating limits. These new methods are more algebraic in nature and we explore them in the next section;
however, at this point we introduce two special limits that are foundational to the techniques to come.
Two Important Limits
Let a be a real number and c be a constant.
i. lim x = a
x→a
ii. lim c = c
x→a
We can make the following observations about these two limits.

i. For the first limit, observe that as x approaches a, so does f (x), because f (x) = x. Consequently, lim x = a .
x→a
ii. For the second limit, consider Table.
x f(x0 = c x f(x) = c
a − 0.1 c a + 0.1 c
a − 0.01 c a + 0.01 c
a − 0.001 c a + 0.001 c
a − 0.0001 c a + 0.0001 c
Observe that for all values of x (regardless of whether they are approaching a), the values f (x) remain constant at c. We have no
choice but to conclude lim c = c .
x→a
The Existence of a Limit

As we consider the limit in the next example, keep in mind that for the limit of a function to exist at a point, the functional values
must approach a single real-number value at that point. If the functional values do not approach a single value, then the limit does
not exist.
Example 2.2.3 : Evaluating a Limit That Fails to Exist

Evaluate lim sin(1/x) using a table of values.
x→0
Solution
Table 2.2.3 lists values for the function sin(1/x) for the given values of x.
Table 2.2.3
x sin(1/x) x sin(1/x)
-0.1 0.544021110889 0.1 −0.544021110889
-0.01 0.50636564111 0.01 −0.50636564111
-0.001 −0.8268795405312 0.001 0.8268795405312
-0.0001 0.305614388888 0.0001 −0.305614388888
-0.00001 −0.035748797987 0.00001 0.035748797987
-0.000001 0.349993504187 0.000001 −0.349993504187
After examining the table of functional values, we can see that the y-values do not seem to approach any one single value. It
appears the limit does not exist. Before drawing this conclusion, let’s take a more systematic approach. Take the following
sequence of x-values approaching 0:
2 2 2 2 2 2
, , , , , ,…. (2.2.3)
π 3π 5π 7π 9π 11π
The corresponding y-values are

1, −1, 1, −1, 1, −1, . . . . (2.2.4)
At this point we can indeed conclude that lim sin(1/x) does not exist. (Mathematicians frequently abbreviate “does not exist”
x→0
as DNE. Thus, we would write lim sin(1/x) DNE.) The graph of f (x) = sin(1/x) is shown in Figure 2.2.6 and it gives a
x→0
clearer picture of the behavior of sin(1/x) as x approaches 0. You can see that sin(1/x) oscillates ever more wildly between
−1 and 1 as x approaches 0.
Figure 2.2.6 : The graph of f (x) = sin(1/x) oscillates rapidly between −1 and 1 as x approaches 0.
Exercise 2.2.3
2
∣
∣x − 4 ∣
∣
Use a table of functional values to evaluate lim , if possible.
x→2 x −2
Hint
Use x-values 1.9, 1.99, 1.999, 1.9999, 1.9999 and 2.1, 2.01, 2.001, 2.0001, 2.00001 in your table.
Answer
2
∣
∣x − 4∣
∣
lim does not exist.
x→2 x −2
One-Sided Limits
Sometimes indicating that the limit of a function fails to exist at a point does not provide us with enough information about the
behavior of the function at that particular point. To see this, we now revisit the function g(x) = |x − 2|/(x − 2) introduced at the
beginning of the section (see Figure(b)). As we pick values of x close to 2, g(x) does not approach a single value, so the limit as x
approaches 2 does not exist—that is, lim g(x) DNE. However, this statement alone does not give us a complete picture of the
x→2
behavior of the function around the x-value 2. To provide a more accurate description, we introduce the idea of a one-sided limit.
For all values to the left of 2 (or the negative side of 2), g(x) = −1 . Thus, as x approaches 2 from the left, g(x) approaches −1.
Mathematically, we say that the limit as x approaches 2 from the left is −1. Symbolically, we express this idea as
lim g(x) = −1. (2.2.5)
−
x→2
Similarly, as x approaches 2 from the right (or from the positive side), g(x) approaches 1. Symbolically, we express this idea as
lim g(x) = 1. (2.2.6)
+
x→2
We can now present an informal definition of one-sided limits.

Definition: One-sided Limits
We define two types of one-sided limits.
Limit from the left:
Let f (x) be a function defined at all values in an open interval of the form z , and let L be a real number. If the values of the
function f (x) approach the real number L as the values of x (where x < a ) approach the number a, then we say that L is the
limit of f (x) as x approaches a from the left. Symbolically, we express this idea as
lim f (x) = L. (2.2.7)
−
x→a
Limit from the right:

Let f (x) be a function defined at all values in an open interval of the form (a, c), and let L be a real number. If the values of the
function f (x) approach the real number L as the values of x (where x > a ) approach the number a , then we say that L is the
limit of f (x) as x approaches a from the right. Symbolically, we express this idea as
lim f (x) = L. (2.2.8)
+
x→a
Example 2.2.4 : Evaluating One-Sided Limits

x +1 if x < 2
For the function f (x) = { 2
, evaluate each of the following limits.
x −4 if x ≥ 2
a. lim f (x)
−
x→2
b. lim f (x)
+
x→2
Solution
We can use tables of functional values again Table. Observe that for values of x less than 2, we use f (x) = x + 1 and for values
of x greater than 2, we use f (x) = x − 4. 2
2
x f(x) = x + 1 x f(x) = x −4
1.9 2.9 2.1 0.41
2
x f(x) = x + 1 x f(x) = x −4
1.99 2.99 2.01 0.0401
1.999 2.999 2.001 0.004001
1.9999 2.9999 2.0001 0.00040001
1.99999 2.99999 2.00001 0.0000400001
Based on this table, we can conclude that a. lim f (x) = 3 and b. lim f (x) = 0 . Therefore, the (two-sided) limit of f (x) does
− +
x→2 x→2
not exist at x = 2 . Figure 2.2.7 shows a graph of f (x) and reinforces our conclusion about these limits.
x +1 if x < 2
Figure 2.2.7 : The graph of f (x) = { 2
has a break at x=2.
x −4 if x ≥ 2
Exercise 2.2.4
Use a table of functional values to estimate the following limits, if possible.
2
∣
∣x − 4 ∣
∣
a. lim
−
x→2 x −2
2
∣
∣x − 4∣
∣
b. lim
x→2
+
x −2
Hint
2
∣
∣x − 4∣
∣
Use x-values 1.9, 1.99, 1.999, 1.9999, 1.9999 to estimate lim .
x→2
−
x −2
2
∣
∣x − 4∣
∣
Use x-values 2.1, 2.01, 2.001, 2.0001, 2.00001 to estimate lim
+
.
x→2 x −2
(These tables are available from a previous Checkpoint problem.)

Solution a
2
∣
∣x − 4 ∣
∣
a. lim
−
= −4
x→2 x −2
Solution b
2
∣
∣x − 4 ∣
∣
lim =4
+
x→2 x −2
Let us now consider the relationship between the limit of a function at a point and the limits from the right and left at that point. It
seems clear that if the limit from the right and the limit from the left have a common value, then that common value is the limit of
the function at that point. Similarly, if the limit from the left and the limit from the right take on different values, the limit of the
function does not exist. These conclusions are summarized in Note.
Relating One-Sided and Two-Sided Limits

Let f (x) be a function defined at all values in an open interval containing a , with the possible exception of a itself, and let L be
a real number. Then,
lim f (x) = L if and only if lim f (x) = L
−
and lim f (x) = L
+
.
x→a x→a x→a
or we could say
lim f (x) exists if and only if lim f (x) = lim f (x)
− +
.
x→a x→a x→a
Key Concepts
A table of values or graph may be used to estimate a limit.
If the limit of a function at a point does not exist, it is still possible that the limits from the left and right at that point may
exist.
If the limits of a function from the left and right exist and are equal, then the limit of the function is that common value.
We may use limits to describe infinite behavior of a function at a point.
Key Equations
Intuitive Definition of the Limit
lim f (x) = L
x→a

lim x = a lim c = c
x→a x→a
One-Sided Limits
lim f (x) = L lim f (x) = L
− +
x→a x→a
Glossary
intuitive definition of the limit

If all values of the function f (x) approach the real number L as the values of x(≠ a) approach a, f (x) approaches L
one-sided limit
A one-sided limit of a function is a limit taken from either the left or the right
Contributors
2.2: Limits of Functions is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
2.2: The Limit of a Function
Estimating limits from TABLES
2
∣
∣x −1 ∣
∣
For the following exercises, consider the function f (x) = x−1
.
30) [T] Complete the following table for the function. Round your solutions to four decimal places.
x f(x) x f(x)
0.9 a. 1.1 e.
0.99 b. 1.01 f.
0.999 c. 1.001 g.
0.9999 d. 1.0001 h.
31) What do your results in the preceding exercise indicate about the two-sided limit lim f (x)? Explain your response.
x→1
Answer:
lim f (x) does not exist because
x→1
lim f (x) = −2
−
≠ lim f (x) = 2
+
.
x→1 x→1
For the following exercises, consider the function f (x) = (1 + x) 1/x

.
32) [T] Make a table showing the values of f for x = −0.01, −0.001, −0.0001, −0.00001 and for
x = 0.01, 0.001, 0.0001, 0.00001 . Round your solutions to five decimal places.
x f(x) \(x)\ f(x)
-0.01 a. 0.01 e.
-0.001 b. 0.001 f.
-0.0001 c. 0.0001 g.
-0.00001 d. 0.00001 h.
33) What does the table of values in the preceding exercise indicate about the function f (x) = (1 + x) 1/x
?
Answer:
It appears that: lim(1 + x ) 1/x
= 2.7183
x→0
34) To which mathematical constant does the limit in the preceding exercise appear to be getting closer?
In the following exercises, use the given values to set up a table to evaluate the limits. Round your solutions to eight decimal
places.
sin(2x)
35) [T] lim ; ±0.1, ±0.01, ±0.001, ±.0001
x→0 x
sin2x sin2x
x x
x x
-0.1 a. 0.1 e.
-0.01 b. 0.01 f.
-0.001 c. 0.001 g.
-0.0001 d. 0.0001 h.
Access for free at OpenStax 2.2E.1 https://math.libretexts.org/@go/page/10101

Answer:
a. 1.98669331
b. 1.99986667
c. 1.99999867
d. 1.99999999
e. 1.98669331
f. 1.99986667
g. 1.99999867
h. 1.99999999
sin2x
It appears that: lim =2
x→0 x
sin(3x)
36) [T] lim ± 0.1, ±0.01, ±0.001, ±0.0001
x→0 x
sin3x sin3x
x x
x x
-0.1 a. 0.1 e.
-0.01 b. 0.01 f.
-0.001 c. 0.001 g.
-0.0001 d. 0.0001 h.
sin(ax)
37) Use the preceding two exercises to conjecture (guess) the value of the following limit: lim for a, a positive real value.
x→0 x
Answer:
sinax
It appears that: lim =a
x→0 x
[T] In the following exercises, set up a table of values to find the indicated limit. Round to eight digits.
2
x −4
38) lim 2
x→2 x +x −6
2 2
x −4 x −4
x 2
x 2
x +x−6 x +x−6
1.9 a. 2.1 e.
1.99 b. 2.01 f.
1.999 c. 2.001 g.
1.9999 d. 2.0001 h.
39) lim(1 − 2x)

x→1
x 1 − 2x x 1 − 2x
0.9 a. 1.1 e.
0.99 b. 1.01 f.
0.999 c. 1.001 g.
0.9999 d. 1.0001 h.
Answer:
a. −0.80000000
b. −0.98000000

c. −0.99800000
d. −0.99980000
e. −1.2000000
f. −1.0200000
g. −1.0020000
h. −1.0002000;
It appears that: lim(1 − 2x) = −1
x→1
5
40) lim 1/x
x→0 1 −e
5 5
x x
1−e1/x 1−e1/x
-0.1 a. 0.1 e.
-0.01 b. 0.01 f.
-0.001 c. 0.001 g.
-0.0001 d. 0.0001 h.
z−1
41) lim 2
z→0 z (z + 3)
z−1 z−1
z z
z2 ( z+3) z2 ( z+3)
-0.1 a. 0.1 e.
-0.01 b. 0.01 f.
-0.001 c. 0.001 g.
-0.0001 d. 0.0001 h.
Answer:
a. −37.931934
b. −3377.9264
c. −333,777.93
d. −33,337,778
e. −29.032258
f. −3289.0365
g. −332,889.04
h. −33,328,889
z−1
It appears that: lim x→0 2
= −∞
z (z+3)
cos(t)
42) lim
+
t→0 t
cost
\(t) t
0.1 a.
0.01 b.
0.001 c.
0.0001 d.
2
1−
x
43) lim
x→2 x2 − 4

2
2 2
2
1−
1− 1−
1−
x
x x
x
x x
2 2
x
x −4
−4 x
x −4
−4
1.9 a. 2.1 e.
1.99 b. 2.01 f.
1.999 c. 2.001 g.
1.9999 d. 2.0001 h.
Answer:
a. 0.13495277
b. 0.12594300
c. 0.12509381
d. 0.12500938
e. 0.11614402
f. 0.12406794
g. 0.12490631
h. 0.12499063
2
1− 1
x
It appears that: lim 2
= 0.1250 =
x→2 x −4 8
[T] In the following exercises, set up a table of values and round to eight significant digits. Based on the table of values, make a
guess about what the limit is. Then, use a calculator to graph the function and determine the limit. Was the conjecture correct? If
not, why does the method of tables fail?
π
44) lim sin( )
θ→0 θ
π π
θ sin( ) θ sin( )
θ θ
-0.1 a. 0.1 e.
-0.01 b. 0.01 f.
-0.001 c. 0.001 g.
-0.0001 d. 0.0001 h.
1 π
45) lim cos( )
α→0
+
α α
1 π
a cos( )
α α
0.1 a.
0.01 b.
0.001 c.
0.0001 d.
Answer:
a. −10.00000; b. −100.00000; c. −1000.0000; d. −10,000.000
1 π
It appears from the table: lim
+
cos( ) = −∞
α→0 α α
actual answer (see graph): DNE

Estimating limits from GRAPHS
Note: Exercises #46 - #49 moved to section 2.4 Exercises
In the following exercises, use the following graph of the function y = f (x) to find the values, if possible. Estimate when
necessary.
50) lim f (x)

−
x→1
51) lim f (x)

+
x→1
Answer:
2
52) lim f (x)

x→1
53) lim f (x)

x→2
Answer:
1
54) f (1)
In the following exercises, use the graph of the function y = f (x) shown here to find the values, if possible. Estimate when
necessary.

55) lim f (x)
−
x→0
Answer:
1
56) lim f (x)

+
x→0
57) lim f (x)

x→0
Answer:
DNE
58) lim f (x)

x→2
necessary.
59) lim
−
f (x)
x→−2
Answer:
0

60) lim
+
f (x)
x→−2
61) lim f (x)

x→−2
Answer:
DNE
62) lim f (x)

−
x→2
63) lim f (x)

+
x→2
Answer:
2
64) lim f (x)

x→2
In the following exercises, use the graph of the function y = g(x) shown here to find the values, if possible. Estimate when
necessary.
65) lim g(x)

−
x→0
Answer:
3
66) lim g(x)

+
x→0
67) lim g(x)

x→0
Answer:
DNE
In the following exercises, use the graph of the function y = h(x) shown here to find the values, if possible. Estimate when
necessary.

68) lim h(x)
−
x→0
69) lim h(x)

+
x→0
Answer:
0
70) lim h(x)

x→0
necessary.
71) lim f (x)

−
x→0
Answer:
−2
72) lim f (x)

+
x→0
73) lim f (x)

x→0
Answer:

DNE
74) lim f (x)

x→1
75) lim f (x)

x→2
Answer:
0
In the following exercises, sketch the graph of a function with the given properties.
76) lim f (x) = 1, lim f (x) = 3, lim f (x) = 6, x = 4
− +
is not defined.
x→2 x→4 x→4
77) lim f (x) = 0, lim

−
f (x) = −∞, lim
+
f (x) = ∞, lim f (x) = f (0), f (0) = 1, lim f (x) = −∞
x→−∞ x→−1 x→−1 x→0 x→∞
Answer:
Answer may vary
−1
78) lim f (x) = 2, lim f (x) = −∞, lim f (x) = ∞, lim f (x) = 2, f (0) =
x→−∞ x→3
− +
x→3 x→∞ 3
79) lim f (x) = 2, lim f (x) = −∞, lim f (x) = 2, f (0) = 0

x→−∞ x→−2 x→∞
Answer:
Answer may vary

80) lim f (x) = 0, lim
−
f (x) = ∞, lim
+
f (x) = −∞, f (0) = −1, lim f (x) = −∞, lim f (x) = ∞, lim f (x) = 0
− +
x→−∞ x→−1 x→−1 x→1 x→1 x→∞
81) Shock waves arise in many physical applications, ranging from supernovas to detonation waves. A graph of the density of a
shock wave with respect to distance, x, is shown here. We are mainly interested in the location of the front of the shock, labeled
xSF in the diagram.
a. Evaluate lim
+
.
ρ(x)
x→x
SF
b. Evaluate lim
−
ρ(x) .
x→x
SF
c. Evaluate lim . Explain the physical meanings behind your answers.

ρ(x)
x→xSF
Answer:
a. ρ
2
b. ρ
1
c. DNE unless ρ = ρ . As you approach xSF from the right, you are in the high-density area of the shock. When you
1 2
approach from the left, you have not experienced the “shock” yet and are at a lower density.
82) A track coach uses a camera with a fast shutter to estimate the position of a runner with respect to time. A table of the values of
position of the athlete versus time is given here, where x is the position in meters of the runner and t is time in seconds. What is
lim x(t)? What does it mean physically?
t→2
t(sec) x(m)
1.75 4.5
1.95 6.1
1.99 6.42

t(sec) x(m)
2.01 6.58
2.05 6.9
2.25 8.5
This page titled 2.2E: Limits of Functions Exercises is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by
OpenStax.

In the previous section, we evaluated limits by looking at graphs or by constructing a table of values. In this section, we establish
laws for calculating limits and learn how to apply these laws. In the Student Project at the end of this section, you have the
opportunity to apply these limit laws to derive the formula for the area of a circle by adapting a method devised by the Greek
mathematician Archimedes. We begin by restating two useful limit results from the previous section. These two results, together
with the limit laws, serve as a foundation for calculating many limits.
Evaluating Limits with the Limit Laws

The first two limit laws were stated previosuly and we repeat them here. These basic results, together with the other limit laws,
allow us to evaluate limits of many algebraic functions.
Basic Limit Results
For any real number a and any constant c ,
I. lim x = a
x→a
II. lim c = c
x→a
Example 2.3.1 : Evaluating a Basic Limit

Evaluate each of the following limits using Note.
a. lim x
x→2
b. lim 5
x→2
Solution:
a. The limit of x as x approaches a is a: lim x = 2 .
x→2
b. The limit of a constant is that constant: lim 5 = 5 .

x→2
We now take a look at the limit laws, the individual properties of limits. The proofs that these laws hold are omitted here.
Limit Laws
Let f (x) and g(x) be defined for all x ≠ a over some open interval containing a . Assume that L and M are real numbers such
that lim f (x) = L and lim g(x) = M . Let c be a constant. Then, each of the following statements holds:
x→a x→a
Sum law for limits:
lim(f (x) + g(x)) = lim f (x) + lim g(x) = L + M (2.3.3)

x→a x→a x→a
Difference law for limits:
lim(f (x) − g(x)) = lim f (x) − lim g(x) = L − M (2.3.4)

x→a x→a x→a
Constant multiple law for limits:

lim cf (x) = c ⋅ lim f (x) = cL (2.3.5)
x→a x→a
Product law for limits:

lim(f (x) ⋅ g(x)) = lim f (x) ⋅ lim g(x) = L ⋅ M (2.3.6)
x→a x→a x→a
Quotient law for limits:

lim f (x)
f (x) x→a L
lim = = (2.3.7)
x→a g(x) lim g(x) M
x→a

for M ≠0 .
Power law for limits:
n n n
lim(f (x)) = ( lim f (x)) =L (2.3.8)
x→a x→a
for every positive integer n .

Root law for limits:
−−−− −−−−− −− n −
−
n
lim √f (x) = √
n
lim f (x) = √L (2.3.9)
x→a x→a
for all L if n is odd and for L ≥ 0 if n is even.
We now practice applying these limit laws to evaluate a limit.
Example 2.3.2A : Evaluating a Limit Using Limit Laws

Use the limit laws to evaluate
lim (4x + 2).

x→−3
Solution
Let’s apply the limit laws one step at a time to be sure we understand how they work. We need to keep in mind the requirement
that, at each application of a limit law, the new limits must exist for the limit law to be applied.
lim (4x + 2) = lim 4x + lim 2 Apply the sum law.
x→−3 x→−3 x→−3
=4 ⋅ lim x + lim 2 Apply the constant multiple law.

x→−3 x→−3
=4 ⋅ (−3) + 2 = −10. Apply the basic limit results and simplify.

Notice this is equivalent to substituting −3 for x in the original function. One just needs to be careful that the
limit exists at this point.
Example 2.3.2B : Using Limit Laws Repeatedly

Use the limit laws to evaluate
2
2x − 3x + 1
lim .
3
x→2 x +4
Solution
To find this limit, we need to apply the limit laws several times. Again, we need to keep in mind that as we rewrite the limit in
terms of other limits, each new limit must exist for the limit law to be applied.
2
2
lim(2 x − 3x + 1)
2x − 3x + 1 x→2
lim = Apply the quotient law, make sure that (2) 3
+ 4 ≠ 0.
x→2 x3 + 4 lim(x
3
+ 4)
x→2
2
2 ⋅ lim x − 3 ⋅ lim x + lim 1
x→2 x→2 x→2
= 3
Apply the sum law and constant multiple law
lim x + lim 4
x→2 x→2
2
2 ⋅ ( lim x ) − 3 ⋅ lim x + lim 1
x→2 x→2 x→2
= 3
Apply the power law.
( lim x ) + lim 4
x→2 x→2
2(4) − 3(2) + 1 1
= 3
= . Apply the basic limit laws and simplify.
(2 ) +4 4

Notice this is equivalent to substituting 2 for x in the original function. One just needs to be careful that the
limit exists at this point.
Exercise 2.3.2
−−−−−
Use the limit laws to evaluate lim(2x − 1)√x + 4 . In each step, indicate the limit law applied.
x→6
Hint
Begin by applying the product law.
Or just substitute 6 for x in the original function. One just needs to be careful that the limit exists at this point.
Answer
−−
11 √10
Limits of Polynomial and Rational Functions

By now you have probably noticed that, in each of the previous examples, it has been the case that lim f (x) = f (a) . This is not
x→a
always true, but it does hold for all polynomials for any choice of a and for all rational functions at all values of a for which the
rational function is defined.
Limits of Polynomial and Rational Functions
Let p(x) and q(x) be polynomial functions. Let a be a real number. Then,
lim p(x) = p(a) (2.3.10)

x→a
p(x) p(a)
lim = (2.3.11)
x→a q(x) q(a)
when q(a) ≠ 0 .
To see that this theorem holds, consider the polynomial
n n−1
p(x) = cn x + cn−1 x + ⋯ + c1 x + c0 . (2.3.12)
By applying the sum, constant multiple, and power laws, we end up with
n n−1
lim p(x) = lim(cn x + cn−1 x + ⋯ + c1 x + c0 )
x→a x→a
n n−1
= cn ( lim x ) + cn−1 ( lim x ) + ⋯ + c1 ( lim x) + lim c0
x→a x→a x→a x→a
n n−1
= cn a + cn−1 a + ⋯ + c1 a + c0
= p(a)
It now follows from the quotient law that if p(x) and q(x) are polynomials for which q(a) ≠ 0 ,
then
p(x) p(a)
lim = . (2.3.13)
x→a q(x) q(a)
Example 2.3.3 : Evaluating a Limit of a Rational Function

2
2x − 3x + 1
Evaluate the lim .
x→3 5x + 4
Solution
2
Since 3 is in the domain of the rational function f (x) =

2 x −3x+1
5x+4
, we can calculate the limit by substituting 3 for x into the
function. Thus,

2
2x − 3x + 1 10
lim = .
x→3 5x + 4 19
Exercise 2.3.3
Evaluate lim (3 x
3
− 2x + 7) .
x→−2
Hint
Use LIMITS OF POLYNOMIAL AND RATIONAL FUNCTIONS as reference
Answer
−13
Additional Limit Evaluation Techniques

As we have seen, we may evaluate easily the limits of polynomials and limits of some (but not all) rational functions by direct
substitution. However, as we saw in the introductory section on limits, it is certainly possible for lim f (x) to exist when f (a) is
x→a
undefined. The following observation allows us to evaluate many limits of this type:
If for all x ≠ a, f (x) = g(x) over some open interval containing a , then
lim f (x) = lim g(x). (2.3.14)
x→a x→a
2
x −1
To understand this idea better, consider the limit lim .
x→1 x −1
The function
2
x −1 (x − 1)(x + 1)
f (x) = = (2.3.15)
x −1 x −1
and the function g(x) = x + 1 are identical for all values of x ≠ 1 . The graphs of these two functions are shown in Figure 2.3.1.
Figure 2.3.1 : The graphs of f (x) and g(x) are identical for all x ≠ 1 . Their limits at 1 are equal.
We see that
2
x −1 (x − 1)(x + 1)
lim = lim = lim(x + 1) = 2. (2.3.16)
x→1 x −1 x→1 x −1 x→1
The limit has the form lim f (x)g(x) , where lim f (x) = 0 and lim g(x) = 0 . (In this case, we say that f (x)/g(x) has the
x→a x→a x→a
indeterminate form 0/0.) The following Problem-Solving Strategy provides a general outline for evaluating limits of this type.
Problem-Solving Strategy: Calculating a Limit When f (x)/g(x) has the Indeterminate Form 0/0

1. First, we need to make sure that our function has the appropriate form and cannot be evaluated immediately using the limit
laws.
2. We then need to find a function that is equal to h(x) = f (x)/g(x) for all x ≠ a over some interval containing a. To do this,
we may need to try one or more of the following steps:
a. If f (x) and g(x) are polynomials, we should factor each function and cancel out any common factors.
b. If the numerator or denominator contains a difference involving a square root, we should try multiplying the numerator
and denominator by the conjugate of the expression involving the square root.
c. If f (x)/g(x) is a complex fraction, we begin by simplifying it.
3. Last, we apply the limit laws.
The next examples demonstrate the use of this Problem-Solving Strategy. Example illustrates the factor-and-cancel technique;
Example shows multiplying by a conjugate. In Example, we look at simplifying a complex fraction.
Example 2.3.4: Evaluating a Limit by Factoring and Canceling

2
x − 3x
Evaluate lim 2
.
x→3 2x − 5x − 3
Solution
2
x − 3x
Step 1. The function f (x) =
2
is undefined for x =3 . In fact, if we substitute 3 into the function we get 0/0,
2x − 5x − 3
which is undefined. Factoring and canceling is a good strategy:

2
x − 3x x(x − 3)
lim = lim (2.3.17)
2
x→3 2x − 5x − 3 x→3 (x − 3)(2x + 1)
2
x − 3x x
Step 2. For all x ≠ 3, 2
= . Therefore,
2x − 5x − 3 2x + 1
x(x − 3) x
lim = lim . (2.3.18)
x→3 (x − 3)(2x + 1) x→3 2x + 1
Step 3. Evaluate using the limit laws:

x 3
lim = . (2.3.19)
x→3 2x + 1 7
Exercise 2.3.4
2
x + 4x + 3
Evaluate lim
2
.
x→−3 x −9
Hint
Follow the steps in the Problem-Solving Strategy
Answer
1
Example 2.3.5: Evaluating a Limit by Multiplying by a Conjugate

−−−−−
√x + 2 − 1
Evaluate lim .
x→−1 x +1
Solution

−−−−−
√x + 2 − 1 −−−−− −−−−−
Step 1. has the form 0/0 at −1. Let’s begin by multiplying by √x + 2 +1 , the conjugate of √x + 2 − 1 , on the
x +1
numerator and denominator:
−−−−− −−−−− −−−−−
√x + 2 − 1 √x + 2 − 1 √x + 2 + 1
lim = lim ⋅ −−−−− . (2.3.20)
x→−1 x +1 x→−1 x +1 √x + 2 + 1
Step 2. We then multiply out the numerator. We don’t multiply out the denominator because we are hoping that the (x + 1) in
the denominator cancels out in the end:
x +1
= lim −−−−− . (2.3.21)
x→−1 (x + 1)(√ x + 2 + 1)
Step 3. Then we cancel:

1
= lim −−−−− . (2.3.22)
x→−1 √x + 2 + 1
Step 4. Last, we apply the limit laws:

1 1
lim −−−−− = . (2.3.23)
x→−1 √x + 2 + 1 2
Exercise 2.3.5
−−−−−
√x − 1 − 2
Evaluate lim .
x→5 x −5
Hint
Follow the steps in the Problem-Solving Strategy
Answer
1
Example 2.3.6: Evaluating a Limit by Simplifying a Complex Fraction

1 1
−
x +1 2
Evaluate lim .
x→1 x −1
Solution
1 1
−
x +1 2
Step 1. has the form 0/0 at 1. We simplify the algebraic fraction by multiplying by 2(x + 1)/2(x + 1) :
x −1
1 1 1 1
− −
x +1 2 x +1 2 2(x + 1)
lim = lim ⋅ . (2.3.24)
x→1 x −1 x→1 x −1 2(x + 1)
Step 2. Next, we multiply through the numerators. Do not multiply the denominators because we want to be able to cancel the
factor (x − 1) :
2 − (x + 1)
= lim . (2.3.25)
x→1 2(x − 1)(x + 1)
Step 3. Then, we simplify the numerator:

−x + 1
= lim . (2.3.26)
x→1 2(x − 1)(x + 1)

Step 4. Now we factor out −1 from the numerator:
−(x − 1)
= lim . (2.3.27)
x→1 2(x − 1)(x + 1)
Step 5. Then, we cancel the common factors of (x − 1) :

−1
= lim . (2.3.28)
x→1 2(x + 1)
Step 6. Last, we evaluate using the limit laws:

−1 −1 1
lim = =− . (2.3.29)
x→1 2(x + 1) 2(1 + 1) 4
Exercise 2.3.6
1
+1
x +2
Evaluate lim .
x→−3 x +3
Hint
Follow the steps in the Problem-Solving Strategy and
Answer
−1
Example does not fall neatly into any of the patterns established in the previous examples. However, with a little creativity, we can
still use these same techniques.
Example 2.3.7 : Evaluating a Limit When the Limit Laws Do Not Apply
1 5
Evaluate lim( + ) .
x→0 x x(x − 5)
Solution:
Both 1/x and 5/x(x − 5) fail to have a limit at zero. Since neither of the two functions has a limit at zero, we cannot apply the
sum law for limits; we must use a different strategy. In this case, we find the limit by performing addition and then applying one
of our previous strategies. Observe that
1 5 x −5 +5 x
+ = = . (2.3.30)
x x(x − 5) x(x − 5) x(x − 5)
Thus,
1 5 x 1 1
lim( + ) = lim = lim =− . (2.3.31)
x→0 x x(x − 5) x→0 x(x − 5) x→0 x −5 5
Exercise 2.3.7
1 4
Evaluate lim( −
2
) .
x→3 x −3 x − 2x − 3
Hint
Use the same technique as Example 2.3.7. Don’t forget to factor x 2
− 2x − 3 before getting a common denominator.
Answer
1

Let’s now revisit one-sided limits. Simple modifications in the limit laws allow us to apply them to one-sided limits. For example,
to apply the limit laws to a limit of the form lim h(x), we require the function h(x) to be defined over an open interval of the
x→a−
form (b, a); for a limit of the form lim h(x), we require the function h(x) to be defined over an open interval of the form
x→a+
(a, c) . Example illustrates this point.
Example 2.3.8A : Evaluating a One-Sided Limit Using the Limit Laws

Evaluate each of the following limits, if possible.
−−−−−
a. lim √x − 3
x→3−
−−−−−
b. lim √x − 3
x→3+
Solution
−−−−−
Figure illustrates the function f (x) = √x − 3 and aids in our understanding of these limits.
−−−−−
Figure 2.3.2 : The graph shows the function f (x) = √x − 3 .
−−−−−
a. The function f (x) = √x − 3 is defined over the interval [3, +∞). Since this function is not defined to the left of 3, we
−− −−− −−−−− −−−−−
cannot apply the limit laws to compute lim √x − 3 . In fact, since f (x) = √x − 3 is undefined to the left of 3, lim √x − 3
x→3− x→3−
does not exist.

−−−−− −−−−−
b. Since f (x) = √x − 3 is defined to the right of 3, the limit laws do apply to lim √x − 3 . By applying these limit laws we
x→3+
−−−−−
obtain lim √x − 3 = 0 .
x→3+
In 2.3.9 we look at one-sided limits of a piecewise-defined function and use these limits to draw a conclusion about a two-sided
limit of the same function.
Example 2.3.8B : Evaluating a Two-Sided Limit Using the Limit Laws

4x − 3 if x < 2
For f (x) = { 2
, evaluate each of the following limits:
(x − 3) if x ≥ 2
a. lim f (x)
x→2−
b. lim f (x)
x→2+
c. lim f (x)
x→2
Solution
Figure illustrates the function f (x) and aids in our understanding of these limits.

Figure 2.3.3 : This graph shows a function f (x).
a. Since f (x) = 4x − 3 for all x in (−∞, 2), replace f (x) in the limit with 4x − 3 and apply the limit laws:
lim f (x) = lim (4x − 3) = 5

x→2− x→2−
b. Since f (x) = (x − 3) for all x in (2, +∞), replace f (x) in the limit with (x − 3) and apply the limit laws:
2 2
2
lim f (x) = lim (x − 3 ) = 1.
x→2+ x→2−
c. Since lim f (x) = 5 and lim f (x) = 1 , we conclude that lim f (x) does not exist.
x→2− x→2+ x→2
Exercise 2.3.8
⎧ −x − 2 if x < −1
Graph f (x) = ⎨ 2 if x = −1 and evaluate lim f (x) .

⎩ x→−1−
3
x if x > −1
Hint
Use the method in Example to evaluate the limit.
Answer
Note: this graph is not quite right; there should be a point at (-1,2)
limx→−1− f (x) = −1
f (x)
We now turn our attention to evaluating a limit of the form lim , where lim f (x) = K , where K ≠0 and lim g(x) = 0 .
x→a g(x) x→a x→a
That is, f (x)/g(x) has the form K/0, K ≠ 0 at a.
Example 2.3.9 : Evaluating a Limit of the Form K /0, K ≠ 0 Using the Limit Laws

x −3
Evaluate lim .
x→2− x2 − 2x
Solution:
Step 1. After substituting in x = 2 , we see that this limit has the form −1/0. That is, as x approaches 2 from the left, the
numerator approaches −1; and the denominator approaches 0. Consequently, the magnitude of \dfrac{x−3}{x(x−2)} becomes
infinite. To get a better idea of what the limit is, we need to factor the denominator:
x −3 x −3
lim = lim . (2.3.32)
2
x→2− x − 2x x→2− x(x − 2)
Step 2. Since x − 2 is the only part of the denominator that is zero when 2 is substituted, we then separate 1/(x − 2) from the
rest of the function:
x −3 1
= lim ⋅ . (2.3.33)
x→2
−
x x −2
x −3 1 1
Step 3. lim
−
=− and lim
−
= −∞ . Therefore, the product of (x − 3)/x and 1/(x − 2) has a limit of +∞ :
x→2 x 2 x→2 x −2
x −3
lim = +∞. (2.3.34)
− 2
x→2 x − 2x
Exercise 2.3.9
x +2
Evaluate lim 2
.
x→1 (x − 1)
Solution
Use the methods from Example 2.3.10.
Answer
+∞
The Squeeze Theorem

The techniques we have developed thus far work very well for algebraic functions, but we are still unable to evaluate limits of very
basic trigonometric functions. The next theorem, called the squeeze theorem, proves very useful for establishing basic
trigonometric limits. This theorem allows us to calculate limits by “squeezing” a function, with a limit at a point a that is unknown,
between two functions having a common known limit at a . Figure 2.3.4 illustrates this idea.

Figure 2.3.4 : The Squeeze Theorem applies when f (x) ≤ g(x) ≤ h(x) and lim x→a f (x) = limx→a h(x) .
The Squeeze Theorem
Let f (x), g(x), and h(x) be defined for all x≠a over an open interval containing a. If
f (x) ≤ g(x) ≤ h(x) (2.3.35)
for all x ≠ a in an open interval containing a and

lim f (x) = L = lim h(x) (2.3.36)
x→a x→a
where L is a real number, then lim g(x) = L.

x→a
Example 2.3.10 : Applying the Squeeze Theorem

Apply the squeeze theorem to evaluate lim xcosx.
x→0
Solution
Because −1 ≤ cos x ≤ 1 for all x, we have −x ≤ x cos x ≤ x for x ≥ 0 and −x ≥ x cos x ≥ x for x ≤ 0 (if x is negative the
direction of the inequalities changes when we multiply). Since lim(−x) = 0 = lim x , from the squeeze theorem, we obtain
x→0 x→0
lim x cos x = 0 . The graphs of f (x) = −x, g(x) = x cos x , and h(x) = x are shown in Figure 2.3.5.
x→0
Figure 2.3.5 : The graphs of f (x), g(x), and h(x) are shown around the point x = 0 .
Exercise 2.3.10
1
Use the squeeze theorem to evaluate lim x 2
sin .
x→0 x
Hint
Use the fact that −x2
≤x
2
sin(1/x) ≤ x
2
to help you find two functions such that x
2
sin(1/x) is squeezed between them.
Answer
0
sin θ
lim (2.3.37)
θ→0 θ
We now use the squeeze theorem to tackle several very important limits. Although this discussion is somewhat lengthy, these limits
prove invaluable for the development of the material in both the next section and the next chapter. The first of these limits is
lim sin θ . Consider the unit circle shown in Figure 2.3.6. In the figure, we see that sin θ is the y-coordinate on the unit circle and it
θ→0
corresponds to the line segment shown in blue. The radian measure of angle θ is the length of the arc it subtends on the unit circle.
π
Therefore, we see that for 0 < θ < , 0 < sin θ < θ .
2

Figure 2.3.6 : The sine function is shown as a line on the unit circle.
Because lim 0 = 0
+
and lim θ = 0
+
, by using the squeeze theorem we conclude that
θ→0 x→0
lim sin θ = 0. (2.3.38)

+
θ→0
π π
To see that lim sin θ = 0 as well, observe that for − < θ < 0, 0 < −θ < and hence, 0 < sin(−θ) < −θ . Consequently,
θ→0
−
2 2
0 < − sin θ < −θ . It follows that 0 > sin θ > θ . An application of the squeeze theorem produces the desired limit. Thus, since
lim sin θ = 0
+
and lim sin θ = 0 ,
−
θ→0 θ→0
lim sin θ = 0 (2.3.39)

θ→0
−−−−−−−− π π
Next, using the identity cos θ = √1 − sin 2
θ for − <θ < , we see that
2 2
− −−− −− −−
2
lim cos θ = lim √ 1 − si n θ = 1. (2.3.40)
θ→0 θ→0
sin θ
We now take a look at a limit that plays an important role in later chapters—namely, lim . To evaluate this limit, we use the
θ→0 θ
unit circle in Figure 2.3.6 . Notice that this figure adds one additional triangle to Figure 2.3.7 . We see that the length of the side
π
opposite angle θ in this new triangle is tan θ . Thus, we see that for 0 < θ < , sin θ < θ < tanθ .
2

Figure 2.3.7 : The sine and tangent functions are shown as lines on the unit circle.
By dividing by sin θ in all parts of the inequality, we obtain
θ 1
1 < < . (2.3.41)
sin θ cos θ
Equivalently, we have
sin θ
1 > > cos θ. (2.3.42)
θ
sin θ
Since lim 1 = 1 = lim cos θ , we conclude that lim =1 . By applying a manipulation similar to that used in
θ→0
+
θ→0
+
θ→0
+
θ
sin θ
demonstrating that lim sin θ = 0 , we can show that lim =1 . Thus,
θ→0
−
θ→0
−
θ
sin θ
lim = 1. (2.3.43)
θ→0 θ
1 − cos θ
lim (2.3.44)
θ→0 θ
1 − cos θ
In Example 2.3.11 we use this limit to establish lim =0 . This limit also proves useful in later chapters.
θ→0 θ
Example 2.3.11 : Evaluating an Important Trigonometric Limit

1 − cos θ
Evaluate lim .
θ→0 θ
Solution
In the first step, we multiply by the conjugate so that we can use a trigonometric identity to convert the cosine in the numerator
to a sine:
1 − cos θ 1 − cos θ 1 + cos θ
lim = lim ⋅
θ→0 θ θ→0 θ 1 + cos θ
2
1 − cos θ
=lim
θ→0 θ(1 + cos θ)
2
si n θ
=lim
θ→0 θ(1 + cos θ)

sin θ sin θ
=lim ⋅
θ→0 θ 1 + cos θ
0
=1 ⋅ =0 .
2
Therefore,
1 − cos θ
lim = 0.
θ→0 θ
Exercise 2.3.11
1 − cos θ
Evaluate lim .
θ→0 sin θ
hint
Multiply numerator and denominator by 1 + cos θ .
Answer
0
Deriving the Formula for the Area of a Circle

Some of the geometric formulas we take for granted today were first derived by methods that anticipate some of the methods of
calculus. The Greek mathematician Archimedes (ca. 287−212; BCE) was particularly inventive, using polygons inscribed within
circles to approximate the area of the circle as the number of sides of the polygon increased. He never came up with the idea of
a limit, but we can use this idea to see what his geometric constructions could have predicted about the limit.
We can estimate the area of a circle by computing the area of an inscribed regular polygon. Think of the regular polygon as
being made up of n triangles. By taking the limit as the vertex angle of these triangles goes to zero, you can obtain the area of
the circle. To see this, carry out the following steps:
1.Express the height h and the base b of the isosceles triangle in Figure 2.3.6 in terms of θ and r.
Figure 2.3.6
2. Using the expressions that you obtained in step 1, express the area of the isosceles triangle in terms of θ and r.
(Substitute (1/2) sin θ for sin(θ/2) cos(θ/2) in your expression.)
3. If an n -sided regular polygon is inscribed in a circle of radius r, find a relationship between θ and n . Solve this for n .
Keep in mind there are 2π radians in a circle. (Use radians, not degrees.)
4. Find an expression for the area of the n-sided polygon in terms of r and θ .
5. To find a formula for the area of the circle, find the limit of the expression in step 4 as θ goes to zero. (Hint:
(sin θ)
lim = 1) .
θ→0 θ

The technique of estimating areas of regions by using polygons is revisited in Introduction to Integration.
Key Concepts
The limit laws allow us to evaluate limits of functions without having to go through step-by-step processes each time.
For polynomials and rational functions,
lim f (x) = f (a). (2.3.45)

x→a
You can evaluate the limit of a function by factoring and canceling, by multiplying by a conjugate, or by simplifying a complex
fraction.
The squeeze theorem allows you to find the limit of a function if the function is always greater than one function and less than
another function with limits that are known.
Key Equations
Basic Limit Results
lim x = a lim c = c
x→a x→a
Important Limits
lim sin θ = 0
θ→0
lim cos θ = 1
θ→0
sin θ
lim =1
θ→0 θ
1 − cos θ
lim =0
θ→0 θ
Glossary
constant multiple law for limits
the limit law
lim cf (x) = c ⋅ lim f (x) = cL

x→a x→a
difference law for limits

the limit law
lim(f (x) − g(x)) = lim f (x) − lim g(x) = L − M

x→a x→a x→a
limit laws
the individual properties of limits; for each of the individual laws, let f (x) and g(x) be defined for all x ≠ a over some open
interval containing a; assume that L and M are real numbers so that lim f (x) = L and lim
x→a x→a g(x) = M ; let c be a
constant
power law for limits

the limit law
n n n
lim(f (x)) = ( lim f (x)) =L
x→a x→a
for every positive integer n
product law for limits

the limit law

lim(f (x) ⋅ g(x)) = lim f (x) ⋅ lim g(x) = L ⋅ M
x→a x→a x→a
quotient law for limits

f (x) limx→a f (x) L
the limit law lim x→a = = for M≠0
g(x) limx→a g(x) M
root law for limits

−−−− −−−−−−−− − n −
−
the limit law lim x→a
n n
√f (x) = √limx→a f (x) = √L for all L if n is odd and for L ≥ 0 if n is even
squeeze theorem
states that if f (x) ≤ g(x) ≤ h(x) for all x ≠ a over an open interval containing a and lim x→a f (x) = L = limx→a h(x)
where L is a real number, then lim g(x) = L

x→a
sum law for limits

The limit law lim x→a (f (x) + g(x)) = limx→a f (x) + limx→a g(x) = L + M
Contributors
This page titled 2.3: Limit Laws & Techniques for Computing Limits is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed,
and/or curated by OpenStax.

2.3: The Limit Laws
In the following exercises, use the limit laws to evaluate each limit. Justify each step by indicating the appropriate limit law(s).
83) lim(4x 2
− 2x + 3)
x→0
Answer:
Use constant multiple law and difference law:
2 2
lim(4 x − 2x + 3) = 4 lim x − 2 lim x → 0x + lim 3 = 3
x→0 x→0 x→0
3 2
x + 3x +5
84) lim
x→1 4 − 7x
−−−−−−−− −
85) 2
lim √x − 6x + 3
x→−2
Answer:
−−−−−−−− − −−−−−−−−−−−−− − −−
Use root law: 2
lim √x − 6x + 3 =
√
lim (x2 − 6x + 3) = √19
x→−2 x→−2
86) lim (9x + 1 )

2
x→−1
In the following exercises, use direct substitution to evaluate each limit.

87) lim x 2
x→7
Answer:
49
88) lim (4 x
2
− 1)
x→−2
1
89) lim
x→0 1 + sin x
Answer:
1
2
90) lim e 2x−x
x→2
2 − 7x
91) lim
x→1 x +6
Answer:
5
−
7
92) lim ln e 3x
x→3
In the following exercises, use direct substitution to show that each limit leads to the indeterminate form 0/0 . Then, evaluate the
limit.
2
x − 16
93) lim
x→4 x −4
Answer:
2 2
x − 16 16 − 16 0 x − 16 (x + 4)(x − 4)
lim = = ; then, lim = lim =8
x→4 x −4 4 −4 0 x→4 x −4 x→4 x −4
x −2
94) lim 2
x→2 x − 2x
3x − 18
95) lim
x→6 2x − 12
Answer:
3x − 18 18 − 18 0
lim = =
x→6 2x − 12 12 − 12 0
3x − 18 3(x − 6) 3
then, lim = lim =
x→6 2x − 12 x→6 2(x − 6) 2
2
(1 + h ) −1
96) lim
h→0 h
t −9
97) lim
t→9 √t − 3
Answer:
t −9 9 −9 0 t −9 t −9 √t + 3
lim = = ; then, lim = lim = lim(√t + 3) = 6
x→9 √t − 3 3 −3 0 t→9 √t − 3 t→9 √t − 3 √t + 3 t→9
1 1
−
a+h a
98) lim , where a is a real-valued constant
h→0 h
sin θ
99) lim
θ→π tan θ
Answer:
sin θ sin π 0 sin θ sin θ
lim = = ; then, lim = lim = lim cos θ = −1
sin θ
θ→π tan θ tan π 0 θ→π tan θ θ→π θ→π
cos θ
3
x −1
100) lim 2
x→1 x −1
2
2x + 3x − 2
101) lim
x→1/2 2x − 1
Answer:
1 3
2 + −2 2
2x + 3x − 2 2 2
0 2x + 3x − 2 5
lim = = ; then, lim = lim f rac(2x − 1)(x + 2)2x − 1 =
x→1/2 2x − 1 1 −1 0 x→1/2 2x − 1 x→1/2 2
−−−−−
√x + 4 − 1
102) lim
x→−3 x +3
In the following exercises, use direct substitution to obtain an undefined expression. Then, use the method of Example to simplify
the function to help determine the limit.
2
2x + 7x − 4
103) lim
− 2
x→−2 x +x −2
Answer:
−∞
2
2x + 7x − 4
104) lim
+ 2
x→−2 x +x −2
2
2x + 7x − 4
105) lim
x→1
−
x2 + x − 2
Answer:
−∞
2
2x + 7x − 4
106) lim
+ 2
x→1 x +x −2
In the following exercises, assume that lim f (x) = 4, lim g(x) = 9 , and lim h(x) = 6 . Use these three facts and the limit laws to
x→6 x→6 x→6
evaluate each limit

107) lim 2f (x)g(x)
x→6
Answer:
lim 2f (x)g(x) = 2 lim f (x) lim g(x) = 72
x→6 x→6 x→6
g(x) − 1
108) lim
x→6 f (x)
1
109) lim(f (x) + g(x))
x→6 3
Answer:
1 1
lim(f (x) + g(x)) = lim f (x) + lim g(x) = 7 \
x→6 3 x→6 3 x→6
3
(h(x))
110) lim
x→6 2
−−−−−−−−−
111) lim √g(x) − f (x)
x→6
Answer:
−−−−−−−−− −−−−−−−−−−−−−− − –
lim √g(x) − f (x) = lim g(x) − lim f (x) = √5
√
x→6 x→6 x→6
112) lim x ⋅ h(x)

x→6
113) lim[(x + 1) ⋅ f (x)]

x→6
Answer:
lim[(x + 1)f (x)] = ( lim(x + 1))( lim f (x)) = 28
x→6 x→6 x→6
114) lim(f (x) ⋅ g(x) − h(x))

x→6
[T] In the following exercises, use the definition of the piecewise-defined function to evaluate the given limits (you may want to
draw the graph).
2
x x ≤ 3,
115) f (x) = {
x +4 x >3
1. a. lim f (x)
−
x→3
2. b. lim f (x)
+
x→3
3. c. lim f (x)
x→3
Answer:
a. 9; b. 7; c. DNE
.
3
x −1 x ≤0
116) g(x) = {
1 x >0
1. a. lim g(x)
−
x→0
2. b. lim g(x)
+
x→0
3. c. lim g(x)
x→0
2
x − 2x + 1 x <2
117) h(x) = {
3 −x x ≥2
1. a. lim h(x)
−
x→2
2. b. lim h(x)
+
x→2
3. c. lim h(x)
x→2
Answer:
a. 1; b. 1; c. 1
In the following exercises, use the following graphs and the limit laws to evaluate each limit.
118) lim (f (x) + g(x))
+
x→−3
119) lim (f (x) − 3g(x))

−
x→−3
Answer:
lim (f (x) − 3g(x)) = lim f (x) − 3 lim g(x) = 0 + 6 = 6
− − −
x→−3 x→−3 x→−3
f (x)g(x)
120) lim
x→0 3
2 + g(x)
121) lim
x→−5 f (x)
Answer:
2 + ( lim g(x))
2 + g(x) x→−5 2 +0
lim = = =1
x→−5 f (x) lim f (x) 2
x→−5
122) lim(f (x)) 2
x→1
−−−−−−−−−
123) lim √f (x) − g(x)
x→1
Answer:
−−−−−−−− − −−−−−−−−−−−−−− −
3 3 −−−− 3 –
lim √f (x) − g(x) = √
3
lim f (x) − lim g(x) = √2 + 5 = √7
x→1 x→1 x→1
124) lim (x ⋅ g(x))

x→−7
125) lim [x ⋅ f (x) + 2 ⋅ g(x)]

x→−9
Answer:
lim (xf (x) + 2g(x)) = ( lim x)( lim f (x)) + 2 lim (g(x)) = (−9)(6) + 2(4) = −46
x→−9 x→−9 x→−9 x→−9
For the following problems, evaluate the limit using the squeeze theorem. Use a calculator to graph the functions f (x), g(x), and
h(x) when possible.
126) [T] True or False? If 2x − 1 ≤ g(x) ≤ x 2

− 2x + 3 , then lim g(x) = 0 .
x→2
1
127) [T] lim θ 2
cos( )
θ→0 θ
Answer:
The limit is zero.
0 xrational
128) lim f (x), where f (x) = { 2
x→0 x xirrrational
129) [T] In physics, the magnitude of an electric field generated by a point charge at a distance r in vacuum is governed by
q
Coulomb’s law: E(r) = , where E represents the magnitude of the electric field, q is the charge of the particle, r is the
2
4πε0r
distance between the particle and where the strength of the field is measured, and \frac{1}{4πε_0} is Coulomb’s constant:
8.988 × 109 N⋅m / C .
2 2
a. Use a graphing calculator to graph E(r) given that the charge of the particle is q = 10 −10
.
b. Evaluate lim E(r)
+
. What is the physical meaning of this quantity? Is it physically relevant? Why are you evaluating from
r→0
the right?
Answer:
a
b. ∞. The magnitude of the electric field as you approach the particle q becomes infinite. It does not make physical sense to
evaluate negative distance.
130) [T] The density of an object is given by its mass divided by its volume: ρ = m/V .
a. Use a calculator to plot the volume as a function of density (V = m/ρ) , assuming you are examining something of mass 8
kg (m = 8 ).
b. Evaluate lim V (ρ)
+
and explain the physical meaning.
x→0

212) Using the graph, find each limit or explain why the limit does not exist.
a. lim f (x)
x→−1
b. lim f (x)
x→1
c. lim f (x)
+
x→0
d. lim f (x)
x→2
In the following exercises, evaluate the limit algebraically or explain why the limit does not exist.
2
2x − 3x − 2
213) lim
x→2 x −2
Answer:
5
214) lim 3x 2
− 2x + 4
x→0
3 2
x − 2x −1
215) lim
x→3 3x − 2
Answer:
8/7
cotx
216) lim This is covered in section 2.4
x→π/2 cosx
2
x + 25
217) lim
x→−5 x +5
Answer:
DNE
2
3x − 2x − 8
218) lim 2
x→2 x −4
2
x −1
219) lim 3
x→1 x −1
Answer:
2/3
2
x −1
220) lim −
x→1 √x − 1
4−x
221) \\displaystyle lim x→4
√x−2
Answer:
−4
1
222) lim −
x→4 √x − 2
In the following exercises, use the squeeze theorem to prove the limit.
223) lim x 2
cos(2πx) = 0
x→0
Answer:
Since −1 ≤ cos(2πx) ≤ 1 , then −x 2 2 2
≤ x cos(2πx) ≤ x . Since li m x→0
2
x
2
= 0 = li mx→0 − x , it follows that
x cos(2πx) = 0 .
2
li m x→0
π
224) lim x 3
sin( ) =0
x→0 x
2.3E: Limit Laws and Techniques for Computing Limits EXERCISES is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA license and was authored, remixed,
and/or curated by LibreTexts.
Infinite Limits
Evaluating the limit of a function at a point or evaluating the limit of a function from the right and left at a point helps us to
characterize the behavior of a function around a given value. As we shall see, we can also describe the behavior of functions that do
not have finite limits.
We now turn our attention to h(x) = 1/(x − 2) , the third and final function introduced at the beginning of this section (see
2
Figure(c)). From its graph we see that as the values of x approach 2, the values of h(x) = 1/(x − 2) become larger and larger
2
and, in fact, become infinite. Mathematically, we say that the limit of h(x) as x approaches 2 is positive infinity. Symbolically, we
express this idea as
lim h(x) = +∞. (2.4.1)
x→2
More generally, we define infinite limits as follows:

Definitions: infinite limits
We define three types of infinite limits.
Infinite limits from the left: Let f (x) be a function defined at all values in an open interval of the form (b, a).
i. If the values of f (x) increase without bound as the values of x (where x < a ) approach the number a , then we say that
the limit as x approaches a from the left is positive infinity and we write
lim f (x) = +∞. (2.4.2)

x→a−
ii. If the values of f (x) decrease without bound as the values of x (where x < a ) approach the number a , then we say that
the limit as x approaches a from the left is negative infinity and we write
lim f (x) = −∞. (2.4.3)
x→a−
Infinite limits from the right: Let f (x) be a function defined at all values in an open interval of the form (a, c).
i. If the values of f (x) increase without bound as the values of x (where x > a ) approach the number a , then we say that
the limit as x approaches a from the left is positive infinity and we write
lim f (x) = +∞. (2.4.4)

x→a+
ii. If the values of f (x) decrease without bound as the values of x (where x > a ) approach the number a , then we say that
the limit as x approaches a from the left is negative infinity and we write
lim f (x) = −∞. (2.4.5)

x→a+
Two-sided infinite limit: Let f (x) be defined for all x ≠ a in an open interval containing a
i. If the values of f (x) increase without bound as the values of x (where x ≠ a ) approach the number a , then we say that
the limit as x approaches a is positive infinity and we write
lim f (x) = +∞. (2.4.6)
x→a
ii. If the values of f (x) decrease without bound as the values of x (where x ≠ a ) approach the number a , then we say that
the limit as x approaches a is negative infinity and we write
lim f (x) = −∞. (2.4.7)

x→a
It is important to understand that when we write statements such as lim f (x) = +∞ or lim f (x) = −∞ we are describing the
x→a x→a
behavior of the function, as we have just defined it. We are not asserting that a limit exists. For the limit of a function f(x) to exist at
a, it must approach a real number L as x approaches a. That said, if, for example, lim f (x) = +∞ , we always write
x→a
lim f (x) = +∞ rather than lim f (x) DNE.

x→a x→a
Example 2.4.5 : Recognizing an Infinite Limit

Evaluate each of the following limits, if possible. Use a table of functional values and graph f (x) = 1/x to confirm your
conclusion.
1
a. lim
x→0− x
1
b. lim
x→0+ x
1
c. lim
x→0 x
Solution
Begin by constructing a table of functional values.
1 1
x x
x x
-0.1 -10 0.1 10
-0.01 -100 0.01 100
-0.001 -1000 0.001 1000
-0.0001 -10,000 0.0001 10,000
-0.00001 -100,000 0.00001 100,000
-0.000001 -1,000,000 0.000001 1,000,000
a. The values of 1/x decrease without bound as x approaches 0 from the left. We conclude that
1
lim = −∞.
x→0− x
b. The values of 1/x increase without bound as x approaches 0 from the right. We conclude that
1
lim = +∞.
x→0+ x
1 1
c. Since lim = −∞ and lim = +∞ have different values, we conclude that
x→0− x x→0+ x
1
lim DN E.
x→0 x
The graph of f (x) = 1/x in Figure 2.4.8 confirms these conclusions.
Figure 2.4.8 : The graph of f (x) = 1/x confirms that the limit as x approaches 0 does not exist.
Exercise 2.4.5
Evaluate each of the following limits, if possible. Use a table of functional values and graph f (x) = 1/x
2
to confirm your
conclusion.
1
a. lim
x→0− x2
1
b. lim
2
x→0+ x
1
c. lim
2
x→0 x
Hint
Follow the procedures from Example 2.4.4.
Answer
1
a. lim
2
= +∞ ;
x→0− x
1
b. lim = +∞ ;
x→0+ 2
x
1
c. lim 2
= +∞
x→0 x
It is useful to point out that functions of the form f (x) = 1/(x − a) , where n is a positive integer, have infinite limits as x
n
approaches a from either the left or right (Figure 2.4.9). These limits are summarized in the above definitions.
Figure 2.4.9: The function f (x) = 1/(x − a) n
has infinite limits at a .
Infinite Limits from Positive Integers

If n is a positive even integer, then
1
lim = +∞. (2.4.8)
x→a n
(x − a)
If n is a positive odd integer, then

1
lim = +∞ (2.4.9)
x→a+ n
(x − a)
and
1
lim = −∞. (2.4.10)
x→a− n
(x − a)
We should also point out that in the graphs of f (x) = 1/(x − a) , points on the graph having x-coordinates very near to a are very
n
close to the vertical line x = a . That is, as x approaches a , the points on the graph of f (x) are closer to the line x = a . The line
x = a is called a vertical asymptote of the graph. We formally define a vertical asymptote as follows:
Definition: Vertical Asymptotes

Let f (x) be a function. If any of the following conditions hold, then the line x = a is a vertical asymptote of f (x).
lim f (x) = +∞ (2.4.11)

x→a−
lim f (x) = −∞ (2.4.12)

x→a−
lim f (x) = +∞ (2.4.13)

x→a+
lim f (x) = −∞ (2.4.14)

x→a+
lim f (x) = +∞ (2.4.15)

x→a
lim f (x) = −∞ (2.4.16)

x→a
Example 2.4.6 : Finding a Vertical Asymptote

Evaluate each of the following limits using Note. Identify any vertical asymptotes of the function f (x) = 1/(x + 3) 4
.
1
a. lim
4
x→−3− (x + 3)
1
b. lim
4
x→−3+ (x + 3)
1
c. lim
4
x→−3 (x + 3)
Solution
We can use Note directly.
1
a. lim = +∞
x→−3
−
(x + 3)4
1
b. lim
+ 4
= +∞
x→−3 (x + 3)
1
c. lim
4
= +∞
x→−3 (x + 3)
The function f (x) = 1/(x + 3) has a vertical asymptote of x = −3 .

4
Exercise 2.4.6
Evaluate each of the following limits. Identify any vertical asymptotes of the function f (x) = 1
3
.
(x−2)
1
a. lim
3
x→2− (x − 2)
1
b. lim
3
x→2+ (x − 2)
1
c. lim
3
x→2 (x − 2)
Answer a
1
lim = −∞
x→2− 3
(x − 2)
Answer b
1
lim = +∞
x→2+ 3
(x − 2)
Answer c
1
lim
3
DNE. The line x = 2 is the vertical asymptote of f (x) = 1/(x − 2)
3
.
x→2 (x − 2)
In the next example we put our knowledge of various types of limits to use to analyze the behavior of a function at several different
points.
Example 2.4.7 : Behavior of a Function at Different Points

Use the graph of f (x) in Figure 2.4.10 to determine each of the following values:
a. lim
−
f (x) ; lim
+
f (x) ; li mx→−4 f (x); f (−4)
x→−4 x→−4
b. lim
−
f (x ); lim
+
f (x) ; lim f (x); f (−2)
x→−2 x→−2 x→−2
c. lim f (x)
−
; ;
lim f (x) lim f (x); f (1)
x→1 x→1+ x→1
d. lim f (x)
−
; ;
lim f (x) lim f (x); f (3)
x→3 x→3+ x→3
Figure 2.4.10 : The graph shows f (x).
Solution
Using the definitions above and the graph for reference, we arrive at the following values:
a. lim
−
f (x) = 0 ; lim
+
f (x) = 0 ; lim f (x) = 0; f (−4) = 0
x→−4 x→−4 x→−4
b. lim f (x) = 3 ; lim f (x) = 3 ; lim f (x) = 3; f (−2) is undefined

− +
x→−2 x→−2 x→−2
c. lim f (x) = 6
−
; lim +
f (x) = 3 ; lim f (x) DNE; f (1) = 6
x→1 x→1 x→1
d. lim f (x) = −∞
−
; lim +
;
f (x) = −∞ lim f (x) = −∞ f (3) ; is undefined
x→3 x→3 x→3
Exercise 2.4.7
Evaluate lim f (x) for f (x) shown here:
x→1
Hint
Compare the limit from the right with the limit from the left.
Answer
Does not exist
Example 2.4.8 : Einstein’s Equation

In the Chapter opener we mentioned briefly how Albert Einstein showed that a limit exists to how fast any object can travel.
Given Einstein’s equation for the mass of a moving object
m0
m = −−−−−,
2
v
√1 − 2
c
what is the value of this bound?
Figure 2.4.11 . (Crefit:NASA)

Solution
Our starting point is Einstein’s equation for the mass of a moving object,
m0
m = −−−−− ,
2
v
√1 − 2
c
where m is the object’s mass at rest, v is its speed, and c is the speed of light. To see how the mass changes at high speeds, we
0
can graph the ratio of masses m/m as a function of the ratio of speeds, v/c (Figure 2.4.11).
0
Figure 2.4.11 : This graph shows the ratio of masses as a function of the ratio of speeds in Einstein’s equation for the mass of
a moving object.
We can see that as the ratio of speeds approaches 1—that is, as the speed of the object approaches the speed of light—the ratio
of masses increases without bound. In other words, the function has a vertical asymptote at v/c = 1 . We can try a few values of
this ratio to test this idea.
Table 2.4.3
−−−−−−
v2
v/c √1 − m/mo
2
c
0.99 0.1411 7.089
0.999 0.0447 22.37
0.9999 0.0141 70.7
Thus, according to Table 2.4.3:, if an object with mass 100 kg is traveling at 0.9999c, its mass becomes 7071 kg. Since no
object can have an infinite mass, we conclude that no object can travel at or more than the speed of light.
Example 2.4.9 : Evaluating a Limit of the Form K /0, K ≠ 0 Using the Limit Laws
x −3
Evaluate lim
2
.
x→2− x − 2x
Solution:
Step 1. After substituting in x = 2 , we see that this limit has the form −1/0. That is, as x approaches 2 from the left, the
numerator approaches −1; and the denominator approaches 0. Consequently, the magnitude of \dfrac{x−3}{x(x−2)} becomes
infinite. To get a better idea of what the limit is, we need to factor the denominator:
x −3 x −3
lim = lim . (2.4.17)
2
x→2− x − 2x x→2− x(x − 2)
Step 2. Since x − 2 is the only part of the denominator that is zero when 2 is substituted, we then separate 1/(x − 2) from the
rest of the function:
x −3 1
= lim ⋅ . (2.4.18)
x→2
−
x x −2
x −3 1 1
Step 3. lim =− and lim = −∞ . Therefore, the product of (x − 3)/x and 1/(x − 2) has a limit of +∞ :
x→2
−
x 2 x→2
−
x −2
x −3
lim = +∞. (2.4.19)
− 2
x→2 x − 2x
Exercise 2.4.9
x +2
Evaluate lim 2
.
x→1 (x − 1)
Solution
Use the methods from Example 2.4.10.
Answer
+∞
The Squeeze Theorem
Key Concepts
A table of values or graph may be used to estimate a limit.
If the limit of a function at a point does not exist, it is still possible that the limits from the left and right at that point may
exist.
If the limits of a function from the left and right exist and are equal, then the limit of the function is that common value.
We may use limits to describe infinite behavior of a function at a point.
Key Equations
Intuitive Definition of the Limit
lim f (x) = L
x→a

lim x = a lim c = c
x→a x→a
One-Sided Limits
lim f (x) = L lim f (x) = L
− +
x→a x→a
Infinite Limits from the Left

lim f (x) = +∞ lim f (x) = −∞
− −
x→a x→a
Infinite Limits from the Right

lim f (x) = +∞ lim f (x) = −∞
+ +
x→a x→a
Two-Sided Infinite Limits
lim f (x) = +∞ : lim f (x) = +∞
−
and li m x→a+ f (x) = +∞
x→a x→a
lim f (x) = −∞ : lim f (x) = −∞ and li m x→a+ f (x) = −∞

x→a −
x→a
For the following exercises, consider the function f (x) = x −1
|x−1|
.
Glossary
infinite limit
A function has an infinite limit at a point a if it either increases or decreases without bound as it approaches a
intuitive definition of the limit

If all values of the function f (x) approach the real number L as the values of x(≠ a) approach a, f (x) approaches L
one-sided limit
A one-sided limit of a function is a limit taken from either the left or the right
vertical asymptote
A function has a vertical asymptote at x = a if the limit as x approaches a from the right or left is infinite
Contributors
2.4: Infinite Limits is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
2.4: Infinite Limit Exercises

In the following exercises, find the limit.
In the following exercises, consider the graph of the function y = f (x) shown here. Which of the statements about y = f (x) are
true and which are false? Explain why a statement is false.
J46) lim f (x) = 0

x→10
J47) lim
+
f (x) = 3
x→−2
Answer:
False; lim
+
f (x) = +∞
x→−2
J48) lim f (x) = f (−8)

x→−8
J49) lim f (x) = 5

x→6
Answer:
False; lim f (x) DNE since lim f (x) = 2 and lim f (x) = 5 .
− +
x→6 x→6 x→6
J2.4.1)
x
a. lim
x→−3
+
x +3
x
b. lim
x→−3
−
x +3
x
c. lim
x→−3 x +3
Answer:
a. −∞
b. ∞
c. DNE
J2.4.2) lim ln |x|

x→0
J2.4.3)
2
a. lim
x→5
+
x −5
2
b. lim
x→5
−
x −5
2
c. lim
x→5 x −5
Answer:
a. ∞
b. −∞
c. DNE
J2.4.4)
x
a. lim
+ 2
x→−2 (x + 2)
x
b. lim
− 2
x→−2 (x + 2)
x
c. lim
x→−2 (x + 2)2
J2.4.5)
x
a. lim
+ 2
x→6 (6 − x)
x
b. lim
− 2
x→6 (6 − x)
x
c. lim
x→6 (6 − x)2
Answer:
a. ∞
b. ∞
c. ∞
J2.4.6)
2
2x + 7x − 4
a. lim
2
x→1
+
x +x −2
2
2x + 7x − 4
b. lim
x→1
−
x2 + x − 2
2
2x + 7x − 4
c. lim 2
x→1 x +x −2
3
x −1
J2.4.7) lim
x→1 x2 − 1
Answer:
3 2 2
x −1 (x − 1)(x + x + 1) x +x +1 3
li mx→1 = lim = lim =
x2 − 1 x→1 (x − 1)(x + 1) x→1 x +1 2
2x
J2.4.8) lim
x→1/2 2x − 1
2
2x + 3x − 2
J2.4.9) lim
x→1/2 2x − 1
Answer:
2
2x + 3x − 2 (2x − 1)(x + 2) 5
lim = lim = lim (x + 2) =
x→1/2 2x − 1 x→1/2 2x − 1 x→1/2 2
State the vertical asymptote for each function, if any.

J2.4.10) f (x) = ln x
x+5
J2.4.11) g(x) = x−4
Answer:
x =4
J2.4.12) g(x) = x+5

7
J2.4.13) g(x) = 7
Answer:
x =0
J2.4.14)
a. lim tan x =
π +
x→
2
b. lim
π −
tan x =
x→
2
c. lim tan x =
π
x→
2
d. Does f (x) = tan x have a vertical asymptote at x = π
2
?
2.4E: Infinite Limits EXERCISES is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
We need to know the behavior of f as x → ±∞ . In this section, we define limits at infinity and show how these limits affect the
graph of a function.
We begin by examining what it means for a function to have a finite limit at infinity. Then we study the idea of a function with an
infinite limit at infinity. Back in Introduction to Functions and Graphs, we looked at vertical asymptotes; in this section we deal
with horizontal and oblique asymptotes.
Limits at Infinity and Horizontal Asymptotes

Recall that lim f (x) = L means f (x) becomes arbitrarily close to L as long as x is sufficiently close to a . We can extend this idea
x→a
to limits at infinity. For example, consider the function f (x) = 2 + . As can be seen graphically in Figure and numerically in
1
Table, as the values of x get larger, the values of f (x) approach 2. We say the limit as x approaches ∞ of f (x) is 2 and write
lim f (x) = 2 . Similarly, for x < 0 , as the values |x| get larger, the values of f (x) approaches 2 . We say the limit as x approaches
x→∞
−∞ of f (x) is 2 and write lim f (x) = 2 .

x→−∞
Figure 2.5.1 :The function approaches the asymptote y = 2 as x approaches ±∞ .

Values of a function f as x → ±∞
x 10 100 1,000 10,000
1
2 +
x
2.1 2.01 2.001 2.0001
x −10 −100 −1000 −10,000

1
2 +
x
1.9 1.99 1.999 1.9999
More generally, for any function f , we say the limit as x → ∞ of f (x) is L if f (x) becomes arbitrarily close to L as long as x is
sufficiently large. In that case, we write lim f (x) = L . Similarly, we say the limit as x → −∞ of f (x) is L if f (x) becomes
x→−∞
arbitrarily close to L as long as x <0 and |x| is sufficiently large. In that case, we write lim f (x) = L . We now look at the
x→−∞
definition of a function having a limit at infinity.
Definition: limit at infinity (Informal)

If the values of f (x) become arbitrarily close to L as x becomes sufficiently large, we say the function f has a limit at infinity
and write
lim f (x) = L. (2.5.1)
x→∞

If the values of f (x) becomes arbitrarily close to L for x < 0 as |x| becomes sufficiently large, we say that the function f has a
limit at negative infinity and write
lim f (x) = L. (2.5.2)
x→−∞
If the values f (x) are getting arbitrarily close to some finite value L as x → ∞ or x → −∞ , the graph of f approaches the line
y = L . In that case, the line y = L is a horizontal asymptote of f (Figure). For example, for the function f (x) = , since 1
lim f (x) = 0 , the line y = 0 is a horizontal asymptote of f (x) = . 1
x
x→∞
Definition: horizontal asymptote

If lim f (x) = L or lim f (x) = L , we say the line y = L is a horizontal asymptote of f .
x→∞ x→−∞
Figure 2.5.2 : (a) As x → ∞ , the values of f are getting arbitrarily close to L. The line y = L is a horizontal asymptote of f . (b)
As x → −∞ , the values of f are getting arbitrarily close to M . The line y = M is a horizontal asymptote of f .
A function cannot cross a vertical asymptote because the graph must approach infinity (or −∞ ) from at least one direction as x
approaches the vertical asymptote. However, a function may cross a horizontal asymptote. In fact, a function may cross a horizontal
(cosx)
asymptote an unlimited number of times. For example, the function f (x) = + 1 shown in Figure intersects the horizontal
x
asymptote y = 1 an infinite number of times as it oscillates around the asymptote with ever-decreasing amplitude.
Figure 2.5.3 : The graph of f (x) = (cosx)/x + 1 crosses its horizontal asymptote y = 1 an infinite number of times.
The algebraic limit laws and squeeze theorem we introduced in Introduction to Limits also apply to limits at infinity. We illustrate
how to use these laws to compute several limits at infinity.
Example 2.5.1 : Computing Limits at Infinity

For each of the following functions f , valuate lim f (x) and lim f (x). Determine the horizontal asymptote(s) for f .
x→∞ x→−∞
a. f (x) = 5 −
2
x2
b. f (x) = sinx
c. f (x) = tan −1
(x)
Solution
a. Using the algebraic limit laws, we have

2 1 1
lim (5 − ) = lim 5 − 2( lim ). ( lim ) =5−2⋅0=5.
x→∞ x2 x→∞ x→∞ x x→∞ x
Similarly, lim f (x) = 5 . Therefore, f (x) =

5−2
x
2
has a horizontal asymptote of y =5 and f approaches this horizontal
x→−∞
asymptote as x → ±∞ as shown in the following graph.
Figure 2.5.4 : This function approaches a horizontal asymptote as x → ±∞.

b. Since −1 ≤ sinx ≤ 1 for all positive x, we have
−1 sinx 1
≤ ≤
x x x
for all x ≠ 0 . Also, since

−1 1
lim = 0 = lim ,
x→∞ x x→∞ x
we can apply the squeeze theorem to conclude that

sinx
lim = 0.
x→∞ x
Similarly,
sinx
lim = 0.
x→−∞ x
Thus, f (x) = has a horizontal asymptote of

sinx
x
y =0 and f (x) approaches this horizontal asymptote as x → ±∞ as shown
in the following graph.
Figure 2.5.5 : This function crosses its horizontal asymptote multiple times.
c. To evaluate lim tan
−1
(x) and lim tan
−1
(x) , we first consider the graph of y = tan(x) over the interval (−π/2, π/2) as
x→∞ x→−∞
shown in the following graph.

Figure 2.5.6 : The graph of tanx has vertical asymptotes at x = ± π
Since
lim tanx = ∞,
x→(π/2)−
it follows that
π
−1
lim tan (x) = .
x→∞ 2
Similarly, since
lim tanx = −∞,
+
x→(−π/2)
it follows that
π
−1
lim tan (x) = − .
x→−∞ 2
As a result, y = π
2
and y = − π
2
are horizontal asymptotes of f (x) = tan −1
(x) as shown in the following graph.
Figure 2.5.7 : This function has two horizontal asymptotes.
Exercise 2.5.1
4 4
Evaluate lim (3 + ) and lim (3 + ) . Determine the horizontal asymptotes of f (x) = 3 + 4
x
, if any.
x→−∞ x x→∞ x
Hint
lim 1/x = 0
x→±∞
Answer
Both limits are 3. The line y = 3 is a horizontal asymptote.

Infinite Limits at Infinity
Sometimes the values of a function f become arbitrarily large as x → ∞ (or as x → −∞ ). In this case, we write lim f (x) = ∞
x→∞
(or lim f (x) = ∞ ). On the other hand, if the values of f are negative but become arbitrarily large in magnitude as x → ∞ (or
x→−∞
as x → −∞ ), we write lim f (x) = −∞ (or limx→−∞ f (x) = −∞ ).

x→∞
For example, consider the function f (x) = x . As seen in Table and Figure, as x → ∞ the values f (x) become arbitrarily large.
3
Therefore, lim x = ∞ . On the other hand, as x → −∞ , the values of f (x) = x3 are negative but become arbitrarily large in
3
x→∞
magnitude. Consequently, lim

3
x = −∞.
x→−∞
1
1
0521
x 0
0
0
0
1
,
01
0,1
02
81
,05
0
x
3
0,
0
0,
0
0
,0
0
0
0
−
−
1−
1
x 0521
0
0
0
0
−
1
,−
01−
0,1
−
02
81
,05
x
3
0
0,
0
0,
0
0
,0
0
0
0
Values of a power function as x → ±∞

Figure 2.5.8 : For this function, the functional values approach ±infinity as x → ±∞.
Definition: infinite limit at infinity (Informal)
We say a function f has an infinite limit at infinity and write
lim f (x) = ∞. (2.5.3)

x→∞
if f (x) becomes arbitrarily large for x sufficiently large. We say a function has a negative infinite limit at infinity and write
lim f (x) = −∞. (2.5.4)

x→∞
if f (x) < 0 and |f (x)| becomes arbitrarily large for x sufficiently large. Similarly, we can define infinite limits as x → −∞.
End Behavior
The behavior of a function as x → ±∞ is called the function’s end; behavior . At each of the function’s ends, the function could
exhibit one of the following types of behavior:
1. The function f (x) approaches a horizontal asymptote y = L .
2. The function f (x) → ∞ or f (x) → −∞.
3. The function does not approach a finite limit, nor does it approach ∞ or −∞ . In this case, the function may have some
oscillatory behavior.
Let’s consider several classes of functions here and look at the different types of end behaviors for these functions.
End Behavior for Polynomial Functions

Consider the power function f (x) = x where n is a positive integer. From Figure and Figure, we see that
n
n
lim x = ∞; n = 1, 2, 3, … (2.5.5)
x→∞
and
n ∞; n = 2, 4, 6, …
lim x ={ (2.5.6)
x→−∞ −∞; n = 1, 3, 5, … .

Figure 2.5.11 : For power functions with an even power of $n, \displaystyle \lim_{x→∞}x^n=∞=
\displaystyle \lim_{x→−∞}x^n$.
Figure 2.5.12 : For power functions with an odd power of $n, \;\displaystyle \lim_{x→∞}x^n=∞$ and
n
lim x = −∞.
x→−∞
Using these facts, it is not difficult to evaluate lim c x

n
and lim cx
n
, where c is any constant and n is a positive integer. If
x→∞ x→−∞
c >0 , the graph of y = cx is a vertical stretch or compression of y = x

n n
, and therefore
lim c x
n
= lim x
n
and lim cx
n
= lim x
n
if c > 0 .
x→∞ x→∞ x→−∞ x→−∞
If c < 0, the graph of y = cx is a vertical stretch or compression combined with a reflection about the x-axis, and therefore
n
lim c x
n
= − lim x
n
and lim
n
cx =− lim x
n
if c < 0.
x→∞ x→∞ x→−∞ x→−∞
If c = 0, y = cx n
= 0, in which case lim c x
n
=0 = lim cx .
n
x→∞ x→−∞
Example 2.5.4 : Limits at Infinity for Power Functions

For each function f , evaluate lim f (x) and lim f (x) .
x→∞ x→−∞
a. f (x) = −5x 3
b. f (x) = 2x 4
Solution:
a. Since the coefficient of x is −5, the graph of f (x) = −5x involves a vertical stretch and reflection of the graph of y = x
3 3 3
about the x-axis. Therefore, lim (−5x ) = −∞ and lim (−5x ) = ∞ .

3 3
x→∞ x→−∞

b. Since the coefficient of x is 2, the graph of f (x) = 2x is a vertical stretch of the graph of y = x . Therefore,
4 4 4
lim 2 x = ∞ and lim 2 x = ∞ .

4 4
x→∞ x→−∞
Exercise 2.5.4
Let f (x) = −3x . Find4
lim f (x) .
x→∞
Hint
The coefficient −3 is negative.
Answer
−∞
We now look at how the limits at infinity for power functions can be used to determine lim f (x) for any polynomial function f .
x→±∞
Consider a polynomial function

n n−1 1 0
f (x) = an x + an−1 x +… +a x +a (2.5.7)
of degree n ≥ 1 so that a n ≠ 0. Factoring, we see that
n
an−1 1 a1 1 a0 1
f (x) = an x (1 + +… + + ). (2.5.8)
n
an x an xn−1 an x
As x → ±∞, all the terms inside the parentheses approach zero except the first term. We conclude that
n
lim f (x) = lim an x . (2.5.9)
x→±∞ x→±∞
For example, the function f (x) = 5x 3 2

− 3x +4 behaves like g(x) = 5x as x → ±∞ as shown in Figure and Table.
3
Figure 2.5.13 : The end behavior of a polynomial is determined by the behavior of the term with the largest exponent.
x 10 100 1000
3 2
f(x) = 5 x − 3x +4 4704 4,970,004 4,997,000,004
3
g(x) = 5x 5000 5,000,000 5,000,000,000
x −10 −100 −000

3 2
f(x) = 5 x − 3x +4 −5296 −5,029,996 −5,002,999,996
3
g(x) = 5x −5000 −5,000,000 −5,000,000,000
A polynomial’s end behavior is determined by the term with the largest exponent
End Behavior for Algebraic Functions

The end behavior for rational functions and functions involving radicals is a little more complicated than for polynomials. In
p(x)
Example, we show that the limits at infinity of a rational function f (x) =
q(x)
depend on the relationship between the degree of

the numerator and the degree of the denominator. To evaluate the limits at infinity for a rational function, we divide the numerator
and denominator by the highest power of x appearing in the denominator. This determines which term in the overall expression
dominates the behavior of the function at large values of x.
Example 2.5.5: Determining End Behavior for Rational Functions

For each of the following functions, determine the limits as x → ∞ and x → −∞. Then, use this information to describe the
end behavior of the function.
a. f (x) =
3x−1
2x+5
(Note: The degree of the numerator and the denominator are the same.)
2
b. f (x) = 3 x +2x
4 x3 −5x+7
(Note: The degree of numerator is less than the degree of the denominator.)
2
3 x +4x
c. f (x) =
x+2
in the denominator is x. Therefore, dividing the numerator and denominator by x and applying the algebraic
limit laws, we see that
Solution
a. The highest power of x in the denominator is x. Therefore, dividing the numerator and denominator by x and applying the
algebraic limit laws, we see that
3x − 1 3 − 1/x
lim = lim
x→±∞ 2x + 5 x→±∞ 2 + 5/x
lim (3 − 1/x)
x→±∞
=
lim (2 + 5/x)
x→±∞
lim 3− lim 1/x

x→±∞ x→±∞
=
lim 2+ lim 5/x
x→±∞ x→±∞
3−0 3
= = .
2+0 2
3
Since lim f (x) = , we know that y = 3
2
is a horizontal asymptote for this function as shown in the following graph.
x→±∞ 2
Figure 2.5.14 : The graph of this rational function approaches a horizontal asymptote as x → ±∞.
b. Since the largest power of x appearing in the denominator is x , divide the numerator and denominator by x . After doing so
3 3
and applying algebraic limit laws, we obtain

2 2
3x + 2x 3/x + 2/x 3.0 + 2.0
lim = lim = = 0.
3 2 3
x→±∞ 4x − 5x + 7 x→±∞ 4 − 5/ x + 7/ x 4 − 5.0 + 7.0
Therefore f has a horizontal asymptote of y = 0 as shown in the following graph.

Figure 2.5.15 : The graph of this rational function approaches the horizontal asymptote $y=0$ as x → ±∞.
c. Dividing the numerator and denominator by x, we have
2
limx→±∞
3 x +4x
x+2
= limx→±∞
3x+4
1+2/x
.
As x → ±∞ , the denominator approaches 1. As x → ∞ , the numerator approaches +∞ . As x → −∞ , the numerator

approaches −∞ . Therefore lim f (x) = ∞ , whereas lim
x→∞ f (x) = −∞ as shown in the following figure.
x→−∞
Figure 2.5.16 : As → ∞ , the values f (x) → ∞. As x → −∞ , the values f (x) → −∞.
Exercise 2.5.5
2
3x + 2x − 1 2
Evaluate lim
2
and use these limits to determine the end behavior of f (x) = 3 x +2x−2
2
5 x −4x+7
.
x→±∞ 5x − 4x + 7
Hint
Divide the numerator and denominator by x . 2
Answer
3

2
(3 x +4x)
Before proceeding, consider the graph of f (x) =
(x+2)
shown in Figure. As x → ∞ and x → −∞ , the graph of f appears
almost linear. Although f is certainly not a linear function, we now investigate why the graph of f seems to be approaching a linear
function. First, using long division of polynomials, we can write
2
3 x +4x
f (x) =
x+2
= 3x − 2 +
x+2
4
.
Since 4
(x+2)
→ 0 as x → ±∞, we conclude that
4
lim (f (x) − (3x − 2)) = lim = 0.
x→±∞ x→±∞ x +2
Therefore, the graph of f approaches the line \)y=3x−2\) as x → ±∞ . This line is known as an oblique asymptote for f (Figure).
Figure 2.5.17 : The graph of the rational function f (x) = (3x 2

+ 4x)/(x + 2) approaches the oblique asymptote y = 3x − 2 as
x → ±∞.
We can summarize the results of Example to make the following conclusion regarding end behavior for rational functions. Consider
a rational function
n n−1
p(x) an x +an−1 x +…+a1 x+a0
f (x) =
q(x)
=
bm x m
+bm−1 xm−1 +…+b1 x+b0
,
where a n ≠0 and b m ≠ 0.
1. If the degree of the numerator is the same as the degree of the denominator (n = m), then f has a horizontal asymptote of
y = a /bn as x → ±∞.
m
2. If the degree of the numerator is less than the degree of the denominator (n < m), then f has a horizontal asymptote of
y = 0 as x → ±∞.
3. If the degree of the numerator is greater than the degree of the denominator (n > m), then f does not have a horizontal
asymptote. The limits at infinity are either positive or negative infinity, depending on the signs of the leading terms. In
addition, using long division, the function can be rewritten as
p(x) r(x)
f (x) =
q(x)
= g(x) +
q(x)
,
where the degree of r(x) is less than the degree of q(x). As a result, lim r(x)/q(x) = 0 . Therefore, the values of [f (x) − g(x)]
x→±∞
approach zero as x → ±∞ . If the degree of p(x) is exactly one more than the degree of q(x)(n = m + 1) , the function g(x) is a
linear function. In this case, we call g(x) an oblique asymptote.
Now let’s consider the end behavior for functions involving a radical.
Example 2.5.6: Determining End Behavior for a Function Involving a Radical

3x−2
Find the limits as x → ∞ and x → −∞ for f (x) = and describe the end behavior of f .
√4 x2 +5
Solution

Let’s use the same strategy as we did for rational functions: divide the numerator and denominator by a power of x . To
−−−−−−
determine the appropriate power of x, consider the expression √4x + 5 in the denominator. Since
2
− −−−−− −−−
2 2
√ 4 x + 5 ≈ √4x = 2|x| (2.5.10)
for large values of x in effect x appears just to the first power in the denominator. Therefore, we divide the numerator and
−−
denominator by |x|. Then, using the fact that |x| = x for x > 0, |x| = −x for x < 0 , and |x| = √x for all x, we calculate the
2
limits as follows:
3x − 2 (1/|x|)(3x − 2)
lim = lim
−−−−− − −−−−−−
x→∞ x→∞
√4 x2 + 5 2
(1/|x|)√4 x + 5
(1/x)(3x − 2)
= lim
−−− −− − −− −−−− −
x→∞
√(1/ x2 )(4 x2 + 5)
3 − 2/x 3 3
= lim −−−− −−− = – =
x→∞ 2 2
√4 + 5/x √4
3x − 2 (1/|x|)(3x − 2)
lim −−−−− − = lim −−−−−−
x→−∞ √4 x2 + 5 x→−∞ 2
(1/|x|)√4 x + 5
(−1/x)(3x − 2)
= lim −−− −− −−− −−−−−
x→−∞ 2 2
√(1/ x )(4 x + 5)
−3 + 2/x −3 −3
= lim −−−− −−− = –
= .
x→−∞
√4 + 5/x2
√4 2
Therefore, f (x) approaches the horizontal asymptote y = 3
2
as x → ∞ and the horizontal asymptote y =−
3
2
as x → −∞ as
Figure 2.5.18 :This function has two horizontal asymptotes and it crosses one of the asymptotes.
Exercise 2.5.6
−−−−− −
√3 x2 + 4
Evaluate lim .
x→∞ x +6
Hint
Divide the numerator and denominator by |x|.
Answer
–
√3
Determining End Behavior for Transcendental Functions

The six basic trigonometric functions are periodic and do not approach a finite limit as x → ±∞. For example, sinx oscillates
between 1and − 1 (Figure). The tangent function x has an infinite number of vertical asymptotes as x → ±∞ ; therefore, it does
not approach a finite limit nor does it approach ±∞ as x → ±∞ as shown in Figure.

Figure 2.5.19 :The function f (x) = sinx oscillates between 1and − 1 as x → ±∞
Figure 2.5.20 : The function f (x) = tanx does not approach a limit and does not approach ±∞ as x → ±∞
Recall that for any base b > 0, b ≠ 1, the function y = b is an exponential function with domain (−∞, ∞) and range (0, ∞). If
x
b > 1, y = b
x
is increasing over `(−∞, ∞). If 0 < b < 1, y = b is decreasing over (−∞, ∞). For the natural exponential
x
function f (x) = e , e ≈ 2.718 > 1 . Therefore, f (x) = e is increasing on `(−∞, ∞) and the range is `(0, ∞). The exponential
x x
function f (x) = e approaches ∞ as x → ∞ and approaches 0 as x → −∞ as shown in Table and Figure.

x
End behavior of the natural exponential function

x −5 −2 0 2 5
e
x
0.00674 0.135 1 7.389 148.413
Figure 2.5.21 : The exponential function approaches zero as x → −∞ and approaches ∞ as x → ∞.

Recall that the natural logarithm function f (x) = ln(x) is the inverse of the natural exponential function y = e . Therefore, the
x
domain of f (x) = ln(x) is (0, ∞) and the range is (−∞, ∞). The graph of f (x) = ln(x) is the reflection of the graph of y = e x
about the line y = x . Therefore, ln(x) → −∞ as x → 0 and ln(x) → ∞ as x → ∞ as shown in Figure and Table.
+
End behavior of the natural logarithm function

x 0.01 0.1 1 10 100
ln(x) −4.605 −2.303 0 2.303 4.605

Figure 2.5.22 : The natural logarithm function approaches ∞ as x → ∞.
Example 2.5.7: Determining End Behavior for a Transcendental Function

x
(2+3 e )
Find the limits as x → ∞ and x → −∞ for f (x) = (7−5 ex )
and describe the end behavior of f .
Solution
To find the limit as x → ∞, divide the numerator and denominator by e : x
x
2 + 3e
lim f (x) = lim
x→∞ x→∞ 7 − 5ex
x
(2/ e ) + 3
= lim
x→∞ x
(7/ e ) − 5.
As shown in Figure, e x
→ ∞ as x → ∞. Therefore,
2 7
lim
x
= 0 = lim
x
.
x→∞ e x→∞ e
3
We conclude that lim (x) = − , and the graph of f approaches the horizontal asymptote y =−
3
5
as x → ∞. To find the
x→∞f 5
2
limit as x → −∞ , use the fact that e x
→ 0 as x → −∞ to conclude that lim f (x) = , and therefore the graph of approaches
x→∞ 7
the horizontal asymptote y = 2
7
as x → −∞ .
Exercise 2.5.7
x
(3 e −4)
Find the limits as x → ∞ and x → −∞ for f (x) = x
(5 e +2).
Hint
lim e
x
=∞ and lim e
x
= 0.
x→∞ x→∞
Answer
3
lim f (x) = , lim f (x) = −2
x→∞ 5 x→−∞
Key Concepts
The limit of f (x) is L as x → ∞ (or as x → −∞) if the values f (x) become arbitrarily close to L as xbecomes
sufficiently large.
The limit of f (x) is ∞ as x → ∞ if f (x) becomes arbitrarily large as x becomes sufficiently large. The limit of f (x) is
−∞ as x → ∞ if f (x) < 0 and |f (x)| becomes arbitrarily large as x becomes sufficiently large. We can define the limit
of f (x) as x approaches −∞ similarly.

For a polynomial function p(x) = a x + a x n
n
+… +a x +a , n−1 where a ≠ 0 , the end behavior is determined
n−1
1 0 n
by the leading term a x . If n ≠ 0, p(x) approaches ∞ or −∞ at each end.

n
n

p(x)
For a rational function f (x) = q(x),
the end behavior is determined by the relationship between the degree of p and the
degree of q. If the degree of p is less than the degree of q, the line y = 0 is a horizontal asymptote for f . If the degree of
an
p is equal to the degree of q , then the line y = is a horizontal asymptote, where a and b are the leading coefficients
n n
bn
of p and q, respectively. If the degree of p is greater than the degree of q, then f approaches ∞ or −∞ at each end.
NOTE: These rules are good to check your work, but be aware that you need to justify your conclusions with Calculus,
namely working out the limits as x approaches ∞ or −∞ .
Glossary
end behavior
the behavior of a function as x → ∞ and x → −∞
horizontal asymptote
if \\displaystyle(\lim_{x→∞}f(x)=L\) or lim f (x) = L , then y = L is a horizontal asymptote of f
x→−∞
infinite limit at infinity

a function that becomes arbitrarily large as x becomes large
limit at infinity
oblique asymptote
the line y = mx + b if f (x) approaches it as x → ∞ orx → −∞
Contributors
This page titled 2.5: Limits at Infinity is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by OpenStax.

For the following exercises, examine the graphs. Identify where the vertical asymptotes are located.
251)
Answer:
x =1
252)
253)
Answer:
x = −1, x = 2
254)
255)
Answer:
x =0
For the following functions f (x) , determine whether there is an asymptote at x =a . Justify your answer without graphing on a
calculator.
256) f (x) = 2
x+1
x +5x+4
, a = −1
257) f (x) = x
x−2
,a =2
Answer:
Yes, there is a vertical asymptote
258) f (x) = (x + 2) 3/2

, a = −2
259) f (x) = (x − 1) −1/3

,a =1
Answer:
Yes, there is vertical asymptote
260) f (x) = 1 + x −2/5

,a =1
For the following exercises, evaluate the limit.
1
261) lim
x→∞ 3x + 6
Answer:
0
2x − 5
262) lim
x→∞ 4x
2
x − 2x + 5
263) lim
x→∞ x +2
Answer:
∞
3
3x − 2x
264) lim
2
x→−∞ x + 2x + 8
4 3
x − 4x +1
265) lim
2 4
x→−∞ 2 − 2x − 7x
Answer:
1
−
7
3x
266) lim
−−−−−
x→∞
√x2 + 1
−−−−− −
√4 x2 − 1
267) lim
x→−∞ x +2
Answer:
−2
4x
268) lim
−−−−−
x→∞
√x2 − 1
4x
269) lim
−−−−−
x→−∞
√x2 − 1
Answer:
−4
−
2 √x
270) lim −
x→∞ x − √x + 1
For the following exercises, find the horizontal and vertical asymptotes.
271) f (x) = x − 9
Answer:
Horizontal: none, vertical: x = 0
272) f (x) = 1−x

1
2
273) f (x) = 4−x

x
2
Answer:
Horizontal: none, vertical: x = ±2
2
274) f (x) = x +3
x +1
2
275) f (x) = sin(x)sin(2x)
Answer:
Horizontal: none, vertical: none
276) f (x) = cosx + cos(3x) + cos(5x)

xsin(x)
277) f (x) = x2 −1
Answer:
Horizontal: y = 0, vertical: x = ±1
278) f (x) = sin(x)

x
279) f (x) = x +x
3
1
2
Answer:
Horizontal: y = 0, vertical: x = 0 and x = −1
280) f (x) = x−1

1
− 2x
281) f (x) = x +1
x −1
3
Answer:
Horizontal: y = 1, vertical: x = 1
sinx+cosx
282) f (x) = sinx−cosx
283) f (x) = x − sinx
Answer:
Horizontal: none, vertical: none
−
284) f (x) = 1
x
− √x
For the following exercises, construct a function f (x) that has the given asymptotes.
285) x = 1 and y = 2
Answer:
Answers will vary, for example: y = 2x
x−1
286) x = 1 and y = 0
287) y = 4, x = −1
Answer:
Answers will vary, for example: y = 4x
x+1
288) x = 0
CHAPTER REVIEW EXERCISES

−−−−−
3x √x2 + 1
CR 1) lim
−−−−−
x→∞
√x4 − 1
Answer:
3
1
CR 2) lim cos( )
x→∞ x
x −1
CR 3) lim
x→1 sin(πx)
Answer:
1
−
π
CR 4) 1/x
lim (3x )
x→∞
2.5E: Limits at Infinity EXERCISES is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
2.6: Continuity
Summary: For a function to be continuous at a point, it must be defined at that point, its limit must exist at the point, and the value
of the function at that point must equal the value of the limit at that point. Discontinuities may be classified as removable, jump, or
infinite. A function is continuous over an open interval if it is continuous at every point in the interval. It is continuous over a
closed interval if it is continuous at every point in its interior and is continuous at its endpoints.
Many functions have the property that their graphs can be traced with a pencil without lifting the pencil from the page. Such
functions are called continuous. Other functions have points at which a break in the graph occurs, but satisfy this property over
intervals contained in their domains. They are continuous on these intervals and are said to have a discontinuity at a point where a
break occurs.
We begin our investigation of continuity by exploring what it means for a function to have continuity at a point. Intuitively, a
function is continuous at a particular point if there is no break in its graph at that point.
Continuity at a Point
Before we look at a formal definition of what it means for a function to be continuous at a point, let’s consider various functions
that fail to meet our intuitive notion of what it means to be continuous at a point. We then create a list of conditions that prevent
such failures.
Our first function of interest is shown in Figure. We see that the graph of f (x) has a hole at a. In fact, f (a) is undefined. At the
very least, for f (x) to be continuous at a, we need the following condition:
i. f (a) is defined.
Figure 2.6.1 : The function f (x) is not continuous at a because f (a) is undefined.
However, as we see in Figure, this condition alone is insufficient to guarantee continuity at the point a. Although f (a) is defined,
the function has a gap at a. In this example, the gap exists because li m f (x) does not exist. We must add another condition for
x→a
continuity at a—namely,
lim h(x) = +∞. (2.6.1)
x→2
ii. lim x→a f (x) exists.

ii. lim x→a f (x) exists.

Figure 2.6.2 : The function f (x) is not continuous at a because li m x→a f (x) does not exist.
However, as we see in Figure, these two conditions by themselves do not guarantee continuity at a point. The function in this figure
satisfies both of our first two conditions, but is still not continuous at a. We must add a third condition to our list:
iii. limx→a f (x) = f (a) .
Figure 2.6.3 : The function f (x) is not continuous at a because li m x→a f (x) ≠ f (a) .
Now we put our list of conditions together and form a definition of continuity at a point.
Definition
A function f (x) is continuous at a point a if and only if the following three conditions are satisfied:
i. f (a) is defined
ii. li m
x→a f (x) exists
iii. li m
x→a f (x) = f (a)
A function is discontinuous at a point a if it fails to be continuous at a.
The following procedure can be used to analyze the continuity of a function at a point using this definition.
Problem-Solving Strategy: Determining Continuity at a Point
1. Check to see if f (a) is defined. If f (a) is undefined, we need go no further. The function is not continuous at a. If
f (a) is defined, continue to step 2.
2. Compute li m x→a f (x). In some cases, we may need to do this by first computing li m x→a f (x) and li m
− f (x). If
x→a
+
li mx→a f (x) does not exist (that is, it is not a real number), then the function is not continuous at a and the problem is
solved. If li mx→a f (x) exists, then continue to step 3.
3. Compare f (a) and li m x→a f (x). If li m

x→a f (x) ≠ f (a), then the function is not continuous at a. If
li mx→a f (x) = f (a), then the function is continuous at a.
The next three examples demonstrate how to apply this definition to determine whether a function is continuous at a given point.
These examples illustrate situations in which each of the conditions for continuity in the definition succeed or fail.
Example 2.6.1A : Determining Continuity at a Point, Condition 1

Using the definition, determine whether the function f (x) = (x 2
− 4)/(x − 2) is continuous at x = 2 . Justify the conclusion.
Solution
2
Let’s begin by trying to calculate f (2). We can see that f (2) = 0/0, which is undefined. Therefore, f (x) =
x −4
x−2
is
discontinuous at 2 because f (2) is undefined. The graph of f (x) is shown in Figure.

Figure 2.6.4 : The function f (x) is discontinuous at 2 because f (2) is undefined.
Example 2.6.1B : Determining Continuity at a Point, Condition 2

2
−x +4 if x ≤ 3
Using the definition, determine whether the function f (x) = { is continuous at x =3 . Justify the
4x − 8 if x > 3
conclusion.
Solution
Let’s begin by trying to calculate f (3).
2
f (3) = −(3 ) + 4 = −5 .
Thus, f (3) is defined. Next, we calculate li m x→3 . To do this, we must compute li m
f (x) −
x→3
f (x) and li m +
x→3
:
f (x)
2
li mx→3− f (x) = −(3 ) + 4 = −5
and
li mx→3+ f (x) = 4(3) − 8 = 4 .
Therefore, li m x→3 f (x) does not exist. Thus, f (x) is not continuous at 3. The graph of f (x) is shown in Figure.

Figure 2.6.5 : The function f (x) is not continuous at 3 because li m x→3 f (x) does not exist.
Example 2.6.1C : Determining Continuity at a Point, Condition 3

sinx
if x ≠ 0
Using the definition, determine whether the function f (x) = { x
is continuous at x=0.
1 if x = 0
Solution
First, observe that
f (0) = 1
Next,
li mx→0 f (x) = li mx→0
sinx
x
=1 .
Last, compare f (0) and li m x→1 . We see that
f (x)
f (0) = 1 = li mx→0 f (x) .

Since all three of the conditions in the definition of continuity are satisfied, f (x) is continuous at x = 0 .
Exercise 2.6.1
⎧ 2x + 1 if x < 1
Using the definition, determine whether the function f (x) = ⎨ 2 if x = 1 is continuous at x = 1 . If the function is not
⎩
−x + 4 if x > 1
continuous at 1, indicate the condition for continuity at a point that fails to hold.
Hint
Check each condition of the definition.
Answer
f is not continuous at 1 because f (1) = 2 ≠ 3 = li m x→1 f (x) .
By applying the definition of continuity and previously established theorems concerning the evaluation of limits, we can state the
following theorem.

Continuity of Polynomials and Rational Functions
Polynomials and rational functions are continuous at every point in their domains.
Proof
Previously, we showed that if p(x) and q(x) are polynomials, li mx→a p(x) = p(a) for every polynomial p(x) and
p(x) p(a)
li mx→a
q(x)
=
q(a)
as long as q(a) ≠ 0 . Therefore, polynomials and rational functions are continuous on their domains.
We now apply Note to determine the points at which a given rational function is continuous.
Example 2.6.2 :Continuity of a Rational Function

For what values of x is f (x) = x+1
x−5
continuous?
Solution
x+1
The rational function f (x) = x−5
is continuous for every value of x except x = 5 .
Exercise 2.6.2
For what values of x is f (x) = 3x 4 2
− 4x continuous?
Hint
Use Note
Answer
f (x) is continuous at every real number.
Types of Discontinuities
As we have seen in Example and Example, discontinuities take on several different appearances. We classify the types of
discontinuities we have seen thus far as removable discontinuities, infinite discontinuities, or jump discontinuities. Intuitively, a
removable discontinuity is a discontinuity for which there is a hole in the graph, a jump discontinuity is a noninfinite
discontinuity for which the sections of the function do not meet up, and an infinite discontinuity is a discontinuity located at a
vertical asymptote. Figure illustrates the differences in these types of discontinuities. Although these terms provide a handy way of
describing three common types of discontinuities, keep in mind that not all discontinuities fit neatly into these categories.
Figure 2.6.5 : Discontinuities are classified as (a) removable, (b) jump, or (c) infinite.
These three discontinuities are formally defined as follows:
Definition
If f (x) is discontinuous at a, then

1. f has a removable discontinuity at a if li m x→a f (x) exists. (Note: When we state that li mx→a f (x) exists, we mean
that li m f (x) = L, where L is a real number.)
x→a
2. f has a jump discontinuity at a if li m f (x) and li m

x→a− f (x) both exist, but li m
x→a+ f (x) ≠ li m f (x). x→a− x→a+
(Note: When we state that li m f (x) and li m

x→a− f (x) both exist, we mean that both are real-valued and that neither
x→a+
take on the values ±∞.)

3. f has an infinite discontinuity at a if li m x→a
− f (x) = ±∞ or li m x→a
+ f (x) = ±∞ .
Example 2.6.3 : Classifying a Discontinuity

2
In Example, we showed that f (x) = x −4
x−2
is discontinuous at x = 2 . Classify this discontinuity as removable, jump, or infinite.
Solution
To classify the discontinuity at 2 we must evaluate li m x→2 f (x) :
2
x −4
li mx→2 f (x) = li mx→2
x−2
(x−2)(x+2)
=lim x→2
x−2
=li m x→2 (x + 2)
=4.
Since f is discontinuous at 2 and li m x→2 f (x) exists, f has a removable discontinuity at x=2.

2
−x +4 if x ≤ 3
In Example, we showed that f (x) = { is discontinuous at x = 3 . Classify this discontinuity as removable,
4x − 8 if x > 3
jump, or infinite.
Solution
Earlier, we showed that f is discontinuous at 3 because li m f (x) does not exist. However, since
x→3 li mx→3− f (x) = −5 and
li m x→3
f (x) = 4 both exist, we conclude that the function has a jump discontinuity at 3.
−

Determine whether f (x) = x+2
x+1
is continuous at −1. If the function is discontinuous at −1, classify the discontinuity as
removable, jump, or infinite.
Solution
The function value f (−1) is undefined. Therefore, the function is not continuous at −1. To determine the type of discontinuity,
we must determine the limit at −1. We see that li m = −∞ and li m
x→−1
−
x+2
x+1
= +∞ . Therefore, the function has
x→−1
+
x+2
x+1
an infinite discontinuity at −1.
Exercise 2.6.3
2
x if x ≠ 1
For f (x) = { , decide whether f is continuous at 1. If f is not continuous at 1, classify the discontinuity as
3 if x = 1
removable, jump, or infinite.
Hint
Follow the steps in Note. If the function is discontinuous at 1, look at li m x→1 f (x)
Answer
Discontinuous at 1; removable

Continuity over an Interval
Now that we have explored the concept of continuity at a point, we extend that idea to continuity over an interval. As we develop
this idea for different types of intervals, it may be useful to keep in mind the intuitive idea that a function is continuous over an
interval if we can use a pencil to trace the function between any two points in the interval without lifting the pencil from the paper.
In preparation for defining continuity on an interval, we begin by looking at the definition of what it means for a function to be
continuous from the right at a point and continuous from the left at a point.
Continuity from the Right and from the Left
A function f (x) is said to be continuous from the right at a if li m x→a+ f (x) = f (a) .
A function f (x) is said to be continuous from the left at a if li m x→a
− f (x) = f (a)
A function is continuous over an open interval if it is continuous at every point in the interval. A function f (x) is continuous over a
closed interval of the form [a, b] if it is continuous at every point in (a, b) and is continuous from the right at a and is continuous
from the left at b. Analogously, a function f (x) is continuous over an interval of the form (a, b] if it is continuous over (a, b) and is
continuous from the left at b. Continuity over other types of intervals are defined in a similar fashion.
Requiring that li m f (x) = f (a) and li m
x→a
+
x→b
f (x) = f (b) ensures that we can trace the graph of the function from the point
−
(a, f (a)) to the point (b, f (b)) without lifting the pencil. If, for example, li m f (x) ≠ f (a), we would need to lift our pencil to
x→a
+
jump from f (a) to the graph of the rest of the function over (a, b].
Example 2.6.6 : Continuity on an Interval

State the interval(s) over which the function f (x) = x−1
2
x +2x
is continuous.
Solution
x−1
Since f (x) = is a rational function, it is continuous at every point in its domain. The domain of f (x) is the set
2
x +2x
(−∞, −2) ∪ (−2, 0) ∪ (0, +∞) . Thus, f (x) is continuous over each of the intervals (−∞, −2), (−2, 0), and (0, +∞).
Example 2.6.7 : Continuity over an Interval

−−−−−
State the interval(s) over which the function f (x) = √4 − x is continuous.2
Solution
−−−−− −−−−−
From the limit laws, we know that li m √4 − x = √4 − a
x→a for all values of a in (−2, 2). We also know that
2 2
−−−− − −−−− −
= 0 exists and li m = 0 exists. Therefore, f (x) is continuous over the interval [−2, 2].
√4 − x 2 √4 − x 2
li mx→−2
+
x→2
−
Exercise 2.6.4
−−−−−
State the interval(s) over which the function f (x) = √x + 3 is continuous.
Hint
Use Example as a guide for solving.
Answer
[−3,+∞)
The Note allows us to expand our ability to compute limits. In particular, this theorem ultimately allows us to demonstrate that
trigonometric functions are continuous over their domains.
Composite Function Theorem
If f (x) is continuous at L and li m x→a g(x) = L , then
li mx→a f (g(x)) = f (li mx→a g(x)) = f (L).
Before we move on to Example, recall that earlier, in the section on limit laws, we showed li m cosx = 1 = cos(0) . x→0
Consequently, we know that f (x) = cosx is continuous at 0. In Example we see how to combine this result with the composite

function theorem.
Example 2.6.8 : Limit of a Composite Cosine Function

Evaluate li m x→π/2 cos(x −
π
2
) .
Solution
The given function is a composite of cosx and x − . Since li m π
2 x→π/2
(x −
π
2
) =0 and cosx is continuous at 0, we may apply
the composite function theorem. Thus,
π π
li mx→π/2 cos(x − ) = cos(li mx→π/2 (x − )) = cos(0) = 1.
2 2
Exercise 2.6.4 :
Evaluate li m x→π sin(x − π) .
Hint
f (x) = sinx is continuous at 0. Use Example as a guide.
Answer
0
The proof of the next theorem uses the composite function theorem as well as the continuity of f (x) = sinx and g(x) = cosx at
the point 0 to show that trigonometric functions are continuous over their entire domains.
Continuity of Trigonometric Functions
Trigonometric functions are continuous over their entire domains.
Proof
We begin by demonstrating that cosx is continuous at every real number. To do this, we must show that li mx→a cosx = cosa
for all values of a.

li mx→a cosx = li mx→a cos((x − a) + a) rewrite x = x − a + a
=li m x→a (cos(x − a)cosa − sin(x − a)sina) apply the identity for the cosine of the sum of two angles
=cos(li m x→a (x − a))cosa − sin(li mx→a (x − a))sina li mx→a (x − a) = 0 , and sinx and cosx are continuous
at 0
=cos(0)cosa − sin(0)sina evaluate cos(0) and sin(0) and simplify
=1 ⋅ cosa − 0 ⋅ sina = cosa .
The proof that sinx is continuous at every real number is analogous. Because the remaining trigonometric functions may be
expressed in terms of sinx and cosx , their continuity follows from the quotient limit law.
□
As you can see, the composite function theorem is invaluable in demonstrating the continuity of trigonometric functions. As we
continue our study of calculus, we revisit this theorem many times.
The Intermediate Value Theorem

Functions that are continuous over intervals of the form [a, b], where a and b are real numbers, exhibit many useful properties.
Throughout our study of calculus, we will encounter many powerful theorems concerning such functions. The first of these
theorems is the Intermediate Value Theorem.
The Intermediate Value Theorem
Let f be continuous over a closed, bounded interval [a, b]. If z is any real number between f (a) and f (b), then there is a number
c in [a, b] satisfying f (c) = z in Figure.

Figure 2.6.6 : There is a number c ∈ [a, b] that satisfies f (c) = z .
Example 2.6.9 : Application of the Intermediate Value Theorem

Show that f (x) = x − cosx has at least one zero.
Solution
Since f (x) = x − cosx is continuous over (−∞, +∞) , it is continuous over any closed interval of the form [a, b]. If you
can find an interval [a, b] such that f (a) and f (b) have opposite signs, you can use the Intermediate Value Theorem to
conclude there must be a real number c in (a, b) that satisfies f (c) = 0 . Note that
f (0) = 0 − cos(0) = −1 < 0
and
f(
π
2
) =
π
2
− cos
π
2
=
π
2
>0 .
Using the Intermediate Value Theorem, we can see that there must be a real number c in [0, π/2] that satisfies f (c) = 0 .
Therefore, f (x) = x − cosx has at least one zero.
Example 2.6.10 : When Can You Apply the Intermediate Value Theorem?
If f (x) is continuous over [0, 2], f (0) > 0 and f (2) > 0 , can we use the Intermediate Value Theorem to conclude that f(x) has
no zeros in the interval [0, 2]? Explain.
Solution
No. The Intermediate Value Theorem only allows us to conclude that we can find a value between f (0) and f (2); it doesn’t
allow us to conclude that we can’t find other values. To see this more clearly, consider the function f (x) = (x − 1) . It satisfies
2
f (0) = 1 > 0, f (2) = 1 > 0 , and f (1) = 0 .
Example 2.6.11 : When Can You Apply the Intermediate Value Theorem?
For f (x) = 1/x, f (−1) = −1 < 0 and f (1) = 1 > 0 . Can we conclude that f (x) has a zero in the interval [−1, 1]?
Solution
No. The function is not continuous over [−1, 1]. The Intermediate Value Theorem does not apply here.
Exercise 2.6.5
Show that f (x) = x 3
−x
2
− 3x + 1 has a zero over the interval [0, 1].
Hint
Find f (0) and f (1). Apply the Intermediate Value Theorem.

Answer
f (0) = 1 > 0, f (1) = −2 < 0; f (x) is continuous over [0, 1]. It must have a zero on this interval.
Key Concepts
For a function to be continuous at a point, it must be defined at that point, its limit must exist at the point, and the value of
the function at that point must equal the value of the limit at that point.
Discontinuities may be classified as removable, jump, or infinite.
A function is continuous over an open interval if it is continuous at every point in the interval. It is continuous over a
closed interval if it is continuous at every point in its interior and is continuous at its endpoints.
The composite function theorem states: If f (x) is continuous at L and li m g(x) = L , then
x→a
li mx→a f (g(x)) = f (li m x→a g(x)) = f (L) .
The Intermediate Value Theorem guarantees that if a function is continuous over a closed interval, then the function takes
on every value between the values at its endpoints.
Glossary
continuity at a point
A function f (x) is continuous at a point a if and only if the following three conditions are satisfied: (1) f (a) is defined, (2)
li m x→af (x) exists, and (3) limx → af (x) = f (a)
continuity from the left

A function is continuous from the left at b if li m x→b
− f (x) = f (b)
continuity from the right

A function is continuous from the right at a if li m x→a
+ f (x) = f (a)
continuity over an interval

a function that can be traced with a pencil without lifting the pencil; a function is continuous over an open interval if it is
continuous at every point in the interval; a function f (x) is continuous over a closed interval of the form [a, b] if it is
continuous at every point in (a, b), and it is continuous from the right at a and from the left at b
discontinuity at a point
A function is discontinuous at a point or has a discontinuity at a point if it is not continuous at the point
infinite discontinuity
An infinite discontinuity occurs at a point a if li m x→a− f (x) = ±∞ or li m x→a+ f (x) = ±∞
Intermediate Value Theorem

Let f be continuous over a closed bounded interval [a, b] if z is any real number between f (a) and f (b), then there is a number
c in [a, b] satisfying f (c) = z
jump discontinuity
A jump discontinuity occurs at a point a if li m x→a− f (x) and li m x→a+ f (x) both exist, but li m x→a− f (x) ≠ li mx→a+ f (x)
removable discontinuity
A removable discontinuity occurs at a point a if f (x) is discontinuous at a, but li m x→a f (x) exists
Contributors
This page titled 2.6: Continuity is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by OpenStax.

2.6: Continuity
For the following exercises, determine the point(s), if any, at which each function is discontinuous. Classify any discontinuity as
jump, removable, infinite, or other.
131) f (x) = √x
1
Answer:
The function is defined for all x in the interval (0, ∞) . In other words, this function is continuous on its domain.
132) f (x) = x +1
2
2
133) f (x) = x −x
x
2
Answer:
Removable discontinuity at x = 0 ; infinite discontinuity at x = 1
134) g(t) = t −1
+1
135) f (x) = 5
ex −2
Answer:
Infinite discontinuity at x = ln2
|x−2|
136) f (x) = x−2
137) H (x) = tan2x
Answer:
(2k+1)π
Infinite discontinuities at x = 4
, for k = 0, ±1, ±2, ±3, …
t+3
138) f (t) = 2
t +5t+6
For the following exercises, decide if the function is continuous at the given point. If it is discontinuous, what type of discontinuity
is it?
2
139) 2 x −5x+3
x−1
at x = 1
Answer:
No. It is a removable discontinuity.
140) h(θ) = sinθ−cosθ
tanθ
at θ = π
2
6 u +u−2 1
if u ≠
141) g(u) = { 7
2u−1 2
1
, at u = 1
2
if u =
2 2
2
6 u +u−2 1
if u ≠
141) g(u) = { 7
2u−1 2
1
, at u = 1
2
if u =
2 2
Answer:
Yes. It is continuous.
sin(πy)
142) f (y) = tan(πy)
, at y = 1
2 x
x −e if x < 0
143) f (x) = { , at x = 0
x −1 if x ≥ 0
Answer:
Yes. It is continuous.
xsin(x) if x ≤ π
144) f (x) = { , at x = π
xtan(x) if x > π
In the following exercises, find the value(s) of k that makes each function continuous over the given interval.
3x + 2 x <k
145) f (x) = {
2x − 3 k ≤x ≤8
Answer:
k = −5
π
sinθ 0 ≤θ <
146) f (θ) = { π
2
cos(θ + k) ≤θ ≤π
2
2
x +3x+2
x ≠ −2
147) f (x) = { x+2
k x = −2
Answer:
k=−1
kx
e 0 ≤x <4
148) f (x) = {
x +3 4 ≤x ≤8
−−
√kx 0 ≤x ≤3
149) f (x) = {
x +1 3 < x ≤ 10
Answer:
16
k =
3
In the following exercises, use the Intermediate Value Theorem (IVT).

2
3x −4 x ≤2
150) Let h(x) = { Over the interval [0, 4], there is no value of x such that h(x) = 10, although h(0) < 10 and
5 + 4x x >2
h(4) > 10 . Explain why this does not contradict the IVT.
151) A particle moving along a line has at each time t a position function s(t), which is continuous. Assume s(2) = 5 and
s(5) = 2 . Another particle moves such that its position is given by h(t) = s(t) − t . Explain why there must be a value c for
2 < c < 5 such that h(c) = 0 .
Answer:
Since both s and y = t are continuous everywhere, then h(t) = s(t) − t is continuous everywhere and, in particular, it is
continuous over the closed interval [2, 5]. Also, h(2) = 3 > 0 and h(5) = −3 < 0 . Therefore, by the IVT, there is a value
x = c such that h(c) = 0 .
152) [T] Use the statement “The cosine of t is equal to t cubed."

a. Write a mathematical equation of the statement.
b. Prove that the equation in part a. has at least one real solution.
c. Use a calculator to find an interval of length 0.01 that contains a solution.
153) Apply the IVT to determine whether 2
x 3
=x has a solution in one of the intervals [1.25, 1.375] or [1.375, 1.5]. Briefly
explain your response for each interval.
Answer:
The function f (x) = 2 x 3
−x is continuous over the interval [1.25, 1.375] and has opposite signs at the endpoints.
154) Consider the graph of the function y = f (x) shown in the following graph.
a. Find all values for which the function is discontinuous.

b. For each value in part a., state why the formal definition of continuity does not apply.
c. Classify each discontinuity as either jump, removable, or infinite.
3x x >1
155) Let f (x) = { 3
.
x x <1
a. Sketch the graph of f .

b. Is it possible to find a value k such that f (1) = k , which makes f (x) continuous for all real numbers? Briefly explain.
Answer:
a.
b. It is not possible to redefine f (1) since the discontinuity is a jump discontinuity.

4
156) Let f (x) = x −1
x2 −1
for x ≠ −1, 1.

b. Is it possible to find values k1 and k2 such that f (−1) = k and f (1) = k2 , and that makes f (x) continuous for all real
numbers? Briefly explain.
157) Sketch the graph of the function y = f (x) with properties i. through vii.
1. i. The domain of f is (−∞, +∞).
2. ii. f has an infinite discontinuity at x = −6 .
3. iii. f (−6) = 3
4. iv. lim f (x) = lim f (x) = 2
− +
x→−3 x→−3
5. v. f (−3) = 3
6. vi. f is left continuous but not right continuous at x = 3 .
7. vii. lim f (x) = −∞ and lim f (x) = +∞
x→−∞ x→+∞
Answer:
Answers may vary; see the following example:
158) Sketch the graph of the function y = f (x) with properties i. through iv.
1. i. The domain of f is [0, 5].
2. ii. lim f (x) and lim f (x) exist and are equal.
+ −
x→1 x→1
3. iii. f (x) is left continuous but not continuous at x = 2 , and right continuous but not continuous at x = 3 .
4. iv. f (x) has a removable discontinuity at x = 1 , a jump discontinuity at x = 2 , and the following limits hold:
lim f (x) = −∞ and lim f (x) = 2 .
− +
x→3 x→3
In the following exercises, suppose y = f (x) is defined for all x. For each description, sketch a graph with the indicated property.
159) Discontinuous at x = 1 with lim f (x) = −1 and lim f (x) = 4
x→−1 x→2
Answer:
Answers may vary; see the following example:
1
160) Discontinuous at x = 2 but continuous elsewhere with lim f (x) =
x→0 2
Determine whether each of the given statements is true. Justify your response with an explanation or counterexample.
161) f (t) = t
e −e
2
−t
is continuous everywhere.
Answer:
False. It is continuous over (−∞, 0 ) ∪ (0, ∞).
162) If the left- and right-hand limits of f (x) as x → a exist and are equal, then f cannot be discontinuous at x = a .
163) If a function is not continuous at a point, then it is not defined at that point.
Answer:
x if x ≠ 0
False. Consider f (x) = { .
4 if x = 0
164) According to the IVT, cosx − sinx − x = 2 has a solution over the interval [−1, 1].
165) If f (x) is continuous such that f (a) and f (b) have opposite signs, then f (x) = 0 has exactly one solution in [a, b].
Answer:
False. Consider f (x) = cos(x) on [−π, 2π ].
2
166) The function f (x) = x −4x+3

2
x −1
is continuous over the interval [0, 3].
167) If f (x) is continuous everywhere and f (a), f (b) > 0 , then there is no root of f (x) in the interval [a, b].
Answer:
False. The IVT does not work in reverse! Consider (x − 1) over the interval [−2, 2].
2
[T] The following problems consider the scalar form of Coulomb’s law, which describes the electrostatic force between two point
| q1 q2 |
charges, such as electrons. It is given by the equation F (r) = k , where k is Coulomb’s constant,
e
r
2 e qi are the magnitudes of
the charges of the two particles, and r is the distance between the two particles.
168) To simplify the calculation of a model with many interacting particles, after some threshold value r = R , we approximate F as
zero.
a. Explain the physical reasoning behind this assumption.
b. What is the force equation?
c. Evaluate the force F using both Coulomb’s law and our approximation, assuming two protons with a charge magnitude of
1.6022 × 10
−19
coulombs (C), and the Coulomb constant k = 8.988 × 10 N m /C are 1 m apart. Also, assume
e
9 2 2
R < 1m . How much inaccuracy does our approximation generate? Is our approximation reasonable?
d. Is there any finite value of R for which this system remains continuous at R?
169) Instead of making the force 0 at R, instead we let the force be 10−20 for r ≥ R . Assume two protons, which have a magnitude
of charge 1.6022 × 10 C, and the Coulomb constant k = 8.988 × 10 N m /C . Is there a value R that can make this system
−19
e
9 2 2
continuous? If so, find it.
Answer:
R = 0.0001519m
Recall the discussion on spacecraft from the chapter opener. The following problems consider a rocket launch from Earth’s surface.
The force of gravity on the rocket is given by F (d) = −mk/d , where m is the mass of the rocket, d is the distance of the rocket
2
from the center of Earth, and k is a constant.

170) [T] Determine the value and units of k given that the mass of the rocket on Earth is 3 million kg. (Hint: The distance from the
center of Earth to its surface is 6378 km.)
171) [T] After a certain distance D has passed, the gravitational effect of Earth becomes quite negligible, so we can approximate
mk
− if d < D
the force function by F (d) = { d
2
. Find the necessary condition D such that the force function remains
10, 000 if d ≥ D
continuous.
Answer:
D = 63.78km
172) As the rocket travels away from Earth’s surface, there is a distance D where the rocket sheds some of its mass, since it no
m1 k
⎧− if d < D
2
longer needs the excess fuel storage. We can write this function as F (d) = ⎨
⎩
d
m2 k
. Is there a D value such that this
− 2
if d ≥ D
d
function is continuous, assuming m 1 ≠ m2 ?
Prove the following functions are continuous everywhere

173) f (θ) = sinθ
Answer:
For all values of a , f (a) is defined, li m θ→a f (θ) exists, and li m θ→a f (θ) = f (a) . Therefore, f (θ) is continuous everywhere.
174) g(x) = |x|

0 if x is irrational
175) Where is f (x) = { continuous?
1 if x is rational
Answer:
Nowhere
2.6E: Continuity EXERCISES is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
By now you have progressed from the very informal definition of a limit in the introduction of this chapter to the intuitive
understanding of a limit. At this point, you should have a very strong intuitive sense of what the limit of a function means and how
you can find it. In this section, we convert this intuitive idea of a limit into a formal definition using precise mathematical language.
The formal definition of a limit is quite possibly one of the most challenging definitions you will encounter early in your study of
calculus; however, it is well worth any effort you make to reconcile it with your intuitive notion of a limit. Understanding this
definition is the key that opens the door to a better understanding of calculus.
Quantifying Closeness
Before stating the formal definition of a limit, we must introduce a few preliminary ideas. Recall that the distance between two
points a and b on a number line is given by |a − b |.
The statement |f (x) − L| < ε may be interpreted as: The distance between f (x) and L is less than ε .
The statement 0 < |x − a| < δ may be interpreted as: x ≠ a and the distance between x and a is less than δ .
It is also important to look at the following equivalences for absolute value:
The statement |f (x) − L| < ε is equivalent to the statement L − ε < f (x) < L + ε .
The statement 0 < |x − a| < δ is equivalent to the statement a − δ < x < a + δ and x ≠ a .
With these clarifications, we can state the formal epsilon-delta definition of the limit.
Definition: The Epsilon-Delta Definition of the Limit

Let f (x) be defined for all x ≠ a over an open interval containing a. Let L be a real number. Then
lim f (x) = L (2.7.1)
x→a
if, for every ε > 0 , there exists a δ > 0 , such that if 0 < |x − a| < δ , then |f (x) − L| < ε .
This definition may seem rather complex from a mathematical point of view, but it becomes easier to understand if we break it
down phrase by phrase. The statement itself involves something called a universal quantifier (for every ε > 0 ), an existential
quantifier (there exists a δ > 0 ), and, last, a conditional statement (if 0 < |x − a| < δ , then |f (x) − L| < ε) . Let’s take a look at
Table, which breaks down the definition and translates each part.
Definition Translation
1. For every ε > 0 , 1. For every positive distance ε from L ,
2. there exists a δ > 0, 2. There is a positive distance δ from a ,
3. such that 3. such that
4. if 0 < |x − a| < δ , then |f (x) − L| < ε . 4. if x is closer than δ to a and x ≠ a , then f (x) is closer than ε to L .
We can get a better handle on this definition by looking at the definition geometrically. Figure shows possible values of δ for
various choices of ε > 0 for a given function f (x), a number a, and a limit L at a. Notice that as we choose smaller values of ε (the
distance between the function and the limit), we can always find a δ small enough so that if we have chosen an x value within δ of
a, then the value of f (x) is within ε of the limit L.

Figure 2.7.1 : These graphs show possible values of δ , given successively smaller choices of ε.
Note
Visit the following applet to experiment with finding values of δ for selected values of ε :
The epsilon-delta definition of limit
Algebra Notes
An important algebra fact for absolute values you will need for proofs with the epsilon-delta definition of limit is:
|p| < k is equivalent to −k < p < k

An algebra fact for inequalities is:
If a > 0 and b > 0 then a < b is equivalent to 1
a
>
1
Example 2.7.1 shows how you can use this definition to prove a statement about the limit of a specific function at a specified
value.
Example 2.7.1 : Proving a Statement about the Limit of a Specific Function

Prove that lim(2x + 1) = 3 .
x→1
Solution
Let ε > 0 .
The first part of the definition begins “For every ε > 0 .” This means we must prove that whatever follows is true no matter
what positive value of ε is chosen. By stating “Let ε > 0 ,” we signal our intent to do so.
Choose δ = . Why are we choosing this? The explanation follows.
ε
The definition continues with “there exists a δ > 0 . ” The phrase “there exists” in a mathematical statement is always a signal
for a scavenger hunt. In other words, we must go and find δ . So, where exactly did δ = come from?
ε
We tackle the problem from an algebraic point of view. This is our "Analysis Doodle" to discover what value to use for δ .
Analysis
Since ultimately we want |(2x + 1) − 3| < ε , we begin by manipulating this expression: |(2x + 1) − 3 |<ε is equivalent to |
2x − 2| < ε , which in turn is equivalent to −ε < 2x − 2 < ε (see Algebra Note above) which is equivalent to
−
ε
2
< x −1 < . Last, this is equivalent to |x − 1| < . We want |x − 1| because we have x→1 in this limit; δ is specifying
ε
2
ε
how close x must be to 1. Thus, it would seem that δ = is appropriate. (end of Analysis Doodle)
ε
Figure 2.7.2 demonstrates our epsilon-delta setup:

Figure 2.7.2 : demonstrates our epsilon-delta setup for lim(2x + 1) = 3 .
x→1
After removing all the remarks, here is a final version of the proof:
Let ε > 0 .
Choose δ = ε/2 .
Assume 0 < |x − 1| < δ .
In other words:
0 < |x − 1| <
ε
2
,
so − ε
2
< x −1 <
ε
2
,
then −ε < 2x − 2 < ε
then |2x − 2| < ε ,
then |(2x + 1) − 3 |<ε
Thus, if 0 < |x − 1| < δ , then |(2x + 1) − 3 |<ε.
Therefore, by the definition of limit, lim(2x + 1) = 3 .
x→1
The following Problem-Solving Strategy summarizes the type of proof we worked out in Example 2.7.1.
Problem-Solving Strategy: Proving That lim f(x) = L

x→a
for a Specific Function f(x)

1. Let’s begin the proof with the following statement: Let ε > 0 .
2. Next, we need to obtain our choice for δ (use the Analysis Doodle). The Analysis Doodle is scratch work done to find our
choice for δ . Always put it on a separate page, or in a box marked "Scratch Work". Make the following statement, filling in
the blank with our discovered choice of δ: Choose δ =_______.
3. The next statement in the proof should be (at this point, we fill in our given value for a): Assume 0 < |x − a| < δ .
4. Starting with 0 < |x − a| < δ , use our choice of δ and algebra to lead to |f (x) − L| < ε , where f (x) and L are our function
f (x) and our limit L.
5. This shows (and you should state) if 0 < |x − a| < δ , then |f (x) − L| < ε .
6. We conclude our proof with the statement: Therefore, by the definition of limit, lim f (x) = L.
x→a

Example 2.7.2 : Proving a Statement about a Limit
Complete the proof that lim (4x + 1) = −3 by filling in the blanks.
x→−1
Let _____.
Choose δ =_______.
Assume 0 <|x−_______|< δ .
In other words, |x−_______|< _______, then _______________ then ________________ then _______________ ... then
__________< ε .
Thus, if ____________________________, then ________________.
Therefore, by _______________________________ _____________________________.
Solution
We begin by filling in the blanks where the choices are specified by the definition. Thus, we have
Let ε> 0 .
SCRATCH WORK:
Choose δ = ??.
Here is our Analysis Doodle:
We want |4x + 1 − (−3)| to be less than ε , if 0 <|x − (−1) |< δ .
So, we set |4x + 1 − (−3)| < ε and fiddle around to get x − (−1) inside the absolute value.
|4x + 1 − (−3)| < ε implies −ε < 4x + 4 < ε implies − ε
4
< x +1 <
ε
4
implies |x + 1| < ε
Thus we see that we should choose δ = . ε
We now complete the final write-up of the proof:
Let ε> 0 .
Choose δ = . ε
Assume 0 <|x − (−1) |< δ (or equivalently, 0 <|x + 1 |< δ .)

In other words:
0 < |x + 1| <
ε
4
,
so − ε
4
< x +1 <
ε
4
,
then −ε < 4x + 4 < ε
then |4x + 4| < ε ,
then |(4x + 1) − (−3) |<ε
Thus, if 0 < |x − (−1)| < δ , then |(4x + 1) − (−3) |<ε.
Therefore, by the definition of limit, lim (4x + 1) = −3 .
x→−1
2.7.1
Complete the proof that lim(3x − 2) = 4 by filling in the blanks. (Your Analysis Doodle is NOT written in the actual proof.)
x→2
Let _______.
Choose δ =_______.
Assume 0 <|x−____|<____.

In other words, |x−_______|< _______, then _______________ then ________________ then _______________ ... then
__________< ε .
Thus, if ____________________________, then ________________.
Therefore, by _______________________________ _____________________________.
Hint
Follow the outline in the Problem-Solving Strategy that we worked out in full in Example 2.7.2.
Answer
Let ε> 0 ; choose δ = ; assume 0 < |x − 2| < δ .
ε
In other words:
0 < |x − 2| <
ε
3
,
so − ε
3
< x −2 <
ε
3
,
then −ε < 3x − 6 < ε
then |3x − 6| < ε ,
then |(3x − 2) − 4 |<ε
Thus, if 0 < |x − 2| < δ , then |(3x − 2) − 4 |<ε.
Therefore, by the definition of limit, lim 3x − 2 = 4 .
x→2
Precise Definitions for Limits at Infinity

Earlier, we used the terms arbitrarily close, arbitrarily large, and sufficiently large to define limits at infinity informally. Although
these terms provide accurate descriptions of limits at infinity, they are not precise mathematically. Here are more formal definitions
of limits at infinity. We then look at how to use these definitions to prove results involving limits at infinity.
Definition: Limit at Infinity (Formal)

We say a function f has a limit at infinity, if there exists a real number L such that for all ε > 0 , there exists N >0 such that
|f (x) − L| < ε (2.7.2)
for all x > N . in that case, we write
lim f (x) = L (2.7.3)

x→∞
Figure 2.7.3 : For a function with a limit at infinity, for all x > N , |f (x) − L| < ε.
2+1
Earlier in this section, we used graphical evidence in Figure and numerical evidence in Table to conclude that lim x→∞ (
x
) =2 .
Here we use the formal definition of limit at infinity to prove this result rigorously.

Example 2.7.3 :
1
Use the formal definition of limit at infinity to prove that lim 2 + =2 .
x→∞ x
Solution
Let ε > 0. Let N =
1
ε
. Therefore, for all x > N , we have
1 1 1 1
|2 + − 2| = | | = < =ε (2.7.4)
x x x N
1
Therefore, lim 2 + =2 .
x→∞ x
2.7.2
1
Use the formal definition of limit at infinity to prove that lim 3 −
2
=3 .
x→∞ x
Hint
Let N =
1
√ε
.
Answer
Let ε > 0. Let N =
1
√ε
∣ 1 1 1
3− − 3 ∣= < =ε
∣ x
2
x
2 2
N
1
Therefore, lim (3 −
2
) = 3.
x→∞ x
We now turn our attention to a more precise definition for an infinite limit at infinity.
Definition: Infinite Limit at Infinity (Formal)

lim f (x) = ∞
x→∞
if for all M > 0, there exists an N >0 such that

f (x) > M
for all x > N (see Figure).

We say a function has a negative infinite limit at infinity and write
lim f (x) = −∞
x→∞
if for all M <0 , there exists an N >0 such that

f (x) < M
for all x > N .

Similarly we can define limits as x → −∞.

Figure 2.7.4 : For a function with an infinite limit at infinity, for all x > N , f (x) > M .
Here we use the formal definition of infinite limit at infinity to prove lim x
3
=∞ .
x→∞
Example 2.7.4 :
Use the formal definition of infinite limit at infinity to prove that lim x
3
= ∞.
x→∞
Doodle Analysis: For some M >0 , we need an N so that if x > N , we get x 3

>M .
−− −− −−
Start with x 3
>M , and solve for . 3
x x > √M . So, as long as 3
x > √M , then x 3
>M . So, choose N 3
= √M .
Proof:
3 −−
Let M > 0. Choose N = √M . Then, for all x > N , we have
3 −− 3
3 3
x >N = (√M ) = M .
Therefore, by the definition of limit, lim x

3
=∞ .
x→∞
2.7.3
Use the formal definition of infinite limit at infinity to prove that lim 3 x
2
= ∞.
x→∞
Hint
−−
Let N =√
M
3
.
Answer
−−
Let M > 0. Let N =√
M
3
) . Then, for all x > N , we have
−−
2 2 M 2 3M
3x > 3N = 3(√ ) 2 = =M
3 3
One-Sided Limits
Just as we first gained an intuitive understanding of limits and then moved on to a more rigorous definition of a limit, we now
revisit one-sided limits. To do this, we modify the epsilon-delta definition of a limit to give formal epsilon-delta definitions for
limits from the right and left at a point. These definitions only require slight modifications from the definition of the limit. In the
definition of the limit from the right, the inequality 0 < x − a < δ replaces 0 < |x − a| < δ , which ensures that we only consider
values of x that are greater than (to the right of) a. Similarly, in the definition of the limit from the left, the inequality
−δ < x − a < 0 replaces 0 < |x − a| < δ , which ensures that we only consider values of x that are less than (to the left of) a.
Definition
Limit from the Right: Let f (x) be defined over an open interval of the form (a, b) where a < b . Then

lim f (x) = L (2.7.5)
+
x→a
if for every ε > 0 , there exists a δ > 0 , such that if 0 < x − a < δ , then |f (x) − L| < ε .
Limit from the Left: Let f (x) be defined over an open interval of the form (b, c) where b < c . Then,
lim f (x) = L (2.7.6)

−
x→c
if for every ε > 0 , there exists a δ > 0 such that if −δ < x − c < 0 , then |f (x) − L| < ε .
Example 2.7.5 : Proving a Statement about a Limit From the Right

Prove that
−− −−−
li mx→4+ √ x − 4 = 0. (2.7.7)
Solution
Let ε>0.
−−−−− −−−−−
Choose δ = ε . Since we ultimately want ∣∣√x − 4
2
− 0 ∣< ε , we manipulate this inequality to get √x − 4 <ε or, equivalently,
0 < x − 4 < ε , making δ = ε a clear choice.
2 2
−−−−− −−−−−
Assume 0 < x −4 < δ . Thus, 0 < x −4 < ε
2
. Hence, 0 < √x − 4 < ε . Finally, ∣
∣√x − 4 − 0 ∣< ε . Therefore,
−−−−−
lim √x − 4 = 0
+
.
x→4
2.7.4
−−−−−
Find δ corresponding to ε for a proof that lim √1 − x = 0
−
.
x→1
Hint
Sketch the graph and use Example as a solving guide.
Answer
2
δ =ε
Infinite Limits
We conclude the process of converting our intuitive ideas of various types of limits to rigorous formal definitions by pursuing a
formal definition of infinite limits. To have lim f (x) = +∞ , we want the values of the function f (x) to get larger and larger as x
x→a
approaches a. Instead of the requirement that |f (x) − L| < ε for arbitrarily small ε when 0 < |x − a| < δ for small enough δ , we
want f (x) > M for arbitrarily large positive M when 0 < |x − a| < δ for small enough δ . Figure illustrates this idea by showing
the value of δ for successively larger values of M.

Figure 2.7.5 : These graphs plot values of δ for M to show that lim f (x) = +∞ .
x→a
Definition
Let f (x) be defined for all x ≠ a in an open interval containing a. Then, we have an infinite limit
lim f (x) = +∞ (2.7.8)
x→a
if for every M >0 , there exists δ > 0 such that if 0 < |x − a| < δ , then f (x) > M .
Let f (x) be defined for all x ≠ a in an open interval containing a. Then, we have a negative infinite limit
lim f (x) = −∞ (2.7.9)

x→a
if for every M >0 , there exists δ > 0 such that if 0 < |x − a| < δ , then f (x) < −M .
Advanced Topics
Here are some more complex problems using the precise definition of limit. Feel free to look
these over; however, you are not required to know the remaining topics in this section.
In Examples 2.7.1 and 2.7.2, the proofs were fairly straightforward, since the functions with which we were working were linear.
In Example, we see how to modify the proof to accommodate a nonlinear function.
Example 2.7.6 :Proving a Statement about the Limit of a

Quadratic Function
Prove that lim (x
2
− 2x + 3) = 6.
x→−1
Solution
Let’s use our outline from the Problem-Solving Strategy:
1. Let ε > 0 .
2. Choose δ = min {1, ε/5}. This choice of δ may appear odd at first glance, but it was obtained by taking a look at our
ultimate desired inequality: ∣ (x − 2x + 3) − 6 ∣ < ε . This inequality is equivalent to |x + 1| ⋅ |x − 3| < ε . At this point, the
2
temptation simply to choose δ = is very strong. Unfortunately, our choice of δ must depend on ε only and no other variable.
x−3
ε
If we can replace |x − 3| by a numerical value, our problem can be resolved. This is the place where assuming δ ≤ 1 comes into
play. The choice of δ ≤ 1 here is arbitrary. We could have just as easily used any other positive number. In some proofs, greater
care in this choice may be necessary. Now, since δ ≤ 1 and |x + 1| < δ ≤ 1 , we are able to show that |x − 3| < 5 .

Consequently, |x + 1| ⋅ |x − 3| < |x + 1| ⋅ 5 . At this point we realize that we also need δ ≤ ε/5 . Thus, we choose δ = min {
1, ε/5}.
3. Assume 0 < |x + 1| < δ . Thus,
|x + 1| < 1 (2.7.10)
and
ε
|x + 1| < . (2.7.11)
5
Since |x + 1| < 1 , we may conclude that −1 < x + 1 < 1 . Thus, by subtracting 4 from all parts of the inequality, we obtain
−5 < x − 3 < −1 . Consequently, |x − 3| < 5 . This gives us
∣ 2
ε
(x − 2x + 3) − 6 ∣= |x + 1| ⋅ |x − 3| < ⋅ 5 = ε. (2.7.12)
∣ 5
Therefore,
2
lim (x − 2x + 3) = 6. (2.7.13)
x→−1
2.7.5
Complete the proof that lim x 2

=1 .
x→1
Let ε > 0 ; choose δ = min {1, ε/3}; assume 0 < |x − 1| < δ .

Since |x − 1| < 1 , we may conclude that −1 < x − 1 < 1 . Thus, 1 < x + 1 < 3 . Hence, |x + 1| < 3 .
Hint
Use Example as a guide.
Answer
2
∣
∣x − 1 ∣= |x − 1| ⋅ |x + 1| < ε/3 ⋅ 3 = ε
Proving Limit Laws

We now demonstrate how to use the epsilon-delta definition of a limit to construct a rigorous proof of one of the limit laws. The
triangle inequality is used at a key point of the proof, so we first review this key property of absolute value.
Definition
The triangle inequality states that if a and b are any real numbers, then |a + b| ≤ |a| + |b| .
proof
We prove the following limit law: If lim f (x) = L and lim g(x) = M , then lim(f (x) + g(x)) = L + M .
x→a x→a x→a
Let ε > 0 .
Choose δ 1 >0 so that if 0 < |x − a| < δ , then |f (x) − L| < ε/2 .
1
Choose δ 2 >0 so that if 0 < |x − a| < δ , then |g(x) − M | < ε/2 .

2
Choose δ = min {δ 1, δ2 }.
Assume 0 < |x − a| < δ .
Thus,
0 < |x − a| < δ1 and 0 < |x − a| < δ . 2
Hence,
|(f (x) + g(x)) − (L + M )| = |(f (x) − L) + (g(x) − M )|

≤ |f (x) − L| + |g(x) − M |
<
ε
2
+
ε
2
=ε .
□
We now explore what it means for a limit not to exist. The limit lim f (x) does not exist if there is no real number L for which
x→a
lim f (x) = L . Thus, for all real numbers L, lim f (x) ≠ L . To understand what this means, we look at each part of the definition
x→a x→a
of lim f (x) = L together with its opposite. A translation of the definition is given in Table.
x→a
Definition Opposite
1. For every ε > 0 , 1. There exists ε > 0 so that
2. there exists a δ > 0, so that 2. for every δ > 0,
3. if 0 < |x − a| < δ , then |f (x) − L| < ε . 3. There is an x satisfying 0 < |x − a| < δ so that |f (x) − L| ≥ ε .
Finally, we may state what it means for a limit not to exist. The limit lim f (x) does not exist if for every real number L, there
x→a
exists a real number ε > 0 so that for all δ > 0 , there is an x satisfying 0 < |x − a| < δ , so that |f (x) − L| ≥ ε . Let’s apply this in
Example to show that a limit does not exist.
Example 2.7.7: Showing That a Limit Does Not Exist

|x|
Show that lim does not exist. The graph of f (x) = |x|/x is shown here:
x→0 x
Solution
Suppose that L is a candidate for a limit. Choose ε = 1/2 .
Let δ > 0 . Either L ≥ 0 or L < 0 . If L ≥ 0 , then let x = −δ/2.
Thus,
δ δ
|x − 0| =∣ − − 0 ∣= <δ
2 2
and
δ
∣− ∣
∣ ∣ ∣
∣
2
δ
− L ∣= | − 1 − L| = L + 1 ≥ 1 >
1
2
=ε .
∣ −
2
On the other hand, if L < 0 , then let x = δ/2 . Thus,

δ δ
|x − 0| =∣ − 0 ∣= <δ
2 2
and
δ
∣ ∣
∣ ∣ ∣
∣
2
δ
− L ∣= |1 − L| = |L| + 1 ≥ 1 >
1
2
=ε .
∣ 2

|x|
Thus, for any value of L, lim ≠ L.
x→0 x
Key Concepts
The intuitive notion of a limit may be converted into a rigorous mathematical definition known as the epsilon-delta
definition of the limit.
The epsilon-delta definition may be used to prove statements about limits.
The epsilon-delta definition of a limit may be modified to define one-sided limits.
Glossary
epsilon-delta definition of the limit
lim f (x) = L if for every ε > 0 , there exists a δ > 0 such that if 0 < |x − a| < δ , then |f (x) − L| < ε
x→a
triangle inequality
If a and b are any real numbers, then |a + b| ≤ |a| + |b|
Contributors
This page titled 2.7: The Precise Definition of a Limit is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by
OpenStax.

In the following exercises, write the appropriate ε − δ definition for each of the given statements.
176) lim f (x) = N
x→a
177) lim g(t) = M

t→b
Answer:
For every ε > 0 , there exists a δ > 0 , so that if 0 < |t − b| < δ , then |g(t) − M | < ε
178) lim h(x) = L

x→c
179) lim φ(x) = A

x→a
Answer:
For every ε > 0 , there exists a δ > 0 , so that if 0 < |x − a| < δ , then |φ(x) − A| < ε
The following graph of the function f satisfies lim f (x) = 2 . In the following exercises, determine a value of δ >0 that satisfies
x→2
each statement.
180) If 0 < |x − 2| < δ , then |f (x) − 2| < 1 .

181) If 0 < |x − 2| < δ , then |f (x) − 2| < 0.5 .
Answer:
δ ≤ 0.25
The following graph of the function f satisfies lim f (x) = −1 . In the following exercises, determine a value of δ > 0 that satisfies
x→3
each statement.
182) If 0 < |x − 3| < δ , then |f (x) + 1| < 1 .
183) If 0 < |x − 3| < δ , then |f (x) + 1| < 2 .
Answer:
δ ≤2
In the following exercises, use the precise definition of limit to prove the given limits.
J3.7.1) lim (2x − 1) = 9
x→5
Answer:
Let ε> 0 ; choose δ = ; assume 0 < |x − 5| < δ .
ε
In other words:
0 < |x − 5| <
ε
2
,
so − ε
2
< x −5 <
ε
2
,
then −ε < 2x − 10 < ε
then |2x − 10| < ε ,
then |(2x − 1) − 9 |<ε
Thus, if 0 < |x − 5| < δ , then |(2x − 1) − 9 |<ε.
Therefore, by the definition of limit, lim (2x − 1) = 9 .
x→5
J3.7.2) lim (5x + 2) = −13

x→−3
1
J3.7.3) lim = −∞
x→−7
−
x +7
Answer:
Let M > 0 ; since this is a limit from the left, we need −δ < x + 7 < 0 to lead 1
x+7
< −M (since the limit is −∞ )
Note: since x < −7, x + 7 < 0
Proof:
Let M >0 . Choose δ = 1
M
.
If −δ < x + 7 < 0 , in other words − M

1
< x +7 < 0
then 1
M
> −(x + 7) > 0 (both 1
M
and −(x + 7) are positive)
then M <−
x+7
1
then −M >
x+7
1
so 1
x+7
< −M
Thus, if − 1
M
< x +7 < 0 then x+7
1
< −M
1
Therefore, by the definition of (infinite, from the left) limit, lim = −∞ .
−
x→−7 x +7
1
J3.7.4) lim =∞
x→2
+
x −2
188) lim (5x + 8) = 18

x→2
2
x −9
189) lim =6
x→3 x −3
Answer:
2
x −9
x−3
is equivalent to x + 3 by factoring, as long as x is not 3. Since we are looking at the limit as x → 3 , we do not consider
x = 3.
Let ε > 0 , choose δ = ε . If 0 < |x − 3| < ε , then |x + 3 − 6| = |x − 3| < ε . Thus, by the definition of limit,
2
x −9
lim =6 .
x→3 x −3
2
2x − 3x − 2
190) lim =5
x→2 x −2
191) lim x
4
=0
x→0
Answer:
Let ε > 0 , chooseδ = √ε If 0 < |x| < √ε , then ∣∣x
4 4 4
∣= x
4
<ε . Thus, by the definition of limit, lim, x
4
=0 .
x→0
192) lim (x 2
+ 2x) = 8
x→2

True or False. In the following exercises, justify your answer with a proof or a counterexample.
208) A function has to be continuous at x = a if the lim f (x) exists.
x→a
sinx
209) Evaluate lim =?
x→0 x
Answer:
1
210) If there is a vertical asymptote at x = a for the function f (x), then f is undefined at the point x = a .
211) If lim f (x) does not exist, then f is undefined at the point x = a .
x→a
Answer:
False. A removable discontinuity is possible.
a. lim f (x)
x→−1
b. lim f (x)
x→1
c. lim
+
f (x)
x→0
d. lim f (x)
x→2
2
2x − 3x − 2
213) lim
x→2 x −2
Answer:
5
214) lim 3x
2
− 2x + 4
x→0
3 2
x − 2x −1
215) lim
x→3 3x − 2
Answer:
8/7
cotx
216) lim
x→π/2 cosx
2
x + 25
217) lim
x→−5 x +5
Answer:
DNE
2
3x − 2x − 8
218) lim 2
x→2 x −4
2
x −1
219) lim
x→1 x3 − 1
Answer:
2/3
2
x −1
220) lim −
x→1 √x − 1
4 −x
221) lim −
x→4 √x − 2
Answer:
−4
1
222) lim −
x→4 √x − 2
223) lim 2
x cos(2πx) = 0
x→0
Answer:
Since −1 ≤ cos(2πx) ≤ 1 , then −x 2 2
≤ x cos(2πx) ≤ x
2
. Since li m x→0
2
x = 0 = li mx→0 − x
2
, it follows that
x cos(2πx) = 0 .
2
li m x→0
π
224) lim 3
x sin( ) =0
x→0 x
−−−−−
225) Determine the domain such that the function f (x) = √x − 2 + xe
x
is continuous over its domain.
Answer:
[2, ∞]
In the following exercises, determine the value of c such that the function remains continuous. Draw your resulting function to
ensure it is continuous.
2
x +1 x >c
226) f (x) = { x
2 x ≤c
−−−−−
√x + 1 x > −1
227) f (x) = { 2
x +c x ≤ −1
Answer:
c = −1
In the following exercises, use the precise definition of limit to prove the limit.
228) lim (8x + 16) = 24
x→1
229) lim x
3
=0
x→0
Answer:
δ = √ε
3
[This is just a piece for constructing the proof.]
230) A ball is thrown into the air and the vertical position is given by x(t) = −4.9t + 25t + 5 . Use the Intermediate Value
2
Theorem to show that the ball must land on the ground sometime between 5 sec and 6 sec after the throw.
231) A particle moving along a line has a displacement according to the function x(t) = t 2
− 2t + 4 , where x is measured in
meters and t is measured in seconds. Find the average velocity over the time period t = [0, 2].
Answer:
0 m/sec
232) From the previous exercises, estimate the instantaneous velocity at t =2 by checking the average velocity within t = 0.01
sec.
2.7E: Precise Definition of Limit EXERCISES is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
2.3: The Limit Laws

1) li m x→0 (4 x
2
− 2x + 3)
Solution: Use constant multiple law and difference law:

2 2
li mx→0 (4 x − 2x + 3) = 4li mx→0 x − 2li mx→0 x + li mx→0 3 = 3
3 2
2) lim x→1
x +3 x +5
4−7x
−−−−−−−− −
3) lim x→−2
√x2 − 6x + 3
−−−−−−−− − −−−−−−−−−−−−−−−− − −−
Solution: Use root law: li m x→−2
√x2 − 6x + 3 = √li m
x→−2 (x2 − 6x + 3) = √19
4) li m x→−1 (9x + 1 )
2

5) li m x→7 x )
2
Solution: 49
6) li m x→−2 (4 x
2
− 1)
7) lim x→0
1+sinx
1
Solution: 1
8) lim
2
2x−x
x→2 e
2−7x
9) lim x→1
x+6
Solution: − 5
10) li m x→3 lne

3x
limit.
2
11) lim x→4

x −16
x−4
2 2
(x+4)(x−4)
Solution:li m x→4
x −16
x−4
=
16−16
4−4
=
0
0
; then, li mx→4
x −16
x−4
= li mx→4
x−4
=8
12) lim x→2

x−2
x2 −2x
3x−18
13) lim x→6
2x−12
3(x−6)
Solution: li m x→6
3x−18
2x−12
=
18−18
12−12
=
0
0
; then, li mx→6
3x−18
2x−12
= li mx→6
2(x−6)
=
3
2
(1+h) −1
14) lim h→0
h
15) lim t→9

t−9
√t−3
√t+3
t−9
=
9−9
3−3
=
0
0
; then, li mt→9
t−9
= li mt→9
t−9
= li mt→9 (√t + 3) = 6
√t−3 √t−3 √t−3 √t+3
1 1
−

a
a +h
h→0
h
17) lim θ→π

sinθ
tanθ
Solution: li m θ→π
sinθ
tanθ
=
sinπ
tanπ
=
0
0
; then, li mθ→π
sinθ
tanθ
= li mθ→π
sinθ
sinθ
= li mθ→π cosθ = −1
cosθ
NEW 2.3E.1 https://math.libretexts.org/@go/page/17852

3
18) lim x→1

x −1
2
x −1
2
2 x +3x−2
19) lim x→1/2
2x−1
1 3
2 + −2 2
Solution: li m x→1/2
2 x +3x−2
2x−1
=
2
1−1
2
=
0
0
; then, li mx→1/2
2 x +3x−2
2x−1
= li mx→1/2 f rac(2x − 1)(x + 2)2x − 1 =
5
√x+4 −1
20) lim x→−3
x+3
2
21) lim x→−2

−
2 x +7x−4
2
x +x−2
Solution: −∞
2
22) lim x→−2

+
2 x +7x−4
2
x +x−2
23) lim x→1

−
2 x +7x−4
2
x +x−2
Solution: −∞
2
24) lim x→1

+
2 x +7x−4
2
x +x−2
In the following exercises, assume that li mx→6 f (x) = 4, li mx→6 g(x) = 9 , and . Use these three facts and the
li mx→6 h(x) = 6
limit laws to evaluate each limit

25) li m x→6 2f (x)g(x)
Solution: li m x→6 2f (x)g(x) = 2li mx→6 f (x)li mx→6 g(x) = 72
g(x)−1
26) lim x→6
f (x)
27) li m x→6 (f (x) +

1
3
g(x))
Solution: li m x→6 (f (x) +

1
3
g(x)) = li mx→6 f (x) +
1
3
li mx→6 g(x) = 7 \
3
(h(x))
28) lim x→6
2
−−−−−−−− −
29) lim x→6 √g(x) − f (x)
−−−−−−−− − −−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−− − –
√g(x) − f (x) = √li mx→6 g(x) − li mx→6 f (x) = √5
30) li m x→6 x ⋅ h(x)
31) li m x→6 [(x + 1) ⋅ f (x)]
Solution: li m x→6 [(x + 1)f (x)] = (li mx→6 (x + 1))(li mx→6 f (x)) = 28
32) li m x→6 (f (x) ⋅ g(x) − h(x))
[T] In the following exercises, use a calculator to draw the graph of each piecewise-defined function and study the graph to
evaluate the given limits.
x2 x ≤ 3,
33) f (x) = {
x +4 x >3
1. a. li m x→3
− f (x)
2. b. li m x→3
+ f (x)
Solution:

a. 9; b. 7
3
x −1 x ≤0
34) g(x) = {
1 x >0
1. a. li m x→0
− g(x)
2. b. li m x→0
+ g(x)
2
x − 2x + 1 x < 2x ≥ 2
35) h(x) = {
3 −x x ≥2
1. a. li m x→2
− h(x)
2. b. li m x→2
+ h(x)

36) li m x→−3
+ (f (x) + g(x))
37) li m x→−3
− (f (x) − 3g(x))
Solution: li m x→−3
− (f (x) − 3g(x)) = li mx→−3− f (x) − 3li mx→−3− g(x) = 0 + 6 = 6
f (x)g(x)
38) lim x→0
3
2+g(x)
39) lim x→−5
f (x)
2+g(x) 2+(limx→ −5 g(x))

f (x)
=
limx→ −5 f (x)
=
2+0
2
=1
40) li m x→1 (f (x))

2
−−−−−−−− −
41) limx→1 √f (x) − g(x)
−−−−−−−− − −−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−− − 3 −−−− 3 –

3 3
√f (x) − g(x) = √li mx→1 f (x) − li mx→1 g(x) = √2 + 5 = √7
42) li m x→−7 (x ⋅ g(x))
43) li m x→−9 [x ⋅ f (x) + 2 ⋅ g(x)]
Solution: li m x→−9 (xf (x) + 2g(x)) = (li mx→−9 x)(li mx→−9 f (x)) + 2li mx→−9 (g(x)) = (−9)(6) + 2(4) = −46

h(x) when possible.

− 2x + 3 , then li m x→2 g(x) = 0 .
45) [T] \(lim_{θ→0}θ^2cos(\frac{1}{θ})
Solution: The limit is zero.
0 xrational
46) li m x→0 , where f (x) = {
f (x)
2
x xirrrational
q
2
4πε0r
8.988 × 109N ⋅ m / C .
2 2
.
b. Evaluate li m r→0
+ E(r) . What is the physical meaning of this quantity? Is it physically relevant? Why are you evaluating
from the right?
Solution: a

kg (m = 8 ).
b. Evaluate li m x→0
+ V (ρ) and explain the physical meaning.
2.4: Continuity

a. li m x→−1 f (x)
b. li m x→1 f (x)
c. li m x→0
+ f (x)
d. li m x→2 f (x)
2
213) lim x→2

2 x −3x−2
x−2
Solution: 5
214) li m x→0 3x
2
− 2x + 4
3 2
215) lim x→3

x −2 x −1
3x−2
Solution: 8/7
216) lim x→π/2 cosx
cotx
This is covered in section 2.4
2
217) lim x→−5

x +25
x+5
Solution:DNE
2
218) lim x→2

3 x −2x−8
x −4
2
2
x −1
219) lim x→1 3
x −1
Solution: 2/3
2
220) lim x→1

x −1
√x−1
4−x
221) lim x→4
√x−2
Solution: −4
222) lim x→4
√x−2
1

223) li m x→0
2
x cos(2πx) = 0
Solution: Since −1 ≤ cos(2πx) ≤ 1 , then 2

−x
2 2
≤ x cos(2πx) ≤ x . Since 2
li mx→0 x = 0 = li mx→0 − x
2
, it follows that
2
li mx→0 x cos(2πx) = 0 .
224) li m x→0
3
x sin(
π
x
) =0
NEW 2.3E: Limit Laws & Techniques Exercises is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by
LibreTexts.

CHAPTER OVERVIEW
Chapter 3: Derivatives
3.0E: Exercises
3.7: The Chain Rule
3.9: Derivatives of Ln, General Exponential & Log Functions; and Logarithmic Differentiation
This page titled Chapter 3: Derivatives is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by OpenStax.
1
Figure 3.0.1: The Hennessey Venom GT can go from 0 to 200 mph in 14.51 seconds. (credit: modification of work by Codex41,
Flickr)
The Hennessey Venom GT is one of the fastest cars in the world. In 2014, it reached a record-setting speed of 270.49 mph. It can
go from 0 to 200 mph in 14.51 seconds. The techniques in this chapter can be used to calculate the acceleration the Venom achieves
in this feat (see [link].)
Calculating velocity and changes in velocity are important uses of calculus, but it is far more widespread than that. Calculus is
important in all branches of mathematics, science, and engineering, and it is critical to analysis in business and health as well. In
this chapter, we explore one of the main tools of calculus, the derivative, and show convenient ways to calculate derivatives. We
apply these rules to a variety of functions in this chapter so that we can then explore applications of these techniques.
Contributors
This page titled 3.0: Prelude to Derivatives is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by OpenStax.

3.0E: Exercises
3.0E: Exercises
0) Did you read the Chapter 3 Prelude, section 3.0?
Answer:
Nice Car
Now that we have both a conceptual understanding of a limit and the practical ability to compute limits, we have established the
foundation for our study of calculus, the branch of mathematics in which we compute derivatives and integrals. Most
mathematicians and historians agree that calculus was developed independently by the Englishman Isaac Newton (1643–1727) and
the German Gottfried Leibniz (1646–1716), whose images appear in Figure. When we credit Newton and Leibniz with developing
calculus, we are really referring to the fact that Newton and Leibniz were the first to understand the relationship between the
derivative and the integral. Both mathematicians benefited from the work of predecessors, such as Barrow, Fermat, and Cavalieri.
The initial relationship between the two mathematicians appears to have been amicable; however, in later years a bitter controversy
erupted over whose work took precedence. Although it seems likely that Newton did, indeed, arrive at the ideas behind calculus
first, we are indebted to Leibniz for the notation that we commonly use today.
Figure 3.1.1 : Newton and Leibniz are credited with developing calculus independently.
Tangent Lines
We begin our study of calculus by revisiting the notion of secant lines and tangent lines. Recall that we used the slope of a secant
line to a function at a point (a, f (a)) to estimate the rate of change, or the rate at which one variable changes in relation to another
variable. We can obtain the slope of the secant by choosing a value of x near a and drawing a line through the points (a, f (a)) and
(x, f (x)), as shown in Figure. The slope of this line is given by an equation in the form of a difference quotient:
f (x) − f (a)
msec = (3.1.1)
x −a
We can also calculate the slope of a secant line to a function at a value a by using this equation and replacing x with a + h , where
h is a value close to a. We can then calculate the slope of the line through the points (a, f (a)) and (a + h, f (a + h)) . In this case,
we find the secant line has a slope given by the following difference quotient with increment h :
f (a + h) − f (a) f (a + h) − f (a)
msec = = (3.1.2)
a+h −a h
Definition: difference quotient

Let f be a function defined on an interval I containing a . If x ≠ a is in I , then
f (x) − f (a)
Q = (3.1.3)
x −a
is a difference quotient.
Also, if h ≠ 0 is chosen so that a + h is in I , then
f (a + h) − f (a)
Q = (3.1.4)
h
is a difference quotient with increment h .

These two expressions for calculating the slope of a secant line are illustrated in Figure. We will see that each of these two methods
for finding the slope of a secant line is of value. Depending on the setting, we can choose one or the other. The primary
consideration in our choice usually depends on ease of calculation.
Figure 3.1.2 : We can calculate the slope of a secant line in either of two ways.
In Figure 3.1.3 (a) we see that, as the values of x approach a , the slopes of the secant lines provide better estimates of the rate of
change of the function at a . Furthermore, the secant lines themselves approach the tangent line to the function at a , which
represents the limit of the secant lines. Similarly, Figure 3.1.3 (b) shows that as the values of h get closer to 0, the secant lines also
approach the tangent line. The slope of the tangent line at a is the rate of change of the function at a , as shown in Figure 3.1.3 (c).
Figure 3.1.3 : The secant lines approach the tangent line (shown in green) as the second point approaches the first.
In Figure 3.1.4 we show the graph of f (x) = √− x and its tangent line at (1, 1) in a series of tighter intervals about x = 1 . As the
intervals become narrower, the graph of the function and its tangent line appear to coincide, making the values on the tangent line a
good approximation to the values of the function for choices of x close to 1. In fact, the graph of f (x) itself appears to be locally
linear in the immediate vicinity of x = 1 .

Figure 3.1.4 : For values of x close to 1, the graph of f (x) = √−
x and its tangent line appear to coincide.
Formally we may define the tangent line to the graph of a function as follows.
Definition: tangent line

Let f (x) be a function defined in an open interval containing a . The tangent line to f (x) at a is the line passing through the
point (a, f (a)) having slope
f (x) − f (a)
mtan = lim (3.1.5)
x→a x −a
provided this limit exists.

Equivalently, we may define the tangent line to f (x) at a to be the line passing through the point (a, f (a)) having slope
f (a + h) − f (a)
mtan = lim (3.1.6)
h→0 h
Just as we have used two different expressions to define the slope of a secant line, we use two different forms to define the slope of
the tangent line. In this text we use both forms of the definition. As before, the choice of definition will depend on the setting. Now
that we have formally defined a tangent line to a function at a point, we can use this definition to find equations of tangent lines.
Example 3.1.1: Finding a Tangent Line

Find the equation of the line tangent to the graph of f (x) = x at x = 3.
2
Solution
First find the slope of the tangent line. In this example, use Equation 3.1.5.
f (x) − f (3)
mtan = lim Apply the definition.
x→3 x −3
2
x −9
= lim Substitute f (x) = x and f (3) = 9
2
x→3 x −3

(x − 3)(x + 3)
= lim = li mx→3 (x + 3) = 6 Factor the numerator to evaluate the limit.
x→3 x −3
Next, find a point on the tangent line. Since the line is tangent to the graph of f (x) at x =3 , it passes through the point
(3, f (3)). We have f (3) = 9 , so the tangent line passes through the point (3, 9).
Using the point-slope equation of the line with the slope m = 6 and the point (3, 9), we obtain the line y − 9 = 6(x − 3) .
Simplifying, we have y = 6x − 9 . The graph of f (x) = x and its tangent line at 3 are shown in Figure.
2
Figure 3.1.5 : The tangent line to f (x) at x = 3 .
Example 3.1.2: The Slope of a Tangent Line Revisited

Use Equation to find the slope of the line tangent to the graph of f (x) = x at x = 3 . 2
Solution
The steps are very similar to Example 3.1.1. See Equation 3.1.6 for the definition.
f (3 + h) − f (3)
h→0 h
2
(3 + h ) −9
= lim Substitute f (3 + h) = (3 + h) 2
and f (3) = 9 .
h→0 h
2
9 + 6h + h −9
= lim Expand and simplify to evaluate the limit.
h→0 h
h(6 + h)
= lim = lim(6 + h) = 6
h→0 h h→0
We obtained the same value for the slope of the tangent line by using the other definition, demonstrating that the formulas can
be interchanged.
Example 3.1.3 : Finding the Equation of a Tangent Line

Find the equation of the line tangent to the graph of f (x) = 1/x at x = 2 .
Solution
We can use Equation 3.1.5, but as we have seen, the results are the same if we use Equation 3.1.6.
f (x) − f (2)
x→2 x −2
1 1
−
x
= lim
2
Substitute f (x) = 1
x
and f (2) = 1
2
x→2 x −2
1 1
− 2x
= lim
x 2
⋅ Multiply numerator and denominator by 2x to simplify fractions.
x→2 x −2 2x

(2 − x)
= lim Simplify.
x→2 (x − 2)(2x)
−1
= lim Simplify using \frac{2−x}{x−2}=−1\),for x ≠ 2 .
x→2 2x
=−
1
4
Evaluate the limit.
We now know that the slope of the tangent line is − . To find the equation of the tangent line, we also need a point on the line.
1
We know that f (2) = . Since the tangent line passes through the point (2, ) we can use the point-slope equation of a line to
1
2
1
find the equation of the tangent line. Thus the tangent line has the equation y = − x + 1 . The graphs of f (x) =
1
4
and 1
y = − x + 1 are shown in Figure.

1
Figure 3.1.6 :The line is tangent to f (x) at x = 2 .
3.1.1
−
Find the slope of the line tangent to the graph of f (x) = √x at x = 4 .
Hint
Use either Equation 3.1.5or Equation 3.1.6. Multiply the numerator and the denominator by a conjugate.
Answer
1
The Derivative of a Function at a Point

The type of limit we compute in order to find the slope of the line tangent to a function at a point occurs in many applications
across many disciplines. These applications include velocity and acceleration in physics, marginal profit functions in business, and
growth rates in biology. This limit occurs so frequently that we give this value a special name: the derivative. The process of
finding a derivative is called differentiation.
Definition
Let f (x) be a function defined in an open interval containing a . The derivative of the function f (x) at a , denoted by , is
f '(a)
defined by
f (x) − f (a)
f '(a) = lim (3.1.7)
x→a x −a

Alternatively, we may also define the derivative of f (x) at a as
f (a + h) − f (a)
f '(a) = lim (3.1.8)
h→0 h

.
Example 3.1.4 : Estimating a Derivative

For f (x) = x , use a table to estimate f '(3) using Equation 3.1.7.
2
Solution
Create a table using values of x just below 3 and just above 3.
2
x −9
x
x−3
2.9 5.9
2.99 5.99
2.999 5.999
3.001 6.001
6.01 6.01
3.1 6.1
After examining the table, we see that a good estimate is f '(3) = 6.
3.1.2
For f (x) = x , use a table to estimate f '(3) using Equation 3.1.8.

2
Hint
2
(x+h)−x
Evaluate h
at h = −0.1, −0.01, −0.001, 0.001, 0.01, 0.1
Answer
6
Example 3.1.6 : Finding a Derivative

For f (x) = 3x 2
− 4x + 1 , find f '(2) by using Equation 3.1.7.
Solution
Substitute the given function and value directly into the equation.
f (x) − f (2)
f '(x) = lim Apply the definition.
x→2 x −2
2
(3 x − 4x + 1) − 5
= lim Substitute f (x) = 3x 2
− 4x + 1 and f (2) = 5 .
x→2 x −2
(x − 2)(3x + 2)
= lim Simplify and factor the numerator.
x→2 x −2
= lim(3x + 2) Cancel the common factor.

x→2
=8 Evaluate the limit
Example 3.1.7: Revisiting the Derivative

For f (x) = 3x 2
− 4x + 1 , find f '(2) by using Equation 3.1.8.
Solution
Using this equation, we can substitute two values of the function into the equation, and we should get the same value as in
Example.

f (2 + h) − f (2)
f '(2) = lim Apply the definition.
h→0 h
2
(3(2 + h ) − 4(2 + h) + 1) − 5
= lim Substitute f (2) = 5 and f (2 + h) = 3(2 + h) 2
− 4(2 + h) + 1 .
h→0 h
2
3h + 8h
= lim Simplify the numerator.
h→0 h
h(3h + 8)
= lim Factor the numerator.
h→0 h
= lim(3h + 8) Cancel the common factor.

h→0
=8 Evaluate the limit.

The results are the same whether we use Equation 3.1.7 or Equation 3.1.8.
3.1.4
For f (x) = x 2
+ 3x + 2 , find f '(1).
Hint
Use either Equation 3.1.7, Equation 3.1.8, or try both. Use either Example 3.1.6or Example 3.1.7as a guide.
Answer
f '(1) = 5
Velocities and Rates of Change

Now that we can evaluate a derivative, we can use it in velocity applications. Recall that if s(t) is the position of an object moving
along a coordinate axis, the average velocity of the object over a time interval [a, t] if t > a or [t, a] if t < a is given by the
difference quotient
s(t)−s(a)
vave =
t−a
.
As the values of t approach a , the values of v ave approach the value we call the instantaneous velocity at a . That is, instantaneous
velocity at a , denoted v(a) , is given by
s(t) − s(a)
v(a) = s'(a) = lim .
t→a t −a
To better understand the relationship between average velocity and instantaneous velocity, see Figure. In this figure, the slope of
the tangent line (shown in red) is the instantaneous velocity of the object at time t = a whose position at time t is given by the
function s(t) . The slope of the secant line (shown in green) is the average velocity of the object over the time interval [a, t].
Figure 3.1.7 : The slope of the secant line is the average velocity over the interval [a, t]. The slope of the tangent line is the
instantaneous velocity.

We can use Equation 3.1.7 to calculate the instantaneous velocity, or we can estimate the velocity of a moving object by using a
table of values. We can then confirm the estimate by using Equation.
Example 3.1.8 : Estimating Velocity

A lead weight on a spring is oscillating up and down. Its position at time t with respect to a fixed horizontal line is given by
s(t) = sint (Figure). Use a table of values to estimate v(0) . Check the estimate by using Equation.
Figure 3.1.8 : A lead weight suspended from a spring in vertical oscillatory motion.
Solution
We can estimate the instantaneous velocity at t = 0 by computing a table of average velocities using values of t approaching 0,
as shown in Table.
sint−sin0 sint
t =
t−0 t
−0.1 0.998334166
−0.01 0.9999833333
−0.001 0.999999833
0.001 0.999999833
0.01 0.9999833333
0.1 0.998334166
Average velocities using values of t approaching 0

From the table we see that the average velocity over the time interval [−0.1, 0] is 0.998334166, the average velocity over the
time interval [−0.01, 0] is 0.9999833333, and so forth. Using this table of values, it appears that a good estimate is v(0) = 1 .
By using Equation 3.1.7, we can see that
sint − sin0 sint
v(0) = s'(0) = lim = lim =1 .
t→0 t −0 t→0 t
Thus, in fact, v(0) = 1 .
3.1.5
A rock is dropped from a height of 64 feet. Its height above ground at time t seconds later is given by
s(t) = −16 t + 64, 0 ≤ t ≤ 2 . Find its instantaneous velocity 1 second after it is dropped, using Equation 3.1.8.
2
Hint
v(t) = s'(t) . Follow the earlier examples of the derivative using Equation 3.1.8.
Answer
−32 ft/s
As we have seen throughout this section, the slope of a tangent line to a function and instantaneous velocity are related concepts.
Each is calculated by computing a derivative and each measures the instantaneous rate of change of a function, or the rate of
change of a function at any point along the function.

Definition: instantaneous rate of change
The instantaneous rate of change of a function f (x) at a value a is its derivative f '(a).
Example 3.1.9 : Chapter Opener: Estimating Rate of Change of Velocity
Figure 3.1.9 : (credit: modification of work by Codex41, Flickr)

Reaching a top speed of 270.49 mph, the Hennessey Venom GT is one of the fastest cars in the world. In tests it went from 0 to
60 mph in 3.05 seconds, from 0 to 100 mph in 5.88 seconds, from 0 to 200 mph in 14.51 seconds, and from 0 to 229.9 mph in
19.96 seconds. Use this data to draw a conclusion about the rate of change of velocity (that is, its acceleration) as it approaches
229.9 mph. Does the rate at which the car is accelerating appear to be increasing, decreasing, or constant?
Solution: First observe that 60 mph = 88 ft/s, 100 mph ≈146.67 ft/s, 200 mph ≈293.33 ft/s, and 229.9 mph ≈337.19 ft/s. We can
summarize the information in a table.
t v(t)
0 0
3.05 88
5.88 147.67
14.51 293.33
19.96 337.19
v(t) at different values of t

Now compute the average acceleration of the car in feet per second on intervals of the form [t, 19.96] as t approaches 19.96, as
shown in the following table.
v(t)−v(19.96) v(t)−337.19
t =
t−19.96 t−19.96
0.0 16.89
3.05 14.74
5.88 13.46
14.51 8.05
Average acceleration
The rate at which the car is accelerating is decreasing as its velocity approaches 229.9 mph (337.19 ft/s).
Example 3.1.10 : Rate of Change of Temperature

A homeowner sets the thermostat so that the temperature in the house begins to drop from 70°F at 9 p.m., reaches a low of 60°
during the night, and rises back to 70° by 7 a.m. the next morning. Suppose that the temperature in the house is given by
T (t) = 0.4 t − 4t + 70 for 0 ≤ t ≤ 10 , where t is the number of hours past 9 p.m. Find the instantaneous rate of change of
2
the temperature at midnight.

Solution
Since midnight is 3 hours past 9 p.m., we want to compute T '(3). Refer to Equation 3.1.8.

T (t) − T (3)
T '(3) = lim Apply the definition.
t→3 t −3
2
0.4 t − 4t + 70 − 61.6
= lim Substitute T (t) = 0.4t
2
− 4t + 70 and T (3) = 61.6.
t→3 t −3
2
0.4 t − 4t + 8.4
= lim Simplify.
t→3 t −3
0.4(t − 3)(t − 7) 0.4(t − 3)(t − 7)

= lim = lim
t→3 t −3 t→3 t −3
= lim 0.4(t − 7) Cancel.

t→3
= −1.6 Evaluate the limit.

The instantaneous rate of change of the temperature at midnight is −1.6°F per hour.
Example 3.1.11 : Rate of Change of Profit

A toy company can sell x electronic gaming systems at a price of p = −0.01x + 400 dollars per gaming system. The cost of
manufacturing x systems is given by C (x) = 100x + 10, 000 dollars. Find the rate of change of profit when 10, 000 games are
produced. Should the toy company increase or decrease production?
Solution
The profit P (x) earned by producing x gaming systems is R(x) − C (x) , where R(x) is the revenue obtained from the sale of x
games. Since the company can sell x games at p = −0.01x + 400 per game,
R(x) = xp = x(−0.01x + 400) = −0.01 x
2
+ 400x .
Consequently,
P (x) = −0.01 x
2
+ 300x − 10, 000 .
Therefore, evaluating the rate of change of profit gives
P (x) − P (10000)
P '(10000) = lim
x→10000 x − 10000
2
−0.01 x + 300x − 10000 − 1990000
= lim
x→10000 x − 10000
2
−0.01 x + 300x − 2000000
= lim
x→10000 x − 10000
= 100 .
Since the rate of change of profit P '(10, 000) > 0 and P (10, 000) > 0, the company should increase production.
3.1.6
A coffee shop determines that the daily profit on scones obtained by charging s dollars per scone is
P (s) = −20 s + 150s − 10 . The coffee shop currently charges $3.25 per scone. Find P '(3.25), the rate of change of profit
2
when the price is $3.25 and decide whether or not the coffee shop should consider raising or lowering its prices on scones.
Hint
Use Example ??? \ 3.1.11for a guide.
Answer
P '(3.25) = 20 > 0 ; raise prices

Key Concepts
The slope of the tangent line to a curve measures the instantaneous rate of change of a curve. We can calculate it by
finding the limit of the difference quotient or the difference quotient with increment h .
The derivative of a function f (x) at a value a is found using either of the definitions for the slope of the tangent line.
Velocity is the rate of change of position. As such, the velocity v(t) at time t is the derivative of the position s(t) at time
t . Average velocity is given by
s(t)−s(a)
vave =
t−a
.
Instantaneous velocity is given by
s(t) − s(a)
v(a) = s'(a) = lim .
t→a t −a
We may estimate a derivative by using a table of values.
Key Equations
Difference quotient
f (x)−f (a)
Q =
x−a
Difference quotient with increment h

f (a+h)−f (a) f (a+h)−f (a)
Q = =
a+h−a h
Slope of tangent line

f (x) − f (a)
mtan = lim
x→a x −a
f (a + h) − f (a)
mtan = lim
h→0 h
Derivative of f(x) at a
f (x) − f (a)
f '(a) = lim
x→a x −a
f (a + h) − f (a)
f '(a) = lim
h→0 h
Average velocity
s(t)−s(a)
vave =
t−a
Instantaneous velocity
s(t) − s(a)
v(a) = s'(a) = lim
t→a t −a
Glossary
derivative
the slope of the tangent line to a function at a point, calculated by taking the limit of the difference quotient, is the derivative
difference quotient
of a function f (x) at a is given by
f (a+h)−f (a) f (x)−f (a)
h
or x−a
differentiation
the process of taking a derivative
instantaneous rate of change

the rate of change of a function at any point along the function a , also called f '(a), or the derivative of the function at a
Contributors
This page titled 3.1: Definition of the Derivative is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by
OpenStax.

3.1E: Definition of the Derivative Exercises
For the following exercises, find the slope of the secant line between the values x and x for each function y = f (x).
1 2
1) f (x) = 4x + 7; x 1 = 2, x2 = 5
Answer:
4
2) f (x) = 8x − 3; x 1 = −1, x2 = 3
3) f (x) = x 2
+ 2x + 1; x1 = 3, x2 = 3.5
Answer:
8.5
4) f (x) = −x 2
+ x + 2; x1 = 0.5, x2 = 1.5
5) f (x) = 4
3x−1
; x1 = 1, x2 = 3
Answer:
3
−
4
6) f (x) = x−7
2x+1
; x1 = −2, x2 = 0
−
7) f (x) = √x ; x1 = 1, x2 = 16
Answer:
0.2
−−−−−
8) f (x) = √x − 9 ; x 1 = 10, x2 = 13
9) f (x) = x1/3 + 1; x 1 = 0, x2 = 8
Answer:
0.25
10) f (x) = 6x 2/3

+ 2x
1/3
; x1 = 1, x2 = 27

a. find f '(x)
b. find the slope of the tangent line m tan = f '(a)
c. find the equation of the tangent line to f at x = a .

11) f (x) = 3 − 4x, a = 2
Answer:
a. f '(x) = −4 b. −4 c. y = 3 − 4x
12) f (x) = x
5
+ 6, a = −1
13) f (x) = x 2
+ x, a = 1
Answer:
a. f '(x) = 2x + 1 b. 3 c. y = 3x − 1
14) f (x) = 1 − x − x 2
,a =0
15) f (x) = 7
x
,a =3
Answer:
7 7 7 14
a. f '(x) = − b. − c. y = − x+
2
x 9 9 3
−−−−−
16) f (x) = √x + 8 , a = 1
17) f (x) = 2 − 3x 2
, a = −2
Answer:
a. f '(x) = −6x b. 12 c. y = 12x + 14
18) f (x) = − 3
x−1
,a =4
19) f (x) = x+3

2
, a = −4
Answer:
′ 2
a. f (x) = − b. −2 c. y = −2x − 10
2
(x+3)
20) f (x) = 3
x
2
,a =3
For the following functions y = f (x), (a) find f '(x) (b) find the equation of the tangent line at a
21) f (x) = 5x + 4, a = −1
Answer:
(a) f '(x) = 5 (b) y + 1 = 5(x + 1) or y = 5x + 4
22) f (x) = −7x + 1, a = 3

23) f (x) = x 2
+ 9x, a = 2
Answer:
(a) f '(x) = 2x + 9 (b) y − 22 = 13(x − 2) or y = 13x − 4
24) f (x) = 3x 2
− x + 2, a = 1
−
25) f (x) = √x , a = 4
Answer:
(a) f '(x) = 1
2 √x
(b) y − 2 = 1
4
(x − 4)
−−−−−
26) f (x) = √x − 2 , a = 6
27) f (x) = 1
x
,a =2
Answer:
(a) f '(x) = − 1
2
x
(b) y − 1
2
=−
1
4
(x − 2)
28) f (x) = x−3

1
, a = −1
For the following functions y = f (x), find f '(a)

29) f (x) = 1
x3
,a =1
Answer:
−3
30) f (x) = 1
,a =4
√x
For the following exercises, use the definition of a derivative to find f '(x).
J3.1.1) f (x) = 4x 2
Answer:
8x
there is no J1.3.2
J3.1.3) f (x) = 1
√x
Answer:
−1
3/2
2x
J3.1.4) f (x) = 5x − x 2
−−
J3.1.5) f (x) = √2x
Answer:
1
√2x
there is no J1.3.6
J3.1.7) f (x) = 9
Answer:
−9
x2
For the following exercises, given the function y = f (x),

a. find the slope of the secant line P Q for each point Q(x, f (x))with x value given in the table.
b. Use the answers from a. to estimate the value of the slope of the tangent line at P .
c. Use the answer from b. to find the equation of the tangent line to f at point P .
31) [T] f (x) = x 2
+ 3x + 4 , P (1, 8) (Round to 6 decimal places.)
x SlopemP Q x SlopemP Q
1.1 (i) 0.9 (vii)
1.01 (ii) 0.99 (viii)
1.001 (iii) 0.999 (ix)
1.0001 (iv) 0.9999 (x)
1.00001 (v) 0.99999 (xi)
1.000001 (vi) 0.999999 (xii)
Answer:
a. (i)5.100000, (ii)5.010000, (iii)5.001000, (iv)5.000100, (v)5.000010, (vi)5.000001, (vii)4.900000, (viii)4.990000, (ix)4.999000,
(x)4.999900, (xi)4.999990, (x)4.999999
b. m tan =5
c. y = 5x + 3
32) [T] f (x) = x+1
x −1
2
, P (0, −1)
0.1 (i) −0.1 (vii)
0.01 (ii) −0.01 (viii)
0.001 (iii) −0.001 (ix)
0.0001 (iv) −0.0001 (x)
0.00001 (v) −0.00001 (xi)
0.000001 (vi) −0.000001 (xii)
33) [T] f (x) = 10e 0.5x

, P (0, 10) (Round to 4 decimal places.)
x SlopemP Q
−0.1 (i)
−0.01 (ii)
−0.001 (iii)
−0.0001 (iv)
−0.00001 (v)
−0.000001 (vi)
Answer:
a. (i)4.8771, (ii)4.9875(iii)4.9988, (iv)4.9999, (v)4.9999, (vi)4.9999
b. m tan =5
c. y = 5x + 10
34) [T] f (x) = tan(x) , P (π, 0)
x SlopemP Q
3.1 (i)
3.14 (ii)
3.141 (iii)
3.1415 (iv)
3.14159 (v)
3.141592 (vi)
[T] For the following position functions y = s(t) , an object is moving along a straight line, where t is in seconds and s is in meters. Find
a. the simplified expression for the average velocity from t = 2 to t = 2 + h ;
b. the average velocity between t = 2 and t = 2 + h , where (i)h = 0.1, (ii)h = 0.01, (iii)h = 0.001, and (iv)h = 0.0001; and
c. use the answer from a. to estimate the instantaneous velocity at t = 2 second.
35) s(t) = 1
3
t +5
Answer:
a.
1
3
; b. (i)0.3 m/s, (ii)0.3 m/s, (iii)0.3 m/s, (iv)0.3 m/s; c. 0.3 = 13 m/s
36) s(t) = t 2
− 2t
37) s(t) = 2t 3
+3
Answer:
a. 2(h 2
+ 6h + 12) ;
b. (i)25.22m/s, (ii)24.12m/s, (iii)24.01m/s, (iv)24m/s; c. 24m/s
38) s(t) = 16
2
−
4
t
t
39) Use the following graph to evaluate a. f '(1) and b. f '(6).
Answer:
a. 1.25; b. 0.5
40) Use the following graph to evaluate a. f '(−3) and b. f '(1.5).
For the following exercises, use the limit definition of derivative to show that the derivative does not exist at x=a for each of the given functions.
41) f (x) = x 1/3
,x =0
Answer:
1/3
x −0 1
li mx→0− = li mx→0− =∞
x−0 2/3
x
42) f (x) = x 2/3

,x =0
1 x <1
43) f (x) = { ,x =1
x x ≥1
Answer:
1−1 x−1
li mx→1− = 0 ≠ 1 = li mx→1+
x−1 x−1
|x|
44) f (x) = x
,x =0
45) [T] The position in feet of a race car along a straight track after t seconds is modeled by the function s(t) = 8t2
−
1
16
3
t .
a. Find the average velocity of the vehicle over the following time intervals to four decimal places:
i. [4, 4.1]
ii. [4, 4.01]
iii. [4, 4.001]
iv. [4, 4.0001]
b. Use a. to draw a conclusion about the instantaneous velocity of the vehicle at t = 4 seconds.
Answer:
a. (i)61.7244f t/s, (ii)61.0725f t/s(iii)61.0072f t/s(iv)61.0007f t/s
b. At 4 seconds the race car is traveling at a rate/velocity of 61 ft/s.
46) [T] The distance in feet that a ball rolls down an incline is modeled by the function s(t) = 14t ,
2
where t is seconds after the ball begins rolling.

a. Find the average velocity of the ball over the following time intervals:
i. [5, 5.1]
ii. [5, 5.01]
iii. [5, 5.001]
iv. [5, 5.0001]
b. Use the answers from a. to draw a conclusion about the instantaneous velocity of the ball at t = 5 seconds.
47) Two vehicles start out traveling side by side along a straight road. Their position functions, shown in the following graph, are given by
s = f (t) and s = g(t) , where s is measured in feet and t is measured in seconds.
a. Which vehicle has traveled farther at t = 2 seconds?
b. What is the approximate velocity of each vehicle at t = 3 seconds?
c. Which vehicle is traveling faster at t = 4 seconds?
d. What is true about the positions of the vehicles at t = 4 seconds?
Answer:
a. The vehicle represented by f (t), because it has traveled 2 feet, whereas g(t) has traveled 1 foot.
b. The velocity of f (t) is constant at 1 ft/s, while the velocity of g(t) is approximately 2 ft/s.
c. The vehicle represented by g(t), with a velocity of approximately 4 ft/s. d. Both have traveled 4 feet in 4 seconds.
Solution: a. The vehicle represented by f (t), because it has traveled 2 feet, whereas g(t) has traveled 1 foot.
c. The vehicle represented by g(t) , with a velocity of approximately 4 ft/s. d. Both have traveled 4 feet in 4 seconds.
48) [T] The total cost C (x), in hundreds of dollars, to produce x jars of mayonnaise is given by C (x) = 0.000003x 3
.
+ 4x + 300
a. Calculate the average cost per jar over the following intervals:
i. [100, 100.1]
ii. [100, 100.01]
iii. [100, 100.001]
iv. [100, 100.0001]
b. Use the answers from a. to estimate the average cost to produce 100 jars of mayonnaise.
49) [T] For the function f (x) = x 3 2
− 2x − 11x + 12 , do the following.
a. Use a graphing calculator to graph f in an appropriate viewing window.
b. Use the ZOOM feature on the calculator to approximate the two values of x = a for which m tan = f '(a) = 0 .
Answer:
a.
b. a ≈ −1.361, 2.694
50) [T] For the function f (x) = x
1+x
2
, do the following.

b. Use the ZOOM feature on the calculator to approximate the values of x = a for which m tan = f '(a) = 0 .
51) Suppose that N (x) computes the number of gallons of gas used by a vehicle traveling x miles. Suppose the vehicle gets 30 mpg.
a. Find a mathematical expression for N (x).
b. What is N (100)? Explain the physical meaning.
c. What is N '(100)? Explain the physical meaning.
Answer:
a. N (x) = x
30
b. ∼3.3 gallons. When the vehicle travels 100 miles, it has used 3.3 gallons of gas.
c. 1
30
. The rate of gas consumption in gallons per mile that the vehicle is achieving after having traveled 100 miles.
52) [T] For the function f (x) = x 4

− 5x
2
+4 , do the following.
b. Use the nDeriv function, which numerically finds the derivative, on a graphing calculator to estimate , and
f '(−2), f '(−0.5), f '(1.7)
f '(2.718).
53) [T] For the function f (x) = 2

x
x +1
, do the following.

b. Use the nDeriv function on a graphing calculator to find f '(−4), f '(−2), f '(2), and f '(4).
Answer:
a.
b. −0.028, −0.16, 0.16, 0.028
3.1E: Definition of the Derivative (Exercises) is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
As we have seen, the derivative of a function at a given point gives us the rate of change or slope of the tangent line to the function
at that point. If we differentiate a position function at a given time, we obtain the velocity at that time. It seems reasonable to
conclude that knowing the derivative of the function at every point would produce valuable information about the behavior of the
function. However, the process of finding the derivative at even a handful of values using the techniques of the preceding section
would quickly become quite tedious. In this section we define the derivative function and learn a process for finding it.
Derivative Functions
The derivative function gives the derivative of a function at each point in the domain of the original function for which the
derivative is defined. We can formally define a derivative function as follows.
Definition: derivative function
Let f be a function. The derivative function, denoted by f′, is the function whose domain consists of those values of x such that
the following limit exists:
f (x + h) − f (x)
f '(x) = lim . (3.2.1)
h→0 h
A function f (x) is said to be differentiable at a if f (a) exists. More generally, a function is said to be differentiable on S if it is
′
differentiable at every point in an open set S , and a differentiable function is one in which f '(x) exists on its domain.
In the next few examples we use Equation to find the derivative of a function.
Example 3.2.1 : Finding the Derivative of a Square-Root Function

Find the derivative of f (x) = √−
x.
Solution
Start directly with the definition of the derivative function.
−−−−− −
−−−−− − Substitutef (x + h) = √x + h and f (x) = √x into
√x + h − √x
f '(x) = lim f (x + h) − f (x)
h→0 h f '(x) = lim .
h→0 h
−−−−− − −−−−− − −−−−− −

√x + h − √x √x + h + √x Multiply numerator and denominator by √x + h + √x without
= lim ⋅
−−−−− −
h→0 h √x + h + √x distributing in the denominator.
h
= lim
h→0
−−−−− −
) Multiply the numerators and simplify.
h(√x + h + √x
1
= lim
h→0
−−−−− − Cancel the h .
(√x + h + √x )
1
=
2√x Evaluate the limit
Example 3.2.2 : Finding the Derivative of a Quadratic Function

Find the derivative of the function f (x) = x 2
− 2x .
Solution
Follow the same procedure here, but without having to multiply by the conjugate.
2 2 Substitute f (x + h) = (x + h ) 2
− 2(x + h) and f (x) = x
2
− 2x
((x + h ) − 2(x + h)) − (x − 2x)
f '(x) = lim f (x + h) − f (x)
h→0 h into f '(x) = lim
h→0 h
2 2 2
x + 2xh + h − 2x − 2h − x + 2x
= lim Expand (x + h ) 2
− 2(x + h) .
h→0 h
2
2xh − 2h + h
= lim Simplify
h→0 h

h(2x − 2 + h)
= lim Factor out h from the numerator
h→0 h
= lim (2x − 2 + h)
h→0
Cancel the common factor of h
= 2x − 2 Evaluate the limit
3.2.1
Find the derivative of f (x) = x . 2
Hint
Use Equation and follow the example.
Answer
f '(x) = 2x
We use a variety of different notations to express the derivative of a function. In Example we showed that if f (x) = x − 2x , then 2
f '(x) = 2x − 2 . If we had expressed this function in the form y = x − 2x , we could have expressed the derivative as
2
dy
y' = 2x − 2 or dx
. We could have conveyed the same information by writing
= 2x − 2
d
dx
(x
2
− 2x) = 2x − 2 . Thus, for the
function y = f (x), each of the following notations represents the derivative of f (x):
dy
f '(x),
dx
, y',
d
dx
(f (x)) .
dy dy
In place of f '(a) we may also use ∣ x = a Use of the
dx
notation (called Leibniz notation) is quite common in engineering and
dx
physics. To understand this notation better, recall that the derivative of a function at a point is the limit of the slopes of secant lines
Δy
as the secant lines approach the tangent line. The slopes of these secant lines are often expressed in the form where Δy is the Δx
difference in the y values corresponding to the difference in the x values, which are expressed as Δx (Figure). Thus the derivative,
which can be thought of as the instantaneous rate of change of y with respect to x, is expressed as
dy Δy
dx
= lim .
Δx→0 Δx
dy Δy
Figure 3.2.1 : The derivative is expressed as dx
= lim .
Δx→0 Δx

Graphing a Derivative
We have already discussed how to graph a function, so given the equation of a function or the equation of a derivative function, we
could graph it. Given both, we would expect to see a correspondence between the graphs of these two functions, since f '(x) gives
the rate of change of a function f (x) (or slope of the tangent line to f (x)).
In Example we found that for f (x) = √− −
x , f '(x) = 1/2 √x. If we graph these functions on the same axes, as in Figure, we can use
the graphs to understand the relationship between these two functions. First, we notice that f (x) is increasing over its entire
domain, which means that the slopes of its tangent lines at all points are positive. Consequently, we expect f '(x) > 0 for all values
of x in its domain. Furthermore, as x increases, the slopes of the tangent lines to f (x) are decreasing and we expect to see a
corresponding decrease in f '(x). We also observe that f (0) is undefined and that lim f '(x) = +∞ , corresponding to a vertical
+
x→0
tangent to f (x) at 0.
Figure 3.2.2 : The derivative f '(x) is positive everywhere because the function f (x) is increasing.
In Example we found that for f (x) = x − 2x, f '(x) = 2x − 2 . The graphs of these functions are shown in Figure. Observe that
2
f (x) is decreasing for x < 1 . For these same values of x, f '(x) < 0. For values of x > 1 , f (x) is increasing and f '(x) > 0. Also,
f (x) has a horizontal tangent at x = 1 and f '(1) = 0 .
Figure 3.2.3 : The derivative f '(x) < 0 where the function f (x) is decreasing and f '(x) > 0 where f (x) is increasing. The
derivative is zero where the function has a horizontal tangent
Example 3.2.3: Sketching a Derivative Using a Function

Use the following graph of f (x) to sketch a graph of f '(x).

Solution
The solution is shown in the following graph. Observe that f (x) is increasing and f '(x) > 0 on (– 2, 3). Also, f (x) is
decreasing and f '(x) < 0 on (−∞, −2) and on (3, +∞). Also note that f (x) has horizontal tangents at – 2 and 3, and
f '(−2) = 0 and f '(3) = 0 .
3.2.2
Sketch the graph of f (x) = x 2

−4 . On what interval is the graph of f '(x) above the x-axis?
Hint
The graph of f '(x) is positive where f (x) is increasing.
Answer
(0,+∞)

Derivatives and Continuity
Now that we can graph a derivative, let’s examine the behavior of the graphs. First, we consider the relationship between
differentiability and continuity. We will see that if a function is differentiable at a point, it must be continuous there; however, a
function that is continuous at a point need not be differentiable at that point. In fact, a function may be continuous at a point and
fail to be differentiable at the point for one of several reasons.
Differentiability Implies Continuity
Let f (x) be a function and a be in its domain. If f (x) is differentiable at a , then f is continuous at a .
Proof
If f (x) is differentiable at a , then f '(a) exists and
f (x) − f (a)
f '(a) = lim .
x→a x −a
We want to show that f (x) is continuous at a by showing that lim f (x) = f (a). Thus,
x→a
lim f (x) = lim(f (x) − f (a) + f (a))

x→a x→a
f (x) − f (a)
= lim( ⋅ (x − a) + f (a)) Multiply and divide f (x) − f (a) by x − a .
x→a x −a
f (x) − f (a)
= ( lim ) ⋅ ( lim(x − a)) + lim f (a)
x→a x −a x→a x→a
′
= f (a) ⋅ 0 + f (a)
= f (a).
Therefore, since f (a) is defined and lim f (x) = f (a) , we conclude that f is continuous at a .
x→a
We have just proven that differentiability implies continuity, but now we consider whether continuity implies differentiability. To
determine an answer to this question, we examine the function f (x) = |x|. This function is continuous everywhere; however, f '(0)
is undefined. This observation leads us to believe that continuity does not imply differentiability. Let’s explore further. For
f (x) = |x|,
f (x) − f (0) |x| − |0| |x|

f '(0) = lim = lim = lim .
x→0 x −0 x→0 x −0 x→0 x
This limit does not exist because

|x| |x|
lim = −1 and lim =1 .
x→0
−
x +
x→0 x
See Figure 3.2.4 .

Figure 3.2.4 : The function f (x) = |x| is continuous at 0 but is not differentiable at 0.
Let’s consider some additional situations in which a continuous function fails to be differentiable. Consider the function
−
f (x) = √x :
3
3 −
√x − 0 1
f '(0) = lim = lim
−
3−
= +∞ .
x→0 x −0 x→0 √x2
Thus f '(0) does not exist. A quick look at the graph of f (x) = √−
x clarifies the situation. The function has a vertical tangent line at
3
0 (Figure).
Figure 3.2.5 : The function f (x) = √−

x has a vertical tangent at x = 0 . It is continuous at 0 but is not differentiable at 0 .
3
1
xsin( ) if x ≠ 0
The function f (x) = { x
also has a derivative that exhibits interesting behavior at 0. We see that
0 if x = 0
xsin(1/x) − 0 1
f '(0) = lim = lim sin( ) .
x→0 x −0 x→0 x
This limit does not exist, essentially because the slopes of the secant lines continuously change direction as they approach zero
(Figure).

1
xsin( ) if x ≠ 0
Figure 3.2.6 : The function f (x) = { x
is not differentiable at 0.
0 if x = 0
In summary:
1. We observe that if a function is not continuous, it cannot be differentiable, since every differentiable function must be
continuous. However, if a function is continuous, it may still fail to be differentiable.
2. We saw that f (x) = |x| failed to be differentiable at 0 because the limit of the slopes of the tangent lines on the left and right
were not the same. Visually, this resulted in a sharp corner on the graph of the function at 0. From this we conclude that in order
to be differentiable at a point, a function must be “smooth” at that point.
3. As we saw in the example of f (x) = √− x , a function fails to be differentiable at a point where there is a vertical tangent line.
3
1
xsin( ) if x ≠ 0
4. As we saw with f (x) = { x
a function may fail to be differentiable at a point in more complicated ways as
0 if x = 0
well.
This last example is a valuable example to look over; however, you will not need to do these types of examples.
Example 3.2.4 : A Piecewise Function that is Continuous and Differentiable

A toy company wants to design a track for a toy car that starts out along a parabolic curve and then converts to a straight line
1 2
x + bx + c if x < −10
(Figure 3.2.7 ). The function that describes the track is to have the form f (x) = { 10
1 5
where x and
− x+ if x ≥ −10
4 2
f (x)are in inches. For the car to move smoothly along the track, the function f (x) must be both continuous and differentiable
at −10. Find values of b and c that make f (x) both continuous and differentiable.
Figure 3.2.7 : For the car to move smoothly along the track, the function must be both continuous and differentiable.
Solution
For the function to be continuous at x = −10 , lim
−
f (x) = f (−10) . Thus, since
x→10
1 2
lim f (x) = (−10 ) − 10b + c = 10 − 10b + c
x→−10
−
10

and f (−10) = 5 , we must have 10 − 10b + c = 5 . Equivalently, we have c = 10b − 5 .
For the function to be differentiable at −10,
f (x) − f (−10)
f '(10) = lim
x→−10 x + 10
must exist. Since f (x) is defined using different rules on the right and the left, we must evaluate this limit from the right and the
left and then set them equal to each other:
1 2
f (x) − f (−10) x + bx + c − 5
10
lim = lim
x→−10
−
x + 10 x→−10
−
x + 10
1
x2 + bx + (10b − 5) − 5
10
= lim Substitute c = 10b − 5 .
x→−10
−
x + 10
2
x − 100 + 10bx + 100b
= lim
x→−10
−
10(x + 10)
(x + 10)(x − 10 + 10b)
= lim
−
Factor by grouping
x→−10 10(x + 10)
= b −2 .
We also have
f (x) − f (−10)
lim
x→−10
+
x + 10
1 5
− x+ −5
4 2
= lim
x→−10
+
x + 10
−(x + 10)
= lim
+
x→−10 4(x + 10)
=−
1
4
.
This gives us b − 2 = − . Thus b =1
4
7
4
and c = 10( 7
4
)−5 =
25
2
.
3.2.3
ax + b if x < 3
Find values of a and b that make f (x) = { 2
both continuous and differentiable at 3.
x if x ≥ 3
Hint
Use Example 3.2.4as a guide.
Answer
a =6 and b = −9
Key Concepts
The derivative of a function f (x) is the function whose value at x is f '(x).
The graph of a derivative of a function f (x) is related to the graph of f (x). Where f (x) has a tangent line with positive
slope, f '(x) > 0. Where f (x) has a tangent line with negative slope, f′(x)<0. Where f (x) has a horizontal tangent line,
f '(x) = 0.
If a function is differentiable at a point, then it is continuous at that point. A function is not differentiable at a point if it is
not continuous at the point, if it has a vertical tangent line at the point, or if the graph has a sharp corner or cusp.
Higher-order derivatives are derivatives of derivatives, from the second derivative to the nth derivative.

Key Equations
The derivative function
f (x + h) − f (x)
f '(x) = lim
h→0 h
Glossary
derivative function
gives the derivative of a function at each point in the domain of the original function for which the derivative is defined
differentiable at a
a function for which f '(a) exists is differentiable at a
differentiable on S
a function for which f '(x) exists for each x in the open set S is differentiable on S
differentiable function
a function for which f '(x) exists is a differentiable function
higher-order derivative
a derivative of a derivative, from the second derivative to the nth derivative, is called a higher-order derivative
Contributors
This page titled 3.2: The Derivative as a Function is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by
OpenStax.

3.2E: The Derivative as a Function Exercises
For the following exercises, use the graph of y = f (x) to sketch the graph of its derivative f '(x)..
64)
65)
Answer:
66)
67)
Answer:
For the following exercises, the given limit represents the derivative of a function y = f (x) at x = a . Find f (x) and a .
2/3
(1 + h ) −1
68) lim
h→0 h
2
[3(2 + h ) + 2] − 14
69) lim
h→0 h
Answer:
2
f (x) = 3 x + 2, a = 2
cos(π + h) + 1
70) lim
h→0 h
4
(2 + h ) − 16
71) lim
h→0 h
Answer:
4
f (x) = x , a = 2
2
[2(3 + h ) − (3 + h)] − 15
72) lim
h→0 h
h
e −1
73) lim
h→0 h
Answer:
x
f (x) = e , a = 0

a. sketch the graph and
b. use the definition of a derivative to show that the function is not differentiable at x = 1 .
−
2 √x 0 ≤x ≤1
74) f (x) = {
3x − 1 x >1
3 x <1
75) f (x) = {
3x x ≥1
Answer:
a.
3 −3 3h
b. lim
−
≠ lim
+
h→1 h h→1 h
2
−x +2 x ≤1
76) f (x) = {
x x >1
2x, x ≤1
77) f (x) = { 2
x >1
x
Answer:
a.
The function starts in the third quadrant as a straight line and passes through the origin with slope 2; then at (1, 2) it decreases convexly as 2/x.
2 2
−
2h x+h h
b. lim
−
≠ lim
+
h→1 h h→1 h
For the following graphs,

a. determine for which values of x = a the lim f (x) exists, but f is not continuous at x = a
x→a
b. determine for which values of x = a the function is continuous but not differentiable at x = a .
78)
79)
Answer:
a. x = 1, b. x = 2
80) Use the graph to evaluate a. f '(−0.5), b. f '(0), c. f '(1), d. f '(2),and e. f '(3), if it exists.
For the following functions, find f ′′

(x).
81) f (x) = 2 − 3x
Answer:
0
82) f (x) = 4x 2
83) f (x) = x + 1
Answer:
2
3
x
For the following exercises, use a calculator to graph f (x). Determine the function f '(x), then use a calculator to graph f '(x).
84) [T ]f (x) = − 5
85) [T ]f (x) = 3x 2
+ 2x + 4.
Answer:
f '(x) = 6x + 2
86) [T ]f (x) = √−
x + 3x
87) [T ]f (x) = 1
√2x
Answer:
1
f '(x) = −
3/2
(2x)
88) [T ]f (x) = 1 + x + 1
89) [T ]f (x) = x 3
+1
Answer:
2
f '(x) = 3x
For the following exercises, describe what the two expressions represent in terms of each of the given situations. Be sure to include
units.
f (x+h)−f (x)
a. h
f (x + h) − f (x)
b. f '(x) = lim
h→0 h
90) P (x) denotes the population of a city at time x in years.

91) C (x) denotes the total amount of money (in thousands of dollars) spent on concessions by x customers at an amusement park.
Answer:
a. Average rate at which customers spent on concessions in thousands per customer.
b. Rate (in thousands per customer) at which x customers spent money on concessions in thousands per customer.
92) R(x) denotes the total cost (in thousands of dollars) of manufacturing x clock radios
93) g(x) denotes the grade (in percentage points) received on a test, given x hours of studying.
Answer:
a. Average grade received on the test with an average study time between two values.
b. Rate (in percentage points per hour) at which the grade on the test increased or decreased for a given average study time of x
hours.
94) B(x)denotes the cost (in dollars) of a sociology textbook at university bookstores in the United States in x years since 1990.
95) p(x) denotes atmospheric pressure at an altitude of x feet.
Answer:
a. Average change of atmospheric pressure between two different altitudes.
b. Rate (torr per foot) at which atmospheric pressure is increasing or decreasing at x feet.
96) Sketch the graph of a function y = f (x) with all of the following properties:
a. f '(x) > 0 for −2 ≤ x < 1
b. f '(2) = 0
c. f '(x) > 0 for x > 2
d. f (2) = 2 and f (0) = 1
e. lim f (x) = 0 and lim f (x) = ∞
x→−∞ x→∞
f. f '(1) does not exist.
97) Suppose temperature T in degrees Fahrenheit at a height x in feet above the ground is given by y = T (x).
a. Give a physical interpretation, with units, of T '(x).
b. If we know that T '(1000) = −0.1, explain the physical meaning.
Answer:
a. The rate (in degrees per foot) at which temperature is increasing or decreasing for a given height x.
b. The rate of change of temperature as altitude changes at 1000feet is −0.1 degrees per foot.
98) Suppose the total profit of a company is y = P (x) thousand dollars when x units of an item are sold.
P (b)−P (a)
a. What does b−a
for 0 < a < b measure, and what are the units?
b. What does P '(x) measure, and what are the units?
c. Suppose that P '(30) = 5 , what is the approximate change in profit if the number of items sold increases from 30 to 31?
99) The graph in the following figure models the number of people N (t) who have come down with the flu t weeks after its initial
outbreak in a town with a population of 50,000 citizens.
a. Describe what N '(t) represents and how it behaves as t increases.
b. What does the derivative tell us about how this town is affected by the flu outbreak?
Answer:
a. The rate at which the number of people who have come down with the flu is changing t weeks after the initial outbreak. b.
The rate is increasing sharply up to the third week, at which point it slows down and then becomes constant.
For the following exercises, use the following table, which shows the height h of the Saturn V rocket for the Apollo 11 mission t
seconds after launch.
T ime(seconds) Height(meters)
0 0
1 2
2 4
3 13
4 25
5 32
100) What is the physical meaning of h'(t)? What are the units?
101) [T] Construct a table of values for h'(t) and graph both h(t) and h'(t) on the same graph. (Hint: for interior points, estimate
both the left limit and right limit and average them.)
Answer:
T ime(seconds) h'(t)(m/s)
0 2
1 2
2 5.5
3 10.5
4 9.5
5 7
102) [T] The best linear fit to the data is given by H (t) = 7.229t − 4.905, where H is the height of the rocket (in meters) and t is
the time elapsed since takeoff. From this equation, determine H '(t). Graph H (t with the given data and, on a separate coordinate
plane, graph H '(t).
103) [T] The best quadratic fit to the data is given by G(t) = 1.429t + 0.0857t − 0.1429, where G is the height of the rocket (in
2
meters) and t is the time elapsed since takeoff. From this equation, determine G'(t). Graph G(t) with the given data and, on a
separate coordinate plane, graph G'(t).
Answer:
G'(t) = 2.858t + 0.0857
104) [T] The best cubic fit to the data is given by F (t) = 0.2037t + 2.956t − 2.705t + 0.4683, where F is the height of the
3 2
rocket (in m) and t is the time elapsed since take off. From this equation, determine F '(t). Graph F (t) with the given data and, on
a separate coordinate plane, graph F '(t). Does the linear, quadratic, or cubic function fit the data best?
105) Using the best linear, quadratic, and cubic fits to the data, determine what H ′′ ′′
(t), G (t)andF
′′
(t) are. What are the physical
meanings of H (t), G (t)andF (t), and what are their units?
′′ ′′ ′′
Answer:
H
′′ ′′
(t) = 0, G (t) = 2.858andf
′′
(t) = 1.222t + 5.912 represent the acceleration of the rocket, with units of meters per
second squared (m/s2).
3.2E: Derivative as a Function Exercises is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
Finding derivatives of functions by using the definition of the derivative can be a lengthy and, for certain functions, a rather
challenging process. For example, previously we found that
d 1
−
(√x ) = − (3.3.1)
dx 2 √x
by using a process that involved multiplying an expression by a conjugate prior to evaluating a limit. The process that we could use
to evaluate
d
3 −
(√x ) (3.3.2)
dx
using the definition, while similar, is more complicated. In this section, we develop rules for finding derivatives that allow us to
bypass this process. We begin with the basics.
The Basic Rules

The functions f (x) = c and g(x) = x where n is a positive integer are the building blocks from which all polynomials and
n
rational functions are constructed. To find derivatives of polynomials and rational functions efficiently without resorting to the limit
definition of the derivative, we must first develop formulas for differentiating these basic functions.
The Constant Rule

We first apply the limit definition of the derivative to find the derivative of the constant function, f (x) = c . For this function, both
f (x) = c and f (x + h) = c , so we obtain the following result:
f (x + h) − f (x)
f '(x) = lim (3.3.3)
h→0 h
c −c
= lim (3.3.4)
h→0 h
0
= lim (3.3.5)
h→0 h
= lim 0 = 0. (3.3.6)
h→0
The rule for differentiating constant functions is called the constant rule. It states that the derivative of a constant function is zero;
that is, since a constant function is a horizontal line, the slope, or the rate of change, of a constant function is 0. We restate this rule
in the following theorem.
The Constant Rule
Let c be a constant. If f (x) = c , then f '(c) = 0.
Alternatively, we may express this rule as
d
(c) = 0. (3.3.7)
dx
Example 3.3.1 : Applying the Constant Rule

Find the derivative of f (x) = 8.
Solution
This is just a one-step application of the rule:
f '(8) = 0. (3.3.8)
Exercise 3.3.1
Find the derivative of g(x) = −3 .

Hint
Use the preceding example as a guide
Answer
0
The Power Rule

We have shown that
d 2
d 1/2
1 −1/2
(x ) = 2x and (x ) = x . (3.3.9)
dx dx 2
d
At this point, you might see a pattern beginning to develop for derivatives of the form n
(x ). We continue our examination of
dx
derivative formulas by differentiating power functions of the form f (x) = x where n is a positive integer. We develop formulas n
for derivatives of this type of function in stages, beginning with positive integer powers. Before stating and proving the general rule
d
for derivatives of functions of this form, we take a look at a specific case, (x )
3
. As we go through this derivation, pay special
dx
attention to the portion of the expression in boldface, as the technique used in this case is essentially the same as the technique used
to prove the general case.
Example 3.3.2 : Differentiating x 3
d
Find 3
(x ) .
dx
Solution:
3 3
d (x + h ) −x
3
(x ) = lim
dx h→0 h
3 2 2 3 3
Notice that the first term in the expansion of (x + h) is x and the 3 3
x + 3 x h + 3x h +h −x
= lim second term is 3x h .Allother terms contain powers of h that are two
2
h→0 h
or greater
2
3 x h + 3x h
2
+h
3
In this step the x terms have been cancelled, leaving only terms
3
= lim
h→0 h containing h .
2 2
h(3 x + 3xh + h )
= lim Factor out the common factor of h .
h→0 h
= lim (3 x
2
+ 3xh + h )
2 After cancelling the common factor of h ,the only term not containing
h is 3x .
h→0 2
= 3x
2
Let h go to 0.
Exercise 3.3.2
Find
d
4
(x ). (3.3.10)
dx
Hint
Use (x + h) 4
=x
4 3
+ 4x h + 6x h
2 2
+ 4x h
3
+h
4
and follow the procedure outlined in the preceding example.
Answer
3
4x
As we shall see, the procedure for finding the derivative of the general form f (x) = x is very similar. Although it is often unwise n
to draw general conclusions from specific examples, we note that when we differentiate f (x) = x , the power on x becomes the 3

coefficient of x in the derivative and the power on x in the derivative decreases by 1. The following theorem states that the power
2
rule holds for all positive integer powers of x. We will eventually extend this result to negative integer powers. Later, we will see
that this rule may also be extended first to rational powers of x and then to arbitrary powers of x. Be aware, however, that this rule
does not apply to functions in which a constant is raised to a variable power, such as f (x) = 3 . x
The Power Rule

Let n be a positive integer. If f (x) = x ,then n
n−1
f '(x) = nx . (3.3.11)

d n n−1.
x = nx (3.3.12)
dx
Proof
For f (x) = x where n is a positive integer, we have
n
n n
(x + h ) −x
f '(x) = lim .
h→0 h
Since (x + h) n
=x
n
+ nx
n−1
h + ( )x
n
2
n−2
h
2
+ ( )x
n
3
n−3
h
3
+ … + nx h
n−1
+h ,
n
we see that
n n n−1 n n−2 2 n n−3 3 n−1 n
(x + h ) −x = nx h + ( )x h + ( )x h + … + nx h +h .
2 3
Next, divide both sides by h:

n n n−1 n n−2 2 n n−3 3 n−1 n
(x + h ) −x nx h + ( )x h + ( )x h + … + nx h +h
2 3
= .
h h
Thus,
n n
(x + h ) −x
n−1 n n−2 n n−3 2 n−2 n−1
= nx + ( )x h + ( )x h + … + nx h +h .
2 3
h
Finally,
n−1
n n−2
n n−3 2 n−1 n
f '(x) = lim(nx +( )x h + ( )x h + … + nx h +h )
h→0 2 3
n−1
= nx .
Example 3.3.3 : Applying the Power Rule

Find the derivative of the function \(f(x)=x^{10} by applying the power rule.
Solution
Using the power rule with n = 10 , we obtain
′ 10−1 9
f (x) = 10 x = 10 x . (3.3.13)
Exercise 3.3.3
Hint
Use the power rule with n = 7.
Answer
6
f '(x) = 7x (3.3.14)

The Sum, Difference, and Constant Multiple Rules
We find our next differentiation rules by looking at derivatives of sums, differences, and constant multiples of functions. Just as
when we work with functions, there are rules that make it easier to find derivatives of functions that we add, subtract, or multiply
by a constant. These rules are summarized in the following theorem.
Sum, Difference, and Constant Multiple Rules
Let f (x) and g(x) be differentiable functions and k be a constant. Then each of the following equations holds.
Sum Rule. The derivative of the sum of a function f and a function g is the same as the sum of the derivative of f and the
derivative of g .
d d d
(f (x) + g(x)) = (f (x)) + (g(x)); (3.3.15)
dx dx dx
that is,
f or j(x) = f (x) + g(x), j'(x) = f '(x) + g'(x). (3.3.16)
Difference Rule. The derivative of the difference of a function f and a function g is the same as the difference of the derivative
of f and the derivative of g :
d d d
(f (x) − g(x)) = (f (x)) − (g(x)); (3.3.17)
dx dx dx
that is,
f or j(x) = f (x) − g(x), j'(x) = f '(x) − g'(x). (3.3.18)
Constant Multiple Rule. The derivative of a constant c multiplied by a function f is the same as the constant multiplied by the
derivative:
d d
(kf (x)) = k (f (x)); (3.3.19)
dx dx
that is,
f or j(x) = kf (x), j'(x) = kf '(x). (3.3.20)
Proof
We provide only the proof of the sum rule here. The rest follow in a similar manner.
For differentiable functions f (x) and g(x), we set j(x) = f (x) + g(x) . Using the limit definition of the derivative we have
j(x + h) − j(x)
j'(x) = lim . (3.3.21)
h→0 h
By substituting j(x + h) = f (x + h) + g(x + h) and j(x) = f (x) + g(x), we obtain

(f (x + h) + g(x + h)) − (f (x) + g(x))
j'(x) = lim . (3.3.22)
h→0 h
Rearranging and regrouping the terms, we have

(f (x + h) − f (x) g(x + h) − g(x)
j'(x) = lim + ). (3.3.23)
h→0 h h
We now apply the sum law for limits and the definition of the derivative to obtain
(f (x + h) − f (x) (g(x + h) − g(x)
j'(x) = lim ) + lim ) = f '(x) + g'(x). (3.3.24)
h→0 h h→0 h
Example 3.3.4 : Applying the Constant Multiple Rule

Find the derivative of g(x) = 3x and compare it to the derivative of f (x) = x
2 2
.
Solution
We use the power rule directly:
d 2
d 2
g'(x) = (3 x ) = 3 (x ) = 3(2x) = 6x. (3.3.25)
dx dx
Since f (x) = x has derivative f '(x) = 2x, we see that the derivative of
2
g(x) is 3 times the derivative of f (x). This
relationship is illustrated in Figure.
Figure 3.3.1 : The derivative of g(x) is 3 times the derivative of f (x).
Example 3.3.5 : Applying Basic Derivative Rules

Find the derivative of
5
f (x) = 2 x + 7. (3.3.26)
Solution
We begin by applying the rule for differentiating the sum of two functions, followed by the rules for differentiating constant
multiples of functions and the rule for differentiating powers. To better understand the sequence in which the differentiation
rules are applied, we use Leibniz notation throughout the solution:
d
5
f '(x) = (2 x + 7)
dx
d d
= (2 x ) +
5
(7) Apply the sum rule.
dx dx
d d
=2
5
(x ) + (7) Apply the constant multiple rule.
dx dx
= 2(5 x ) + 0
4
Apply the power rule and the constant rule.
= 10x
4
Simplify.
Exercise 3.3.4
3 2
f (x) = 2 x − 6x + 3. (3.3.27)
Hint
Use the preceding example as a guide.
Answer
2
f '(x) = 6 x − 12x.

Find the equation of the line tangent to the graph of
2
f (x) = x − 4x + 6 (3.3.28)
at x = 1
Solution
To find the equation of the tangent line, we need a point and a slope. To find the point, compute
2
f (1) = 1 − 4(1) + 6 = 3. (3.3.29)
This gives us the point (1, 3). Since the slope of the tangent line at 1 is f '(1), we must first find f '(x). Using the definition of a
derivative, we have
f '(x) = 2x − 4 (3.3.30)
so the slope of the tangent line is f '(1) = −2 . Using the point-slope formula, we see that the equation of the tangent line is
y − 3 = −2(x − 1). (3.3.31)
Putting the equation of the line in slope-intercept form, we obtain

y = −2x + 5. (3.3.32)
Exercise 3.3.5
Find the equation of the line tangent to the graph of f (x) = 3x 2
− 11 at x = 2 . Use the point-slope form.
Hint
Answer
y = 12x − 23
Higher-Order Derivatives
The derivative of a function is itself a function, so we can find the derivative of a derivative. For example, the derivative of a
position function is the rate of change of position, or velocity. The derivative of velocity is the rate of change of velocity, which is
acceleration. The new function obtained by differentiating the derivative is called the second derivative. Furthermore, we can
continue to take derivatives to obtain the third derivative, fourth derivative, and so on. Collectively, these are referred to as higher-
order derivatives. The notation for the higher-order derivatives of y = f (x) can be expressed in any of the following forms:
′′ ′′′ (4) (n)
f (x), f (x), f (x), … , f (x)
′′ ′′′ (4) (n)

y (x), y (x), y (x), … , y (x)
2 3 4 n
d y d y d y d y
, , ,…, . (3.3.33)
2 3 4
dx dx dx dxn
2
d y dy
It is interesting to note that the notation for dx
2
may be viewed as an attempt to express d
dx
(
dx
) more compactly. Analogously,
2 3
dy d y d y
d
dx
(
d
dx
(
dx
)) =
d
dx
(
dx
2
) =
dx
3
.
Example 3.3.5 : Finding a Second Derivative

For f (x) = 2x 2
− 3x + 1 , find f ′′
.
(x)
Solution
First find f '(x).

Substitute f (x) = 2x 2
− 3x + 1 and
2 2
(2(x + h ) − 3(x + h) + 1) − (2 x − 3x + 1) f (x + h) = 2(x + h )
2
− 3(x + h) + 1 into
f '(x) = lim
h→0 h f (x + h) − f (x)
f '(x) = lim .
h→0 h
2
4xh + h − 3h
= lim Simplify the numerator.
h→0 h
= lim (4x + h − 3)
Factor out the h in the numerator and cancel with the h in the
h→0
denominator.
= 4x − 3 Take the limit.
Next, find f ′′
(x) by taking the derivative of f '(x) = 4x − 3.
f '(x + h) − f '(x) f (x + h) − f (x)
f
′′
(x) = lim Use f '(x) = lim with f '(x) in place of f (x).
h→0 h h→0 h
(4(x + h) − 3) − (4x − 3)
= lim Substitute f '(x + h) = 4(x + h) − 3 and f '(x) = 4x − 3.
h→0 h
= lim 4
h→0
Simplify.
= 4 Take the limit.
Exercise 3.3.4
Find f ′′
(x) for f (x) = x . 2
Hint
We found f '(x) = 2x in a previous checkpoint. Use Equation to find the derivative of f '(x)
Answer
′′
f (x) = 2
The Product Rule

Now that we have examined the basic rules, we can begin looking at some of the more advanced rules. The first one examines the
derivative of the product of two functions. Although it might be tempting to assume that the derivative of the product is the product
of the derivatives, similar to the sum and difference rules, the product rule does not follow this pattern. To see why we cannot use
d d
this pattern, consider the function f (x) = x , whose derivative is f '(x) = 2x and not
2
(x) ⋅ (x) = 1 ⋅ 1 = 1.
dx dx
Product Rule
Let f (x) and g(x) be differentiable functions. Then
d d d
(f (x)g(x)) = (f (x)) ⋅ g(x) + (g(x)) ⋅ f (x). (3.3.34)
dx dx dx
That is,
if j(x) = f (x)g(x), thenj'(x) = f '(x)g(x) + g'(x)f (x). (3.3.35)
This means that the derivative of a product of two functions is the derivative of the first function times the second function plus
the derivative of the second function times the first function.
Proof

We begin by assuming that f (x) and g(x) are differentiable functions. At a key point in this proof we need to use the fact that,
since g(x) is differentiable, it is also continuous. In particular, we use the fact that since g(x) is continuous,
lim g(x + h) = g(x).
h→0
By applying the limit definition of the derivative to (x) = f (x)g(x), we obtain

f (x + h)g(x + h) − f (x)g(x)
j'(x) = lim . (3.3.36)
h→0 h
By adding and subtracting f (x)g(x + h) in the numerator, we have

f (x + h)g(x + h) − f (x)g(x + h) + f (x)g(x + h) − f (x)g(x)
j'(x) = lim . (3.3.37)
h→0 h
After breaking apart this quotient and applying the sum law for limits, the derivative becomes
(f (x + h)g(x + h) − f (x)g(x + h) (f (x)g(x + h) − f (x)g(x)
j'(x) = lim ) + lim . (3.3.38)
h→0 h h→0 h
Rearranging, we obtain
(f (x + h) − f (x) g(x + h) − g(x)
j'(x) = lim ⋅ g(x + h)) + lim( ⋅ f (x)). (3.3.39)
h→0 h h→0 h
By using the continuity of g(x), the definition of the derivatives of f (x) and g(x), and applying the limit laws, we arrive at the
product rule,
j'(x) = f '(x)g(x) + g'(x)f (x). (3.3.40)
Example 3.3.7 : Applying the Product Rule to Constant Functions

For j(x) = f (x)g(x) , use the product rule to find j'(2) if f (2) = 3, f '(2) = −4, g(2) = 1 , and g'(2) = 6 .
Solution
Since j(x) = f (x)g(x), j'(x) = f '(x)g(x) + g'(x)f (x), and hence
j'(2) = f '(2)g(2) + g'(2)f (2) = (−4)(1) + (6)(3) = 14. (3.3.41)
Example 3.3.8 : Applying the Product Rule to Binomials

For j(x) = (x 2
+ 2)(3 x
3
− 5x), find j'(x) by applying the product rule. Check the result by first finding the product and then
differentiating.
Solution
If we set f (x) = x 2
+2 and g(x) = 3x 3
− 5x , then f '(x) = 2x and g'(x) = 9x 2
−5 . Thus,
3 2 2
j'(x) = f '(x)g(x) + g'(x)f (x) = (2x)(3 x − 5x) + (9 x − 5)(x + 2).
Simplifying, we have
4 2
j'(x) = 15 x + 3x − 10. (3.3.42)
To check, we see that j(x) = 3x 5

+x
3
− 10x and, consequently, j'(x) = 15x 4
+ 3x
2
− 10.
Exercise 3.3.6
Use the product rule to obtain the derivative of
5 2
j(x) = 2 x (4 x + x). (3.3.43)
Hint
Set f (x) = 2x and g(x) = 4x
5 2
+x and use the preceding example as a guide.

Answer
4 2 5 6 5
j'(x) = 10 x (4 x + x) + (8x + 1)(2 x ) = 56 x + 12 x . (3.3.44)
The Quotient Rule

Having developed and practiced the product rule, we now consider differentiating quotients of functions. As we see in the
following theorem, the derivative of the quotient is not the quotient of the derivatives; rather, it is the derivative of the function in
the numerator times the function in the denominator minus the derivative of the function in the denominator times the function in
the numerator, all divided by the square of the function in the denominator. In order to better grasp why we cannot simply take the
quotient of the derivatives, keep in mind that
d
3
(x ) 2
d 2 dx 3x 2
(x ) = 2x, not = = 3x . (3.3.45)
dx d 1
(x)
dx
The Quotient Rule

d d
(f (x)) ⋅ g(x) − (g(x)) ⋅ f (x)
d f (x) dx dx
( ) = . (3.3.46)
2
dx g(x) (g(x))
That is, if
f (x)
j(x) = (3.3.47)
g(x)
then
f '(x)g(x) − g'(x)f (x)
j'(x) = . (3.3.48)
2
(g(x))
The proof of the quotient rule is very similar to the proof of the product rule, so it is omitted here. Instead, we apply this new rule
for finding derivatives in the next example.
Example 3.3.9 : Applying the Quotient Rule

Use the quotient rule to find the derivative of
2
5x
k(x) = . (3.3.49)
4x + 3
Solution
Let f (x) = 5x and g(x) = 4x + 3 . Thus, f '(x) = 10x and g'(x) = 4 . Substituting into the quotient rule, we have
2
2
f '(x)g(x) − g'(x)f (x) 10x(4x + 3) − 4(5 x )
k'(x) = = . (3.3.50)
2 2
(g(x)) (4x + 3)
Simplifying, we obtain
2
20 x + 30x
k'(x) = (3.3.51)
(4x + 3)2
Exercise 3.3.7
3x + 1
Find the derivative of h(x) = .
4x − 3
Answer

Apply the quotient rule with f (x) = 3x + 1 and g(x) = 4x − 3 .
Answer
13
k'(x) = − . (3.3.52)
2
(4x − 3)
It is now possible to use the quotient rule to extend the power rule to find derivatives of functions of the form x
k
where k is a
negative integer.
Extended Power Rule
If k is a negative integer, then
d k k−1
(x ) = kx . (3.3.53)
dx
Proof
If k is a negative integer, we may set n = −k , so that n is a positive integer with k = −n . Since for each positive integer n ,
1
x
−n
=
n
, we may now apply the quotient rule by setting f (x) = 1 and g(x) = x
n
. In this case, f '(x) = 0 and
x
g'(x) = nx
n−1
. Thus,
n n−1
d 0(x ) − 1(nx )
−n
(x ) = . (3.3.54)
n 2
d (x )
Simplifying, we see that

n−1
d −nx
−n (n−1)−2n −n−1
(x ) = = −nx = −nx . (3.3.55)
2n
d x
Finally, observe that since k = −n , by substituting we have

d
k k−1
(x ) = kx . (3.3.56)
dx
Example 3.3.10 : Using the Extended Power Rule

d
Find (x
−4
) .
dx
Solution
By applying the extended power rule with k = −4 , we obtain
d −4 −4−1 −5
(x ) = −4 x = −4 x . (3.3.57)
dx
Example 3.3.11 : Using the Extended Power Rule and the Constant Multiple Rule
6
Use the extended power rule and the constant multiple rule to find f (x) = 2
.
x
Solution
It may seem tempting to use the quotient rule to find this derivative, and it would certainly not be incorrect to do so. However, it
is far easier to differentiate this function by first rewriting it as f (x) = 6x . −2
d 6 d 6
f '(x) = ( ) =
−2
(6 x ) Rewrite as 6x .
−2
dx x2 dx x2
d
=6 (x
−2
) Apply the constant multiple rule.
dx

= 6(−2 x
−3
) Use the extended power rule to differentiate x . −2
= −12x
−3
Simplify.
Exercise 3.3.8
1
Find the derivative of g(x) = 7
using the extended power rule.
x
Hint
1
\Rewrite g(x) = =x
−7
. Use the extended power rule with k = −7 .
7
x
Answer
g'(x) = −7x
−8
.
Combining Differentiation Rules

As we have seen throughout the examples in this section, it seldom happens that we are called on to apply just one differentiation
rule to find the derivative of a given function. At this point, by combining the differentiation rules, we may find the derivatives of
any polynomial or rational function. Later on we will encounter more complex combinations of differentiation rules. A good rule of
thumb to use when applying several rules is to apply the rules in reverse of the order in which we would evaluate the function.
Example 3.3.12 : Combining Differentiation Rules

For k(x) = 3h(x) + x 2
g(x) , find k'(x).
Solution: Finding this derivative requires the sum rule, the constant multiple rule, and the product rule.
d d d
k'(x) = (3h(x) + x g(x)) =
2
(3h(x)) +
2
(x g(x)) Apply the sum rule.
dx dx dx
d d
2
d
2
Apply the constant multiple rule todifferentiate 3h(x) and the
= 3 (h(x)) + ( (x )g(x) + (g(x))x )
dx dx dx productrule to differentiate x g(x) .
2
2
= 3h'(x) + 2xg(x) + g'(x)x
Example 3.3.13 : Extending the Product Rule

For k(x) = f (x)g(x)h(x), express k'(x) in terms of f (x), g(x), h(x), and their derivatives.
Solution
We can think of the function k(x) as the product of the function f (x)g(x) and the function h(x). That is,
k(x) = (f (x)g(x)) ⋅ h(x) . Thus,
d d
k'(x) = (f (x)g(x)) ⋅ h(x) + (h(x)) ⋅ (f (x)g(x)). Apply the product rule to the productoff(x)g(x)andh(x).
dx dx
= (f '(x)g(x) + g'(x)f (x)h)(x) + h'(x)f (x)g(x) Apply the product rule to f (x)g(x)\)
= f '(x)g(x)h(x) + f (x)g'(x)h(x) + f (x)g(x)h'(x). Simplify.
Example 3.3.14 : Combining the Quotient Rule and the Product Rule
2x3k(x)
For h(x) = , find h'(x).
3x + 2
Solution
This procedure is typical for finding the derivative of a rational function.
d d
3 3
(2 x k(x)) ⋅ (3x + 2) − (3x + 2) ⋅ (2 x k(x))
dx dx
h'(x) = Apply the quotient rule
(3x + 2)2

2 3 3
(6 x k(x) + k'(x) ⋅ 2 x )(3x + 2) − 3(2 x k(x)) d
=
2
Apply the product rule to find 3
.Use
(2 x k(x))
(3x + 2) dx
d
(3x + 2) = 3 .
dx
3 3 2 4 3
−6 x k(x) + 18 x k(x) + 12 x k(x) + 6 x k'(x) + 4 x k'(x)
=
2
Simplify
(3x + 2)
Exercise 3.3.9
d
Find (3f (x) − 2g(x)).
dx
Hint
Apply the difference rule and the constant multiple rule.
Answer
3f '(x) − 2g'(x).
Example 3.3.15 : Determining Where a Function Has a Horizontal Tangent

Determine the values of x for which f (x) = x 3
− 7x
2
+ 8x + 1 has a horizontal tangent line.
Solution
To find the values of x for which f (x) has a horizontal tangent line, we must solve f '(x) = 0.
Since
2
f '(x) = 3 x − 14x + 8 = (3x − 2)(x − 4), (3.3.58)
2
we must solve (3x − 2)(x − 4) = 0 . Thus we see that the function has horizontal tangent lines at x = and x = 4 as shown
3
Figure 3.3.2 : This function has horizontal tangent lines at x = 2/3 and x = 4 .
Example 3.3.16 : Finding a Velocity

t
The position of an object on a coordinate axis at time t is given by s(t) = 2
. What is the initial velocity of the object?
t +1
Solution
Since the initial velocity is v(0) = s'(0), begin by finding s'(t) by applying the quotient rule:
2
1(t2 + 1) − 2t(t) 1 −t
s'(t) =
2 2
=
t 2
.
(t + 1) ( 2 + 1)
After evaluating, we see that v(0) = 1.

Exercise 3.3.10
Find the values of x for which the line tangent to the graph of f (x) = 4 x
2
− 3x + 2 has a tangent line parallel to the line
y = 2x + 3.
Hint
Solve f '(x) = 2 .
Answer
5
Formula One Grandstands

Formula One car races can be very exciting to watch and attract a lot of spectators. Formula One track designers have to ensure
sufficient grandstand space is available around the track to accommodate these viewers. However, car racing can be dangerous,
and safety considerations are paramount. The grandstands must be placed where spectators will not be in danger should a driver
lose control of a car (Figure).
Figure 3.3.3 : The grandstand next to a straightaway of the Circuit de Barcelona-Catalunya race track, located where the
spectators are not in danger.
Safety is especially a concern on turns. If a driver does not slow down enough before entering the turn, the car may slide off the
racetrack. Normally, this just results in a wider turn, which slows the driver down. But if the driver loses control completely, the
car may fly off the track entirely, on a path tangent to the curve of the racetrack.
Suppose you are designing a new Formula One track. One section of the track can be modeled by the function
f (x) = x + 3x + x (Figure). The current plan calls for grandstands to be built along the first straightaway and around a
3
portion of the first curve. The plans call for the front corner of the grandstand to be located at the point (−1.9, 2.8). We want to
determine whether this location puts the spectators in danger if a driver loses control of the car.

Figure 3.3.4 : (a) One section of the racetrack can be modeled by the function f (x) = x 3
+ 3x + x . (b) The front corner of the
grandstand is located at (−1.9, 2.8).
1. Physicists have determined that drivers are most likely to lose control of their cars as they are coming into a turn, at the point
where the slope of the tangent line is 1. Find the (x, y) coordinates of this point near the turn.
2. Find the equation of the tangent line to the curve at this point.
3. To determine whether the spectators are in danger in this scenario, find the x-coordinate of the point where the tangent line
crosses the line y = 2.8 . Is this point safely to the right of the grandstand? Or are the spectators in danger?
4. What if a driver loses control earlier than the physicists project? Suppose a driver loses control at the point (−2.5, 0.625).
What is the slope of the tangent line at this point?
5. If a driver loses control as described in part 4, are the spectators safe?
6. Should you proceed with the current design for the grandstand, or should the grandstands be moved?
Key Concepts
The derivative of a constant function is zero.
The derivative of a power function is a function in which the power on x becomes the coefficient of the term and the
power on x in the derivative decreases by 1.
The derivative of a constant c multiplied by a function f is the same as the constant multiplied by the derivative.
The derivative of the sum of a function f and a function g is the same as the sum of the derivative of f and the derivative
of g.
The derivative of the difference of a function f and a function g is the same as the difference of the derivative of f and the
derivative of g.
The derivative of a product of two functions is the derivative of the first function times the second function plus the
derivative of the second function times the first function.
The derivative of the quotient of two functions is the derivative of the first function times the second function minus the
derivative of the second function times the first function, all divided by the square of the second function.
We used the limit definition of the derivative to develop formulas that allow us to find derivatives without resorting to the
definition of the derivative. These formulas can be used singly or in combination with each other.
Glossary
constant multiple rule
the derivative of a constant c multiplied by a function f is the same as the constant multiplied by the derivative:
d
(cf (x)) = cf '(x)
dx
constant rule

d
the derivative of a constant function is zero: (c) = 0 ,where c is a constant
dx
difference rule
the derivative of the difference of a function f and a function g is the same as the difference of the derivative of f and the
d
derivative of g: (f (x) − g(x)) = f '(x) − g'(x)
dx
power rule
the derivative of a power function is a function in which the power on x becomes the coefficient of the term and the power on x
d
in the derivative decreases by 1: If n is an integer, then x
n
= nx
n−1
dx
product rule
the derivative of a product of two functions is the derivative of the first function times the second function plus the derivative of
d
the second function times the first function: (f (x)g(x)) = f '(x)g(x) + g'(x)f (x)
dx
quotient rule
the derivative of the quotient of two functions is the derivative of the first function times the second function minus the
derivative of the second function times the first function, all divided by the square of the second function:
d f (x) f '(x)g(x) − g'(x)f (x)
( =
2
dx g(x)) (g(x))
sum rule
the derivative of the sum of a function f and a function g is the same as the sum of the derivative of f and the derivative of g:
d
(f (x) + g(x)) = f '(x) + g'(x)
dx
Contributors
This page titled 3.3: (and 3.4) Differentiation Rules is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by
OpenStax.

3.3 and 3.4:Differentiation Rules
Exercise:
For the following exercises, find f '(x) for each function.
106) f (x) = x 7
+ 10
107) f (x) = 5x 3
−x +1
Answer:
2
f '(x) = 15 x −1
108) f (x) = 4x 2
− 7x
109) f (x) = 8x 4
+ 9x
2
−1
Answer:
3
f '(x) = 32 x + 18x
110) f (x) = x 4
+ 2x
111) f (x) = 3x(18x 4

+
x+1
13
)
Answer:
4 39
f '(x) = 270 x +
2
(x+1)
112) f (x) = (x + 2)(2x 2

− 3)
113) f (x) = x 2
(
x2
2
+
x3
5
)
Answer:
−5
f '(x) =
2
x
3 2
114) f (x) = x +2 x −4
115) f (x) = 4 x −2x+1
x2
Answer:
4 2
4 x +2 x −2x
f '(x) =
4
x
116) f (x) = x +4
x −4
2
117) f (x) = x2 −7x+1

x+9
Answer:
2
−x −18x+64
f '(x) =
2
2
( x −7x+1 )
For the following exercises, find the equation of the tangent line T (x) to the graph of the given function at the indicated point. Use
a graphing calculator to graph the function and the tangent line.
118) [T] y = 3x 2
+ 4x + 1 at (0, 1)
119) [T] y = 2√−
x + 1 at (4, 5)
Answer:
1
T (x) = x +3
2
120) [T] y = 2x
x−1
at (−1, 1)
121) [T] y = 2
x
−
3
x2
at (1, −1)
Answer:
T (x) = 4x − 5
For the following exercises, assume that f (x) and g(x) are both differentiable functions for all x. Find the derivative of each of the
functions h(x).
g(x)
122) h(x) = 4f (x) + 7
123) h(x) = x 3
f (x)
Answer:
2 3
h'(x) = 3 x f (x) + x f '(x)
f (x)g(x)
124) h(x) = 2
3f (x)
125) h(x) = g(x)+2
Answer:
3f '(x)(g(x)+2)−3f (x)g'(x)
h'(x) =
2
(g(x)+2)
For the following exercises, assume that f(x) and g(x) are both differentiable functions with values as given in the following table.
Use the following table to calculate the following derivatives.
x 1 2 3 4
f (x) 3 5 −2 0
g(x) 2 3 −4 6
f '(x) −1 7 8 −3
g'(x) 4 1 2 9
126) Find h'(1) if h(x) = xf (x) + 4g(x) .

f (x)
127) Find h'(2) if h(x) = g(x)
.
Answer:
16
128) Find h'(3) if h(x) = 2x + f (x)g(x) .

g(x)
129) Find h'(4) if h(x) = 1
x
+
f (x)
.
Answer:
Undefined
For the following exercises, use the following figure to find the indicated derivatives, if they exist.For the following exercises, use
the following figure to find the indicated derivatives, if they exist.
130) Let h(x) = f (x) + g(x) . Find

a) h'(1),
b) h'(3), and
c) h'(4).
131) Let h(x) = f (x)g(x). Find
a) h'(1),
b) h'(3), and
c) h'(4).
Answer:
a. 2
b. does not exist
c. 2.5
f (x)
132) Let h(x) = g(x)
. Find
a) h'(1),
b) h'(3), and
c) h'(4).
For the following exercises,

a) evaluate f '(a), and
b) graph the function f (x) and the tangent line at x = a.
133) [T] f (x) = 2x 3 2
+ 3x − x , a = 2
Answer:
a. 23
b. y = 23x − 28
134) [T] f (x) = 1
x
2
−x , a = 1
135) [T] f (x) = x 2

−x
12
+ 3x + 2, a = 0
Answer:
a. 3
b. y = 3x + 2
136) [T] f (x) = 1
x
−x
2/3
, a = −1
137) Find the equation of the tangent line to the graph of f (x) = 2x 3
+ 4x
2
− 5x − 3 at x = −1.
Answer:
y = −7x − 3
138) Find the equation of the tangent line to the graph of f (x) = x 2
+
4
x
− 10 at x = 8 .
139) Find the equation of the tangent line to the graph of f (x) = (3x − x 2
)(3 − x − x )
2
at x = 1 .
Answer:
y = −5x + 7
140) Find the point on the graph of f (x) = x such that the tangent line at that point has an x
3
intercept of 6.
141) Find the equation of the line passing through the point P (3, 3) and tangent to the graph of f (x) = x−1
6
.
Answer:
3 15
y =− x+
2 2
J141) Find f '(x) for f (x) = 5e x
Answer:
x
5e
J142) Find the equation of the line passing through x = 5 and tangent to the graph of f (x) = 3x + e . x
J143) Find the equation of the line passing through x = ln 4 and tangent to the graph of f (x) = 3x + e . x
Answer:
y − (ln 64 + 4) = 7(x − ln 4)
J144) Determine all points on the graph of f (x) = 3x + e for which the slope of the tangent line is 10
x
J145) Determine all points on the graph of f (x) = 3x + e for which the slope of the tangent line is horizontal.
x
Answer:
none
J146) Determine all points on the graph of f (x) = 3x + e for which the slope of the tangent line is 10
x
J147) For the following functions, find f ′′

(x).
a. f (x) = 3x + e b. f (x) = 2x
x 3
+ 7e
x
Answer:
a. f ′′
(x) = e .
x
b. f ′′
(x) = 6 + 7 e .
x
Solution:
a. f (x) = e .
′′ x
b. f (x) = 6 + 7e
′′ x
.

J148) f (x) = xe x
J149) f (x) = x 2
e
x
Answer:
x 2 x
2x e +x e
J150) f (x) = 6x 3
− 2e
x
J151) f (x) = 5
e
x
Answer:
5
− x
e
−x
J152) f (x) = e
J153) f (x) = 5x+1
3x−2
Answer:
13
−
2
(3x−2)
J154) f (x) = 7x
e
x
.
142) Determine all points on the graph of f (x) = x 3 2

+x −x −1 for which the slope of the tangent line is
a. horizontal
b. −1.
143) Find a quadratic polynomial such that f (1) = 5, f '(1) = 3 and f ′′
(1) = −6.
Answer:
2
y = −3 x + 9x − 1
144) A car driving along a freeway with traffic has traveled s(t) = t 3
− 6t
2
+ 9t meters in t seconds.
a. Determine the time in seconds when the velocity of the car is 0.
b. Determine the acceleration of the car when the velocity is 0.
2
145) A herring swimming along a straight line has traveled s(t) = 2

t
t +2
feet in t
seconds. Determine the velocity of the herring when it has traveled 3 seconds.
Answer:
12
121
or 0.0992 ft/s
8t+3
146) The population in millions of arctic flounder in the Atlantic Ocean is modeled by the function P (t) = 2
0.2 t +1
, where t is
measured in years.
a. Determine the initial flounder population.
b. Determine P '(10) and briefly interpret the result.
2
2 t +t
147) [T] The concentration of antibiotic in the bloodstream t hours after being injected is given by the function C (t) = 3
t +50
,
where C is measured in milligrams per liter of blood.
a. Find the rate of change of C (t).
b. Determine the rate of change for t = 8, 12, 24,and 36.
c. Briefly describe what seems to be occurring as the number of hours increases.
Answer:
4 3
−2 t −2 t +200t+50
a.
3 2
b. −0.02395 mg/L-hr, −0.01344 mg/L-hr, −0.003566 mg/L-hr, −0.001579 mg/L-hr c. The rate at which the
( t +50 )
concentration of drug in the bloodstream decreases is slowing to 0 as time increases.

4 3
Solution: a.
−2 t −2 t +200t+50
3 2
b. −0.02395 mg/L-hr, −0.01344 mg/L-hr, −0.003566 mg/L-hr, −0.001579 mg/L-hr c. The rate at
( t +50 )
which the concentration of drug in the bloodstream decreases is slowing to 0 as time increases.
3
148) A book publisher has a cost function given by C (x) = , where x is the number of copies of a book in thousands and
x +2x+3
2
x
C is the cost, per book, measured in dollars. Evaluate C '(2)and explain its meaning.
149) [T] According to Newton’s law of universal gravitation, the force F between two bodies of constant mass m and m is given 1 2
Gm1 m2
by the formula F = , where G is the gravitational constant and d is the distance between the bodies.
2
d
a. Suppose that G, m , and m are constants. Find the rate of change of force F with respect to distance d .
1 2
b. Find the rate of change of force F with gravitational constant G = 6.67 × 10

−11 2
N m /kg
2
, on two bodies 10 meters
apart, each with a mass of 1000 kilograms.
Answer:
−2Gm1 m2 −7
′
a. F (d) = b. −1.33 × 10 N /m
d3
3.3E: Both 3.3 and 3.4 Exercises is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
One of the most important types of motion in physics is simple harmonic motion, which is associated with such systems as an
object with mass oscillating on a spring. Simple harmonic motion can be described by using either sine or cosine functions. In this
section we expand our knowledge of derivative formulas to include derivatives of these and other trigonometric functions. We
begin with the derivatives of the sine and cosine functions and then use them to obtain formulas for the derivatives of the remaining
four trigonometric functions. Being able to calculate the derivatives of the sine and cosine functions will enable us to find the
velocity and acceleration of simple harmonic motion.
Derivatives of the Sine and Cosine Functions

We begin our exploration of the derivative for the sine function by using the formula to make a reasonable guess at its derivative.
Recall that for a function f (x),
f (x + h) − f (x)
f '(x) = lim . (3.5.1)
h→0 h
Consequently, for values of h very close to 0,

f (x + h) − f (x)
f '(x) ≈ . (3.5.2)
h
We see that by using h = 0.01,

d sin(x + 0.01) − sin x
(sin x) ≈ (3.5.3)
dx 0.01
By setting
sin(x + 0.01) − sin x
D(x) = (3.5.4)
0.01
and using a graphing utility, we can get a graph of an approximation to the derivative of sin x (Figure).
Figure 3.5.1 : The graph of the function D(x) looks a lot like a cosine curve.
Upon inspection, the graph of D(x) appears to be very close to the graph of the cosine function. Indeed, we will show that
d
(sin x) = cos x. (3.5.5)
dx
If we were to follow the same steps to approximate the derivative of the cosine function, we would find that
d
(cos x) = − sin x. (3.5.6)
dx
The Derivatives of sin x and cos x

The derivative of the sine function is the cosine and the derivative of the cosine function is the negative sine.
d
(sin x) = cos x (3.5.7)
dx
d
(cos x) = − sin x (3.5.8)
dx
Proof
d d
Because the proofs for (sin x) = cos x and (cos x) = − sin x use similar techniques, we provide only the proof for
dx dx
d
(sin x) = cos x. Before beginning, recall two important trigonometric limits we learned in Introduction to Limits:
dx
sinh coshh − 1
limh→0 =1 and lim h→0 =0 .
h h
(sinh) (cosh − 1)
The graphs of y = and y = are shown in Figure.
h h
Figure 3.5.2 : These graphs show two important limits needed to establish the derivative formulas for the sine and cosine
functions.
We also recall the following trigonometric identity for the sine of the sum of two angles:
sin(x + h) = sin x cosh + cos x sinh. (3.5.9)
Now that we have gathered all the necessary equations and identities, we proceed with the proof.
d sin(x + h) − sin x
sin x = lim h→0 Apply the definition of the derivative.
dx h
sin xcosh + cosxsinh − sin x

= lim h→0 Use trig identity for the sine of the sum of two angles.
h
(sin xcosh − sin x cosxsinh

= lim h→0 + ) Regroup.
h h
cosxh − 1 cosxsinh
= limh → 0(sin x( )+ )) Factor out sin x and cosx .
h h
= sin x(0) + cosx(1) Apply trig limit formulas.
= cosx Simplify.
Figure shows the relationship between the graph of f (x) = sin x and its derivative f '(x) = cos x. Notice that at the points where
f (x) = sin x has a horizontal tangent, its derivative f '(x) = cos x takes on the value zero. We also see that where f(x) = sin x is
increasing, f '(x) = cos x > 0 and where f (x) = sin x is decreasing, f '(x) = cos x < 0.

Figure 3.5.3 : Where f (x) has a maximum or a minimum, f (x) = 0 that is, f (x) = 0 where f (x) has a horizontal tangent.
′ ′
These points are noted with dots on the graphs
Example 3.5.1 : Differentiating a Function Containing sin x

Find the derivative of f (x) = 5x 3
sin x .
Solution
Using the product rule, we have
d d
′ 3 3 2 3
f (x) = (5 x ) ⋅ sin x + (sin x) ⋅ 5 x = 15 x ⋅ sin x + cos x ⋅ 5 x .
dx dx
After simplifying, we obtain

2 3
f '(x) = 15 x sin x + 5 x cos x.
Exercise 3.5.1
f (x) = sin x cos x. (3.5.10)
Hint
Don’t forget to use the product rule.
Answer
2 2
f '(x) = cos x − sin x (3.5.11)
Example 3.5.2 : Finding the Derivative of a Function Containing cos x

cos x
.
4x
Solution
By applying the quotient rule, we have
2
(− sin x)4 x − 8x(cos x)
g'(x) = . (3.5.12)
2 2
(4x )
2
−4 x sin x − 8x cos x −x sin x − 2 cos x
g'(x) = = . (3.5.13)
4
16x 4x3
Exercise 3.5.2

x
f (x) = . (3.5.14)
cos x
Hint
Use the quotient rule.
Answer
cos x + x sin x
(3.5.15)
2
cos x
Example 3.5.3 : An Application to Velocity

A particle moves along a coordinate axis in such a way that its position at time t is given by s(t) = 2sint − t for 0 ≤ t ≤ 2π.
At what times is the particle at rest?
Solution
To determine when the particle is at rest, set s'(t) = v(t) = 0. Begin by finding s'(t). We obtain
s'(t) = 2 cos t − 1, (3.5.16)
so we must solve
2 cos t − 1 = 0\)f or\(0 ≤ t ≤ 2π. (3.5.17)
π 5π π 5π
The solutions to this equation are t = and t = . Thus the particle is at rest at times t = and t = .6)
3 3 3 3
Exercise 3.5.3
–
A particle moves along a coordinate axis. Its position at time t is given by s(t) = √3t + 2cost for 0 ≤ t ≤ 2π. At what times
is the particle at rest?
Hint
Use the previous example as a guide.
Answer
π 2π
t = ,t = (3.5.18)
3 3
Derivatives of Other Trigonometric Functions

Since the remaining four trigonometric functions may be expressed as quotients involving sine, cosine, or both, we can use the
quotient rule to find formulas for their derivatives.
Example 3.5.4 : The Derivative of the Tangent Function

Find the derivative of f (x) = tan x.
Solution
Start by expressing tan x as the quotient of sin x and cos x:
sin x
f (x) = tan x = .
cos x
Now apply the quotient rule to obtain

cos x cos x − (− sin x) sin x
f '(x) =
2
.
(cos x)

2 2
cos x + si n x
f '(x) = . (3.5.19)
2
cos x
Recognizing that cos 2

x + sin
2
x = 1, by the Pythagorean theorem, we now have
1
f '(x) = (3.5.20)
cos2 x
1
Finally, use the identity secx = to obtain
cos x
f '(x) = sec x
2
.
Exercise 3.5.4
f (x) = cot x. (3.5.21)
Hint
cos x
Rewrite cot x as and use the quotient rule.
sin x
Answer
2
f '(x) = −csc x (3.5.22)
The derivatives of the remaining trigonometric functions may be obtained by using similar techniques. We provide these formulas
Derivatives of tan x , cot x , secx , and cscx

The derivatives of the remaining trigonometric functions are as follows:
d 2
(tan x) = sec x (3.5.23)
dx
d 2
(cot x) = − csc x (3.5.24)
dx
d
(secx) = sec x tan x (3.5.25)
dx
d
(cscx) = − csc x cot x. (3.5.26)
dx

π
Find the equation of a line tangent to the graph of f (x) = cot x at x = .
4
Solution
To find the equation of the tangent line, we need a point and a slope at that point. To find the point, compute
π π
f( ) = cot =1 .
4 4
π
Thus the tangent line passes through the point ( , 1) . Next, find the slope by finding the derivative of f (x) = cot x and
4
π
evaluating it at :
4
π π
f '(x) = −csc x
2
and f '( ) = −csc (
2
) = −2 .
4 4
Using the point-slope equation of the line, we obtain

π
y − 1 = −2(x − )
4
or equivalently,
π
y = −2x + 1 + .
2
Example 3.5.6 : Finding the Derivative of Trigonometric Functions

Find the derivative of f (x) = cscx + x tan x.
Solution
To find this derivative, we must use both the sum rule and the product rule. Using the sum rule, we find
d d
f '(x) = (cscx) + (x tan x) .
dx dx
d
In the first term, (cscx) = −cscx cot x, and by applying the product rule to the second term we obtain
dx
d
(x tan x) = (1)(tan x) + (sec x)(x)
2
.
dx
Therefore, we have
f '(x) = −cscx cot x + tan x + xsec x
2
.
Exercise 3.5.5
Find the derivative of f (x) = 2 tan x − 3 cot x.
Hint
Use the rule for differentiating a constant multiple and the rule for differentiating a difference of two functions.
2 2
f '(x) = 2sec x + 3csc x
Answer
2 2
f '(x) = 2sec x + 3csc x
Exercise 3.5.6
π
Find the slope of the line tangent to the graph of f (x) = tan x at x = .
6
Hint
π
Evaluate the derivative at x = .
6
Answer
4
The higher-order derivatives of sin x and cos x follow a repeating pattern. By following the pattern, we can find any higher-order
derivative of sin x and cos x.
Example 3.5.7 : Finding Higher-Order Derivatives of y = sin x

Find the first four derivatives of y = sin x.
Solution
Each step in the chain is straightforward:

y = sin x (3.5.27)
dy
= cos x (3.5.28)
dx
2
d y
= − sin x (3.5.29)
2
dx
3
d y
= − cos x (3.5.30)
3
dx
4
d y
= sin x (3.5.31)
4
dx
Analysis
Once we recognize the pattern of derivatives, we can find any higher-order derivative by determining the step in the pattern to
which it corresponds. For example, every fourth derivative of sin x equals sin x, so
4 8 12 4n
d d d d
(sin x) = (sin x) = (sin x) = … = (sin x) = sin x (3.5.32)
4 8 12 4n
dx dx dx dx
5 9 13 4n+1
d d d d
(sin x) = (sin x) = (sin x) = … = (sin x) = cos x. (3.5.33)
5 9 13 4n+1
dx dx dx dx
Exercise 3.5.7
4
d y
For y = cos x , find 4
.
dx
Hint
See the previous example.
Answer
cos x
Example 3.5.8 : Using the Pattern for Higher-Order Derivatives of y = sin x

74
d
Find 74
.
(sin x)
dx
Solution
We can see right away that for the 74th derivative of sin x,74 = 4(18) + 2 , so
74 72+2 2
d d d
(sin x) = (sin x) = (sin x) = − sin x. (3.5.34)
74 72+2 2
dx dx dx
Exercise 3.5.8
For y = sin x , find
59
d
(sin x). (3.5.35)
dx59
Hint
59 4⋅14+3
d d
(sin x) = (sin x) (3.5.36)
59 4⋅14+3
dx dx
Answer
− cos x

Example 3.5.9 : An Application to Acceleration
A particle moves along a coordinate axis in such a way that its position at time t is given by s(t) = 2 − sint . Find v(π/4) and
a(π/4). Compare these values and decide whether the particle is speeding up or slowing down.
Solution
First find v(t) = s'(t)
v(t) = s'(t) = − cos t. (3.5.37)
Thus,
π 1
v( ) =−
–
.
4 √2
Next, find a(t) = v'(t) . Thus, a(t) = v'(t) = sint and we have
π 1
a( ) =
–
.
4 √2
π 1 π 1
Since v( ) =−
–
<0 and a( ) =
–
>0 , we see that velocity and acceleration are acting in opposite directions; that is,
4 √2 4 √2
the object is being accelerated in the direction opposite to the direction in which it is travelling. Consequently, the particle is
slowing down.
Exercise 3.5.9
5π 5π
A block attached to a spring is moving vertically. Its position at time t is given by s(t) = 2sint . Find v( ) and a( ) .
6 6
Compare these values and decide whether the block is speeding up or slowing down.
Hint
Use Example 17 as a guide.
Answer
5π – 5π
v( ) = −√3 < 0 and a( ) = −1 < 0 . The block is speeding up.
6 6
Key Concepts
We can find the derivatives of sin x and cos x by using the definition of derivative and the limit formulas found earlier.
The results are
d d
sin x = cos x cos x = − sin x .
dx dx
With these two formulas, we can determine the derivatives of all six basic trigonometric functions.
Key Equations
Derivative of sine function
d
(sin x) = cos x
dx
Derivative of cosine function

d
(cos x) = − sin x
dx
Derivative of tangent function

d
2
(tan x) = sec x
dx
Derivative of cotangent function

d
2
(cot x) = −csc x
dx
Derivative of secant function

d
(secx) = secx tan x
dx
Derivative of cosecant function

d
(cscx) = −cscx cot x
dx
Contributors
This page titled 3.5: Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or

Exercise:
dy
For the following exercises, find dx
for the given functions.
175) y = x 2
− secx + 1
Answer:
dy
= 2x − secxtanx
dx
176) y = 3cscx + 5
177) y = x 2
cotx
Answer:
dy
2 2
= 2xcotx − x csc x
dx
178) y = x − x 3
sinx
179) y = secx
Answer:
dy xsecxtanx−secx
=
2
dx x
180) y = sinxtanx
181) y = (x + cosx)(1 − sinx)
Answer:
dy
= (1 − sinx)(1 − sinx) − cosx(x + cosx)
dx
182) y = tanx
1−secx
183) y = 1−cotx
1+cotx
Answer:
dy 2csc x
2
=
2
dx (1+cotx)
184) y = cosx(1 + cscx)

For the following exercises, find the equation of the tangent line to each of the given functions at the indicated values of x. Then
use a calculator to graph both the function and the tangent line to ensure the equation for the tangent line is correct.
185) [T ]f (x) = − sin x, x = 0
Answer:
y = −x
186) [T ]f (x) = cscx, x = π
187) [T ]f (x) = 1 + cosx, x = 3π
Answer:
2−3π
y =x+
2
188) [T ]f (x) = secx, x = π
189) [T ]f (x) = x 2
− tan x = 0
Answer:
y = −x
190) [T ]f (x) = 5cotxx = π
2
d y
2
191) y = xsinx − cosx
Answer:
3cosx − xsinx
192) y = sinxcosx
193) y = x − 1
2
sinx
Answer:
1
sinx
2
194) y = 1
x
+ tanx
195) y = 2cscx
Answer:
2 2
csc(x)(3csc (x) − 1 + cot (x))
196) y = sec 2
x
197) Find all x values on the graph of f (x) = −3sinxcosx where the tangent line is horizontal.
Answer:
(2n+1)π
4
,where n is an integer
198) Find all x values on the graph of f (x) = x − 2cosx for 0 < x < 2π where the tangent line has slope 2.
199) Let f (x) = cotx. Determine the points on the graph of f for 0 < x < 2π where the tangent line(s) is (are) parallel to the line
y = −2x .
Answer:
π 3π
( , 1), ( , −1)
4 4
200) [T] A mass on a spring bounces up and down in simple harmonic motion, modeled by the function s(t) = −6cost where s is
measured in inches and t is measured in seconds. Find the rate at which the spring is oscillating at t = 5 s.
201) Let the position of a swinging pendulum in simple harmonic motion be given by s(t) = acost + bsint . Find the constants a
and b such that when the velocity is 3 cm/s, s = 0 and t = 0 .
Answer:
a = 0, b = 3
202) After a diver jumps off a diving board, the edge of the board oscillates with position given by s(t) = −5cost cm at t seconds
after the jump.
a. Sketch one period of the position function for t ≥ 0 .
b. Find the velocity function.
c. Sketch one period of the velocity function for t ≥ 0 .
d. Determine the times when the velocity is 0 over one period.
e. Find the acceleration function.
f. Sketch one period of the acceleration function for t ≥ 0 .
203) The number of hamburgers sold at a fast-food restaurant in Pasadena, California, is given by y = 10 + 5sinx where y is the
number of hamburgers sold and x represents the number of hours after the restaurant opened at 11 a.m. until 11 p.m., when the
store closes. Find y and determine the intervals where the number of burgers being sold is increasing.
′
Answer:
y' = 5cos(x) , increasing on (0, π
2
), (
3π
2
,
5π
2
, and (
)
7π
2
, 12)
204) [T] The amount of rainfall per month in Phoenix, Arizona, can be approximated by y(t) = 0.5 + 0.3cost , where t is months
since January. Find y'and use a calculator to determine the intervals where the amount of rain falling is decreasing.
For the following exercises, use the quotient rule to derive the given equations.
205) d
dx
(cotx) = −csc x
2
206) d
dx
(secx) = secxtanx
207) d
dx
(cscx) = −cscxcotx
208) Use the definition of derivative and the identity cos(x + h) = cosxcosh − sinxsinh
d(cosx)
to prove that dx
= −sinx .
For the following exercises, find the requested higher-order derivative for the given functions.
3
d y
209) dx
3
of y = 3cosx
Answer:
3sinx
2
d y
210) dx
2
of y = 3sinx + x 2
cosx
4
d y
211) dx
4
of y = 5cosx
Answer:
5cosx
2
d y
212) dx
2
of y = secx + cotx
3
d y
213) dx3
of y = x 10
− secx
Answer:
7 3 3
720 x − 5tan(x)sec (x) − tan (x)sec(x)
ADD IN J214 - J217
3.5E: Trig Derivatives Exercises is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
In this section we look at some applications of the derivative by focusing on the interpretation of the derivative as the rate of
change of a function. These applications include acceleration and velocity in physics, population growth rates in biology, and
marginal functions in economics.
Amount of Change Formula

One application for derivatives is to estimate an unknown value of a function at a point by using a known value of a function at
some given point together with its rate of change at the given point. If f (x) is a function defined on an interval [a, a + h] , then the
amount of change of f (x) over the interval is the change in the y values of the function over that interval and is given by
f (a + h) − f (a). (3.6.1)
The average rate of change of the function f over that same interval is the ratio of the amount of change over that interval to the
corresponding change in the x values. It is given by
f (a + h) − f (a)
. (3.6.2)
h
As we already know, the instantaneous rate of change of f (x) at a is its derivative

f (a + h) − f (a)
f '(a) = lim . (3.6.3)
h→0 h
For small enough values of h ,

f (a + h) − f (a)
f '(a) ≈ . (3.6.4)
h
We can then solve for f (a + h) to get the amount of change formula:

f (a + h) ≈ f (a) + f '(a)h. (3.6.5)
We can use this formula if we know only f (a)and f '(a) and wish to estimate the value of f (a + h) . For example, we may use the
current population of a city and the rate at which it is growing to estimate its population in the near future. As we can see in Figure,
we are approximating f (a + h) by the y coordinate at a+h on the line tangent to f (x) at x = a . Observe that the accuracy of this
estimate depends on the value of h as well as the value of f '(a).
Figure 3.6.1 : The new value of a changed quantity equals the original value plus the rate of change times the interval of change:
f (a + h) ≈ f (a) + f '(a)h.
Example 3.6.1 : Estimating the Value of a Function

If f (3) = 2 and f '(3) = 5, estimate f (3.2).
Solution
Begin by finding h . We have h = 3.2 − 3 = 0.2. Thus,

f (3.2) = f (3 + 0.2) ≈ f (3) + (0.2)f '(3) = 2 + 0.2(5) = 3.
Exercise 3.6.1
Given f (10) = −5 and f '(10) = 6, estimate f (10.1).
Hint
Use the same process as in the preceding example.
Answer
−4.4
Motion along a Line

Another use for the derivative is to analyze motion along a line. We have described velocity as the rate of change of position. If we
take the derivative of the velocity, we can find the acceleration, or the rate of change of velocity. It is also important to introduce
the idea of speed, which is the magnitude of velocity. Thus, we can state the following mathematical definitions.
Definition
Let s(t) be a function giving the position of an object at time t.
The velocity of the object at time t is given by v(t) = s'(t) .
The speed of the object at time t is given by |v(t)| .
The acceleration of the object at t is given by a(t) = v'(t) = s ′′
(t) .
Example 3.6.2 : Comparing Instantaneous Velocity and Average Velocity

A ball is dropped from a height of 64 feet. Its height above ground (in feet) t seconds later is given by s(t) = −16t 2
+ 64 .
a. What is the instantaneous velocity of the ball when it hits the ground?
b. What is the average velocity during its fall?
Solution
The first thing to do is determine how long it takes the ball to reach the ground. To do this, set s(t) = 0 . Solving
−16 t + 64 = 0 , we get t = 2 , so it take 2 seconds for the ball to reach the ground.
2
a. The instantaneous velocity of the ball as it strikes the ground is v(2) . Since v(t) = s'(t) = −32t , we obtain
v(t) = −64f t/s .
b. The average velocity of the ball during its fall is

s(2)−s(0) 0−64
vave = = = −32f t/s.
2−0 2
Example 3.6.3 : Interpreting the Relationship between v(t) and a(t)

A particle moves along a coordinate axis in the positive direction to the right. Its position at time t is given by
s(t) = t − 4t + 2 . Find v(1) and a(1) and use these values to answer the following questions.
3

a. Is the particle moving from left to right or from right to left at time t = 1 ?
b. Is the particle speeding up or slowing down at time t = 1 ?
Solution
Begin by finding v(t) and a(t) . and a(t) = v'(t) = s ′′
(t) = 6t .
Evaluating these functions at t = 1) , we obtain v(1) = −1 and a(1) = 6 .
a. Because v(1) < 0 , the particle is moving from right to left.
b. Because v(1) < 0 and a(1) > 0 , velocity and acceleration are acting in opposite directions. In other words, the particle is
being accelerated in the direction opposite the direction in which it is traveling, causing |v(t)| to decrease. The particle is
slowing down.
Example 3.6.4 : Position and Velocity

The position of a particle moving along a coordinate axis is given by s(t) = t 3 2
− 9t + 24t + 4, t ≥ 0.
a. Find v(t) .
b. At what time(s) is the particle at rest?
c. On what time intervals is the particle moving from left to right? From right to left?
d. Use the information obtained to sketch the path of the particle along a coordinate axis.
Solution
a. The velocity is the derivative of the position function:
2
v(t) = s'(t) = 3 t − 18t + 24.
b. The particle is at rest when v(t) = 0 , so set 3t − 18t + 24 = 0 . Factoring the left-hand side of the equation produces
2
3(t − 2)(t − 4) = 0 . Solving, we find that the particle is at rest at t = 2 and t = 4 .
c. The particle is moving from left to right when v(t) > 0 and from right to left when v(t) < 0 . Figure gives the analysis of the
sign of v(t) for t≥0, but it does not represent the axis along which the particle is moving.
Figure 3.6.2 :The sign of v(t) determines the direction of the particle.
Since 3t 2
− 18t + 24 > 0 on [0, 2) ∪ (2, +∞), the particle is moving from left to right on these intervals.
Since 3t 2
− 18t + 24 < 0 on (2, 4), the particle is moving from right to left on this interval.
d. Before we can sketch the graph of the particle, we need to know its position at the time it starts moving (t = 0) and at the
times that it changes direction (t = 2, 4) . We have s(0) = 4, s(2) = 24 , and s(4) = 20 . This means that the particle begins on
the coordinate axis at 4 and changes direction at 0 and 20 on the coordinate axis. The path of the particle is shown on a
coordinate axis in Figure.
Figure 3.6.3 : The path of the particle can be determined by analyzing v(t) .
Exercise 3.6.2
A particle moves along a coordinate axis. Its position at time t is given by s(t) = t 2
− 5t + 1 . Is the particle moving from right
to left or from left to right at time t = 3 ?
Hint
Find v(3) and look at the sign.

Answer
left to right
EXAMPLE 3.2.63.2.6: FINDING ACCELERATION

The position of a particle along a coordinate axis at time tt (in seconds) is given by s(t)=3t2−4t+1s(t)=3t2−4t+1 (in meters). Find
the function that describes its acceleration at time tt.
Solution
Since v(t)=s'(t)v(t)=s′(t) and a(t)=v'(t)=s′′(t)a(t)=v′(t)=s″(t), we begin by finding the derivative of s(t)s(t):
s'(t)=limh→0s(t+h)−s(t)hs′(t)=limh→0s(t+h)−s(t)h
=limh→03(t+h)2−4(t+h)+1−(3t2−4t+1)h=limh→03(t+h)2−4(t+h)+1−(3t2−4t+1)h
=6t−4.=6t−4.
Next,
s′′(t)=limh→0s'(t+h)−s'(t)hs″(t)=limh→0s′(t+h)−s′(t)h
=limh→06(t+h)−4−(6t−4)h=limh→06(t+h)−4−(6t−4)h
=6.=6.
Thus, a=6m/s2a=6m/s2.
EXERCISE 3.2.53.2.5
For s(t)=t3s(t)=t3, find a(t).a(t).
Hint
Answer
Population Change
In addition to analyzing velocity, speed, acceleration, and position, we can use derivatives to analyze various types of populations,
including those as diverse as bacteria colonies and cities. We can use a current population, together with a growth rate, to estimate
the size of a population in the future. The population growth rate is the rate of change of a population and consequently can be
represented by the derivative of the size of the population.
Definition
If P (t) is the number of entities present in a population, then the population growth rate of P (t) is defined to be P '(t).
Example 3.6.5 : Estimating a Population

The population of a city is tripling every 5 years. If its current population is 10,000, what will be its approximate population 2
years from now?
Solution
Let P (t) be the population (in thousands) t years from now. Thus, we know that P (0) = 10 and based on the information, we
anticipate P (5) = 30. Now estimate P '(0), the current growth rate, using
P (5)−P (0)
P '(0) ≈
5−0
=
30−10
5
=4 .
By applying Equation to P (t), we can estimate the population 2 years from now by writing
P (2) ≈ P (0) + (2)P '(0) ≈ 10 + 2(4) = 18 ;
thus, in 2 years the population will be 18,000.
Exercise 3.6.3

The current population of a mosquito colony is known to be 3,000; that is, P (0) = 3, 000. If P '(0) = 100, estimate the size of
the population in 3 days, where t is measured in days.
Hint
Use P (3) ≈ P (0) + 3P '(0)
Answer
3,300
Changes in Cost and Revenue

In addition to analyzing motion along a line and population growth, derivatives are useful in analyzing changes in cost, revenue,
and profit. The concept of a marginal function is common in the fields of business and economics and implies the use of
derivatives. The marginal cost is the derivative of the cost function. The marginal revenue is the derivative of the revenue function.
The marginal profit is the derivative of the profit function, which is based on the cost function and the revenue function.
Definition
If C (x) is the cost of producing x items, then the marginal cost M C (x) is M C (x) = C '(x).
If R(x) is the revenue obtained from selling x items, then the marginal revenue M R(x) is M R(x) = R'(x) .
If P (x) = R(x) − C (x) is the profit obtained from selling x items, then the marginal profit M P (x) is defined to be
M P (x) = P '(x) = M R(x) − M C (x) = R'(x) − C '(x) .
We can roughly approximate

C (x + h) − C (x)
M C (x) = C '(x) = lim (3.6.6)
h→0 h
by choosing an appropriate value for h . Since x represents objects, a reasonable and small value for h is 1. Thus, by substituting
h = 1 , we get the approximation M C (x) = C '(x) ≈ C (x + 1) − C (x) . Consequently, C '(x) for a given value of x can be
thought of as the change in cost associated with producing one additional item. In a similar way, M R(x) = R'(x) approximates
the revenue obtained by selling one additional item, and M P (x) = P '(x) approximates the profit obtained by producing and
selling one additional item.
Example 3.6.6 : Applying Marginal Revenue

Assume that the number of barbeque dinners that can be sold, x , can be related to the price charged, p, by the equation
p(x) = 9 − 0.03x, 0 ≤ x ≤ 300 .
In this case, the revenue in dollars obtained by selling x barbeque dinners is given by
R(x) = xp(x) = x(9 − 0.03x) = −0.03 x
2
+ 9xf or0 ≤ x ≤ 300 .
Use the marginal revenue function to estimate the revenue obtained from selling the 101st barbeque dinner. Compare this to the
actual revenue obtained from the sale of this dinner.
Solution
First, find the marginal revenue function: M R(x) = R'(x) = −0.06x + 9.
Next, use R'(100) to approximate R(101) − R(100), the revenue obtained from the sale of the 101st dinner. Since
R'(100) = 3 , the revenue obtained from the sale of the 101st dinner is approximately $3.
The actual revenue obtained from the sale of the 101st dinner is
R(101) − R(100) = 602.97 − 600 = 2.97, or$2.97 .
The marginal revenue is a fairly good estimate in this case and has the advantage of being easy to compute.
Exercise 3.6.4
Suppose that the profit obtained from the sale of x fish-fry dinners is given by P (x) = −0.03x 2
+ 8x − 50 . Use the marginal
profit function to estimate the profit from the sale of the 101st fish-fry dinner.

Hint
Use P '(100) to approximate P (101) − P (100).
Answer
$2
Key Concepts
Using f (a + h) ≈ f (a) + f '(a)h , it is possible to estimate f (a + h) given f '(a) and f (a).
The rate of change of position is velocity, and the rate of change of velocity is acceleration. Speed is the absolute value,
or magnitude, of velocity.
The population growth rate and the present population can be used to predict the size of a future population.
Marginal cost, marginal revenue, and marginal profit functions can be used to predict, respectively, the cost of producing
one more item, the revenue obtained by selling one more item, and the profit obtained by producing and selling one more
item.
Glossary
acceleration
is the rate of change of the velocity, that is, the derivative of velocity
amount of change
the amount of a function f (x) over an interval [x, x + h]isf (x + h) − f (x)
average rate of change

f (x+h)−f (a)
is a function f (x) over an interval [x, x + h] is b−a
marginal cost
is the derivative of the cost function, or the approximate cost of producing one more item
marginal revenue
is the derivative of the revenue function, or the approximate revenue obtained by selling one more item
marginal profit
is the derivative of the profit function, or the approximate profit obtained by producing and selling one more item
population growth rate

is the derivative of the population with respect to time
speed
is the absolute value of velocity, that is, |v(t)| is the speed of an object at time t whose velocity is given by v(t)
Contributors
This page titled 3.6: Derivatives as Rates of Change is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by
OpenStax.

Exercise:
− 6t
2
2
145) A herring swimming along a straight line has traveled s(t) = 2

t
feet in t
t +2
seconds. Determine the velocity of the herring when it has traveled 3 seconds.
Solution: 12
121
or 0.0992 ft/s
8t+3
0.2 t +1
, where t is
measured in years.
2
147) [T] The concentration of antibiotic in the bloodstream t hours after being injected is given by the function C (t) =
2 t +t
3
t +50
,
4 3
Solution: a.
−2 t −2 t +200t+50
3 2
( t +50 )
3
148) A book publisher has a cost function given by C (x) = , where x is the number of copies of a book in thousands and
x +2x+3
x2
C is the cost, per book, measured in dollars. Evaluate C '(2)and explain its meaning.
For the following exercises, the given functions represent the position of a particle traveling along a horizontal line.
a. Find the velocity and acceleration functions.
b. Determine the time intervals when the object is slowing down or speeding up.
150) s(t) = 2t 3
− 3t
2
− 12t + 8
151) s(t) = 2t 3
− 15 t
2
+ 36t − 10
Solution: a. v(t) = 6t 2
− 30t + 36, a(t) = 12t − 30 ; b. speeds up (2, 2.5) ∪ (3, ∞), slows down (0, 2) ∪ (2.5, 3)
152) s(t) = t
2
1+t
153) A rocket is fired vertically upward from the ground. The distance s in feet that the rocket travels from the ground after t
seconds is given by s(t) = −16t + 560t . 2
a. Find the velocity of the rocket 3 seconds after being fired.

b. Find the acceleration of the rocket 3 seconds after being fired.
Solution: a. 464f t/s 2
b. −32f t/s
2
154) A ball is thrown downward with a speed of 8 ft/s from the top of a 64-foot-tall building. After t seconds, its height above the
ground is given by s(t) = −16t − 8t + 64. 2
a. Determine how long it takes for the ball to hit the ground.
3.6 E.1 https://math.libretexts.org/@go/page/10734

b. Determine the velocity of the ball when it hits the ground.
155) The position function s(t) = t − 3t − 4 represents the position of the back of a car backing out of a driveway and then
2
driving in a straight line, where s is in feet and t is in seconds. In this case, s(t) = 0 represents the time at which the back of the car
is at the garage door, so s(0) = −4 is the starting position of the car, 4 feet inside the garage.
a. Determine the velocity of the car when s(t) = 0 .
b. Determine the velocity of the car when s(t) = 14 .
Solution: a. 5f t/s b. 9f t/s
156) The position of a hummingbird flying along a straight line in t seconds is given by s(t) = 3t 3
− 7t meters.
a. Determine the velocity of the bird at t = 1 sec.
b. Determine the acceleration of the bird at t = 1 sec.
c. Determine the acceleration of the bird when the velocity equals 0.
157) A potato is launched vertically upward with an initial velocity of 100 ft/s from a potato gun at the top of an 85-foot-tall
building. The distance in feet that the potato travels from the ground after t seconds is given by s(t) = −16t + 100t + 85 .2
a. Find the velocity of the potato after 0.5s and 5.75s.

b. Find the speed of the potato at 0.5 s and 5.75 s.
c. Determine when the potato reaches its maximum height.
d. Find the acceleration of the potato at 0.5 s and 1.5 s.
e. Determine how long the potato is in the air.
f. Determine the velocity of the potato upon hitting the ground.
−−− −−−
Solution: a. 84 ft/s, −84 ft/s b. 84 ft/s c. 25
8
s d. −32f t/s in both cases e.
2 1
8
(25 + √965)s f . −4 √965f t/s
158) The position function s(t) = t 3

− 8t gives the position in miles of a freight train where east is the positive direction and t is
measured in hours.
a. Determine the direction the train is traveling when s(t) = 0 .
b. Determine the direction the train is traveling when a(t) = 0 .
c. Determine the time intervals when the train is slowing down or speeding up.
159) The following graph shows the position y = s(t) of an object moving along a straight line.
a. Use the graph of the position function to determine the time intervals when the velocity is positive, negative, or zero.
b. Sketch the graph of the velocity function.
c. Use the graph of the velocity function to determine the time intervals when the acceleration is positive, negative, or zero.

d. Determine the time intervals when the object is speeding up or slowing down.
Solution: a. Velocity is positive on (0, 1.5) ∪ (6, 7), negative on (1.5, 2) ∪ (5, 6), and zero on (2, 5).
b.
c. Acceleration is positive on (5, 7), negative on (0, 2), and zero on . d. The object is speeding up on
(2, 5) (6, 7) ∪ (1.5, 2) and
slowing down on (0, 1.5) ∪ (5, 6).
160) The cost function, in dollars, of a company that manufactures food processors is given by C (x) = 200 + 7
x
+
x
27
, where \x is
the number of food processors manufactured.
a. Find the marginal cost function.
b. Find the marginal cost of manufacturing 12 food processors.
c. Find the actual cost of manufacturing the thirteenth food processor.
161) The price p (in dollars) and the demand x for a certain digital clock radio is given by the price–demand function
p = 10 − 0.001x.
a. Find the revenue function R(x)

b. Find the marginal revenue function.
c. Find the marginal revenue at x = 2000 and 5000.
Solution: a. R(x) = 10x − 0.001x b.R'(x) = 10 − 0.002x c. $6 per item, $0 per item
2
162) [T] A profit is earned when revenue exceeds cost. Suppose the profit function for a skateboard manufacturer is given by
P (x) = 30x − 0.3 x − 250 , where x is the number of skateboards sold.
2
a. Find the exact profit from the sale of the thirtieth skateboard.
b. Find the marginal profit function and use it to estimate the profit from the sale of the thirtieth skateboard.
163) [T] In general, the profit function is the difference between the revenue and cost functions: P (x) = R(x) − C (x) .
Suppose the price-demand and cost functions for the production of cordless drills is given respectively by p = 143 − 0.03x and
C (x) = 75, 000 + 65x, where x is the number of cordless drills that are sold at a price of p dollars per drill and C (x) is the cost of
producing x cordless drills.

b. Find the revenue and marginal revenue functions.
c. Find R'(1000) and R'(4000). Interpret the results.
d. Find the profit and marginal profit functions.
e. Find P '(1000) and P '(4000). Interpret the results.
Solution: a. C '(x) = 65 b. R(x) = 143x − 0.03x ,R'(x) = 143 − 0.06x c. 83, −97. At a production level of 1000 cordless
2
drills, revenue is increasing at a rate of $83 per drill; at a production level of 4000 cordless drills, revenue is decreasing at a rate of
$97 per drill. d. P (x) = −0.03x + 78x − 75000, P '(x) = −0.06x + 78 e. 18,−162. At a production level of 1000 cordless
2

drills, profit is increasing at a rate of $18 per drill; at a production level of 4000 cordless drills, profit is decreasing at a rate of $162
per drill.
164) A small town in Ohio commissioned an actuarial firm to conduct a study that modeled the rate of change of the town’s
population. The study found that the town’s population (measured in thousands of people) can be modeled by the function
P (t) = − t + 64t + 3000 , where t is measured in years.
1 3
a. Find the rate of change function P '(t) of the population function.

b. Find P '(1), P '(2), P '(3), and P '(4). Interpret what the results mean for the town.
c. Find P ′′
(1), P
′′
(2), P
′′
(3) , and P ′′
. Interpret what the results mean for the town’s population.
(4)
165) [T] A culture of bacteria grows in number according to the function N (t) = 3000(1 + 2
4t
) , where t is measured in hours.
t +100
a. Find the rate of change of the number of bacteria.

b. Find N '(0), N '(10), N '(20), and N '(30).
c. Interpret the results in (b).
d. Find N ′′
(0), N
′′
(10), N
′′
(20), and N ′′
. Interpret what the answers imply about the bacteria population growth.
(30)
2 2
−4 t +400
Solution: a. N '(t) = 3000( 2
( t +100)
) b. 120, 0, −14.4, −9.6 c. The bacteria population increases from time 0 to 10 hours;
afterwards, the bacteria population decreases. d. 0, −6, 0.384, 0.432. The rate at which the bacteria is increasing is decreasing
during the first 10 hours. Afterwards, the bacteria population is decreasing at a decreasing rate.
2
166) The centripetal force of an object of mass m is given by F (r) =

mv
r
, where v is the speed of rotation and r is the distance
from the center of rotation.
a. Find the rate of change of centripetal force with respect to the distance from the center of rotation.
b. Find the rate of change of centripetal force of an object with mass 1000 kilograms, velocity of 13.89 m/s, and a distance
from the center of rotation of 200 meters.
The following questions concern the population (in millions) of London by decade in the 19th century, which is listed in the
following table.
Year Since 1800 Population (millions)
1 0.8975
11 1.040
21 1.264
31 1.516
41 1.661
51 2.000
61 2.634
71 3.272
81 3.911
91 4.422
Population of LondonSource: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demographics_of_London

167) [T]
a. Using a calculator or a computer program, find the best-fit linear function to measure the population.
b. Find the derivative of the equation in a. and explain its physical meaning.
c. Find the second derivative of the equation and explain its physical meaning.

Solution: a. P (t) = 0.03983 + 0.4280 b. P '(t) = 0.03983 . The population is increasing. c. P
′′
(t) = 0 . The rate at which the
population is increasing is constant.
168) [T]
a. Using a calculator or a computer program, find the best-fit quadratic curve through the data.
b. Find the derivative of the equation and explain its physical meaning.
3.6 E: Rates of Change Exercises is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.

3.7: The Chain Rule
We have seen the techniques for differentiating basic functions (x , sin x, cos x, etc. ) as well as sums, differences, products,
n
quotients, and constant multiples of these functions. However, these techniques do not allow us to differentiate compositions of
−−−−− −
functions, such as h(x) = sin(x ) or k(x) = √3x + 1 . In this section, we study the rule for finding the derivative of the
3 2
composition of two or more functions.
Deriving the Chain Rule

When we have a function that is a composition of two or more functions, we could use all of the techniques we have already
learned to differentiate it. However, using all of those techniques to break down a function into simpler parts that we are able to
differentiate can get cumbersome. Instead, we use the chain rule, which states that the derivative of a composite function is the
derivative of the outer function evaluated at the inner function times the derivative of the inner function.
To put this rule into context, let’s take a look at an example: h(x) = sin(x ) . We can think of the derivative of this function with
3
respect to x as the rate of change of sin(x ) relative to the change in x. Consequently, we want to know how sin(x ) changes as x
3 3
changes. We can think of this event as a chain reaction: As x changes, x changes, which leads to a change in sin(x ). This chain
3 3
reaction gives us hints as to what is involved in computing the derivative of sin(x ). First of all, a change in x forcing a change in 3
x suggests that somehow the derivative of x is involved. In addition, the change in x forcing a change in sin(x ) suggests that
3 3 3 3
the derivative of sin(u) with respect to u, where u = x , is also part of the final derivative.
3
We can take a more formal look at the derivative of h(x) = sin(x )

3
by setting up the limit that would give us the derivative at a
specific value a in the domain of h(x) = sin(x ) . 3
3 3
sin(x ) − sin(a )
h'(a) = lim (3.7.1)
x→a x −a
This expression does not seem particularly helpful; however, we can modify it by multiplying and dividing by the expression
x − a \) to obtain
3 3
3 3 3 3
sin(x ) − sin(a ) x −a
h'(a) = lim ⋅ . (3.7.2)
x→a 3 3
x −a x −a
From the definition of the derivative, we can see that the second factor is the derivative of x at x = a. That is, 3
3 3
x −a d 3 2
lim = (x ) = 3 a . (3.7.3)
x→a x −a dx
However, it might be a little more challenging to recognize that the first term is also a derivative. We can see this by letting u = x 3
and observing that as x → a, u → a : 3
3 3 3
sin(x ) − sin(a ) sin u − sin(a )
lim = lim (3.7.4)
x→a 3 3 3
x −a u→a
3
u −a
d .
= (sin u )u=a3 (3.7.5)
du
= cos(a3) (3.7.6)
Thus, h'(a) = cos(a 3 2

) ⋅ 3a .
In other words, if h(x) = sin(x )
3
, then . Thus, if we think of h(x) = sin(x ) as the composition
h'(x) = cos(x ) ⋅ 3 x
3 2 3
(f ∘ g)(x) = f (g(x)) where f (x) = sin x and g(x) = x , then the derivative of h(x) = sin(x ) is the product of the derivative of
3 3
g(x) = x
3
and the derivative of the function f (x) = sin x evaluated at the function g(x) = x . At this point, we anticipate that for 3
h(x) = sin(g(x)) , it is quite likely that h'(x) = cos(g(x))g'(x). As we determined above, this is the case for h(x) = sin(x ) .
3
Now that we have derived a special case of the chain rule, we state the general case and then apply it in a general form to other
composite functions. An informal proof is provided at the end of the section.
Rule: The Chain Rule
Let f and g be functions. For all x in the domain of g for which g is differentiable at x and f is differentiable at g(x) , the
derivative of the composite function

h(x) = (f ∘ g)(x) = f (g(x)) (3.7.7)
is given by
h'(x) = f '(g(x))g'(x). (3.7.8)
Alternatively, if y is a function of u, and u is a function of x, then

dy dy du
= ⋅ .
dx du dx
Problem-Solving Strategy: Applying the Chain Rule

1. To differentiate h(x) = f (g(x)) , begin by identifying f (x) and g(x).
2. Find f (x) and evaluate it at g(x) to obtain f '(g(x)).
′
3. Find g'(x).
4. Write h'(x) = f '(g(x)) ⋅ g'(x).
Note: When applying the chain rule to the composition of two or more functions, keep in mind that we work our way from the
outside function in. It is also useful to remember that the derivative of the composition of two functions can be thought of as
having two parts; the derivative of the composition of three functions has three parts; and so on. Also, remember that we never
evaluate a derivative at a derivative.
The Chain and Power Rules Combined

We can now apply the chain rule to composite functions, but note that we often need to use it with other rules. For example, to find
derivatives of functions of the form h(x) = (g(x)) , we need to use the chain rule combined with the power rule. To do so, we can
n
think of h(x) = (g(x)) as f (g(x)) where f (x) = x . Then f '(x) = nx . Thus, f '(g(x)) = n(g(x))
n n
. This leads us to the
n−1 n−1
derivative of a power function using the chain rule,

n−1
h'(x) = n(g(x)) g'(x)
Rule: Power Rule for Composition of Functions

For all values of x for which the derivative is defined, if
h(x) = (g(x))
n
.
Then
h'(x) = n(g(x))
n−1
g'(x) .
Example 3.7.1 : Using the Chain and Power Rules

1
Find the derivative of h(x) = 2 2
.
(3 x + 1)
Solution
1
First, rewrite h(x) = 2
= (3 x
2
+ 1)
−2
.
(3 x + 1 )2
Applying the power rule with g(x) = 3x 2

+1 , we have
h'(x) = −2(3 x
2
+ 1)
−3
(6x) .
Rewriting back to the original form gives us
−12x
h'(x) =
2 3
(3 x + 1)
Exercise 3.7.1
Find the derivative of h(x) = (2x 3
+ 2x − 1 )
4
.
Hint

Use Equation with g(x) = 2x 3
+ 2x − 1
Answer
3 3 3 3
h'(x) = 4(2 x + 2x − 1 ) (6x + 2) = 8(3x + 1)(2 x + 2x − 1 )
Example 3.7.2 : Using the Chain and Power Rules with a Trigonometric Function
Find the derivative of h(x) = si n 3
x .
Solution
First recall that si n 3
x = (sin x )
3
, so we can rewrite h(x) = si n 3
x as h(x) = (sin x) . 3
Applying the power rule with g(x) = sin x , we obtain

h'(x) = 3(sin x )
2
cos x = 3si n x cos x
2
.
Example 3.7.3 : inding the Equation of a Tangent Line

1
Find the equation of a line tangent to the graph of h(x) = 2
at x = 2 .
(3x − 5)
Solution
Because we are finding an equation of a line, we need a point. The x-coordinate of the point is 2. To find the y-coordinate,
1
substitute 2 into h(x). Since h(2) = =1 , the point is (2, 1).
(3(2) − 5)2
For the slope, we need h'(2). To find h'(x), first we rewrite h(x) = (3x − 5) −2
and apply the power rule to obtain
h'(x) = −2(3x − 5 )
−3
(3) = −6(3x − 5 )
−3
.
By substituting, we have h'(2) = −6(3(2) − 5) −3
= −6.
Therefore, the line has equation y − 1 = −6(x − 2) . Rewriting, the equation of the line is y = −6x + 13 .
Exercise 3.7.2
Find the equation of the line tangent to the graph of f (x) = (x 2
− 2)
3
at x = −2 .
Hint
Answer
y = −48x − 88
Derivative of the Natural Exponential Function

Let E(x) = e be the natural exponential function. Then
x
x
E'(x) = e .
In general,
d
dx
(e
g(x)
) =e
g(x)
g'(x) .
Example 3.7.1 : Derivative of an Exponential Function

Find the derivative of f (x) = e tan(2x)
.
Solution:
Using the derivative formula and the chain rule,
f '(x) = e
tan(2x) d
dx
(tan(2x)) = e
tan(2x) 2
sec (2x) ⋅ 2 .

2
x
Find the derivative of y = e
x
.
Solution
Use the derivative of the natural exponential function, the quotient rule, and the chain rule.
2 2
x x
(e ⋅2)x⋅x−1⋅ e
y' =
x 2
Apply the quotient rule.
2
x 2
e (2 x −1)
=
x 2
Simplify.
Exercise 3.7.1
Find the derivative of h(x) = xe . 2x
Hint
Answer
2x 2x
h'(x) = e + 2x e
Example 3.7.3 : Applying the Natural Exponential Function

A colony of mosquitoes has an initial population of 1000. After t days, the population is given by A(t) = 1000e 0.3t
. Show that
the ratio of the rate of change of the population, A'(t), to the population, A(t) is constant.
Solution
First find A'(t). By using the chain rule, we have A'(t) = 300e 0.3t
. Thus, the ratio of the rate of change of the population to the
population is given by
0.3t
300e
A'(t) = 0.3t
= 0.3.
1000e
The ratio of the rate of change of the population to the population is the constant 0.3.
Exercise 3.7.2
If A(t) = 1000e describes the mosquito population after t days, as in the preceding example, what is the rate of change of
0.3t
A(t) after 4 days?
Hint
Find A'(4).
Answer
996
Combining the Chain Rule with Other Rules

Now that we can combine the chain rule and the power rule, we examine how to combine the chain rule with the other rules we
have learned. In particular, we can use it with the formulas for the derivatives of trigonometric functions or with the product rule.
Example 3.7.4 : Using the Chain Rule on a General Cosine Function

Find the derivative of h(x) = cos(g(x)).
Solution
Think of h(x) = cos(g(x)) as f (g(x)) where f (x) = cos x. Since f '(x) = − sin x . we have f '(g(x)) = − sin(g(x)) . Then we
do the following calculation.

h'(x) = f '(g(x))g'(x) Apply the chain rule.
= − sin(g(x))g'(x) Substitutef′(g(x))=−\sin(g(x)).
Thus, the derivative of h(x) = cos(g(x)) is given by h'(x) = − sin(g(x))g'(x).
In the following example we apply the rule that we have just derived.
Example 3.7.5 : Using the Chain Rule on a Cosine Function

Find the derivative of h(x) = cos(5x 2
).
Solution
Letg(x) = 5x
2
. Then g'(x) = 10x. Using the result from the previous example,
h'(x) = − sin(5x2) ⋅ 10x = −10x sin(5x2)
Example 3.7.6 : Using the Chain Rule on Another Trigonometric Function

Find the derivative of h(x) = sec(4x 5
+ 2x).
Solution
Apply the chain rule to h(x) = sec(g(x)) to obtain
h'(x) = sec(g(x)tan(g(x))g'(x).
In this problem, g(x) = 4x 5

+ 2x, so we have g'(x) = 20x 4
+ 2. Therefore, we obtain
5 5 4 4 5 5
h'(x) = sec(4 x + 2x)tan(4 x + 2x)(20 x + 2) = (20 x + 2)sec(4 x + 2x)tan(4 x + 2x).
Exercise 3.7.3
Find the derivative of h(x) = sin(7x + 2).
Hint
Apply the chain rule to h(x) = sing(x) first and then use g(x) = 7x + 2 .
Answer
h'(x) = 7 cos(7x + 2)
At this point we provide a list of derivative formulas that may be obtained by applying the chain rule in conjunction with the
formulas for derivatives of trigonometric functions. Their derivations are similar to those used in Example and Example. For
convenience, formulas are also given in Leibniz’s notation, which some students find easier to remember. (We discuss the chain
rule using Leibniz’s notation at the end of this section.) It is not absolutely necessary to memorize these as separate formulas as
they are all applications of the chain rule to previously learned formulas.
Using the Chain Rule with Trigonometric Functions
For all values of x for which the derivative is defined,
d d du
′
(sin(g(x)) = cos(g(x))g (x) sin u = cosu
dx dx dx
d d du
′
(cos(g(x)) = − sin(g(x))g (x) cosu = − sin u
dx dx dx
d d du
2 ′ 2
(tan(g(x)) = sec (g(x))g (x) tanu = sec u
dx dx dx
d d du
2 ′ 2
(cot(g(x)) = −csc (g(x))g (x) cotu = −csc u
dx dx dx
d d du
′
(sec(g(x)) = sec(g(x)tan(g(x))g (x) secu = secutanu
dx dx dx

d d du
′
(csc(g(x)) = −csc(g(x))cot(g(x))g (x) cscu = −cscucotu .
dx dx dx
Example 3.7.7 : Combining the Chain Rule with the Product Rule
Find the derivative of h(x) = (2x + 1) 5
(3x − 2 )
7
.
Solution
First apply the product rule, then apply the chain rule to each term of the product.
d d
5 7 7 5
h'(x) = ((2x + 1 ) ) ⋅ (3x − 2 ) + ((3x − 2 ) ) ⋅ (2x + 1 )
dx dx
4 7 6 5
= 5(2x + 1 ) ⋅ 2 ⋅ (3x − 2 ) + 7(3x − 2 ) ⋅ 3 ⋅ (2x + 1 )
4 7 6 5
= 10(2x + 1 ) (3x − 2 ) + 21(3x − 2 ) (2x + 1 )
4 6
= (2x + 1 ) (3x − 2 ) (10(3x − 7) + 21(2x + 1))
4 6
= (2x + 1 ) (3x − 2 ) (72x − 49)
Exercise 3.7.4
x
Find the derivative of h(x) = 3
.
(2x + 3)
Hint
Start out by applying the quotient rule. Remember to use the chain rule to differentiate the denominator.
Answer
3 − 4x
h'(x) =
4
(2x + 3)
Composites of Three or More Functions

We can now combine the chain rule with other rules for differentiating functions, but when we are differentiating the composition
of three or more functions, we need to apply the chain rule more than once. If we look at this situation in general terms, we can
generate a formula, but we do not need to remember it, as we can simply apply the chain rule multiple times.
In general terms, first we let
k(x) = h(f (g(x))). (3.7.9)
Then, applying the chain rule once we obtain

d ′
d
k'(x) = (h(f (g(x))) = h (f (g(x))) ⋅ f ((g(x))). (3.7.10)
dx dx
Applying the chain rule again, we obtain

k'(x) = h'(f (g(x))f '(g(x))g'(x)). (3.7.11)
Example 3.7.8 : Rule: Chain Rule for a Composition of Three Functions

Solution
For all values of x for which the function is differentiable, if
k(x) = h(f (g(x))),
then
k'(x) = h'(f (g(x)))f '(g(x))g'(x).
In other words, we are applying the chain rule twice.

Notice that the derivative of the composition of three functions has three parts. (Similarly, the derivative of the composition of
four functions has four parts, and so on.) Also, remember, we can always work from the outside in, taking one derivative at a
time.
Example 3.7.9 : Differentiating a Composite of Three Functions

Find the derivative of k(x) = cos 4
(7 x
2
+ 1).
Solution
First, rewrite k(x) as
k(x) = (cos(7 x
2
+ 1))
4
.
Then apply the chain rule several times.
k'(x) = 4(cos(7x2 + 1))3(ddx(cos(7x2 + 1))
d
2 3 2 2
= 4(cos(7 x + 1)) (− sin(7 x + 1))( (7 x + 1))
dx
2 3 2
= 4(cos(7 x + 1)) (− sin(7 x + 1))(14x)
2 3 2
= −56x sin(7 x + 1)cos (7 x + 1)
Exercise 3.7.5
Find the derivative of h(x) = si n 6 3
(x ).
Hint
Rewrite h(x) = si n 6 3
(x ) = (sin(x ))
3 6
and use Example as a guide.
Answer
2 5 3 3
h'(x) = 18 x si n (x ) cos(x )
Example 3.7.10 : Using the Chain Rule in a Velocity Problem

A particle moves along a coordinate axis. Its position at time t is given by s(t) = sin(2t) + cos(3t) . What is the velocity of the
π
particle at time t = ?
6
Solution
To find v(t) , the velocity of the particle at time t , we must differentiate s(t) . Thus,
v(t) = s'(t) = 2 cos(2t) − 3 sin(3t). (3.7.12)
Proof of Chain Rule

At this point, we present a very informal proof of the chain rule. For simplicity’s sake we ignore certain issues: For example, we
assume that g(x) ≠ g(a) for x ≠ a in some open interval containing a . We begin by applying the limit definition of the
derivative to the function h(x) to obtain h'(a):
f (g(x)) − f (g(a))
h'(a) = limx→a .
x −a
Rewriting, we obtain
f (g(x)) − f (g(a)) g(x) − g(a)
h'(a) = limx→a ⋅ .
g(x) − g(a) x −a
Although it is clear that

g(x) − g(a)
limx→a = g'(a) ,
x −a

it is not obvious that
f (g(x)) − f (g(a))
limx→a = f '(g(a)) .
g(x) − g(a)
To see that this is true, first recall that since g is differentiable at a, g is also continuous at a. Thus,
limx→a g(x) = g(a) .
Next, make the substitution y = g(x) and b = g(a) and use change of variables in the limit to obtain
f (g(x)) − f (g(a)) f (y) − f (b)
limx→a = limy→b = f '(b) = f '(g(a)).
g(x) − g(a) y −b
Finally,
f (g(x)) − f (g(a)) g(x) − g(a)
h'(a) = limx→a ⋅ = f '(g(a))g'(a) .
g(x) − g(a) x −a
Example 3.7.11 : Using the Chain Rule with Functional Values

Let h(x) = f (g(x)). If g(1) = 4, g'(1) = 3 , and f '(4) = 7, find h'(1).
Solution
Use the chain rule, then substitute.
h'(1) = f '(g(1))g'(1) Apply the chain rule.
= f '(4) ⋅ 3 Substitute g(1) = 4 and g'(1) = 3.
=7⋅3 Substitute f ′
(4) = 7.
= 21 Simplify
Exercise 3.7.6
Given h(x) = f (g(x)) . If g(2) = −3, g'(2) = 4, and f '(−3) = 7 , find h'(2).
Hint
Follow Example.
Answer
28
The Chain Rule Using Leibniz’s Notation

As with other derivatives that we have seen, we can express the chain rule using Leibniz’s notation. This notation for the chain rule
is used heavily in physics applications.
For h(x) = f (g(x)), let u = g(x) and y = h(x) = g(u). Thus,
\(h′(x)=\dfrac{dy}{dx}\]
dy
f '(g(x)) = f '(u) = (3.7.13)
du
and
du
g'(x) = . (3.7.14)
dx
Consequently,

dy dy du
= h'(x) = f '(g(x))g'(x) = ⋅ .
dx du dx
Rule: Chain Rule Using Leibniz’s Notation

If y is a function of u, and u is a function of x, then
dy dy du
= ⋅ .
dx du dx
Example 3.7.12 : Taking a Derivative Using Leibniz’s Notation I

5
x
y =( ) . (3.7.15)
3x + 2
Solution
x du dy
First, let u = . Thus, y = u . Next, find
5
and . Using the quotient rule,
3x + 2 dx du
du 2
=
dx (3x + 2)2
and
dy
= 5u
4
.
du
Finally, we put it all together.

dy dy du
= ⋅ Apply the chain rule.
dx du dx
2
= 5u
4
⋅
2
Substitutedydu=5u4anddudx=2(3x+2)2.
(3x + 2)
x 2
= 5(
4
) ⋅
2
Substituteu=x3x+2.
3x + 2 (3x + 2)
4
10x
=
6
Simplify.
(3x + 2)
It is important to remember that, when using the Leibniz form of the chain rule, the final answer must be expressed entirely in
terms of the original variable given in the problem.
Example 3.7.13 : Taking a Derivative Using Leibniz’s Notation II

2
y = tan(4 x − 3x + 1). (3.7.16)
Solution
du dy
First, let u = 4x 2
− 3x + 1. Then y = tanu . Next, find and :
dx du
du dy
= 8x − 3 and = sec u.
2
dx du
Finally, we put it all together.

dy dy du
= ⋅ Apply the chain rule.
dx du dx
du dy
2
= sec u ⋅ (8x − 3) Use = 8x − 3 and = sec u
2
.
dx du
= sec (4 x
2 2
− 3x + 1) ⋅ (8x − 3) Substitute u = 4x 2
− 3x + 1 .

Exercise 3.7.7
Use Leibniz’s notation to find the derivative of y = cos(x )
3
. Make sure that the final answer is expressed entirely in terms of
the variable x.
Hint
Let u = x .3
Answer
dy
2 3
= −3 x sin(x ). (3.7.17)
dx
Key Concepts
The chain rule allows us to differentiate compositions of two or more functions. It states that for h(x) = f (g(x)),
h'(x) = f '(g(x))g'(x).
In Leibniz’s notation this rule takes the form

dy dy du
= ⋅ .
dx du dx
We can use the chain rule with other rules that we have learned, and we can derive formulas for some of them.
The chain rule combines with the power rule to form a new rule:
If h(x) = (g(x)) ,then h'(x) = n(g(x))
n n−1
g'(x) .
When applied to the composition of three functions, the chain rule can be expressed as follows: If h(x) = f (g(k(x))),
then h'(x) = f '(g(k(x))g'(k(x))k'(x).
Key Equations
The chain rule
h'(x) = f '(g(x))g'(x)
The power rule for functions

n−1
h'(x) = n(g(x)) g'(x)
Glossary
chain rule
the chain rule defines the derivative of a composite function as the derivative of the outer function evaluated at the inner
function times the derivative of the inner function
Contributors
This page titled 3.7: The Chain Rule is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by OpenStax.

3.7: The Chain Rule
Exercise:
dy dy
For the following exercises, given y = f (u) and u = g(x) , find dydx by using Leibniz’s notation for the chain rule: dx
=
du dx
du
.
214) y = 3u − 6, u = 2x 2
215) y = 6u 3
, u = 7x − 4
Solution: 18u 2
⋅ 7 = 18(7x − 4 )
2
⋅7
216) y = sinu, u = 5x − 1
217) y = cosu, u = −x
−1 −x −1
Solution: −sinu ⋅ 8=
− sin(
8
)⋅
8
218) y = tanu, u = 9x + 2
−−−−−
219) y = √4u + 3 , u = x 2
− 6x
Solution: 8x−24
2 √4u+3
=
4x−12
√4 x2 −24x+3
For each of the following exercises,

a. decompose each function in the form y = f (u) and u = g(x), and
dy
b. find dx
as a function of x.
220) y = (3x − 2) 6
221) y = (3x 2
+ 1)
3
Solution: a. u = 3x 2
+1 ; b. 18x(3x 2
+ 1)
2
222) y = si n 5
(x)
dy
For each of the following exercises, find dx
as a function of x.
223) y = ( x
7
+
x
7
)
7
Solution: a. f (u) = u 7
,u =
x
7
+
7
x
; b. 7(
x
7
+
7
x
6
) ⋅(
1
7
−
7
x2
)
224) y = tan(secx)
225) y = csc(πx + 1)
Solution: a. f (u) = cscu, u = πx + 1; b. −πcsc(πx + 1) ⋅ cot(πx + 1)
226) y = cot 2
x
227) y = −6si n −3
x
a. f (u) = −6u −3
, u = sinx, b. 18si n
−4
x ⋅ cosx
dy
for each function.
228) y = (3x 2
+ 3x − 1 )
4
229) y = (5 − 2x) −2
Solution: 4
3
(5−2x)
230) y = cos 3
(πx)
231) y = (2x 3
−x
2
+ 6x + 1 )
3
Solution: 6(2x 3
−x
2
+ 6x + 1 ) (3 x
2 2
− x + 3)

232) y = 1
sin2 (x)
233) y = (tanx + sinx) −3
Soution: −3(tanx + sinx ) −4 2

⋅ (sec x + cosx)
234) y = x 2
cos x
4
235) y = sin(cos7x)
Solution: −7cos(cos7x) ⋅ sin7x
−−−−−−−−−
236) y = √6 + secπx 2
237) y = cot 3
(4x + 1)
Solution: −12cot 2
(4x + 1) ⋅ csc (4x + 1)
2
dy
238) Let y = [f (x)] and suppose that f '(1) = 4 and
3
dx
= 10 for x = 1 . Find f (1).
dy
239) Let y = (f (x) + 5x 2
)
4
and suppose that f (−1) = −4 and dx
=3 when x = −1 . Find f '(−1)
Solution: 10 3
dy
240) Let y = (f (u) + 3x) and u = x 2 3
− 2x . If f (4) = 6 and dx
= 18 when x = 2 , find f '(4).
241) [T] Find the equation of the tangent line to y = −sin( x
2
) at the origin. Use a calculator to graph the function and the tangent
line together.
Solution: y = −1
2
x
242) [T] Find the equation of the tangent line to y = (3x + 1
x
)
2
at the point (1, 16). Use a calculator to graph the function and the
tangent line together.
243) Find the x -coordinates at which the tangent line to y = (x − 6
x
)
8
is horizontal.
–
Solution: x = ±√6
244) [T] Find an equation of the line that is normal to g(θ) = sin2 (
πθ) at the point ( 1
4
,
1
2
. Use a calculator to graph the function
)
and the normal line together.

For the following exercises, use the information in the following table to find h'(a) at the given value for a .
′ ′
x f (x) f (x) g(x) g (x)
0 2 5 0 2
1 1 −2 3 0
2 4 4 1 −1
3 3 −3 2 3
245) h(x) = f (g(x)); a = 0

Solution: 10
246) h(x) = g(f (x)); a = 0
247) h(x) = (x 4
+ g(x))
−2
;a =1
Solution: − 1
f (x)
248) h(x) = ( g(x)
2
) ;a =3
249) h(x) = f (x + f (x)); a = 1

Solution: −4
250) h(x) = (1 + g(x)) 3
;a =2

251) h(x) = g(2 + f (x 2
)); a = 1
Solution: −12
252) h(x)=f(g(sinx));a=0
253) [T] The position function of a freight train is given by
s(t) = 100(t + 1)
−2
, with s in meters and t in seconds. At time t = 6 s, find the train’s
a. velocity and
b. acceleration.
c. Using a. and b. is the train speeding up or slowing down?
Solution: a. − 200
343
m/s, b. 600
2401
m/s^2, c. The train is slowing down since velocity and acceleration have opposite signs.
254) [T] A mass hanging from a vertical spring is in simple harmonic motion as given by the following position function, where t
is measured in seconds and s is in inches:
π
s(t) = −3cos(πt + ).
4
a. Determine the position of the spring at t = 1.5 s.

b. Find the velocity of the spring at t = 1.5 s.
255) [T] The total cost to produce x boxes of Thin Mint Girl Scout cookies is C dollars, where
C = 0.0001 x
3
− 0.02 x
2
+ 3x + 300. In t weeks production is estimated to be x = 1600 + 100t boxes.
a. Find the marginal cost C '(x).
b. Use Leibniz’s notation for the chain rule, dC
dt
=
dC
dx
⋅
dx
dt
, to find the rate with respect to time t that the cost is changing.
c. Use b. to determine how fast costs are increasing when t = 2 weeks. Include units with the answer.
Solution: a. C '(x) = 0.0003x 2
− 0.04x + 3
b. dC dt = 100 ⋅ (0.0003 x
2
− 0.04x + 3) c. Approximately $90,300 per week
256) [T] The formula for the area of a circle is A = πr , where r is the radius of the circle. Suppose a circle is expanding, meaning
2
that both the area A and the radius r (in inches) are expanding.
a. Suppose r = 2 − 100
2
where t is time in seconds. Use the chain rule dA
dt
=
dA
dr
⋅
dr
dt
to find the rate at which the area is
(t+7)
expanding.
b. Use a. to find the rate at which the area is expanding at t = 4 s.
257) [T] The formula for the volume of a sphere is S =
4
3
πr
3
, where r (in feet) is the radius of the sphere. Suppose a spherical
snowball is melting in the sun.
a. Suppose r =
1
2
−
1
12
where t is time in minutes. Use the chain rule dS
dt
=
dS
dr
⋅
dr
dt
to find the rate at which the
(t+1)
snowball is melting.
b. Use a. to find the rate at which the volume is changing at t = 1 min.
2
Solution: a. dS
dt
=−
8πr
3
b. The volume is decreasing at a rate of − π
36
ft
3
/min
(t+1)
258) [T] The daily temperature in degrees Fahrenheit of Phoenix in the summer can be modeled by the function
(x − 2)] , where x is hours after midnight. Find the rate at which the temperature is changing at 4 p.m.
π
T (x) = 94 − 10cos[
12
259) [T] The depth (in feet) of water at a dock changes with the rise and fall of tides. The depth is modeled by the function
) + 8 , where t is the number of hours after midnight. Find the rate at which the depth is changing at 6 a.m.
π 7π
D(t) = 5sin( t −
6 6
Solution: 2.3 ft/hr

More Exercises

331) f (x) = x 2
e
x
Solution: 2x e x
+x e
2 x
−x
332) f (x) = e
333) f (x) = e
3
x lnx
Solution: e
3
x 2 2
lnx(3 x lnx + x )
−− − −−−−
334) f (x) = √e
2x
+ 2x
x −x
335) f (x) = e −e
e +e
x −x
Solution: x
4
−x 2
( e +e )
336) f (x) = 10
ln10
337) f (x) = 2 4x
+ 4x
2
Solution: 2 4x+2
⋅ ln2 + 8x
3.7 E: Chain Rule Exercises is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.

We have already studied how to find equations of tangent lines to functions and the rate of change of a function at a specific point.
In all these cases we had the explicit equation for the function and differentiated these functions explicitly. Suppose instead that we
want to determine the equation of a tangent line to an arbitrary curve or the rate of change of an arbitrary curve at a point. In this
section, we solve these problems by finding the derivatives of functions that define y implicitly in terms of x.
Implicit Differentiation
In most discussions of math, if the dependent variable y is a function of the independent variable x, we express y in terms of x. If
this is the case, we say that y is an explicit function of x. For example, when we write the equation y = x + 1 , we are defining y
2
explicitly in terms of x. On the other hand, if the relationship between the function y and the variable x is expressed by an equation
where y is not expressed entirely in terms of x, we say that the equation defines y implicitly in terms of x. For example, the
equation y − x = 1 defines the function y = x + 1 implicitly.
2 2
Implicit differentiation allows us to find slopes of tangents to curves that are clearly not functions (they fail the vertical line test).
We are using the idea that portions of y are functions that satisfy the given equation, but that y is not actually a function of x.
In general, an equation defines a function implicitly if the function satisfies that equation. An equation may define many different
functions implicitly. For example, the functions
− −−−− −
2
y = √ 25 − x (3.8.1)
and
− −−−− −
√ 25 − x2 if − 25 ≤ x < 0
y ={ −−−−− − (3.8.2)
2
−√ 25 − x if 0 ≤ x ≤ 25
which are illustrated in Figure, are just three of the many functions defined implicitly by the equation x 2
+y
2
= 25 .

Figure 3.8.1 :The equation x 2
+y
2
= 25 defines many functions implicitly.
If we want to find the slope of the line tangent to the graph of x + y = 25 at the point (3, 4), we could evaluate the derivative of
2 2
−−−−− −
the function y = −√25 − x at x = 3 . On the other hand, if we want the slope of the tangent line at the point (3, −4), we could
2
−−−−− −
use the derivative of y = −√25 − x . However, it is not always easy to solve for a function defined implicitly by an equation.
2
Fortunately, the technique of implicit differentiation allows us to find the derivative of an implicitly defined function without ever
dy
solving for the function explicitly. The process of finding using implicit differentiation is described in the following problem-
dx
solving strategy.
Problem-Solving Strategy: Implicit Differentiation

To perform implicit differentiation on an equation that defines a function y implicitly in terms of a variable x, use the following
steps:
1. Take the derivative of both sides of the equation. Keep in mind that y is a function of x. Consequently, whereas
d
(sin x) = cos x (3.8.3)
dx

and
d dy
(sin y) = cos y (3.8.4)
dx dx
because we must use the chain rule to differentiate sin y with respect to x.
dy dy
2. Rewrite the equation so that all terms containing are on the left and all terms that do not contain are on the right.
dx dx
dy
3. Factor out on the left.
dx
dy
4. Solve for by dividing both sides of the equation by an appropriate algebraic expression.
dx
Example 3.8.1 : Using Implicit Differentiation

dy
Assuming that y is defined implicitly by the equation x 2
+y
2
= 25 , find .
dx
Solution
Follow the steps in the problem-solving strategy.
d d
(x
2 2
+y ) = (25) Step 1. Differentiate both sides of the equation.
dx dx
d d d
2
(x ) +
2
(y ) = 0 Step 1.1. Use the sum rule on the left.On the right .
(25) = 0
dx dx dx
dy
Step 1.2. Take the derivatives, so 2
(x ) = 2x and
dx
2x + 2y = 0
d dy
dx 2
(y ) = 2y .
dx dx
dy
dy Step 2. Keep the terms with on the left.Move the remaining terms
2y = −2x dx
dx
to the right.
dy x Step 4. Divide both sides of the equation by 2y .(Step 3 does not apply
= −
dx y in this case.)
Analysis
dy
Note that the resulting expression for is in terms of both the independent variable x and the dependent variable y . Although
dx
dy
in some cases it may be possible to express in terms of x only, it is generally not possible to do so.
dx
Example 3.8.2 : Using Implicit Differentiation and the Product Rule

dy
Assuming that y is defined implicitly by the equation x 3
sin y + y = 4x + 3 , find .
dx
Solution
d d
(x
3
sin y + y) = (4x + 3) Step 1: Differentiate both sides of the equation.
dx dx
d d
Step 1.1: Apply the sum rule on the left.On the right,
3
(x sin y) + (y) = 4 d
dx dx (4x + 3) = 4 .
dx
d d dy
Step 1.2: Use the product rule to find (x
3
sin y) .Observe that
3 3 dx
( (x ) ⋅ sin y + (sin y) ⋅ x ) + = 4
d dy
dx dx dx
(y) = .
dx dx
dy dy
Step 1.3: We know 3
(x ) = 3 x
2
.Use the chain rule to obtain
2 dx
3x sin y + (cosy ) ⋅ x3 + = 4
d dy
dx dx
(sin y) = cosy .
dx dx

dy
3
dy dy
2
Step 2: Keep all terms containing on the left. Move all other terms
x cosy + = 4 − 3x sin y dx
dx dx
to the right.
dy dy
(x
3
cosy + 1) = 4 − 3 x
2
sin y Step 3: Factor out on the left.
dx dx
dy
dy 4 − 3x
2
sin y Step 4: Solve for by dividing both sides of the equation by
= dx
dx 3
x cosy + 1
x
3
cosy + 1 .
Example 3.8.3 : Using Implicit Differentiation to Find a Second Derivative

2
d y
Find 2
if x 2
+y
2
= 25 .
dx
Solution
2
dy x d y
In Example, we showed that =− . We can take the derivative of both sides of this equation to find .
dx y dx2
2
d y d x dy x
2
= (− ) Differentiate both sides of =− .
dx dy y dx y
dy
(1 ⋅ y − x )
dx d x
=−
2
Use the quotient rule to find (− ) .
y dy y
dy
−y + x
dx
=
2
Simplify.
y
x
−y + x(− )
y dy x
=
2
Substitute =− .
y dx y
2 2
−y −x
=
3
Simplify.
y
2
d y
At this point we have found an expression for 2
. If we choose, we can simplify the expression further by recalling that
dx
2
d y 25
x
2
+y
2
= 25 and making this substitution in the numerator to obtain =− .
dx2 y3
Exercise 3.8.1
dy
Find for y defined implicitly by the equation 4x 5
+ tan y = y
2
+ 5x .
dx
Hint
Follow the problem solving strategy, remembering to apply the chain rule to differentiate tan and y . 2
Answer
4
dy 5 − 20x
= (3.8.5)
2
dx sec y − 2y
Finding Tangent Lines Implicitly

Now that we have seen the technique of implicit differentiation, we can apply it to the problem of finding equations of tangent lines
to curves described by equations.
Example 3.8.4 : Finding a Tangent Line to a Circle

Find the equation of the line tangent to the curve x 2
+y
2
= 25 at the point (3, −4).
Solution
Although we could find this equation without using implicit differentiation, using that method makes it much easier. In
dy x
Example, we found =− .
dx y
The slope of the tangent line is found by substituting (3, −4) into this expression. Consequently, the slope of the tangent line is
dy 3 3
∣(3,−4)= − = .
dx −4 4
3 3 25
Using the point (3, −4) and the slope in the point-slope equation of the line, we obtain the equation y = x− (Figure
4 4 4
3.8.2 :).
3 25
Figure 3.8.2 : The line y = x− is tangent to x 2
+y
2
= 25 at the point (3, −4).
4 4
Example 3.8.5 : Finding the Equation of the Tangent Line to a Curve

3 3
Find the equation of the line tangent to the graph of y
3
+x
3
− 3xy = 0 at the point ( , ) (Figure). This curve is known as
2 2
the folium (or leaf) of Descartes.
3 3
Figure 3.8.3 : Finding the tangent line to the folium of Descartes at ( , .
)
2 2
Solution

dy
Begin by finding .
dx
d d
3 3
(y +x − 3xy) = (0)
dx dx
dy dy
2 2
3y + 3x − (3y + 3x) = 0
dx dx
2
dy 3y − 3x
=
2
.
dx 3y − 3x
2
3 3 dy 3y − 3x
Next, substitute ( , ) into = to find the slope of the tangent line:
2 2 dx 3 y 2 − 3x
dy
∣
3 3
= −1 .
dx
( , )
2 2
Finally, substitute into the point-slope equation of the line to obtain

y = −x + 3 .
Example 3.8.6 : Applying Implicit Differentiation

In a simple video game, a rocket travels in an elliptical orbit whose path is described by the equation 4x + 25y = 100 . The 2 2
rocket can fire missiles along lines tangent to its path. The object of the game is to destroy an incoming asteroid traveling along
8
the positive x-axis toward (0, 0). If the rocket fires a missile when it is located at (3, , where will it intersect the x-axis?
)
3
Solution
To solve this problem, we must determine where the line tangent to the graph of
8 dy
4x
2
+ 25 y
2
= 100 at (3, ) intersects the x-axis. Begin by finding implicitly.
3 dx
Differentiating, we have
dy
8x + 50y = 0.
dx
dy
Solving for ,
dx
we have
dy 4x
=− .
dx 25y
dy 9 9 183
The slope of the tangent line is ∣
8
=− . The equation of the tangent line is y = − x+ . To determine where
dx 50 50 200
(3, )
3
9 183 6
the line intersects the x-axis, solve 0 =− x+ . The solution is x = . The missile intersects the x-axis at the point
50 200 13
61
( , 0).
3
Exercise 3.8.2
Find the equation of the line tangent to the hyperbola x 2
−y
2
= 16 at the point (5, 3).
Hint
dy x
=
dx y
Answer

5 16
y = x−
3 3
Key Concepts
We use implicit differentiation to find derivatives of implicitly defined functions (functions defined by equations).
By using implicit differentiation, we can find the equation of a tangent line to the graph of a curve.
Glossary
implicit differentiation
dy
is a technique for computing for a function defined by an equation, accomplished by differentiating both sides of the
dx
dy
equation (remembering to treat the variable y as a function) and solving for
dx
Contributors
This page titled 3.8: Implicit Differentiation is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by OpenStax.

dy
For the following exercises, use implicit differentiation to find dx
.
300) x 2
−y
2
=4
301) 6x 2
+ 3y
2
= 12
Answer:
dy −2x
=
dx y
dy −2x
Solution: dx
=
y
302) x 2
y = y −7
303) 3x 3
+ 9x y
2
= 5x
3
Answer:
dy x y
= −
dx 3y 2x
304) xy − cos(xy) = 1
−−−−−
305) y √x + 4 = xy + 8
Answer:
y
y−
dy 2 √x+ 4
=
dx √x+4 −x
306) −xy − 2 = x
307) y sin(xy) = y 2
+2
Answer:
2
dy y cos(xy)
=
dx 2y−sin(xy)−xy\cosxy
308) (xy ) 2
+ 3x = y
2
309) x 3
y + xy
3
= −8
Answer:
2 3
dy −3 x y−y
=
3 2
dx x +3xy
For the following exercises, find the equation of the tangent line to the graph of the given equation at the indicated point. Just for
observation, use a calculator or computer software to graph the function and the tangent line.
310) [T ]x 4
y − xy
3
= −2, (−1, −1)
311) [T ]x 2
y
2
+ 5xy = 14, (2, 1)
Answer:
1
y =− x +2
2

312) [T ]tan(xy) = y, ( π
4
, 1)
313) [T ]x y 2
+ sin(πy) − 2 x
2
= 10, (2, −3)
Answer:
1 3π+38
y = x−
π+12 π+12
314) [T ] x
y
+ 5x − 7 = −
3
4
y, (1, 2)
315) [T ]xy + sin(x) = 1, ( π
2
, 0)
Answer:
y =0
316) [T] The graph of a folium of Descartes with equation 2x 3

+ 2y
3
− 9xy = 0 is given in the following graph.

a. Find the equation of the tangent line at the point (2, 1). Graph the tangent line along with the folium.
b. Find the equation of the normal line to the tangent line in a. at the point (2, 1).
317) For the equation x 2
+ 2xy − 3 y
2
= 0,
a. Find the equation of the normal to the tangent line at the point (1, 1).
b. At what other point does the normal line in a. intersect the graph of the equation?
Answer:
a. y = −x + 2b. (3, −1)
318) Find all points on the graph of y 3

− 27y = x
2
− 90 at which the tangent line is vertical.
+ xy + y
2
=7 ,
a. Find the x-intercept(s).
b.Find the slope of the tangent line(s) at the x-intercept(s).
c. What does the value(s) in b. indicate about the tangent line(s)?
Answer:
a. (±7√, 0)b. −2 c. They are parallel since the slope is the same at both intercepts.
320) Find the equation of the tangent line to the graph of the equation si n −1x −1
+ si n y =
π
6
at the point (0, 1
2
.
)
321) Find the equation of the tangent line to the graph of the equation tan −1
(x + y) = x
2
+
π
4
at the point (0, 1).
Answer:
y = −x + 1
322) Find y' and y for x

′′ 2
+ 6xy − 2 y
2
=3 .
323) [T] The number of cell phones produced when x dollars is spent on labor and y dollars is spent on capital invested by a
manufacturer can be modeled by the equation 60x y = 3240. 3/4 1/4
dy
a. Find dx
and evaluate at the point (81, 16).
b. Interpret the result of a.
Answer:
a. −0.5926 b. When $81 is spent on labor and $16 is spent on capital, the amount spent on capital is decreasing by $0.5926 per
$1 spent on labor.
324) [T] The number of cars produced when x dollars is spent on labor and y dollars is spent on capital invested by a manufacturer
can be modeled by the equation 30x y = 360. 1/3 2/3
(Both xand y are measured in thousands of dollars.)

dy
a. Find dx
325) The volume of a right circular cone of radius x and height y is given by V =
1
3
2
πx y . Suppose that the volume of the cone is
dy
85πcm
3
. Find dx
when x = 4 and y = 16.
Answer:
−8
326) For the following exercises, consider a closed rectangular box with a square base with side x and height y .
Find an equation for the surface area of the rectangular box, S(x, y).
dy
327) If the surface area of the rectangular box is 78 square feet, find dx
when x = 3 feet and y = 5 feet.
Answer:
−2.67
3.8 E: Implicit Differentiation Exercises is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.

3.9: Derivatives of Ln, General Exponential & Log Functions; and Logarithmic
Differentiation
So far, we have learned how to differentiate a variety of functions, including trigonometric, inverse, and implicit functions. In this
section, we explore derivatives of logarithmic functions. Logarithmic functions can help rescale large quantities and are particularly
helpful for rewriting complicated expressions.
Derivative of the Logarithmic Function

Now that we have the derivative of the natural exponential function, we can use implicit differentiation to find the derivative of its
inverse, the natural logarithmic function.
Theorem: The Derivative of the Natural Logarithmic Function
If x > 0 and y = ln x ,then
dy
dx
=
1
x
.
If x ≠ 0 and y = ln |x|,then
dy
dx
=
1
x
.
Suppose the argument of the natural log is not just x, but instead is g(x), a differentiable function. Now, using the chain rule, we
get a more general derivative: for all values of x for which g(x) > 0 , the derivative of h(x) = ln(g(x)) is given by
1
h'(x) = g'(x).
g(x)
Proof
If x > 0 and y = ln x , then e y
= x. Differentiating both sides of this equation results in the equation
y dy
e = 1.
dx
dy
Solving for dx
yields
dy
dx
=
e
1
y .
Finally, we substitute x = e to obtain
y
dy
dx
=
1
x
.
We may also derive this result by applying the inverse function theorem, as follows. Since y = g(x) = lnx
is the inverse of f (x) = e , by applying the inverse function theorem we have
x
dy
dx
=
1
f '(g(x))
=
1
eln x
=
1
x
.
Using this result and applying the chain rule to h(x) = ln(g(x)) yields
h'(x) =
1
g(x)
g'(x) .
dy
The graph of y = lnx and its derivative dx
=
1
x
are shown in Figure.

Figure 3.9.3 : The function y = ln x is increasing on (0, +∞). Its derivative y ′
=
1
x
is greater than zero on (0, +∞)
Example 3.9.1 :Taking a Derivative of a Natural Logarithm

Find the derivative of f (x) = ln(x 3
+ 3x − 4) .
Solution
Use Equation directly.
f '(x) =
1
x3 +3x−4
⋅ (3 x
2
+ 3) Use g(x) = x 3
+ 3x − 4 in h'(x) = g(x)
1
g'(x) .
2
3 x +3
= 3
x +3x−4
Rewrite.
Example 3.9.2 :Using Properties of Logarithms in a Derivative

2
Find the derivative of f (x) = ln( x
2x+1
sin x
) .
Solution
At first glance, taking this derivative appears rather complicated. However, by using the properties of logarithms prior to finding
the derivative, we can make the problem much simpler.
2
f (x) = ln(
x
2x+1
sin x
) = 2 ln x + ln(sin x) − ln(2x + 1) Apply properties of logarithms.
f '(x) =
2
x
+ cot x −
2
2x+1
Apply sum rule and h'(x) = 1
g(x)
g'(x) .
Exercise 3.9.1
Differentiate: f (x) = ln(3x + 2) . 5
Hint
Use a property of logarithms to simplify before taking the derivative.
Answer
15
f '(x) =
3x+2
Now that we can differentiate the natural logarithmic function, we can use this result to find the derivatives of y = logb x and
y =b
x
for b > 0, b ≠ 1 .
Derivatives of General Exponential and Logarithmic Functions
Let b > 0, b ≠ 1, and let g(x) be a differentiable function.
i. If, y = log bx , then
dy
dx
=
1
x ln b
.
More generally, if h(x) = log b (g(x)) , then for all values of x for which g(x) > 0 ,
g'(x)
h'(x) =
g(x) ln b
.
ii. If y = b x
, then
dy
dx
=b
x
ln b .
More generally, if h(x) = b g(x)
, then
g(x) ′′
h'(x) = b g (x) ln b
Proof
If y = log x, then b = x. It follows that ln(b ) = ln x . Thus
b
y y
y ln b = ln x . Solving for y , we have y =
ln x
ln b
. Differentiating
and keeping in mind that ln b is a constant, we see that

dy
dx
=
1
x ln b
.
The derivative in Equation now follows from the chain rule.
If y =b
x
. then ln y = x ln b. Using implicit differentiation, again keeping in mind that ln b is constant, it follows that
dy dy
1
y dx
= ln b . Solving for and substituting y = b , we see that
dx
x
dy
dx
= y ln b = b
x
ln b .
The more general derivative (Equation) follows from the chain rule.
□
Example 3.9.3 :Applying Derivative Formulas

x
Find the derivative of h(x) = x

3
3 +2
.
Solution
Use the quotient rule and Note.
x x x x
3 ln 3( 3 +2)−3 ln 3( 3 )
h'(x) =
x 2
( 3 +2 )
=
2⋅ 3 ln 3
2
Simplify.
(3x+2)
Example 3.9.4 : Finding the Slope of a Tangent Line

Find the slope of the line tangent to the graph of y = log 2 (3x + 1) at x = 1 .
Solution
dy
To find the slope, we must evaluate dx
at x = 1 . Using Equation, we see that
dy
dx
=
3
ln 2(3x+1)
.
By evaluating the derivative at x = 1 , we see that the tangent line has slope
dy
dx
∣x=1 =
3
4 ln 2
=
3
ln 16
.
Exercise 3.9.2
Find the slope for the line tangent to y = 3 at x = 2. x
Hint
Evaluate the derivative at x = 2.
Answer
9 ln(3)
Logarithmic Differentiation
At this point, we can take derivatives of functions of the form y = (g(x)) for certain values of n , as well as functions of the form n
y =b , where b > 0 and b ≠ 1 . Unfortunately, we still do not know the derivatives of functions such as y = x or y = x .
g(x) x π
These functions require a technique called logarithmic differentiation, which allows us to differentiate any function of the form
h(x) = g(x) . It can also be used to convert a very complex differentiation problem into a simpler one, such as finding the
f (x)
x√2x+1
derivative of y = x 3
. We outline this technique in the following problem-solving strategy.
e sin x
Problem-Solving Strategy: Using Logarithmic Differentiation

1. To differentiate y = h(x) using logarithmic differentiation, take the natural logarithm of both sides of the equation to obtain
ln y = ln(h(x)).

2. Use properties of logarithms to expand ln(h(x)) as much as possible.
dy
3. Differentiate both sides of the equation. On the left we will have 1
y dx
.
dy
4. Multiply both sides of the equation by y to solve for dx
.
5. Replace y by h(x).
Example 3.9.5 : Using Logarithmic Differentiation

Find the derivative of y = (2x 4
+ 1)
tan x
.
Solution
Use logarithmic differentiation to find this derivative.
ln y = ln(2 x
4
+ 1)
tan x
Step 1. Take the natural logarithm of both sides.
ln y = tan x ln(2 x
4
+ 1) Step 2. Expand using properties of logarithms.
3
dy
1
y dx
= sec
2
x ln(2 x
4
+ 1) +
8x
2 x4 +1
⋅ tan x Step 3. Differentiate both sides. Use theproduct rule on the right.
dy 3
dx
= y ⋅ (sec
2
x ln(2x4 + 1) +
8x
4
2 x +1
⋅ tan x) Step 4. Multiply byyon both sides.
3
dy
dx
= (2 x
4
+ 1)
tan x
(sec
2
x ln(2 x
4
+ 1) +
8x
2 x4 +1
⋅ tan x) Step 5. Substitute y = (2x 4
+ 1)
tan x
.
Example 3.9.6 : Extending the Power Rule

x√2x+1
Find the derivative of y = 3
.
ex sin x
Solution
This problem really makes use of the properties of logarithms and the differentiation rules given in this chapter.
x √2x+1
ln y = ln
3
ex sin x
ln y = ln x +
1
2
ln(2x + 1) − x ln e − 3 ln sin x Step 2. Expand using properties of logarithms.
dy
1
y dx
=
1
x
+
2x+1
1
−1 −3
c os x
sin x
Step 3. Differentiate both sides.
dy
dx
= y(
1
x
+
2x+1
1
− 1 − 3 cot x) Step 4. Multiply by y on both sides.
dy x √2x+1 x √2x+1
=
3
(
1
x
+
1
− 1 − 3 cot x) Step 5. Substitute y =
3
.
dx ex sin x 2x+1 ex sin x
Exercise 3.9.3
Use logarithmic differentiation to find the derivative of y = x . x
Hint
Follow the problem solving strategy.
Answer
dy
Solution: dx
x
= x (1 + ln x)
Exercise 3.9.4
Find the derivative of y = (tan x) . π
Hint
Use the result from Example.
Answer

π−1 2
y' = π(tan x ) sec x
Key Concepts
On the basis of the assumption that the exponential function y = b , b > 0 is continuous everywhere and differentiable at
x
0, this function is differentiable everywhere and there is a formula for its derivative.
We can use a formula to find the derivative of y = ln x , and the relationship log x =
b allows us to extend our
ln x
ln b
differentiation formulas to include logarithms with arbitrary bases.

Logarithmic differentiation allows us to differentiate functions of the form y = g(x) or very complex functions by
f (x)
taking the natural logarithm of both sides and exploiting the properties of logarithms before differentiating.
Key Equations
Derivative of the natural exponential function
d g(x) g(x)
(e ) =e g'(x)
dx
Derivative of the natural logarithmic function

d 1
(ln g(x)) = g'(x)
dx g(x)
Derivative of the general exponential function

d g(x) g(x)
(b ) =b g'(x) ln b
dx
Derivative of the general logarithmic function

d g'(x)
(logb g(x)) =
dx g(x) ln b
Glossary
logarithmic differentiation
is a technique that allows us to differentiate a function by first taking the natural logarithm of both sides of an equation,
applying properties of logarithms to simplify the equation, and differentiating implicitly
Contributors
This page titled 3.9: Derivatives of Ln, General Exponential & Log Functions; and Logarithmic Differentiation is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA
4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by OpenStax.

3.9: Derivatives of Ln, General Exponent & Log Functions; and Logarithmic Differentiation
Exercise:

3
333) f (x) = e x ln x
Answer:
3
x 2 2
e ln x(3 x ln x + x )
336) f (x) = 10
ln 10
337) f (x) = 2 4x
+ 4x
2
Answer:
4x+2
2 ⋅ ln 2 + 8x
338) f (x) = 3 sin(3x)
339) f (x) = x π
⋅π
x
Answer:
π−1 x π x
πx ⋅π +x ⋅π ln π
340) f (x) = ln(4x 3

+ x)
−−−−−
341) f (x) = ln √5x − 7
Answer:
5
2(5x−7)
342) f (x) = x 2
ln(9x)
343) f (x) = log(sec x)
Answer:
tan x
ln 10
344) f (x) = log 7 (6 x

4
+ 3)
5
345) f (x) = 2
2
x x −4
⋅ log3 7
Answer:
2
x x −4 x 2x ln 7
2 ⋅ ln 2 ⋅ log3 7 +2 ⋅
ln 3
dy
For the following exercises, use logarithmic differentiation to find dx
.
346) y = x √x
347) y = (sin(2x)) 4x
Answer:
4x
(sin(2x)) [4 ⋅ ln(sin(2x)) + 8x ⋅ cot(2x)]

348) y = (ln x) ln x
349) y = x lo g2 x
Answer:
lo g x 2 ln x
x 2
⋅
x ln 2
350) y = (x 2
− 1)
ln x
351) y = x cot x
Answer:
cot x 2 cot x
x ⋅ [− csc x ⋅ lnx + ]
x
352) y = x+11
3
√x2 −4
353) y = x −1/2
(x
2
+ 3)
2/3
(3x − 4 )
4
Answer:
−1/2 2 2/3 4 −1 4x 12
x (x + 3) (3x − 4 ) ⋅[ + + ]
2
2x 3( x +3) 3x−4
354) [T] Find an equation of the tangent line to the graph of f (x) = 4xe at the point where
2
( x −1)
x = −1. Graph both the function and the tangent line.

355) [T] Find the equation of the line that is normal to the graph of f (x) = x ⋅ 5
x
at the point where x =1 . Graph both the
function and the normal line.
Answer:
−1 1
y = x + (5 + )
5+5 ln 5 5+5 ln 5
356) [T] Find the equation of the tangent line to the graph of x
3
− x ln y + y
3
= 2x + 5 at the point where x =2 . (Hint: Use
dy
implicit differentiation to find dx
.) Graph both the curve and the tangent line.
J357)
use the graph of y = f (x) (shown below) to
a. sketch the graph of y = f −1
(x) , and
b. use part a. to estimate (f −1
)'(1) .

Answer:
a.
b. (f −1
)'(1) 2
dy
For the next set of exercises, find dx
. [Hint: first take the ln of both sides.]
3 4
(2 x −15x) √6 x +7
J358) y = 2
3 x −x+3
−−−−−−
J359) y = 30x 4
√17x + 2 (sin(x))
J360) y = e 5x
(3x − 1 ) 3
3x
(8 )
3.9 E: Derivatives Ln, etc. Exercises is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.

In this section we explore the relationship between the derivative of a function and the derivative of its inverse. For functions
whose derivatives we already know, we can use this relationship to find derivatives of inverses without having to use the limit
definition of the derivative. In particular, we will apply the formula for derivatives of inverse functions to trigonometric functions.
This formula may also be used to extend the power rule to rational exponents.
The Derivative of an Inverse Function

Note: The Inverse Function Theorem is an "extra" for our course, but can be very useful. There are other methods to derive (prove)
the derivatives of the inverse Trigonmetric functions. Be sure to see the Table of Derivatives of Inverse Trigonometric Functions.
We begin by considering a function and its inverse. If f (x) is both invertible and differentiable, it seems reasonable that the inverse
of f (x) is also differentiable. Figure shows the relationship between a function f (x) and its inverse f (x). Look at the point −1
(a)) on the graph of f (x) having a tangent line with a slope of

−1 −1
(a, f
p
(f − 1)'(a) = . (3.10.1)
q
This point corresponds to a point (f −1

(a), a) on the graph of f (x) having a tangent line with a slope of
q
−1
f '(f (a)) = . (3.10.2)
p
Thus, if f −1
(x) is differentiable at a , then it must be the case that
1
(f
−1
)'(a) =
−1
.
f '(f (a))
Figure 3.10.1 :The tangent lines of a function and its inverse are related; so, too, are the derivatives of these functions.
We may also derive the formula for the derivative of the inverse by first recalling that x = f (f −1
. Then by differentiating both
(x))
sides of this equation (using the chain rule on the right), we obtain
1 = f '(f
−1
(x))(f
−1
)'(x)) .
Solving for (f −1
)'(x) , we obtain
1
(f
−1
)'(x) =
−1
.
f '(f (x))
We summarize this result in the following theorem.

Inverse Function Theorem
Let f (x) be a function that is both invertible and differentiable. Let y =f
−1
(x) be the inverse of f (x) . For all x satisfying
(x)) ≠ 0 ,
−1
f '(f
Access for free at OpenStax 3. 10.1 https://math.libretexts.org/@go/page/10961

dy d 1
−1 −1
= (f (x)) = (f )'(x) = . (3.10.3)
−1
dx dx f '(f (x))
Alternatively, if y = g(x) is the inverse of f (x), then

1
g(x) = . (3.10.4)
f '(g(x))
Example 3.10.1 : Applying the Inverse Function Theorem

x +2
Use the inverse function theorem to find the derivative of g(x) = . Compare the resulting derivative to that obtained by
x
differentiating the function directly.
Solution
x +2 2
The inverse of g(x) = is f (x) = .
x x −1
Since
1
g'(x) = , (3.10.5)
f '(g(x))
begin by finding f '(x). Thus,

2
−2 −2 −2 x
f '(x) =
2
and f '(g(x)) = 2
= =− .
(x − 1) (g(x) − 1) x +2 2
( − 1 )2
x
Finally,
1 2
g'(x) = =−
2
.
f '(g(x)) x
We can verify that this is the correct derivative by applying the quotient rule to g(x) to obtain
2
g'(x) = −
2
.
x
Exercise 3.10.1
1
Use the inverse function theorem to find the derivative of g(x) = . Compare the result obtained by differentiating g(x)
x +2
directly.
Hint
Answer
1
g'(x) = −
2
(x + 2)
Example 3.10.2 : Applying the Inverse Function Theorem

−
Use the inverse function theorem to find the derivative of g(x) = √x . 3
Solution
1
The function g(x) = √−
x is the inverse of the function f (x) = x . Since g'(x) =
3 3
, begin by finding f '(x). Thus,
f '(g(x))
3
f '(x) = 3x (3.10.6)
and

3 − 2 2/3
f '(g(x)) = 3(√x ) = 3 x (3.10.7)
Finally,
1 1
−2/3
g'(x) = = x . (3.10.8)
2/3
3x 3
Exercise 3.10.2
Find the derivative of g(x) = √−
x by applying the inverse function theorem.
5
Hint
g(x) is the inverse of f (x) = x . 5
Answer
1
−4/5
g(x) = x
5
From the previous example, we see that we can use the inverse function theorem to extend the power rule to exponents of the form
1
, where n is a positive integer. This extension will ultimately allow us to differentiate x , where q is any rational number. q
Extending the Power Rule to Rational Exponents

The power rule may be extended to rational exponents. That is, if n is a positive integer, then
d 1
1/n (1/n)−1
(x ) = x . (3.10.9)
dx n
Also, if n is a positive integer and m is an arbitrary integer, then

d m
(x
m/n
) = x
(m/n)−1
.
dx n
Proof
1
The function g(x) = x 1/n
is the inverse of the function f (x) = x . Since g'(x) = n
, begin by finding f '(x). Thus,
f '(g(x))
f '(x) = nx
n−1
and f '(g(x)) = n(x 1/n
)
n−1
= nx
(n−1)/n
.
Finally,
1 1 1
g'(x) = = x
(1−n)/n
= x
(1/n)−1
.
(n−1)/n n n
nx
To differentiate x m/n
we must rewrite it as (x 1/n m
) and apply the chain rule. Thus,
d d 1 m
m/n 1/n m 1/n m−1 (1/n)−1 (m/n)−1
(x ) = ((x ) ) = m(x ) ⋅ x = x . (3.10.10)
dx dx n n
Example 3.10.3 : Applying the Power Rule to a Rational Power

Find the equation of the line tangent to the graph of y = x 2/3
at x = 8 .
Solution
dy
First find and evaluate it at x = 8 . Since
dx
dy 2 dy 1
= x
−1/3
and ∣x=8 =
dx 3 dx 3
1
the slope of the tangent line to the graph at x = 8 is .
3

Substituting x = 8 into the original function, we obtain y = 4 . Thus, the tangent line passes through the point (8, 4) .
Substituting into the point-slope formula for a line, we obtain the tangent line
1 4
y = x+ .
3 3
Exercise 3.10.3
−−−−−
Find the derivative of s(t) = √2t + 1 .
Hint
Use the chain rule.
Answer
−1/2
s'(t) = (2t + 1)
Derivatives of Inverse Trigonometric Functions

We now turn our attention to finding derivatives of inverse trigonometric functions. These derivatives will prove invaluable in the
study of integration later in this text. The derivatives of inverse trigonometric functions are quite surprising in that their derivatives
are actually algebraic functions. Previously, derivatives of algebraic functions have proven to be algebraic functions and derivatives
of trigonometric functions have been shown to be trigonometric functions. Here, for the first time, we see that the derivative of a
function need not be of the same type as the original function.
Example 3.10.4 : Derivative of the Inverse Sine Function

Use the inverse function theorem to find the derivative of g(x) = sin −1
x .
Solution
π π
Since for x in the interval [− , ], f (x) = sin x is the inverse of g(x) = si n −1
x , begin by finding f '(x). Since
2 2
−−−− −
f '(x) = cos x and f '(g(x)) = cos(sin −1
x) = √1 − x
2
,
we see that
d 1 1
g'(x) = (sin
−1
x) = = −−−− − .
dx f '(g(x)) √1 − x2
Analysis
−−−− −
To see that −1
cos(sin x) = √1 − x
2
, consider the following argument. Set sin
−1
x =θ . In this case, sin θ = x where
π π π
− ≤θ ≤ . We begin by considering the case where 0 < θ < . Since θ is an acute angle, we may construct a right triangle
2 2 2
having acute angle θ , a hypotenuse of length 1 and the side opposite angle θ having length x. From the Pythagorean theorem,
−−−− −
the side adjacent to angle θ has length √1 − x . This triangle is shown in Figure. Using the triangle, we see that
2
−−−− −
cos(sin
−1
x) = cos θ = √1 − x . 2
Figure 3.10.2 : Using a right triangle having acute angle θ , a hypotenuse of length 1, and the side opposite angle θ having
−−−− −
length x, we can see that cos(sin x) = cos θ = √1 − x .
−1 2
π π
In the case where − <θ <0 , we make the observation that 0 < −θ < and hence
2 2
−−−− −
cos(sin
−1
x) = cos θ = cos(−θ) = √1 − x
2
.

π π −−−−−
Now if θ = or θ = − ,x =1 or x = −1 , and since in either case cos θ = 0 and √1 − x 2
=0 , we have
2 2
−−−− −
cos(sin
−1
x) = cos θ = √1 − x
2
.
−−−− −
Consequently, in all cases, cos(sin −1
x) = √1 − x2 .
Example 3.10.5 : Applying the Chain Rule to the Inverse Sine Function
Apply the chain rule to the formula derived in Example to find the derivative of h(x) = si n −1
(g(x)) and use this result to find
the derivative of h(x) = si n (2x ). −1 3
Solution
Applying the chain rule to h(x) = sin −1
(g(x)) , we have
1
h'(x) =
−−−− −−−− −
g'(x) .
√1 − (g(x))2
Now let g(x) = 2x 3

, so g'(x) = 6x. Substituting into the previous result, we obtain
1 6x
h'(x) = −−−−− − ⋅ 6x = −−−−− −
√1 − 4x6 √1 − 4x6
Exercise 3.10.4
Use the inverse function theorem to find the "derive" the derivative of g(x) = tan −1
x .
Hint
The inverse of g(x) is f (x) = tan x . Use Example 3.10.5as a guide.
Answer
1
g'(x) =
2
1 +x
The derivatives of the remaining inverse trigonometric functions may also be found by using the inverse function theorem. These
formulas are provided in the following theorem.
Table of Derivatives of Inverse Trigonometric Functions

d 1
−1
sin x = −−−− −−−
dx 2
√1 − (x)
d −1
−1
cos x = −−−− −−−
dx 2
√1 − (x)
d 1
−1
tan x =
dx 1 + (x)2
d −1
−1
cot x =
2
dx 1 + (x)
d 1
−1
sec x = −−− − −−−
dx |x| √(x )2 − 1
d −1
−1
csc x = −−− − −−−
dx 2
|x| √(x ) − 1
Example 3.10.6 : Applying Differentiation Formulas to an Inverse Tangent Function

Find the derivative of f (x) = tan −1 2
(x ).
Solution

Letg(x) = x
2
, so g'(x) = 2x. Substituting into Equation, we obtain
1
f '(x) = ⋅ (2x).
2 2
1 + (x )
2x
f '(x) =
4
.
1 +x
Example 3.10.7 : Applying Differentiation Formulas to an Inverse Sine Function

Find the derivative of h(x) = x 2
sin
−1
x.
Solution
By applying the product rule, we have
−1
1
h'(x) = 2x sin x+ −−−− − ⋅ x2
√1 − x2
Exercise 3.10.5
Find the derivative of h(x) = cos −1
(3x − 1).
Hint
Use Equation. with g(x) = 3x − 1
Answer
−3
h'(x) =
−−−−−− −
√6x − 9x2
Example 3.10.8 : Applying the Inverse Tangent Function

1 1
The position of a particle at time t is given by s(t) = tan −1
( ) for t ≥ . Find the velocity of the particle at time t = 1 .
t 2
Solution
Begin by differentiating s(t) in order to find v(t) .Thus,
1 −1
v(t) = s'(t) = ⋅
2
.
1 t
2
1 +( )
t
1
v(t) = −
2
.
t +1
1
Thus, v(1) = − .
2
Exercise 3.10.6
Find the equation of the line tangent to the graph of f (x) = sin −1
x at x = 0.
Hint
f '(0) is the slope of the tangent line.
Answer
y =x

Key Concepts
The inverse function theorem allows us to compute derivatives of inverse functions without using the limit definition of
the derivative.
We can use the inverse function theorem to develop differentiation formulas for the inverse trigonometric functions.
Key Equations
Inverse function theorem
1
(f − 1)'(x) =
−1
whenever f '(f −1
(x)) ≠ 0 and f (x) is differentiable.
f '(f (x))
Power rule with rational exponents

d m
m/n (m/n)−1
(x ) = x .
dx n
Derivative of inverse sine function

d 1
−1
sin x = −−−− −−−
dx 2
√1 − (x)
Derivative of inverse cosine function

d −1
−1
cos x = −−−− −−−
dx 2
√1 − (x)
Derivative of inverse tangent function

d 1
−1
tan x =
2
dx 1 + (x)
Derivative of inverse cotangent function

d −1
−1
cot x =
dx 1 + (x)2
Derivative of inverse secant function

d 1
−1
sec x =
−−− −− −−−−
dx √|x|(x )2 − 1
Derivative of inverse cosecant function

d −1
−1
csc x =
−−− − −−−
dx 2
|x| √(x ) − 1
Contributors
This page titled 3. 10: Derivatives of Inverse Trig Functions is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or

3.10: Inverse Trig Function Derivatives Exercises
Exercise:
For the following exercises, use the graph of y = f (x) to
(x) , and
)'(1) .
261)
Answer:
a.
b. (f −1
)'(1) 2
262)
263)
section 3. 10 E.1 https://math.libretexts.org/@go/page/10873

Answer:
a.
–
b. (f −1
)'(1) − 1/ √3
For the following exercises, use the functions y = f (x) to find

df
a. dx
at x = a and
b. x = f −1
(y).
−1
df
c. Then use part b. to find dy
at y = f (a).
264) f (x) = 6x − 1, x = −2
265) f (x) = 2x 3
− 3, x = 1
Answer:
y+3 1
−1 1/3
a. 6b. x = f (y) = ( ) c.
2 6
266) f (x) = 9 − x 2
, 0 ≤ x ≤ 3, x = 2
267) f (x) = sin x, x = 0
Answer:
−1 −1
a. 1, b. x = f (y) = sin y, c. 1
For each of the following functions, find (f −1

)'(a) .
268) f (x) = x 2
+ 3x + 2, x ≥ −1, a = 2
269) f (x) = x 3
+ 2x + 3, a = 0
Answer:
1

270) f (x) = x + √−
x, a = 2
271) f (x) = x − 2
x
, x < 0, a = 1
Answer:
\\frac{1}{3}\)
272) f (x) = x + sin x, a = 0

273) f (x) = tan x + 3x 2
,a =0
Answer:
1
For each of the given functions y = f (x),

a. find the slope of the tangent line to its inverse function f −1
at the indicated point P , and
b. find the equation of the tangent line to the graph of f −1
at the indicated point.
274) f (x) = 1+x2
4
, P (2, 1)
−−−−−
275) f (x) = √x − 4 , P (2, 8)
Answer:
a. 4, b. y = 4x
276) f (x) = (x 3 4
+ 1 ) , P (16, 1)
277) f (x) = −x 3
− x + 2, P (−8, 2)
Answer:
1 1 18
a. − , b. y = − x+
96 13 13
278) f (x) = x 5
+ 3x
3
− 4x − 8, P (−8, 1)
dy
for the given function.
279) y = sin −1
(x )
2
Answer:
2x
√1−x4
−
280) y = cos −1
(√x )
281) y = sec −1
(
1
x
)
Answer:
−1
√1−x2
−−−−−−
282) y = √csc −1
x
283) y = (1 + tan −1
x)
3
Answer:
−1 2
3(1+tan x)
2
1+x
284) y = cos −1
(2x) ⋅ sin
−1
(2x)

285) y = tan
1
−1
(x)
Answer:
−1
2 −1 2
(1+x )( tan x)
286) y = sec −1
(−x)
−−−− −
287) y = cot −1
√4 − x2
Answer:
x
2 2
(5−x ) √4−x
288) y = x ⋅ csc −1
x
For the following exercises, use the given values to find (f −1

)'(a) .
289) f (π) = 0, f ′
(π) = −1, a = 0
Answer:
−1
290) f (6) = 2, f '(6) = 1
3
,a =2
291) f ( 1
3
) = −8, f (
′ 1
3
) = 2, a = −8
Answer:
1
– –
292) f (√3) = 1
2
′
, f (√3) =
2
3
,a =
1
293) f (1) = −3, f ′

(1) = 10, a = −3
Answer:
1
10
294) f (1) = 0, f ′
(1) = −2, a = 0
295) [T] The position of a moving hockey puck after t seconds is s(t) = tan −1
t where s is in meters.
a. Find the velocity of the hockey puck at any time t .
b. Find the acceleration of the puck at any time t .
c. Evaluate a. and b. for t = 2, 4 ,and 6 seconds.
d. What conclusion can be drawn from the results in c.?
Answer:
a. v(t) = 1
2
1+t
b. a(t) = −2t
2 2
(1+t )
c. (a)v(2) = 0.2, v(4) = , v(6) = ; (b)a(2) = −0.16, a(4) = −

1
17
1
37
8
289
, a(6) = −
12
1369
d. The hockey puck is decelerating/slowing down at 2, 4, and 6 seconds.
296) [T] A building that is 225 feet tall casts a shadow of various lengths x as the day goes by. An angle of elevation θ is formed
by lines from the top and bottom of the building to the tip of the shadow, as seen in the following figure. Find the rate of change of
the angle of elevation when x = 272 feet.dθ
dx

297) [T] A pole stands 75 feet tall. An angle θ is formed when wires of various lengths of x feet are attached from the ground to
the top of the pole, as shown in the following figure. Find the rate of change of the angle when a wire of length 90 feet is
dθ
dx
attached.
Answer:
−0.0168 radians per foot
298) [T] A television camera at ground level is 2000 feet away from the launching pad of a space rocket that is set to take off
vertically, as seen in the following figure. The angle of elevation of the camera can be found by θ = tan ( −1
) , where x is the
x
2000
height of the rocket. Find the rate of change of the angle of elevation after launch when the camera and the rocket are 5000 feet
apart.
299) [T] A local movie theater with a 30-foot-high screen that is 10 feet above a person’s eye level when seated has a viewing
angle θ (in radians) given by θ = cot−1 x
− cot
40
−1
, x
10
where x is the distance in feet away from the movie screen that the person is sitting, as shown in the following figure.

a. Find dθ
dx
.
b. Evaluate dθ
dx
for x = 5, 10, 15, and 20.
c. Interpret the results in b..
d. Evaluate dθ
dx
for x = 25, 30, 35, and 40
e. Interpret the results in d. At what distance x should the person stand to maximize his or her viewing angle?
Answer:
a. dθ
dx
=
10
100+x2
−
40
1600+x2
b.
18
325
,
9
340
,
42
4745
,0 c. As a person moves farther away from the screen, the viewing angle is
increasing, which implies that as he or she moves farther away, his or her screen vision is widening. d. \(−\frac{54}{12905},−
\frac{3}{500},−\frac{198}{29945},−\frac{9}{1360} e. As the person moves beyond 20 feet from the screen, the viewing angle
is decreasing. The optimal distance the person should stand for maximizing the viewing angle is 20 feet.
section 3. 10 E: Inverse Trig Derivatives Exercises is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by
LibreTexts.

CHAPTER OVERVIEW
Chapter 4: Applications of Derivatives

A rocket launch involves two related quantities that change over time. Being able to solve this type of problem is just one
application of derivatives introduced in this chapter. We also look at how derivatives are used to find maximum and minimum
values of functions. As a result, we will be able to solve applied optimization problems, such as maximizing revenue and
minimizing surface area. In addition, we examine how derivatives are used to evaluate complicated limits, to approximate roots of
functions, and to provide accurate graphs of functions.
4.0E: Exercises
4.1: Related Rates
4.4: Graphing
Contributors
This page titled Chapter 4: Applications of Derivatives is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by
OpenStax.
1
Summary: A rocket launch involves two related quantities that change over time. Being able to solve this type of problem is just
one application of derivatives introduced in this chapter. We also look at how derivatives are used to find maximum and minimum
minimizing surface area. In addition, we examine how derivatives are used to evaluate complicated limits, to approximate roots of f
A rocket is being launched from the ground and cameras are recording the event. A video camera is located on the ground a certain
distance from the launch pad. At what rate should the angle of inclination (the angle the camera makes with the ground) change to
allow the camera to record the flight of the rocket as it heads upward? (See [link].)
Figure 4.0.1 : As a rocket is being launched, at what rate should the angle of a video camera change to continue viewing the
rocket? (credit: modification of work by Steve Jurvetson, Wikimedia Commons)
A rocket launch involves two related quantities that change over time. Being able to solve this type of problem is just one
application of derivatives introduced in this chapter. We also look at how derivatives are used to find maximum and minimum
minimizing surface area. In addition, we examine how derivatives are used to evaluate complicated limits, to approximate roots of
functions, and to provide accurate graphs of functions.
Contributors
This page titled 4.0: Prelude to Applications of Derivatives is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or

4.0E: Exercises
4.0E: Exercises
0) Did you read the Chapter 4 Prelude, section 4.0?
Answer:
Cool Rocket
4.1: Related Rates
We have seen that for quantities that are changing over time, the rates at which these quantities change are given by derivatives. If
two related quantities are changing over time, the rates at which the quantities change are related. For example, if a balloon is being
filled with air, both the radius of the balloon and the volume of the balloon are increasing. In this section, we consider several
problems in which two or more related quantities are changing and we study how to determine the relationship between the rates of
change of these quantities.
Setting up Related-Rates Problems

In many real-world applications, related quantities are changing with respect to time. For example, if we consider the balloon
example again, we can say that the rate of change in the volume, V , is related to the rate of change in the radius, r. In this case, we
say that dV
dt
and are related rates because V is related to r. Here we study several examples of related quantities that are
dr
dt
changing with respect to time and we look at how to calculate one rate of change given another rate of change.
Example 4.1.1 : Inflating a Balloon

A spherical balloon is being filled with air at the constant rate of 2 c m /sec
3
(Figure). How fast is the radius increasing when
the radius is 3 cm?
Figure 4.1.1 :As the balloon is being filled with air, both the radius and the volume are increasing with respect to time.
Solution
The volume of a sphere of radius r centimeters is
4 3 3
V = πr cm .
3
Since the balloon is being filled with air, both the volume and the radius are functions of time.
4 3
V = πr
3
Differentiating both sides of this equation with respect to time and applying the chain rule, we see that the rate of change in the
volume is related to the rate of change in the radius by the equation
dV 2 dr
= 4π r .
dt dt
The balloon is being filled with air at the constant rate of 2 cm 3

/sec, so dV
dt
= 2. Therefore,
2 dr
2 = 4π r ⋅ ,
dt
which implies
dr
dt
=
2πr
1
2
.
When the radius r = 3 cm,
dr 1
=
dt 18π
So, as the balloon is being filled with air at the constant rate of 2 cm 3
/sec, when the radius r = 3 cm, the radius is increasing
at the rate of 1
18π
cm/sec.

Exercise 4.1.1
What is the instantaneous rate of change of the radius when r = 6 cm?
Solution
dr 1
=
dt 2πr2
Answer
1
72π
cm/sec , or approximately 0.0044 cm/sec
Before looking at other examples, let’s outline the problem-solving strategy we will be using to solve related-rates problems.
Problem-Solving Strategy: Solving a Related-Rates Problem

1. Assign symbols to all variables involved in the problem. Draw a figure if applicable.
2. State the rate(s) of change given and the rate to be determined, using the ratio of differentials, e.g .
dr
dt
3. Find an equation relating the variables in step 1 that are used in step 2.
4. Using the chain rule, differentiate both sides of the equation found in step 3 with respect to time. This new equation will
relate the derivatives.
5. Substitute all known values into the equation from step 4, then solve for the unknown rate of change
Note that when solving a related-rates problem, it is crucial not to substitute known values too soon. For example, if the value for a
changing quantity is substituted into an equation before both sides of the equation are differentiated, then that quantity will behave
as a constant and its derivative will not appear in the new equation found in step 4. We examine this potential error in the following
example.
Examples of the Process

Let’s now implement the strategy just described to solve several related-rates problems. The first example involves a plane flying
overhead. The relationship we are studying is between the speed of the plane and the rate at which the distance between the plane
and a person on the ground is changing.
Example 4.1.2 : An Airplane Flying at a Constant Elevation

An airplane is flying overhead at a constant elevation of 4000 ft. A man is viewing the plane from a position 3000 ft from the
base of a radio tower. The airplane is flying horizontally away from the man. If the plane is flying at the rate of 600 ft/sec, at
what rate is the distance between the man and the plane increasing when the plane passes over the radio tower?
Solution: Step 1. Draw a picture, introducing variables to represent the different quantities involved.

Figure 4.1.2 : An airplane is flying at a constant height of 4000 ft. The distance between the person and the airplane and the
person and the place on the ground directly below the airplane are changing. We denote those quantities with the variables s
and x, respectively.
As shown, x denotes the distance between the man and the position on the ground directly below the airplane. The variable s
denotes the distance between the man and the plane. Note that both x and s are functions of time. We do not introduce a
variable for the height of the plane because it remains at a constant elevation of 4000f t. Since an object’s height above the
ground is measured as the shortest distance between the object and the ground, the line segment of length 4000 ft is
perpendicular to the line segment of length x feet, creating a right triangle.
Step 2. Since x denotes the horizontal distance between the man and the point on the ground below the plane, dx/dt represents
the speed of the plane. We are told the speed of the plane is 600 ft/sec. Therefore, = 600 ft/sec. Since we are asked to find
dx
dt
the rate of change in the distance between the man and the plane when the plane is directly above the radio tower, we need to
find ds/dt when x = 3000 f t.
Step 3. From the figure, we can use the Pythagorean theorem to write an equation relating x and s :
2 2 2
x + 4000 =s .
Step 4. Differentiating this equation with respect to time and using the fact that the derivative of a constant is zero (and dividing
by 2), we arrive at the equation
dx ds
x =s .
dt dt
Step 5. Find the rate at which the distance between the man and the plane is increasing when the plane is directly over the radio
tower. That is, find ds
dt
when x = 3000 f t. Since the speed of the plane is 600 f t/sec, we know that = 600 . We are not
dx
dt
given an explicit value for s ; however, since we are trying to find when x = 3000, we can use the Pythagorean theorem to
ds
dt
determine the distance s when x = 3000 and the height is 4000. Solving the equation
2 2 2
3000 + 4000 =s
for s , we have s = 5000 ft at the time of interest. Using these values, we conclude that ds/dt
is a solution of the equation
(3000)(600) = (5000) ⋅
ds
dt
.
Therefore,
ds 3000⋅600
= = 360
dt 5000
Thus, at this point in time, the distance between the man and the plane is increasing at 360 f t/sec.
Note: When solving related-rates problems, it is important not to substitute values for the variables too soon. For example, in
step 3, we related the variable quantities x and s by the equation
2 2 2
x + 4000 =s .
Since the plane remains at a constant height, it is not necessary to introduce a variable for the height, and we are allowed to use
the constant 4000 to denote that quantity. However, the other two quantities are changing. If we mistakenly substituted
x = 3000 into the equation before differentiating, our equation would have been
2 2 2
3000 + 4000 =s .
After differentiating, our equation would become

ds
0 = s(t) .
dt
As a result, we would incorrectly conclude that ds
dt
= 0.
Exercise 4.1.2
What is the speed of the plane if the distance between the person and the plane is increasing at the rate of 300f t/sec?
Hint

ds
= 300f t/sec
dt
Answer
500f t/sec
We now return to the problem involving the rocket launch from the beginning of the chapter.
Example 4.1.3 : Chapter Opener - A Rocket Launch
Figure 4.1.3 : (credit: modification of work by Steve Jurvetson, Wikimedia Commons)

A rocket is launched so that it rises vertically. A camera is positioned 5000f t from the launch pad. When the rocket is 1000f t
above the launch pad, its velocity is 600f t/sec. Find the necessary rate of change of the camera’s angle as a function of time so
that it stays focused on the rocket.
Solution: Step 1. Draw a picture introducing the variables.
Figure 4.1.4 : A camera is positioned 5000 ft from the launch pad of the rocket. The height of the rocket and the angle of the
camera are changing with respect to time. We denote those quantities with the variables h and θ , respectively.
Let h denote the height of the rocket above the launch pad and θ be the angle between the camera lens and the ground.
Step 2. We are trying to find the rate of change in the angle of the camera with respect to time when the rocket is 1000 ft off the
ground. That is, we need to find dθ
dt
when h = 1000 f t. At that time, we know the velocity of the rocket is dh
= 600 f t/sec.
dt

Step 3. Now we need to find an equation relating the two quantities that are changing with respect to time: h and θ . How can we
create such an equation? Using the fact that we have drawn a right triangle, it is natural to think about trigonometric functions.
Recall that tanθ is the ratio of the length of the opposite side of the triangle to the length of the adjacent side. Thus, we have
tan θ =
5000
h
.
This gives us the equation
h = 5000 tan θ.
Step 4. Differentiating this equation with respect to time t , we obtain

dh
dt
= 5000 sec
2
θ
dθ
dt
.
Step 5. We want to find when h = 1000 f t. At this time, we know that
dθ
dt
= 600f t/sec . We need to determine sec θ .
dh
dt
2
Recall that sec θ is the ratio of the length of the hypotenuse to the length of the adjacent side. We know the length of the
adjacent side is 5000f t. To determine the length of the hypotenuse, we use the Pythagorean theorem, where the length of one
leg is 5000 f t, the length of the other leg is h = 1000 f t, and the length of the hypotenuse is c feet as shown in the following
figure.
We see that
2 2 2
1000 + 5000 =c
and we conclude that the hypotenuse is

−−
c = 1000 √26f t.
Therefore, when h = 1000, we have

2 1000 √26 2 26
sec θ =( ) = .
5000 25
Recall from step 4 that the equation relating f racdθdt to our known values is
dh 2 dθ
= 5000sec θ .
dt dt
When h = 1000f t, we know that dh
dt
= 600f t/sec and sec 2
θ =
26
25
. Substituting these values into the previous equation, we
arrive at the equation
600 = 5000(
26
25
)
dθ
dt
.
Therefore, dθ
dt
=
3
26
rad/sec.
Exercise 4.1.3
What rate of change is necessary for the elevation angle of the camera if the camera is placed on the ground at a distance of
4000 f t from the launch pad and the velocity of the rocket is 500 ft/sec when the rocket is 2000 f t off the ground?
Hint
Find dθ
dt
when h = 2000 f t. At that time, dh
dt
= 500f t/sec.
Answer
1
rad/sec
10
In the next example, we consider water draining from a cone-shaped funnel. We compare the rate at which the level of water in the
cone is decreasing with the rate at which the volume of water is decreasing.
Example 4.1.4 : Water Draining from a Funnel

Water is draining from the bottom of a cone-shaped funnel at the rate of 0.03f t /sec. The height of the funnel is 2 ft and the 3
radius at the top of the funnel is 1f t. At what rate is the height of the water in the funnel changing when the height of the water
is f t?
1
Solution: Step 1: Draw a picture introducing the variables.
Figure 4.1.5 : Water is draining from a funnel of height 2 ft and radius 1 ft. The height of the water and the radius of water are
changing over time. We denote these quantities with the variables h and r,respectively.
Let h denote the height of the water in the funnel, r denote the radius of the water at its surface, and V denote the volume of the
water.
Step 2: We need to determine dh
dt
when h = 1
2
ft . We know that dV
dt
= −0.03f t/sec.
Step 3: The volume of water in the cone is

1 2
V = π r h.
3
From the figure, we see that we have similar triangles. Therefore, the ratio of the sides in the two triangles is the same.
Therefore, = or r = . Using this fact, the equation for volume can be simplified to
r
h
1
2
h
V =
1
3
π(
h
2
2
) h =
π
12
3
h .
Step 4: Applying the chain rule while differentiating both sides of this equation with respect to time t , we obtain
dV π 2 dh
= h .
dt 4 dt
Step 5: We want to find when dh
dt
h =
1
2
ft . Since water is leaving at the rate of 3
0.03f t /sec , we know that
= −0.03f t /sec. Therefore,
dV 3
dt
π 1 2 dh
−0.03 = ( ) ,
4 2 dt
which implies
π dh
−0.03 = .
16 dt
It follows that
dh 0.48
=− = −0.153f t/sec.
dt π
Exercise 4.1.4
At what rate is the height of the water changing when the height of the water is 1
4
ft ?
Hint
We need to find dh
dt
when h = 1
4
.

Answer
−0.61f t/sec
Key Concepts
To solve a related rates problem, first draw a picture that illustrates the relationship between the two or more related
quantities that are changing with respect to time.
In terms of the quantities, state the information given and the rate to be found.
Find an equation relating the quantities.
Use differentiation, applying the chain rule as necessary, to find an equation that relates the rates.
Be sure not to substitute a variable quantity for one of the variables until after finding an equation relating the rates.
Glossary
related rates
are rates of change associated with two or more related quantities that are changing over time
Contributors
This page titled 4.1: Related Rates is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by OpenStax.

4.1: Related Rates Exercises
For the following exercises, find the quantities for the given equation.
dy
1) Find dt
at x = 1 and y = x 2
+3 if dx
dt
= 4.
Answer:
8
dy
2) Find dx
dt
at x = −2 and y = 2x 2
+1 if dt
= −1.
dy
3) Find dz
dt
at (x, y) = (1, 3) and z 2
=x
2
+y
2
if dx
dt
=4 and dt
=3 .
Answer:
13
√10
For the following exercises, sketch the situation if necessary and used related rates to solve for the quantities.
4) [T] If two electrical resistors are connected in parallel, the total resistance (measured in ohms, denoted by the Greek capital letter
omega, Ω) is given by the equation =
1
R
+ . If R
1
R1
is increasing at a rate of 0.5Ω/min and R decreases at a rate of
R2
1
1 2
1.1Ω/min, at what rate does the total resistance change when R = 20Ω and R = 50Ω/min? 1 2
5) A 10-ft ladder is leaning against a wall. If the top of the ladder slides down the wall at a rate of 2 ft/sec, how fast is the bottom
moving along the ground when the bottom of the ladder is 5 ft from the wall?
Answer:
–
2 √3f t/sec
6) A 25-ft ladder is leaning against a wall. If we push the ladder toward the wall at a rate of 1 ft/sec, and the bottom of the ladder is
initially 20f t away from the wall, how fast does the ladder move up the wall 5sec after we start pushing?
7) Two airplanes are flying in the air at the same height: airplane A is flying east at 250 mi/h and airplane B is flying north at
300mi/h. If they are both heading to the same airport, located 30 miles east of airplane A and 40 miles north of airplane B, at what
rate is the distance between the airplanes changing?
Answer:
The distance is decreasing at 390mi/h.
8) You and a friend are riding your bikes to a restaurant that you think is east; your friend thinks the restaurant is north. You both
leave from the same point, with you riding at 16 mph east and your friend riding 12 mph north. After you traveled 4 miles, at what
rate is the distance between you changing?
9) Two buses are driving along parallel freeways that are 5mi apart, one heading east and the other heading west. Assuming that
each bus drives a constant 55mph, find the rate at which the distance between the buses is changing when they are 13mi part,
heading toward each other.
Answer:
The distance between them shrinks at a rate of 1320
13
≈ 101.5mph.
10) A 6-ft-tall person walks away from a 10-ft lamppost at a constant rate of 3f t/sec. What is the rate that the tip of the shadow
moves away from the pole when the person is 10ft away from the pole?
11)Using the previous problem, what is the rate at which the tip of the shadow moves away from the person when the person is 10
ft from the pole?
Answer:
9
f t/sec
2
12) A 5-ft-tall person walks toward a wall at a rate of 2 ft/sec. A spotlight is located on the ground 40 ft from the wall. How fast
does the height of the person’s shadow on the wall change when the person is 10 ft from the wall?
13) Using the previous problem, what is the rate at which the shadow changes when the person is 10 ft from the wall, if the person
is walking away from the wall at a rate of 2 ft/sec?
Answer:
It grows at a rate 4
9
ft/sec
14) A helicopter starting on the ground is rising directly into the air at a rate of 25 ft/sec. You are running on the ground starting
directly under the helicopter at a rate of 10 ft/sec. Find the rate of change of the distance between the helicopter and yourself after 5
sec.
15) Using the previous problem, what is the rate at which the distance between you and the helicopter is changing when the
helicopter has risen to a height of 60 ft in the air, assuming that, initially it was 30 ft above you?
Answer:
135 √26)
The distance is increasing at ( 26
ft/sec
For the following exercises, draw and label diagrams to help solve the related-rates problems.
16)The side of a cube increases at a rate of 1
2
m/sec. Find the rate at which the volume of the cube increases when the side of the
cube is 4 m.
17) The volume of a cube decreases at a rate of 10 m/sec. Find the rate at which the side of the cube changes when the side of the
cube is 2 m.
Answer:
−
5
6
m/sec
18) The radius of a circle increases at a rate of 2 m/sec. Find the rate at which the area of the circle increases when the radius is 5
m.
19) The radius of a sphere decreases at a rate of 3 m/sec. Find the rate at which the surface area decreases when the radius is 10 m.
Answer:
2
240π m /sec
20) The radius of a sphere increases at a rate of 1 m/sec. Find the rate at which the volume increases when the radius is 20 m.
21) The radius of a sphere is increasing at a rate of 9 cm/sec. Find the radius of the sphere when the volume and the radius of the
sphere are increasing at the same numerical rate.
Answer:
1
2 √π
cm
22) The base of a triangle is shrinking at a rate of 1 cm/min and the height of the triangle is increasing at a rate of 5 cm/min. Find
the rate at which the area of the triangle changes when the height is 22 cm and the base is 10 cm.
23) A triangle has two constant sides of length 3 ft and 5 ft. The angle between these two sides is increasing at a rate of 0.1 rad/sec.
Find the rate at which the area of the triangle is changing when the angle between the two sides is π/6.
Answer:
(3 √3)
The area is increasing at a rate 8
f t2 /sec.
24) A triangle has a height that is increasing at a rate of 2 cm/sec and its area is increasing at a rate of 4 cm 2
/sec . Find the rate at
which the base of the triangle is changing when the height of the triangle is 4 cm and the area is 20 cm . 2
For the following exercises, consider a right cone that is leaking water. The dimensions of the conical tank are a height of 16 ft and
a radius of 5 ft.
25) How fast does the depth of the water change when the water is 10 ft high if the cone leaks water at a rate of 10 f t 3
/min?
Answer:
The depth of the water decreases at 128
125π
ft/min.
26 ) ****Extra Credit for THQ4****Find the rate at which the surface area of the water changes when the water is 10 ft high if the
cone leaks water at a rate of 10 f t /min.
3
27) If the water level is decreasing at a rate of 3 in./min when the depth of the water is 8 ft, determine the rate at which water is
leaking out of the cone.
Answer:
(25π)
The volume is decreasing at a rate of 16
3
f t /min.
28) A vertical cylinder is leaking water at a rate of 1 f t /sec . If the cylinder has a height of 10 ft and a radius of 1 ft, at what rate
3
is the height of the water changing when the height is 6 ft?

29) A cylinder is leaking water but you are unable to determine at what rate. The cylinder has a height of 2 m and a radius of 2 m.
Find the rate at which the water is leaking out of the cylinder if the rate at which the height is decreasing is 10 cm/min when the
height is 1 m.
Answer:
(2π)
The water flows out at rate 5
m3 /min.
30) A trough has ends shaped like isosceles triangles, with width 3 m and height 4 m, and the trough is 10 m long. Water is being
pumped into the trough at a rate of 5m /min. At what rate does the height of the water change when the water is 1 m deep?
3
31) A tank is shaped like an upside-down square pyramid, with base of 4 m by 4 m and a height of 12 m (see the following figure).
How fast does the height increase when the water is 2 m deep if water is being pumped in at a rate of m/sec?
2
Answer:
3
m/sec
2
For the following problems, consider a pool shaped like the bottom half of a sphere, that is being filled at a rate of 25 f t /min. The
3
radius of the pool is 10 ft.
32) Find the rate at which the depth of the water is changing when the water has a depth of 5 ft.
Answer:
25
f t/min
19π
34) If the height is increasing at a rate of 1 in./sec when the depth of the water is 2 ft, find the rate at which water is being pumped
in.
35) Gravel is being unloaded from a truck and falls into a pile shaped like a cone at a rate of 10 f t /min. The radius of the cone
3
base is three times the height of the cone. Find the rate at which the height of the gravel changes when the pile has a height of 5 ft.
Answer:
2
f t/min
45π
36) Using a similar setup from the preceding problem, find the rate at which the gravel is being unloaded if the pile is 5 ft high and
the height is increasing at a rate of 4 in./min.
For the following exercises, draw the situations and solve the related-rate problems.
37) You are stationary on the ground and are watching a bird fly horizontally at a rate of 10 m/sec. The bird is located 40 m above
your head. How fast does the angle of elevation change when the horizontal distance between you and the bird is 9 m?
Answer:
The angle decreases at 400
1681
rad/sec.
38) You stand 40 ft from a bottle rocket on the ground and watch as it takes off vertically into the air at a rate of 20 ft/sec. Find the
rate at which the angle of elevation changes when the rocket is 30 ft in the air.
39) A lighthouse, L, is on an island 4 mi away from the closest point, P, on the beach (see the following image). If the lighthouse
light rotates clockwise at a constant rate of 10 revolutions/min, how fast does the beam of light move across the beach 2 mi away
from the closest point on the beach?
Answer:
100π/min
40)Using the same setup as the previous problem, determine at what rate the beam of light moves across the beach 1 mi away from
the closest point on the beach.
41) You are walking due north to a bus stop at a right-angled corner. You are moving north at a rate of 2 m/sec. The bus travels
west at a rate of 10 m/sec away from the intersection – you have missed the bus! What is the rate at which the angle between your
north trajectory and your line of sight to the bus is changing when you are 20 m south of the intersection and the bus is 10 m west
of the intersection?
Answer:
The angle is changing at a rate of 11
25
rad/sec .
For the following exercises, refer to the figure of baseball diamond, which has sides of 90 ft.
42) [T] A batter hits a ball toward third base at 75 ft/sec and runs toward first base at a rate of 24 ft/sec. At what rate does the
distance between the ball and the batter change when 2 sec have passed?
43) [T] A batter hits a ball toward second base at 80 ft/sec and runs toward first base at a rate of 30 ft/sec. At what rate does the
distance between the ball and the batter change when the runner has covered one-third of the distance to first base? (Hint: Recall
the law of cosines.)
Answer:
The distance is increasing at a rate of 62.50 ft/sec.
44) [T] A batter hits the ball and runs toward first base at a speed of 22 ft/sec. At what rate does the distance between the runner
and second base change when the runner has run 30 ft?
45) [T] Runners start at first and second base. When the baseball is hit, the runner at first base runs at a speed of 18 ft/sec toward
second base and the runner at second base runs at a speed of 20 ft/sec toward third base. How fast is the distance between runners
changing 1 sec after the ball is hit?
Answer:
The distance is decreasing at a rate of 11.99 ft/sec.
4.1E: Related Rates Exercises is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
Given a particular function, we are often interested in determining the largest and smallest values of the function. This information
is important in creating accurate graphs. Finding the maximum and minimum values of a function also has practical significance
because we can use this method to solve optimization problems, such as maximizing profit, minimizing the amount of material
used in manufacturing an aluminum can, or finding the maximum height a rocket can reach. In this section, we look at how to use
derivatives to find the largest and smallest values for a function.
Absolute Extrema
Consider the function f (x) = x + 1 over the interval (−∞, ∞). As x → ±∞, f (x) → ∞. Therefore, the function does not have
2
a largest value. However, since x + 1 ≥ 1 for all real numbers x and x + 1 = 1 when x = 0 , the function has a smallest value,
2 2
1, when x = 0 . We say that 1 is the absolute minimum of f (x) = x + 1 and it occurs at x = 0 . We say that f (x) = x + 1 does
2 2
not have an absolute maximum (Figure 4.2.1).
Figure 4.2.1 : The given function has an absolute minimum of 1 at x=0. The function does not have an absolute maximum.
Definition: absolute extrema
Let f be a function defined over an interval I and let c ∈ I . We say f has an absolute maximum on I at c if f (c) ≥ f (x) for all
x ∈ I . We say f has an absolute minimum on I at c if f (c) ≤ f (x) for all x ∈ I . If f has an absolute maximum on I at c or an
absolute minimum on I at c , we say f has an absolute extremum on I at c .
Before proceeding, let’s note two important issues regarding this definition. First, the term absolute here does not refer to absolute
value. An absolute extremum may be positive, negative, or zero. Second, if a function f has an absolute extremum over an interval
I at c , the absolute extremum is f (c). The real number c is a point in the domain at which the absolute extremum occurs. For
example, consider the function f (x) = 1/(x + 1) over the interval (−∞, ∞). Since
2
1
f (0) = 1 ≥ = f (x) (4.2.1)
2
x +1
for all real numbers x, we say f has an absolute maximum over (−∞, ∞) at x = 0 . The absolute maximum is f (0) = 1 . It occurs
at x = 0 , as shown in Figure(b).
A function may have both an absolute maximum and an absolute minimum, just one extremum, or neither. Figure 4.2.2 shows
several functions and some of the different possibilities regarding absolute extrema. However, the following theorem, called the
Extreme Value Theorem, guarantees that a continuous function f over a closed, bounded interval [a, b] has both an absolute
maximum and an absolute minimum.

Figure 4.2.2 : Graphs (a), (b), and (c) show several possibilities for absolute extrema for functions with a domain of (−∞, ∞).
Graphs (d), (e), and (f) show several possibilities for absolute extrema for functions with a domain that is a bounded interval.
Extreme Value Theorem

If f is a continuous function over the closed, bounded interval [a, b], then there is a point in [a, b] at which f has an absolute
maximum over [a, b] and there is a point in [a, b] at which f has an absolute minimum over [a, b].
The proof of the extreme value theorem is beyond the scope of this text. Typically, it is proved in a course on real analysis. There
are a couple of key points to note about the statement of this theorem. For the extreme value theorem to apply, the function must be
continuous over a closed, bounded interval. If the interval I is open or the function has even one point of discontinuity, the function
may not have an absolute maximum or absolute minimum over I . For example, consider the functions shown in Figure(d), (e), and
(f). All three of these functions are defined over bounded intervals. However, the function in graph (e) is the only one that has both
an absolute maximum and an absolute minimum over its domain. The extreme value theorem cannot be applied to the functions in
graphs (d) and (f) because neither of these functions is continuous over a closed, bounded interval. Although the function in graph
(d) is defined over the closed interval [0, 4], the function is discontinuous at x = 2 . The function has an absolute maximum over
[0, 4] but does not have an absolute minimum. The function in graph (f) is continuous over the half-open interval [0, 2), but is not
defined at x = 2 , and therefore is not continuous over a closed, bounded interval. The function has an absolute minimum over
[0, 2), but does not have an absolute maximum over [0, 2). These two graphs illustrate why a function over a bounded interval may
fail to have an absolute maximum and/or absolute minimum.

Before looking at how to find absolute extrema, let’s examine the related concept of local extrema. This idea is useful in
determining where absolute extrema occur.
Local Extrema and Critical Points

Consider the function f shown in Figure 4.2.3. The graph can be described as two mountains with a valley in the middle. The
absolute maximum value of the function occurs at the higher peak, at x = 2 . However, x = 0 is also a point of interest. Although
f (0) is not the largest value of f , the value f (0) is larger than f (x) for all x near 0. We say f has a local maximum at x = 0 .
Similarly, the function f does not have an absolute minimum, but it does have a local minimum at x = 1 because f (1) is less than
f (x) for x near 1.
Figure 4.2.3 : This function f has two local maxima and one local minimum. The local maximum at x = 2 is also the absolute
maximum.
Definition: local extrema

A function f has a local maximum at c if there exists an open interval I containing c such that I is contained in the domain of f
and f (c) ≥ f (x) for all x ∈ I . A function f has a local minimum at c if there exists an open interval I containing c such that I
is contained in the domain of f and f (c) ≤ f (x) for all x ∈ I . A function f has a local extremum at c if f has a local maximum
at c or f has a local minimum at c .
Note that if f has an absolute extremum at c and f is defined over an interval containing c , then f (c) is also considered a local
extremum. If an absolute extremum for a function f occurs at an endpoint, we do not consider that to be a local extremum, but
instead refer to that as an endpoint extremum.
Given the graph of a function f , it is sometimes easy to see where a local maximum or local minimum occurs. However, it is not
always easy to see, since the interesting features on the graph of a function may not be visible because they occur at a very small
scale. Also, we may not have a graph of the function. In these cases, how can we use a formula for a function to determine where
these extrema occur?
To answer this question, let’s look at Figure 4.2.3 again. The local extrema occur at x = 0, x = 1, and x = 2. Notice that at x = 0
and x = 1 , the derivative f (x) = 0 . At x = 2 , the derivative f (x) does not exist, since the function f has a corner there. In fact,
′ ′
if f has a local extremum at a point x = c , the derivative f (c) must satisfy one of the following conditions: either f (c) = 0 or
′ ′
f (c) is undefined. Such a value c is known as a critical point and it is important in finding extreme values for functions.
′
Definition: critical points

Let c be an interior point in the domain of f . We say that c is a critical point of f if f ′
(c) = 0 or f ′
(c) is undefined.
As mentioned earlier, if f has a local extremum at a point x =c , then c must be a critical point of f . This fact is known as
Fermat’s theorem.

Fermat’s Theorem
If f has a local extremum at c and f is differentiable at c , then f ′
(c) = 0.
Proof
Suppose f has a local extremum at c and f is differentiable at c . We need to show that f (c) = 0 . To do this, we will show that
′
f (c) ≥ 0 and f (c) ≤ 0 , and therefore f (c) = 0 . Since f has a local extremum at c , f has a local maximum or local minimum
′ ′ ′
at c . Suppose f has a local maximum at c . The case in which f has a local minimum at c can be handled similarly. There then
exists an open interval I such that f (c) ≥ f (x) for all x ∈ I . Since f is differentiable at c , from the definition of the derivative,
we know that
f (x) − f (c)
′
f (c) = lim . (4.2.2)
x→c x −c
Since this limit exists, both one-sided limits also exist and equal f ′
(c) . Therefore,
f (x) − f (c)
′
f (c) = lim (4.2.3)
x→c
+
x − c,
and
f (x) − f (c)
′
f (c) = lim . (4.2.4)
x→c
−
x −c
Since f (c) is a local maximum, we see that f (x) − f (c) ≤ 0 for x near c . Therefore, for x near c , but x >c , we have
f (x)−f (c)
x−c
≤0 . From Equation we conclude that f ′
(c) ≤ 0 . Similarly, it can be shown that f ′
(c) ≥ 0. Therefore, f ′
(c) = 0.
From Fermat’s theorem, we conclude that if f has a local extremum at c , then either ′
f (c) = 0 or ′
f (c) is undefined. In other
words, local extrema can only occur at critical points.
Note this theorem does not claim that a function f must have a local extremum at a critical point. Rather, it states that critical
points are candidates for local extrema. For example, consider the function f (x) = x . We have f (x) = 3x = 0 when x = 0 .
3 ′ 2
Therefore, x = 0 is a critical point. However, f (x) = x is increasing over (−∞, ∞), and thus f does not have a local extremum
3
at x = 0 . In Figure, we see several different possibilities for critical points. In some of these cases, the functions have local extrema
at critical points, whereas in other cases the functions do not. Note that these graphs do not show all possibilities for the behavior of
a function at a critical point.

Figure 4.2.4 : (a–e) A function f has a critical point at c if f (c) = 0 or f (c) is undefined. A function may or may not have a
′ ′
local extremum at a critical point.

Later in this chapter we look at analytical methods for determining whether a function actually has a local extremum at a critical
point. For now, let’s turn our attention to finding critical points. We will use graphical observations to determine whether a critical
point is associated with a local extremum.
Example 4.2.1 : Locating Critical Points

For each of the following functions, find all critical points. Use a graphing utility to determine whether the function has a local
extremum at each of the critical points.
a. f (x) = x − x
1
3
3 5
2
2
+ 4x
b. f (x) = (x − 1)
2 3
c. f (x) = 1+x
4x
2
Solution
a. The derivative f (x) = x − 5x + 4 is defined for all real numbers x. Therefore, we only need to find the values for x where
′ 2
f (x) = 0 . Since f (x) = x − 5x + 4 = (x − 4)(x − 1) , the critical points are x = 1 and x = 4. From the graph of f in
′ ′ 2
Figure, we see that f has a local maximum at x = 1 and a local minimum at x = 4 .
Figure 4.2.5 : This function has a local maximum and a local minimum.
b. Using the chain rule, we see the derivative is
′ 2 2 2 2
f (x) = 3(x − 1 ) (2x) = 6x(x − 1) .

Therefore, f has critical points when x = 0 and when x − 1 = 0 . We conclude that the critical points are x = 0, ±1. From the
2
graph of f in Figure, we see that f has a local (and absolute) minimum at x = 0 , but does not have a local extremum at x = 1
or x = −1 .
Figure 4.2.6 : This function has three critical points: x=0, x=1, and x=−1. The function has a local (and absolute) minimum at
x=0, but does not have extrema at the other two critical points.
c. By the chain rule, we see that the derivative is
2 2
(1+x 4)−4x(2x)
′
f (x) =
2
2
=
4−4x
2
2
.
(1+x ) (1+x )
The derivative is defined everywhere. Therefore, we only need to find values for x where f (x) = 0 . Solving f (x) = 0 , we see
′ ′
that 4 − 4x = 0, which implies x = ±1 . Therefore, the critical points are x = ±1 . From the graph of f in Figure, we see that
2
f has an absolute maximum at x = 1 and an absolute minimum at x = −1. Hence, f has a local maximum at x = 1 and a local
minimum at x = −1 . (Note that if f has an absolute extremum over an interval I at a point c that is not an endpoint of I , then f
has a local extremum at c. )
Figure 4.2.7 : This function has an absolute maximum and an absolute minimum.
Exercise 4.2.1
Find all critical points for f (x) = x 3
−
1
2
2
x − 2x + 1.
Hint
Calculate f ′
(x).
Answer
2
x =− ,x =1
3
Locating Absolute Extrema

The extreme value theorem states that a continuous function over a closed, bounded interval has an absolute maximum and an
absolute minimum. As shown in Figure, one or both of these absolute extrema could occur at an endpoint. If an absolute extremum
does not occur at an endpoint, however, it must occur at an interior point, in which case the absolute extremum is a local extremum.
Therefore, by Note, the point c at which the local extremum occurs must be a critical point. We summarize this result in the
following theorem.

Location of Absolute Extrema
Let f be a continuous function over a closed, bounded interval I . The absolute maximum of f over I and the absolute minimum
of f over I must occur at endpoints of I or at critical points of f in I .
With this idea in mind, let’s examine a procedure for locating absolute extrema.
Problem-Solving Strategy: Locating Absolute Extrema over a Closed Interval

Consider a continuous function f defined over the closed interval [a, b].
1. Evaluate f at the endpoints x = a and x = b.
2. Find all critical points of f that lie over the interval (a, b) and evaluate f at those critical points.
3. Compare all values found in (1) and (2). From Note, the absolute extrema must occur at endpoints or critical points.
Therefore, the largest of these values is the absolute maximum of f . The smallest of these values is the absolute minimum of
f.
Now let’s look at how to use this strategy to find the absolute maximum and absolute minimum values for continuous functions.
Example 4.2.2 : Locating Absolute Extrema

For each of the following functions, find the absolute maximum and absolute minimum over the specified interval and state
where those values occur.
a. f (x) = −x + 3x − 2 over [1, 3].
2
b. f (x) = x − 3x
2
over [0, 2].
2/3
Solution
a. Step 1. Evaluate f at the endpoints x = 1 and x = 3 .
f (1) = 0 and f (3) = −2
Step 2. Since f (x) = −2x + 3, f is defined for all real numbers x. Therefore, there are no critical points where the derivative
′ ′
is undefined. It remains to check where f (x) = 0 . Since f (x) = −2x + 3 = 0 at x = and is in the interval [1, 3], f ( ) is
′ ′ 3
2
3
2
3
a candidate for an absolute extremum of f over [1, 3]. We evaluate f ( ) and find 3
f(
3
2
) =
1
4
.
Step 3. We set up the following table to compare the values found in steps 1 and 2.
x f (x) Conclusion
0 0
2
1
4
Absolute maximum
3 −2 Absolute minimum
From the table, we find that the absolute maximum of f over the interval [1, 3] is , and it occurs at
1
4
x =
3
2
. The absolute
minimum of f over the interval [1, 3] is −2, and it occurs at x = 3 as shown in Figure 4.2.8.

Figure 4.2.8 : This function has both an absolute maximum and an absolute minimum.
b. Step 1. Evaluate f at the endpoints x = 0 and x = 2 .
[
f (0) = 0 and f (2) = 4 − 3 3
]4 ≈ −0.762
Step 2. The derivative of f is given by

4/3
′ 2 2x −2
f (x) = 2x − =
1/3 1/3
x x
for x ≠ 0 . The derivative is zero when 2x − 2 = 0 , which implies x = ±1 . The derivative is undefined at x = 0 . Therefore,
4/3
the critical points of f are x = 0, 1, −1. The point x = 0 is an endpoint, so we already evaluated f (0) in step 1. The point
x = −1 is not in the interval of interest, so we need only evaluate f (1). We find that
f (1) = −2.
Step 3. We compare the values found in steps 1 and 2, in the following table.
x f (x) Conclusion
0 0 Absolute maximum
1 −2 Absolute minimum
2 −0.762
We conclude that the absolute maximum of f over the interval [0, 2] is zero, and it occurs at x =0 . The absolute minimum is
−2, and it occurs at x = 1 as shown in Figure 4.2.9.
Figure 4.2.9 : This function has an absolute maximum at an endpoint of the interval.

Exercise 4.2.2
Find the absolute maximum and absolute minimum of (x) = x 2
− 4x + 3 over the interval [1, 4].
Hint
Look for critical points. Evaluate f at all critical points and at the endpoints.
Answer
The absolute maximum is 3 and it occurs at x = 4 . The absolute minimum is −1 and it occurs at x = 2 .
Exercise 4.2.3
Find the absolute maximum and absolute minimum of (x) = x 2/3
(2 − x) over the interval [−1, 2].
Hint
Look for critical points. Evaluate f at all critical points and at the endpoints.
Answer
The absolute maximum is 3 and it occurs at x = −1 . The absolute minimum is 0 and it occurs at x = 2 .
See figure 4.2.10
Figure 4.2.10 : Notice the absolute minimum of this function occurs in two places.
At this point, we know how to locate absolute extrema for continuous functions over closed intervals. We have also defined local
extrema and determined that if a function f has a local extremum at a point c , then c must be a critical point of f . However, c
being a critical point is not a sufficient condition for f to have a local extremum at c . Later in this chapter, we show how to
determine whether a function actually has a local extremum at a critical point. First, however, we need to introduce the Mean Value
Theorem, which will help as we analyze the behavior of the graph of a function.
Key Concepts
A function may have both an absolute maximum and an absolute minimum, have just one absolute extremum, or have no
absolute maximum or absolute minimum.
If a function has a local extremum, the point at which it occurs must be a critical point. However, a function need not have a
local extremum at a critical point.
A continuous function over a closed, bounded interval has an absolute maximum and an absolute minimum. Each extremum
occurs at a critical point or an endpoint.
Glossary
absolute extremum
if f has an absolute maximum or absolute minimum at c, we say f has an absolute extremum at c
absolute maximum

if f (c) ≥ f (x) for all x in the domain of f , we say f has an absolute maximum at c
absolute minimum
if f (c) ≤ f (x) for all x in the domain of f , we say f has an absolute minimum at c
critical point
if f (c) = 0 or f
′ ′
(c) is undefined, we say that c is a critical point of f
extreme value theorem

if f is a continuous function over a finite, closed interval, then f has an absolute maximum and an absolute minimum
Fermat’s theorem
if f has a local extremum at c, then c is a critical point of f
local extremum
if f has a local maximum or local minimum at c, we say f has a local extremum at c
local maximum
if there exists an interval I such that f (c) ≥ f (x) for all x ∈ I , we say f has a local maximum at c
local minimum
if there exists an interval I such that f (c) ≤ f (x) for all x ∈ I , we say f has a local minimum at c
Contributors
This page titled 4.2: Maxima and Minima is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by OpenStax.

4.2: Maxima and Minima Exercises
90) In precalculus, you learned a formula for the position of the maximum or minimum of a quadratic equation y = ax 2
+ bx + c ,
which was m = − b
(2a)
. Prove this formula using calculus.
91) If you are finding an absolute minimum over an interval [a, b], why do you need to check the endpoints? Draw a graph that
supports your hypothesis.
Solution: Answers may vary
92) If you are examining a function over an interval (a, b), for a and b finite, is it possible not to have an absolute maximum or
absolute minimum?
93) When you are checking for critical points, explain why you also need to determine points where f (x) is undefined. Draw a
graph to support your explanation.
Solution: Answers will vary
94) Can you have a finite absolute maximum for y = ax
2
+ bx + c over (−∞, ∞) ? Explain why or why not using graphical
arguments.
95) Can you have a finite absolute maximum for y = ax 3
+ bx
2
+ cx + d over (−∞, ∞) assuming a is non-zero? Explain why or
why not using graphical arguments.
Answer:
No; answers will vary
96) Let m be the number of local minima and M be the number of local maxima. Can you create a function where M > m +2 ?
Draw a graph to support your explanation.
97) Is it possible to have more than one absolute maximum? Use a graphical argument to prove your hypothesis.
Answer:
Since the absolute maximum is the function (output) value rather than the x value, the answer is no; answers will vary
98) Is it possible to have no absolute minimum or maximum for a function? If so, construct such a function. If not, explain why this
is not possible.
99) [T] Graph the function y =e
ax
. For which values of a , on any infinite domain, will you have an absolute minimum and
absolute maximum?
Answer:
When a = 0
For the following exercises, determine where the local and absolute maxima and minima occur on the graph given. Assume
domains are closed intervals unless otherwise specified.
100)
101)
Answer:
Absolute minimum at 3; Absolute maximum at −2.2; local minima at −2, 1; local maxima at −1, 2
102)
103)
Answer:
Absolute minima at −2, 2; absolute maxima at −2.5, 2.5; local minimum at 0; local maxima at −1, 1
For the following problems, draw graphs of f (x), which is continuous, over the interval [−4, 4] with the following properties:
104) Absolute maximum at x = 2 and absolute minima at x = ±3
105) Absolute minimum at x = 1 and absolute maximum at x = 2
Solution: Answers may vary.
106) Absolute maximum at x = 4, absolute minimum at x = −1, local maximum at x = −2, and a critical point that is not a
maximum or minimum at x = 2
107) Absolute maxima at x = 2 and x = −3 , local minimum at x = 1 , and absolute minimum at x = 4
For the following exercises, find the critical points in the domains of the following functions.
108) y = 4x 3
− 3x
−
109) y = 4 √x − x
2
Answer:
x =1
110) y = 1
x−1
111) y = ln(x − 2)
Answer:
None
112) y = tan(x)
−−−−−
113) y = √4 − x 2
Answer:
x =0
114) y = x 3/2
− 3x
5/2
115) y = x −1
x2 +2x−3
Answer:
None
116) y = si n 2
(x)
117) y = x + 1
Answer:
x = −1, 1
For the following exercises, find the absolute maxima and minima for the functions over the specified domain.
118) f (x) = x 2
+3 over [−1, 4]
119) y = x 2
+
2
x
over [1, 4]
Answer:
Absolute maximum is 33
2
at x = 4 ; absolute minimum is 3 at x = 1
120) y = (x − x 2 2
) over [−1, 1]
121) y = 1
x−x2
over (0, 1)
Answer:
Absolute minimum: ( 1
2
, 4)
−−−−−
122) y = √9 − x over [1, 9]
123) y = x + sin(x) over [0, 2π]
Answer:
Absolute maximum: (2π, 2π); absolute minimum: (0, 0)
124) y = x
1+x
over [0, 100]
125) y = |x + 1| + |x − 1| over [−3, 2]
Answer:
Absolute maximum: x = −3; absolute minimum: −1 ≤ x ≤ 1, y = 2
− −−
126) y = √x − √x 3
over [0, 4]
127) y = sinx + cosx over [0, 2π]
Answer:
– –
Absolute maximum is √2 at x = ; absolute minimum is −√2 at x =
π
4
5π
128) y = 4sinθ − 3cosθ over [0, 2π]

For the following exercises, find the local and absolute minima and maxima (as ordered pairs) for the functions over (−∞, ∞).
129) y = x 2
+ 4x + 5
Answer:
Absolute minimum: x = −2, y = 1
130) y = x 3
− 12x
131) y = 3x 4
+ 8x
3
− 18 x
2
Answer:
Absolute minimum: (−3, −135); local maximum: (0, 0); local minimum: (1, −7)
132) y = x 3
(1 − x )
6
133) y = x +x+6
x−1
Answer:
– – – –
Local maximum: (1 − 2√2, 3 − 4√2) ; local minimum: (1 + 2√2, 3 + 4√2)
2
x −1
134) y = x−1
For the following functions, use a calculator to graph the function and to estimate the absolute and local maxima and minima.
Then, solve for them explicitly.
−−−−−
135) [T] y = 3x √1 − x 2
Answer:
√2 √2
Absolute maximum: x = 2
,y =
3
2
; absolute minimum: x = − 2
,y =−
3
136) [T] y = x + sin(x)

137) [T] y = 12x 5
+ 45 x
4
+ 20 x
3
− 90 x
2
− 120x + 3
Answer:
Local maximum: x = −2, y = 59 ; local minimum: x = 1, y = −130
3 2
x +6 x −x−30
138) [T] y = x−2
√4−x2
139) [T] y =
√4+x2
Answer:
Absolute maximum: x = 0, y = 1; absolute minimum: x = −2, 2, y = 0
140) A company that produces cell phones has a cost function of C = x − 1200x + 36, 400, where C is cost in dollars and x is
2
number of cell phones produced (in thousands). How many units of cell phone (in thousands) minimizes this cost function?
141) A ball is thrown into the air and its position is given by h(t) = −4.9t 2
+ 60t + 5m. Find the height at which the ball stops
ascending. How long after it is thrown does this happen?
Answer:
9245 300
h = m, t = s
49 49
For the following exercises, consider the production of gold during the California gold rush (1848–1888). The production of gold
(25t)
can be modeled by G(t) = 2
( t +16)
, where t is the number of years since the rush began (0 ≤ t ≤ 40) and G is ounces of gold
produced (in millions). A summary of the data is shown in the following figure.
142) Find when the maximum (local and global) gold production occurred, and the amount of gold produced during that maximum.
143) Find when the minimum (local and global) gold production occurred. What was the amount of gold produced during this
minimum?
Answer:
The global minimum was in 1848, when no gold was produced.
Find the critical points, maxima, and minima for the following piecewise functions.
144) y = { x 2
− 4x 0 ≤ x ≤ 1// x
2
−4 1 <x ≤2
145) y = { x 2
+1 x ≤ 1// x
2
− 4x + 5 x >1
Answer:
Absolute minima: x = 0, x = 2, y = 1 ; local maximum at x = 1, y = 2
For the following exercises, find the critical points of the following generic functions. Are they maxima, minima, or neither? State
the necessary conditions.
146) y = ax 2
+ bx + c, given that a > 0
147) y = (x − 1) , given that a > 1
a
Answer:
No maxima/minima if a is odd, minimum at x = 1 if a is even
4.2E: Maxima and Minima Exercises is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
Earlier in this chapter we stated that if a function f has a local extremum at a point c , then c must be a critical point of f. However,
a function is not guaranteed to have a local extremum at a critical point. For example, f (x) = x has a critical point at x = 0 since
3
′
f (x) = 3 x is zero at x = 0 , but f does not have a local extremum at x = 0 . Using the results from the previous section, we are
2
now able to determine whether a critical point of a function actually corresponds to a local extreme value. In this section, we also
see how the second derivative provides information about the shape of a graph by describing whether the graph of a function
curves upward or curves downward.
The First Derivative Test

Corollary 3 of the Mean Value Theorem showed that if the derivative of a function is positive over an interval I then the function is
increasing over I . On the other hand, if the derivative of the function is negative over an interval I , then the function is decreasing
over I as shown in the following figure.
Figure 4.3.1 : Both functions are increasing over the interval (a, b). At each point x, the derivative f (x) > 0 . Both functions are
′
decreasing over the interval (a, b). At each point x, the derivative f (x) < 0.
′
A continuous function f has a local maximum at point c if and only if f switches from increasing to decreasing at point c .
Similarly, f has a local minimum at c if and only if f switches from decreasing to increasing at c . If f is a continuous function
over an interval I containing c and differentiable over I , except possibly at c , the only way f can switch from increasing to
decreasing (or vice versa) at point c is if f ' changes sign as x increases through c . If f is differentiable at c , the only way that f '.
can change sign as x increases through c is if f '(c) = 0 . Therefore, for a function f that is continuous over an interval I containing
c and differentiable over I , except possibly at c , the only way f can switch from increasing to decreasing (or vice versa) is if
f (c) = 0 or f '(c) is undefined. Consequently, to locate local extrema for a function f , we look for points c in the domain of f
′
such that f (c) = 0 or f '(c) is undefined. Recall that such points are called critical points of f .
′
Note that f need not have a local extrema at a critical point. The critical points are candidates for local extrema only. In Figure, we
show that if a continuous function f has a local extremum, it must occur at a critical point, but a function may not have a local
extremum at a critical point. We show that if f has a local extremum at a critical point, then the sign of f ' switches as x increases
through that point.

Figure 4.3.2 : The function f has four critical points: a, b, c,and d . The function f has local maxima at a and d , and a local
minimum at b . The function f does not have a local extremum at c . The sign of f changes at all local extrema.
′
Using Figure, we summarize the main results regarding local extrema.

If a continuous function f has a local extremum, it must occur at a critical point c .
The function has a local extremum at the critical point c if and only if the derivative f ' switches sign as x increases through c .
Therefore, to test whether a function has a local extremum at a critical point c , we must determine the sign of f '(x) to the left
and right of c .
This result is known as the first derivative test.
First Derivative Test
Suppose that f is a continuous function over an interval I containing a critical point c . If f is differentiable over I , except
possibly at point c , then f (c) satisfies one of the following descriptions:
i. If f ' changes sign from positive when x < c to negative when x > c , then f (c) is a local maximum of f .
ii. If f ' changes sign from negative when x < c to positive when x > c , then f (c) is a local minimum of f .
iii. If f has the same sign for x < c and x > c , then f (c) is neither a local maximum nor a local minimum of f
′
Now let’s look at how to use this strategy to locate all local extrema for particular functions.
Example 4.3.1 : Using the First Derivative Test to Find Local Extrema
Use the first derivative test to find the location of all local extrema for f (x) = x
3 2
− 3x − 9x − 1. Use a graphing utility to
confirm your results.
Solution
Step 1. The derivative is f '(x) = 3x − 6x − 9. To find the critical points, we need to find where
2
f '(x) = 0. Factoring the
polynomial, we conclude that the critical points must satisfy
2
3(x − 2x − 3) = 3(x − 3)(x + 1) = 0. (4.3.1)
Therefore, the critical points are x= 3, −1. Now divide the interval (−∞, ∞) into the smaller intervals (−∞, −1), (−1, 3) and
(3, ∞).
Step 2. Since f is a continuous function, to determine the sign of f '(x) over each subinterval, it suffices to choose a point over
′
each of the intervals (−∞, −1), (−1, 3) and (3, ∞) and determine the sign of f ' at each of these points. For example, let’s
choose x = −2, x = 0, and x = 4 as test points.
Sign of
Interval Test Point f'(x) = 3(x − 3)(x + 1) at Conclusion
Test Point

Sign of
Interval Test Point f'(x) = 3(x − 3)(x + 1) at Conclusion
Test Point
(−∞, −1) x = −2 (+)(−)(−)=+ f is increasing.
(−1, 3) x = 0 (+)(−)(+)=− f is decreasing.
(3, ∞) x = 4 (+)(+)(+)=+ f is increasing.
Step 3. Since f ' switches sign from positive to negative as x increases through −1, f has a local maximum at x = −1 . Since f '
switches sign from negative to positive as x increases through 3, f has a local minimum at x = 3 . These analytical results agree
with the following graph.
Figure 4.3.3 : The function f has a maximum at x = −1 and a minimum at x = 3
Exercise 4.3.1
Use the first derivative test to locate all local extrema for f (x) = −x 3
+
3
2
x
2
+ 18x.
Hint
Find all critical points of f and determine the signs of f '(x) over particular intervals determined by the critical points.
Answer
f has a local minimum at −2 and a local maximum at 3.
Example 4.3.2 : Using the First Derivative Test

Use the first derivative test to find the location of all local extrema for f (x) = 5x 1/3
−x
5/3
. Use a graphing utility to confirm
your results.
Solution
Step 1. The derivative is
2/3 4/3 4/3
5 5 5 5x 5 − 5x 5(1 − x )
−2/3 2/3
f '(x) = x − x = − = = . (4.3.2)
2/3 2/3 2/3
3 3 3x 3 3x 3x
The derivative f '(x) = 0 when 1 − x = 0. Therefore, f '(x) = 0 at x = ±1 . The derivative f '(x) is undefined at x = 0.
4/3
Therefore, we have three critical points: x = 0, x = 1, and x = −1 . Consequently, divide the interval (−∞, ∞) into the
smaller intervals (−∞, −1), (−1, 0), (0, 1), and (1, ∞).
Step 2: Since f ' is continuous over each subinterval, it suffices to choose a test point x in each of the intervals from step 1 and
determine the sign of f ' at each of these points. The points x = −2, x = − , x = , andx = 2 are test points for these
1
2
1
intervals.
4/3
5(1−x )
Sign of f '(x) = at Test
Interval Test Point 3x2/3 Conclusion
Point
(+)(−)
(−∞, −1) x = −2
+
= − f is decreasing.
1 (+)(+)
(−1, 0) x = −
2 +
= + f is increasing.
1 (+)(+)
(0, 1) x =
2 +
= + f is increasing.
(+)(−)
(1, ∞) x = 2
+
= − f is decreasing.
Step 3: Since f is decreasing over the interval (−∞, −1) and increasing over the interval (−1, 0), f has a local minimum at
x = −1 . Since f is increasing over the interval (−1, 0) and the interval (0, 1), f does not have a local extremum at x = 0 . Since
f is increasing over the interval (0, 1) and decreasing over the interval (1, ∞), f has a local maximum at x = 1 . The analytical
results agree with the following graph.
Figure 4.3.4 : The function f has a local minimum at x = −1 and a local maximum at x = 1
Exercise 4.3.2
Use the first derivative test to find all local extrema for (x) = 3
x−1
.
Hint
The only critical point of f is x = 1.
Answer
f has no local extrema because f ' does not change sign at x = 1 .

Concavity and Points of Inflection
We now know how to determine where a function is increasing or decreasing. However, there is another issue to consider regarding
the shape of the graph of a function. If the graph curves, does it curve upward or curve downward? This notion is called the
concavity of the function.
Figure(a) shows a function f with a graph that curves upward. As x increases, the slope of the tangent line increases. Thus, since
the derivative increases as x increases, f ' is an increasing function. We say this function f is concave up. Figure(b) shows a
function f that curves downward. As x increases, the slope of the tangent line decreases. Since the derivative decreases as x
increases, f ' is a decreasing function. We say this function f is concave down.
Definition: concavity test
Let f be a function that is differentiable over an open interval I . If f ' is increasing over I , we say f is concave up over I . If f '
is decreasing over I , we say f is concave down over I .
Figure 4.3.5 : (a), (c) Since f is increasing over the interval (a, b), we say f is concave up over (a, b). (b), (d) Since f is
′ ′
decreasing over the interval (a, b), we say f is concave down over (a, b).
In general, without having the graph of a function f , how can we determine its concavity? By definition, a function f is concave
up if f ' is increasing. From Corollary 3, we know that if f ' is a differentiable function, then f ' is increasing if its derivative
f (x) > 0 . Therefore, a function f that is twice differentiable is concave up when f (x) > 0 . Similarly, a function f is
′′ ′′
concave down if f ' is decreasing. We know that a differentiable function f ' is decreasing if its derivative f (x) < 0 . Therefore,
′′
a twice-differentiable function f is concave down when f (x) < 0 . Applying this logic is known as the concavity test.
′′
Test for Concavity

Let f be a function that is twice differentiable over an interval I .
i. If f ′′
(x) > 0 for all x ∈ I , then f is concave up over I
ii. If f ′′
(x) < 0 for all x ∈ I , then f is concave down over I .

We conclude that we can determine the concavity of a function f by looking at the second derivative of f . In addition, we observe
that a function f can switch concavity (Figure). However, a continuous function can switch concavity only at a point x if
f (x) = 0 or f (x) is undefined. Consequently, to determine the intervals where a function f is concave up and concave down,
′′ ′′
we look for those values of x where f (x) = 0 or f (x) is undefined. When we have determined these points, we divide the
′′ ′′
domain of f into smaller intervals and determine the sign of f ' over each of these smaller intervals. If f changes sign as we pass
′ ′′
through a point x, then f changes concavity. It is important to remember that a function f may not change concavity at a point x
even if f (x) = 0 or f (x) is undefined. If, however, f does change concavity at a point a and f is continuous at a , we say the
′′ ′′
point (a, f (a)) is an inflection point of f .
Definition: inflection point

If f is continuous at a and f changes concavity at a , the point (a, f (a)) is an inflection point of f .
Figure 4.3.6 : Since f (x) > 0 for x < a , the function f is concave up over the interval (−∞, a) . Since f (x) < 0 for x > a ,
′′ ′′
the function f is concave down over the interval (a, ∞). The point (a, f (a)) is an inflection point of f .
Example 4.3.3 : Testing for Concavity

For the function f (x) = x − 6x + 9x + 30, determine all intervals where f is concave up and all intervals where
3 2
f is
concave down. List all inflection points for f . Use a graphing utility to confirm your results.
Solution
To determine concavity, we need to find the second derivative f (x). The first derivative is f (x) = 3x − 12x + 9, so the
′′ ′ 2
second derivative is f (x) = 6x − 12. If the function changes concavity, it occurs either when f (x) = 0 or f (x) is
′′ ′′ ′′
undefined. Since f is defined for all real numbers x, we need only find where f (x) = 0 . Solving the equation 6x − 12 = 0 ,
′′ ′′
we see that x = 2 is the only place where f could change concavity. We now test points over the intervals (−∞, 2) and (2, ∞)
to determine the concavity of f . The points x = 0 and x = 3 are test points for these intervals.
Sign of f ′′
(x) = 6x − 12 at Test
Interval Test Point Conclusion
Point
(−∞, 2) x = 0 − f is concave down
(2, ∞) x = 3 + f is concave up
We conclude that f is concave down over the interval (−∞, 2) and concave up over the interval (2, ∞). Since f changes
concavity at x = 2 , the point (2, f (2)) = (2, 32) is an inflection point. Figure confirms the analytical results.

Figure 4.3.7 : The given function has a point of inflection at (2, 32) where the graph changes concavity.
Exercise 4.3.3
For f (x) = −x 3
+
3
2
2
x + 18x , find all intervals where f is concave up and all intervals where f is concave down.
Hint
Find where f ′′
(x) = 0
Answer
f is concave up over the interval (−∞, 1
2
) and concave down over the interval ( 1
2
, ∞)
We now summarize, in Table, the information that the first and second derivatives of a function f provide about the graph of f , and
illustrate this information in Figure.
What Derivatives Tell Us about Graphs
Sign of f ′
Sign of f ′′
Is f increasing or decreasing? Concavity
Positive Positive Increasing Concave up
Positive Negative Increasing Concave down
Negative Positive Decreasing Concave up
Negative Negative Decreasing Concave sown

Figure 4.3.8 : Consider a twice-differentiable I over an open interval I . If f (x) > 0 for all x ∈ I , the function is increasing over
′
I . If f (x) < 0 for all x ∈ I , the function is decreasing over I . If f (x) > 0 for all x ∈ I , the function is concave up. If f (x) < 0
′ ′′ ′′
for all x ∈ I , the function is concave down on I .
The Second Derivative Test

The first derivative test provides an analytical tool for finding local extrema, but the second derivative can also be used to locate
extreme values. Using the second derivative can sometimes be a simpler method than using the first derivative.
We know that if a continuous function has a local extrema, it must occur at a critical point. However, a function need not have a
local extrema at a critical point. Here we examine how the second derivative test can be used to determine whether a function has
a local extremum at a critical point. Let f be a twice-differentiable function such that f '(a) = 0 and f is continuous over an open
′′
interval I containing a . Suppose f (a) < 0 . Since f is continuous over I , f (x) < 0 for all x ∈ I (Figure). Then, by Corollary
′′ ′′ ′′
3, f ' is a decreasing function over I . Since f '(a) = 0 , we conclude that for all x ∈ I , f '(x) > 0 if x < a and f '(x) < 0 if x > a .
Therefore, by the first derivative test, f has a local maximum at x = a . On the other hand, suppose there exists a point b such that
f '(b) = 0 but f (b) > 0 . Since f is continuous over an open interval I containing b , then f (x) > 0 for all x ∈ I (Figure).
′′ ′′ ′′
Then, by Corollary 3, f ' is an increasing function over I . Since f '(b) = 0 , we conclude that for all x ∈ I , f '(x) < 0 if x < b and
f '(x) > 0 if x > b . Therefore, by the first derivative test, f has a local minimum at x = b.
Figure 4.3.9 : Consider a twice-differentiable function f such that f is continuous. Since f (a) = 0 and f (a) < 0 , there is an
′′ ′ ′′
interval I containing a such that for all x in I , f is increasing if x < a and f is decreasing if x > a . As a result, f has a local
maximum at x = a . Since f (b) = 0 and f (b) > 0 , there is an interval I containing b such that for all x in I , f is decreasing if
′ ′′
x < b and f is increasing if x > b . As a result, f has a local minimum at x = b .
Second Derivative Test

Suppose f '(c) = 0, f is continuous over an interval containing c .
′′
i. If f ′′
(c) > 0 , then f has a local minimum at c .

ii. If f ′′
(c) < 0 , then f has a local maximum at c .
iii. If f ′′
(c) = 0, then the test is inconclusive.
Note that for case iii. when f (c) = 0 , then f may have a local maximum, local minimum, or neither at c . For example, the
′′
functions f (x) = x , f (x) = x , and f (x) = −x all have critical points at x = 0 . In each case, the second derivative is zero at
3 4 4
x = 0 . However, the function f (x) = x has a local minimum at x = 0 whereas the function f (x) = −x has a local maximum at
4 4
x, and the function f (x) = x does not have a local extremum at x = 0 .

3
Let’s now look at how to use the second derivative test to determine whether f has a local maximum or local minimum at a critical
point c where f '(c) = 0.
Example 4.3.4 : Using the Second Derivative Test

Use the second derivative to find the location of all local extrema for f (x) = x 5 3
− 5x .
Solution
apply the second derivative test, we first need to find critical points c where f '(c) = 0 . The derivative is f '(x) = 5x 4 2
− 15 x .
Therefore, f '(x) = 5x − 15x = 5x (x − 3) = 0 when $x=0,±\sqrt{3}\$.
4 2 2 2
To determine whether f has a local extrema at any of these points, we need to evaluate the sign of f
′′
at these points. The
second derivative is
′′ 3 2
f (x) = 20 x − 30x = 10x(2 x − 3).
In the following table, we evaluate the second derivative at each of the critical points and use the second derivative test to
determine whether f has a local maximum or local minimum at any of these points.
x f
′′
(x) Conclusion
– –
−√3 −30 √3 Local maximum
0 0 Second derivative test is inconclusive

– –
√3 30 √3 Local minimum
– –
By the second derivative test, we conclude that f has a local maximum at x = −√3 and f has a local minimum at x = √3 .
The second derivative test is inconclusive at x = 0 . To determine whether f has a local extrema at x = 0, we apply the first
– –
derivative test. To evaluate the sign of f '(x) = 5x (x − 3) for x ∈ (−√3, 0) and x ∈ (0, √3) , let x = −1 and x = 1 be the
2 2
two test points. Since f '(−1) < 0 and f '(1) < 0, we conclude that f is decreasing on both intervals and, therefore, f does not
have a local extrema at x = 0 as shown in the following graph.

– –
Figure 4.3.10 :The function f has a local maximum at x = −√3 and a local minimum at x = √3
Exercise 4.3.4
Consider the function f (x) = x − ( )x − 18x . The points c = 3, −2 satisfy
3 3
2
2
f '(c) = 0 . Use the second derivative test to
determine whether f has a local maximum or local minimum at those points.
Hint
′′
f (x) = 6x − 3
Answer
f has a local maximum at −2 and a local minimum at 3.
We have now developed the tools we need to determine where a function is increasing and decreasing, as well as acquired an
understanding of the basic shape of the graph. In the next section we discuss what happens to a function as → ±∞. At that point,
we have enough tools to provide accurate graphs of a large variety of functions.
Key Concepts
If c is a critical point of f and f '(x) > 0 for x < c and f '(x) < 0 for x > c , then f has a local maximum at c .
If c is a critical point of f and f '(x) < 0 for x < c and f '(x) > 0 for x > c, then f has a local minimum at c .
If f (x) > 0 over an interval I , then f is concave up over I .
′′
If f (x) < 0 over an interval I , then f is concave down over I .

′′
If f '(c) = 0 and f (c) > 0 , then f has a local minimum at c .

′′
If f '(c) = 0 and f (c) < 0 , then f has a local maximum at c .

′′
If f '(c) = 0 and f (c) = 0 , then evaluate f '(x) at a test point x to the left of c and a test point x to the right of c , to
′′
determine whether f has a local extremum at c .
Glossary
concave down
if f is differentiable over an interval I and f ' is decreasing over I , then f is concave down over I
concave up
if f is differentiable over an interval I and f ' is increasing over I , then f is concave up over I
concavity
the upward or downward curve of the graph of a function
concavity test
suppose f is twice differentiable over an interval I ; if f ′′
>0 over I , then f is concave up over I ; if f ′′
< over I , then f is
concave down over I
first derivative test

let f be a continuous function over an interval I containing a critical point c such that f is differentiable over I except possibly
at c; if f ' changes sign from positive to negative as x increases through c, then f has a local maximum at c; if f ' changes sign
from negative to positive as x increases through c, then f has a local minimum at c; if f ' does not change sign as x increases
through c, then f does not have a local extremum at c
inflection point
if f is continuous at c and f changes concavity at c, the point (c, f (c)) is an inflection point of f
second derivative test

suppose f '(c) = 0 and f ' is continuous over an interval containing c; if f (c) > 0 , then f has a local minimum at c; if
′ ′′
f (c) < 0 , then f has a local maximum at c ; if f (c) = 0 , then the test is inconclusive
′′ ′′

Contributors
This page titled 4.3: Derivatives and the Shape of a Graph is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated
by OpenStax.

194) If c is a critical point of f (x), when is there no local maximum or minimum at c ? Explain.
195) For the function y = x , is x = 0 both an inflection point and a local maximum/minimum?
3
Answer:
It is not a local maximum/minimum because f ' does not change sign; it is an inflection point because f '' does change sign.
196) For the function y = x , is x = 0 an inflection point?

3
197) Is it possible for a point c to be both an inflection point and a local extrema of a twice differentiable function?
Answer:
No
198) Why do you need continuity for the first derivative test? Come up with an example.
199) Explain whether a concave-down function has to cross y = 0 for some value of x.
Answer:
False; for example, y = √−
x.
200) Explain whether a polynomial of degree 2 can have an inflection point.
For the following exercises, analyze the graphs of f ', then list all intervals where f is increasing or decreasing.
201)
Answer:
Increasing for −2 < x < −1 and x > 2 ; decreasing for x < −2 and −1 < x < 2
202)
203)
Answer:
Decreasing for x < 1 , increasing for x > 1
204)
205)
Answer:
Decreasing for −2 < x < −1 and 1 < x < 2 ; increasing for −1 < x < 1 and x < −2 and x > 2
For the following exercises, analyze the graphs of f ', then list all intervals where
a. f is increasing and decreasing and
b. the minima and maxima are located.
206)
207)
Answer:
a. Increasing over −2 < x < −1, 0 < x < 1, x > 2 , decreasing over x < −2, −1 < x < 0, 1 < x < 2;
b. maxima at x = −1 and x = 1 , minima at x = −2 and x = 0 and x = 2
208)
209)
Answer:
a. Increasing over x > 0 , decreasing over x < 0;
b. Minimum at x = 0
210)
For the following exercises, analyze the graphs of f ', then list all inflection points and intervals f that are concave up and concave
down.
211)
Answer:
Concave up on all x , no inflection points
212)
213)
Answer:
Concave up on all x , no inflection points (since f'(x) is always increasing)
214)
215)
Answer:
Concave up for x < 0 and x > 1 , concave down for 0 < x < 1
inflection points at x = 0 and x = 1
For the following exercises, draw a graph that satisfies the given specifications for the domain x = [−3, 3]. The function does not
have to be continuous or differentiable.
216) f (x) > 0, f '(x) > 0 over x > 1, −3 < x < 0, f '(x) = 0 over 0 < x < 1
217) f '(x) > 0 over x > 2, −3 < x < −1, f '(x) < 0 over −1 < x < 2, f ′′
(x) < 0 for all x
Answer:
answers will vary
218) f ′′
(x) < 0 over −1 < x < 1, f ′′
(x) > 0, −3 < x < −1, 1 < x < 3, local maximum at x = 0, local minima at x = ±2
219) There is a local maximum at x = 2, local minimum at x = 1, and the graph is neither concave up nor concave down.
Answer:
answers will vary
220) There are local maxima at x = ±1, the function is concave up for all x, and the function remains positive for all x.
For the following exercises, determine
a. intervals where f is increasing or decreasing and
b. local minima and maxima of f .
221) f (x) = sinx + si n 3
x over −π<x<π
Answer:
a. Increasing over − π
2
<x <
π
2
, decreasing over x < −π π
2
,x >
π
b. Local maximum at x = ; local minimum at x = −

π
2
π
222) f (x) = x 2
+ cosx
For the following exercise, determine a. intervals where f is concave up or concave down, and b. the inflection points of f .
223) f (x) = x 3
− 4x
2
+x +2
Answer:
a. Concave up for x > 4
3
, concave down for x < 4
b. Inflection point at x = 4

a. intervals where f is increasing or decreasing,
b. local minima and maxima of f ,
c. intervals where f is concave up and concave down, and
d. the inflection points of f .
224) f (x) = x 2
− 6x
225) f (x) = x 3
− 6x
2
Answer:
a. Increasing over x < 0 and x > 4, decreasing over 0 < x < 4
b. Maximum at x = 0 , minimum at x = 4
c. Concave up for x > 2 , concave down for x < 2
d. Infection point at x = 2
226) f (x) = x 4
− 6x
3
227) f (x) = x 11
− 6x
10
Answer:
a. Increasing over x < 0 and x > , decreasing over 0 < x <
60
11
60
11
b. Minimum at x = 60
11
c. Concave down for x < 54
11
,
concave up for x > d. Inflection point at x =
54
11
54
11
228) f (x) = x + x 2
−x
3
229) f (x) = x 2
+x +1
Answer:
a. Increasing over x > − , decreasing over x < −
1
2
1
2
b. Minimum at x = − 1
2
c. Concave up for all x d. No inflection points
230) f (x) = x 3
+x
4

d. the inflection points of f . Sketch the curve, then use a calculator to compare your answer. If you cannot determine the
exact answer analytically, use a calculator.
231) [T] f (x) = sin(πx) − cos(πx) over x = [−1, 1]
Answer:
a. Increases over − < x < , decreases over x > and x < − b. Minimum at x = − , maximum at x =
1
4
3
4
3
4
1
4
1
4
3
4
c. Concave
up for − < x < , concave down for x < − and x > d. Inflection points at x = − , x =
3
4
1
4
3
4
1
4
3
4
1
232) [T] f (x) = x + sin(2x) over x = [− π
2
,
π
2
]
233) f (x) = sinx + tanx over (− π
2
,
π
2
)
Answer:
a. Increasing for all x
b. No local minimum or maximum
c. Concave up for x > 0 , concave down for x < 0
d. Inflection point at x = 0
234) [T] f (x) = (x − 2) 2 2

(x − 4 )
235) [T] f (x) = 1
1−x
,x ≠1
Answer:
a. Increasing for all x where defined
b. No local minima or maxima
c. Concave up for x < 1 ; concave down for x > 1
d. No inflection points in domain
236) [T] f (x) = sinx
x
over x = [−2π, 2π][2π, 0) ∪ (0, 2π]
237) f (x) = sin(x)e over x = [−π, π]x
Answer:
Solution: a. Increasing over − < x < , decreasing over x >
4
π 3π
4
3π
4
,x <−
π
4
b. Minimum at x = − , maximum at x =
π
4
3π
c. Concave up for − < x < , concave down for x < − , x >

π
2
π
2
π
2
π
2
d. Infection points at x = ±π
−
238) f (x) = lnx √x , x > 0
−
239) f (x) = 1
4
√x +
1
x
,x >0
Answer:
–
Solution: a. Increasing over x > 4, decreasing over 0 < x < 4 b. Minimum at x = 4 c. Concave up for 0 < x < 8√2 , 3
– –
concave down for x > 8√2 d. Inflection point at x = 8√2
3 3
240) f (x) = e
x
,x ≠0
For the following exercises, interpret the sentences in terms of f , f ', and f ′′
.
241) The population is growing more slowly. Here f is the population.
Answer:
′′
f > 0, f ' > 0, f <0
242) A bike accelerates faster, but a car goes faster. Here f = Bike’s position minus Car’s position.
243) The airplane lands smoothly. Here f is the plane’s altitude.
Answer:
′′
f > 0, f ' < 0, f <0
244) Stock prices are at their peak. Here f is the stock price.
245) The economy is picking up speed. Here f is a measure of the economy, such as GDP.
Answer:
′′
f > 0, f ' > 0, f >0
For the following exercises, consider a third-degree polynomial f (x), which has the properties f′(1)=0,f′(3)=0.
Determine whether the following statements are true or false. Justify your answer.
246) f (x) = 0 for some 1 ≤ x ≤ 3
247) f ′′
(x) = 0 for some 1 ≤ x ≤ 3
Answer:
True, by the Mean Value Theorem
248) There is no absolute maximum at x = 3

249) If f (x) has three roots, then it has 1 inflection point.
Answer:
True, examine derivative
250) If f (x) has one inflection point, then it has three real roots.
4.3E: Shape of the Graph Exercises is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
4.4: Graphing
We have shown how to use the first and second derivatives of a function to describe the shape of a graph. We also know the
behavior of f as x → ±∞ . In this section, we outline a strategy for graphing an arbitrary function f .
4.4 Sketching the Graph of a Function

We now have enough analytical tools to draw graphs of a wide variety of algebraic and transcendental functions. Before showing
how to graph specific functions, let’s look at a general strategy to use when graphing any function.
Steps for Drawing the Graph of a Function

Given a function f , use the following steps to sketch a graph of f :
1. Determine the domain of the function.
2. Locate the x- and y -intercepts.
3. Check for Even or Odd Symmetry.
If f (−x) = f (x) then this is an Even function (symmetric about the y-axis).
If f (−x) = −f (x) then this is an Odd function (symmetric about the origin).
4. Consider Asymptotes.
Evaluate lim f (x) and lim f (x) to determine the end behavior. If either of these limits is a finite number L, then
x→∞ x→−∞
y =L is a horizontal asymptote.
Determine whether f has any vertical asymptotes.
5. Calculate f '. Find all critical points and determine the intervals where f is increasing and where f is decreasing. (First
Derivative Test)
6. Determine whether f has any local extrema (minimums or maximums). If so, find both x & y values for those points.
7. Calculate f . Determine the intervals where f is concave up and where f is concave down. (Concavity Test)
′′
8. Use concavity information to determine whether f has any inflection points. If so, find both x & y values for those points.
9. Sketch the graph. (Use the points and information found from steps 1 - 8; find additional points if needed.)
Now let’s use this strategy to graph several different functions. We start by graphing a polynomial function.
Example 4.4.1: Sketching a Graph of a Polynomial

Sketch a graph of f (x) = (x − 1) 2
(x + 2).
Solution
Step 1: Since f is a polynomial, the domain is the set of all real numbers.
Step 2: When x = 0, f (x) = 2. Therefore, the y-intercept is (0, 2). To find the x-intercepts, we need to solve the equation
2
(x − 1 ) (x + 2) = 0 , gives us the x-intercepts (1, 0) and (−2, 0)
Step 3: f (−x) = (−x − 1) (−x + 2) = ((−1)(x + 1))
2 2 2
(−1)(x − 2) = −(x + 1 ) (x − 2) . This is not f (x) nor , so
−f (x)
this function is not Even & not Odd.

Step 4(a): We need to evaluate the end behavior of f . If we multiply the factors, the leading term of f is x , we conclude that f
3
behaves like y = x as x → ±∞. Namely, lim f (x) = ∞ and lim f (x) = −∞ .

3
x→∞ x→−∞
Step 4(b): Since f is a polynomial function, it does not have any vertical asymptotes.
Step 5: The first derivative of f is
2
f '(x) = 3 x − 3. (4.4.1)
Set f '(x) = 0 to find f has two critical points: x = 1, −1. Divide the interval (−∞, ∞) into the three smaller intervals:
(−∞, −1), (−1, 1) , and (1, ∞). Then, choose test points x = −2, x = 0 , and x = 2 from these intervals and evaluate the sign

of f '(x) at each of these test points, as shown in the following table.
Sign of Derivative
Interval Test point ′ 2
Conclusion
f (x) = 3 x − 3 = 3(x − 1)(x + 1)
(−∞, −1) x = −2 (+)(−)(−) = + f is increasing
(−1, 1) x = 0 (+)(−)(+) = − f decreasing
(1, ∞) x = 2 (+)(+)(+) = + f is increasing
NOTE: this table is equivalent to the line with asterisks on −1 and 1 and the Signs of the Derivative on the line using the
technique shown above .
Be sure to write f ' along the line to indicate this is the First Derivative Test.
Step 6: From the table, we see that f has a local maximum at x = −1 and a local minimum at x = 1 . Evaluating f (x) at those
two points, we find that the local maximum value is f (−1) = 4 and the local minimum value is f (1) = 0. So the local
maximum is (−1, 4) and the local minimum is (1, 0).
Step 7: The second derivative of f is
′′
f (x) = 6x. (4.4.2)
The second derivative is zero at x = 0. Therefore, to determine the concavity of f , divide the interval (−∞, ∞) into the
smaller intervals (−∞, 0) and (0, ∞), and choose test points x = −1 and x = 1 to determine the concavity of f on each of
these smaller intervals as shown in the following table.
Interval Test Point Sign of f ′′

(x) = 6x Conclusion
(−∞, 0) x = −1 − f is concave down..
(0, ∞) x = 1 + f is concave up.
NOTE: this table is equivalent to the line with a triangle on 0 and the Signs of the Second Derivative on the line using the
Be sure to write f along the line to indicate this is the Concavity Test.
′′
Step 8: From the table (since concavity changes), we see that f has an inflection point at x = 0 . f (0) = 2 so (0, 2) is a point of
inflection.
We note that the information in the preceding table confirms the fact, found in step 6, that f has a local maximum at x = −1 and
a local minimum at x = 1 . In addition, the information found in step 6—namely, f has a local maximum at x = −1 and a local
minimum at x = 1 , and f '(x) = 0 at those points—combined with the fact that f changes sign only at x = 0 confirms the
′′
results found in step 6 on the concavity of f .

Step 9: Combining the information from all our steps, we arrive at the graph of f (x) = (x − 1) 2
(x + 2) shown in the following
graph.

Exercise 4.4.1
(x + 2).
Hint
f is a fourth-degree polynomial.
Answer for the graph
Example 4.4.2: Sketching a Rational Function

2
Sketch the graph of f (x) = 1−x

x
2
.
Solution
Step 1: The function f is defined as long as the denominator is not zero. Therefore, the domain is the set of all real numbers x
except x = ±1.
2
Step 2: Find the intercepts. If x = 0, then f (x) = 0 , so 0 is an intercept. If y =0 , then x
(1−x )
2
= 0, which implies x=0.
Therefore, (0,0) is the only intercept.
2
(−x) 2
Step 3: f (−x) = 2
=
1−x
x
2
This IS f (x), so this function is Even. It will be symmetric with the y-axis.
1−(−x)
Step 4(a): Evaluate the limits at infinity. Since f is a rational function, divide the numerator and denominator by the highest
power in the denominator: x . We obtain
2
2
x 1
limx→±∞ 2
= limx→±∞ 1
= −1.
1−x −1
x2
Therefore, f has a horizontal asymptote of y = −1 as x → ∞ and x → −∞. HA: y = −1

Step 4(b): To determine whether f has any vertical asymptotes, first check to see whether the denominator has any zeroes. We
find the denominator is zero when x = ±1 . To determine whether the lines x = 1 or x = −1 are vertical asymptotes of f ,
evaluate lim x→1 f (x) and lim f (x). By looking at each one-sided limit as x → 1, we see that
x→−1

2 2
limx→1+
x
1−x
2
= −∞ and lim x→1
−
1−x
x
2
= ∞.
In addition, by looking at each one-sided limit as x → −1, we find that

2 2
limx→−1+
x
1−x
2
=∞ and lim x→−1
−
x
1−x
2
= −∞.
VA: x = −1 & x = 1
The one-sided limits tell us where the function is going up or down on each side of the vertical asymptotes.
Step 5: Calculate the first derivative:
2 2
(1−x )(2x)−x (−2x)
f '(x) =
2
2
=
2x
2
2
.
(1−x ) (1−x )
Critical points occur at points x where f '(x) = 0 or f '(x) is undefined. We see that f '(x) = 0 when x = 0. The derivative f ' is
not undefined at any point in the domain of f . However, x = ±1 are not in the domain of f . Therefore, to determine where f is
increasing and where f is decreasing, divide the interval (−∞, ∞) into four smaller intervals: (−∞, −1), (−1, 0), (0, 1), and
(1, ∞), and choose a test point in each interval to determine the sign of f '(x) in each of these intervals. The values
1
x = −2, x = − , x =
2
, and x = 2 are good choices for test points as shown in the following table.
1
Interval Test point Sign of f'(x) = 2x
2 2 Conclusion
( 1−x )
(−∞, −1) x = −2 −/+ = − f is decreasing.
(−1, 0) x = −/2 −/+ = − f is decreasing.
(0, 1) x = 1/2 +/+ = + f is increasing.
(1, ∞) x = 2 +/+ = + f is increasing.
NOTE: this table is equivalent to the line with asterisks on −1 , 0 and 1 and the Signs of the Derivative on the line using the
Step 6: From the table, we see that f has a local minimum at x = 0 but no local maximum. f (0) = 0. So the local minimum is
(0, 0).
Step 7: Calculate the second derivative:

2 2 2
(1−x ) (2)−2x(2(1−x )(−2x))
′′
f (x) = 4
(1−x2 )
2 2 2
(1−x )[2(1−x )+8 x ]
=
2 4
(1−x )
2 2
2(1−x )+8 x
= 3
2
(1−x )
2
6 x +2
= 3
.
2
(1−x )
To determine the intervals where f is concave up and where f is concave down, we first need to find all points x where
f (x) = 0 or f (x) is undefined. Since the numerator 6 x + 2 ≠ 0 for any x, f (x) is never zero. Furthermore, f is not
′′ ′′ 2 ′′ ′′
undefined for any x in the domain of f . However, as discussed earlier, x = ±1 are not in the domain of f . Therefore, to
determine the concavity of f , we divide the interval (−∞, ∞) into the three smaller intervals (−∞, −1), (−1, −1), and
(1, ∞), and choose a test point in each of these intervals to evaluate the sign of f (x). in each of these intervals. The values
′′
x = −2, x = 0 , and x = 2 are possible test points as shown in the following table.
2
6 x +2
(x) =
2 3
Conclusion
( 1−x )
(−∞, −1) x = −2 +/− = − f is concave down.
(−1, −1) x = 0 +/+ = + f is concave up
(1, ∞) x = 2 +/− = − f is concave down.

NOTE: this table is equivalent to the line with triangles on −1 and 1 and the Signs of the Second Derivative on the line using
the technique shown above .
′′
Step 8: Although f changes concavity at x = −1 and x = 1 , there are no inflection points at either of these places because f is
not continuous at x = −1 or x = 1. So, there are no points of inflection.
Step 9: Combining all this information, we arrive at the graph of f shown below.
f (x) =
x
(1−x2 )
.
Exercise 4.4.2
Sketch a graph of f (x) = 3x+5
8+4x.
Hint
A line y = L is a horizontal asymptote of f if the limit as x → ∞ or the limit as x → −∞ of f (x) is L. A line x = a is a
vertical asymptote if at least one of the one-sided limits of f as x → a is ∞ or −∞.
Answer for the graph

Example 4.4.3: Sketching another Rational Function (with an Oblique Asymptote)
2
Sketch the graph of f (x) = x
x−1
Solution
Step 1: The domain of f is the set of all real numbers x except x = 1.
Step 2: Find the intercepts. We can see that when x = 0, f (x) = 0, so (0, 0) is the only intercept.
2
(−x) 2
Step 3: f (−x) = −x−1

=−
x
x+1
. This is not f (x) nor −f (x), so this function is not Even & not Odd.
Step 4(a): Evaluate the limits at infinity. Since f is a rational function, divide the numerator and denominator by the highest
power in the denominator: x. We obtain
2
x x
limx→±∞ = limx→±∞ 1
= x.
(x−1) 1−
x
Therefore, f has no horizontal asymptote, but as x → ∞ , f → ∞ and x → −∞ , f → −∞ .

*********the following analysis can be used for the oblique asymptote; not required for our course:
Since the degree of the numerator is one more than the degree of the denominator, f must have an oblique asymptote. To find
the oblique asymptote, use long division of polynomials to write
2
f (x) =
x
x−1
= x +1 +
1
x−1
.
Since 1/(x − 1) → 0 as x → ±∞, f (x) approaches the line y = x +1 as x → ±∞ . The line y = x +1 is an oblique
asymptote for f .
************
Step 4(b): To check for vertical asymptotes, look at where the denominator is zero. Here the denominator is zero at x = 1.
Looking at both one-sided limits as x → 1, we find

2 2
limx→1+
x
x−1
=∞ and lim x→1
−
x
x−1
= −∞.
Therefore, x = 1 is a vertical asymptote, and we have determined the behavior of f as x approaches 1 from the right and the
left.
2 2
(x−1)(2x)−x (1) x −2x
f '(x) = 2
= 2
.
(x−1) (x−1)
We have f '(x) = 0 when x − 2x = x(x − 2) = 0 . Therefore, x = 0 and x = 2 are critical points. Since f is undefined at
2
x = 1 , we need to divide the interval (−∞, ∞) into the smaller intervals (−∞, 0), (0, 1), (1, 2), and (2, ∞), and choose a test
point from each interval to evaluate the sign of f '(x) in each of these smaller intervals. For example, let
x = −1, x =
1
,x =
2
, and x = 3 be the test points as shown in the following table.
3
Interval Test point Sign of f'(x) = x −2x

2 Conclusion
( x−1)
(−∞, 0) x = −1 +/+ = + f is increasing.
(0, 1) x = 1/2 −/+ = − f is decreasing.
(1, 2) x = 3/2 −/+ = − f is decreasing.
(2, ∞) x = 3 +/+ = + f is increasing.
NOTE: this table is equivalent to the line with asterisks on 0, 1 and 2 and the Signs of the Derivative on the line using the
Step 6: We see f has a local maximum at x = 0 and a local minimum at x = 2 . Evaluating f (x) at those two points, we find
that the local maximum value is f (0) = 0 and the local minimum value is f (2) = 4. So the local maximum is (0, 0) and the
local minimum is (2, 4).

′′ 2
f (x) = 3
(x−1)
f (x) = 0 or f (x) is undefined. Since the numerator 2 ≠ 0 for any x, f (x) is never zero. Furthermore, f is not undefined
′′ ′′ ′′ ′′
for any x in the domain of f . However, as discussed earlier, x = 1 is not in the domain of f . Therefore, to determine the
concavity of f , we divide the interval (−∞, ∞) into the two smaller intervals (−∞, 1), and\((1, ∞), and choose a test point
in each of these intervals to evaluate the sign of f (x). in each of these intervals. The values x = 0 , and x = 2 are possible test
′′
points as shown in the following table.

(x) =
2
3 Conclusion
( x−1)
(−∞, 1) x = 0 +/− = − f is concave down.
(1, ∞) x = 2 +/+ = + f is concave up
NOTE: this table is equivalent to the line with triangles on −1 and 1 and the Signs of the Second Derivative on the line using
the technique shown above .
′′
Step 8: Although f changes concavity at x = 1 , there is no inflection point because f is not continuous at x = 1. So, there are
no points of inflection.
Step 9: From the information gathered, we arrive at the following graph for f .
Note: drawing in the oblique asymptote is not required
Steps to Determine a Cusp or a Vertical Tangent

Given a point x = c at which the function f is defined, but f ′
(c) is not defined, we need to decide if this is a cusp or a vertical
tangent for the function f .
1. Determine
′
lim f (x) (4.4.3)
+
x→c
and
′
lim f (x). (4.4.4)
−
x→c
2. If these limits are different, then we have a cusp. The could be ∞ and −∞ as seen in example 4.4.4. Or, they could be
numbers such as −1 and 1 as seen for f (x) = |x| at x = 0 .
3. If the limits are both ∞ or both −∞ , then this is a point where the original function f has a vertical tangent.

Example 4.4.4: Sketching the Graph of a Function with a Cusp
Sketch a graph of f (x) = (x − 1) 2/3
Solution
3 −−−−− 2
Step 1: Since the cube-root function is defined for all real numbers x and (x − 1) 2/3
= (√x − 1 ) , the domain of f is all real
numbers.
Step 2: To find the y -intercept, evaluate f (0). Since f (0) = 1, the y -intercept is (0, 1) . To find the x -intercept, solve
= 0 . The solution of this equation is x = 1 , so the x-intercept is (1, 0).
2/3
(x − 1 )
Step 3: f (−x) = (−x − 1) 2/3

= ((−1)(x + 1))
2/3
=(x+1)^{2/3}. This is not f (x) nor −f (x) , so this function is not Even &
not Odd.
Step 4(a): Since lim (x − 1 )
2/3
= ∞, the function continues to grow without bound as x → ∞ and x → −∞.
x→±∞
Step 4(b): The function has no vertical asymptotes.

Step 5: To determine where f is increasing or decreasing, calculate f '. We find
2 2
−1/3
f '(x) = (x − 1 ) = (4.4.5)
3 1/3
3(x − 1)
This function is not zero anywhere, but it is undefined when x = 1. Therefore, the only critical point is x = 1. Divide the
interval (−∞, ∞) into the smaller intervals (−∞, 1) and (1, ∞), and choose test points in each of these intervals to determine
the sign of f '(x) in each of these smaller intervals. Let x = 0 and x = 2 be the test points as shown in the following table.
Interval Test Point Sign of f'(x) = 2

1/3 Conclusion
3( x−1)
(−∞, 1) x = 0 +/− = − f is decreasing
(1, ∞) x = 2 +/+ = + f is increasing
NOTE: this table is equivalent to the line with an asterisk on 1 and the Signs of the Derivative on the line using the technique
shown above .
Step 6: We conclude that f as a local minimum at x = 1 . Evaluating f at x = 1 , we find that the value of f at the local
minimum is zero. The local minimum is (1, 0).Note that f '(1) is undefined, so to determine the behavior of the function at this
critical point, we need to examine lim f '(x). Looking at the one-sided limits, we have
x→1
2
lim =∞ (4.4.6)
+ 1/3
x→1 3(x − 1)
and
2
lim = −∞. (4.4.7)
− 1/3
x→1 3(x − 1)
Therefore, f has a cusp at x = 1.

Step 7: To determine concavity, we calculate the second derivative of f :
′′
2 −4/3
−2
f (x) = − (x − 1 ) = . (4.4.8)
9 9(x − 1)4/3
We find that f (x) is defined for all x, but is undefined when x = 1 . Therefore, divide the interval (−∞, ∞) into the smaller
′′
intervals (−∞, 1) and (1, ∞), and choose test points to evaluate the sign of f (x) in each of these intervals. As we did earlier,
′′
let x = 0 and x = 2 be test points as shown in the following table.

(x) =
−2
4/3 Conclusion
3( x−1)
(−∞, 1) x = 0 −/+ = − f is concave down

(x) =
−2
4/3 Conclusion
3( x−1)
(1, ∞) x = 2 −/+ = − f is concave down
NOTE: this table is equivalent to the line with a triangle on 1 and the Signs of the Second Derivative on the line using the
′′
From this table, we conclude that f s concave down everywhere.

Step 8: There are no points of inflection.
Step 9: Combining all of this information, we arrive at the following graph for f .
Exercise 4.4.3
Consider the function f (x) = 5 − x 2/3
. Determine the point on the graph where a cusp is located. Determine the end behavior
of f .
Hint
A function f has a cusp at a point a if f (a) exists, ′
f (a) is undefined, one of the one-sided limits as x → a of
(x)is + ∞ , and the other one-sided limit is −∞.
′
f
Answer
The function f has a cusp at (0, 5) lim f '(x) = ∞
−
, lim f '(x) = −∞
+
. For end behavior, lim f (x) = −∞.
x→0 x→0 x→±∞
Problem-Solving Strategy: Drawing the Graph of a Function - INCLUDING oBLIQUE

aSYMPTOTES (OPTIONAL)
3. Evaluate lim f (x) and lim
x→∞ x→−∞ f (x) to determine the end behavior. If either of these limits is a finite number L, then
y = L is a horizontal asymptote. If either of these limits is ∞ or −∞ , determine whether f has an oblique asymptote. If i s a
p(x)
rational function such that f (x) = q(x)
, where the degree of the numerator is greater than the degree of the denominator,
then f can be written as
p(x) r(x)
f (x) = = g(x) + (4.4.9)
q(x) q(x),
where the degree of r(x) is less than the degree of q(x). The values of f (x) approach the values of g(x) as x → ±∞ . If
g(x) is a linear function, it is known as an oblique asymptote.
4. Determine whether f has any vertical asymptotes.

5. Calculate f '. Find all critical points and determine the intervals where f is increasing and where f is decreasing. Determine
whether f has any local extrema.
6. Calculate f . Determine the intervals where f is concave up and where f is concave down. Use this information to
′′
determine whether f has any inflection points. The second derivative can also be used as an alternate means to determine or
verify that f has a local extremum at a critical point.
Exercise 4.4.4
3
(3 x −2x+1)
OPTIONAL: Find the oblique asymptote for f (x) = 2
(2 x −4)
.
Hint
Use long division of polynomials.
Answer
3
y = x
2
Key Concepts
sufficiently large.

n
n−1
n−1
+… +a x +a , where a ≠ 0 , the end behavior is determined
1 0 n

n
n
p(x)
an
n n
bn
Glossary
end behavior
if limx→∞ f (x) = L or lim x→−∞ f (x) = L , then y = L is a horizontal asymptote of f

limit at infinity
oblique asymptote
Contributors
This page titled 4.4: Graphing is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by OpenStax.

4.4: Graphing Exercises
For the following exercises, draw a graph of the functions without using a calculator. Use the 9-step process for graphing from
Class Notes and from the section 4.5 text.
The answers here are just the graph (step 9). Your solutions should have all steps with the information (intervals of incr/decr, local
max/min, etc) as you see in the section 4.5 text examples.
294) y = 3x 2
+ 2x + 4
295) y = x 3
− 3x
2
+4
Answer:
Note: should have a hole at the point (-3,2)
296) y = 2x+1
2
x +6x+5
3 2
x +4 x +3x
297) y = 3x+9
Answer:
298) y = x +x−2
2
x −3x−4
−−−−−−−− −
299) y = √x 2
− 5x + 4
Answer:

−−−−−−
300) y = 2x √16 − x 2
301) y = cosx
x
, on x = [−2π, 2π]
Answer:
302) y = e x
−x
3
303) y = x tan x, x = [−π, π]
Answer:
304) y = x ln(x), x > 0

305) y = x 2
sin(x), x = [−2π, 2π]

Answer:
P (x)
306) For f (x) = Q(x)
to have an asymptote at y = 2 then the polynomials P (x) and Q(x) must have what relation?
P (x)
307) For f (x) = Q(x)
to have an asymptote at x = 0 , then the polynomials P (x) and Q(x). must have what relation?
Answer:
Q(x). must have have x k+1
as a factor, where P (x) has x as a factor.
k
308) If f '(x) has asymptotes at y = 3 and x = 1 , then f (x) has what asymptotes?
309) Both f (x) =
1
(x−1)
and g(x) =
1
2
have asymptotes at x =1 and y = 0. What is the most obvious difference between
(x−1)
these two functions?
Answer:
\(\displaystyle lim_{x→1^−f(x)and \displaystyle lim_x→1−g(x)
310) True or false: Every ratio of polynomials has vertical asymptotes.
For the following exercises, draw a graph of the functions without using a calculator. Use the 9-step process for graphing from
Class Notes and from the section 4.4 text. Your solutions should have all steps with the information (intervals of incr/decr, local
max/min, etc) as you see in the section 4.4 text examples.
2
J4.4.1) y = x +2
x2 −4
J4.4.2) f (x) = x − 3x 3
J4.4.3) f (x) = x ln x
Answer:
Domain (0, ∞); Intercept (0,1); Symmetry Not odd, Not even; VA none, HA none, as x → ∞ , f → ∞;
increasing on ( , ∞) ; decreasing on (0, ); min ( , − ) ; no max;
1
e
1
e
1
e
1

concave up (0, ∞); never concave down; no inflection point
J4.4.4) f (x) = x 4
− 6x
2
J4.4.5) f (x) = x
x−2
Answer:
Domain x ≠ 2 ; Intercept (0,0); Symmetry Not odd, Not even; VA x = 2 , HA none, as x → ∞ , f → ∞ ; as x → −∞ ,
f → −∞ ;
increasing on (−∞, 0) (4, ∞, ), decreasing on (0, 2) (2, 4); min (4, 8); max;(0, 0);
– –
concave up (2, ∞), concave down (-∞ , 2); inflection points (−√2, 2
) , (√2,
2
)
−√2−2 √2−2
J4.4.6) f (x) = x −2
x4
1 4
J4.4.7) f (x) = 4x 3 +x 3
Answer:
Domain (-∞, ∞); Intercepts (-4,0) (0,0); Symmetry Not odd, Not even; VA none, HA none, as x → ±∞ , f → ∞ ;
increasing on (−1, ∞) ; decreasing on (−∞, −1, ) ; min (−1, −3) ; max none;
–
concave up (−∞, 0) (2, ∞, ); concave down (0, 2); inflection points (2, 6√2)3
J4.4.8) f (x) = 1
x
2
(1+e )
J4.4.9) f (x) = x+3
√x2 +1
Answer:
Domain (-∞, ∞); Intercepts (-3,0), (0,3); Symmetry Not odd, Not even; VA none, HA y = −1 (as x → −∞ ) , HA y = 1 (as
x → ∞ );
−−
increasing on (−∞, ) ; decreasing on ( , ∞) ; max ( , √10) ; min none;
1
3
1
3
1

– –
concave up (−∞, − 1
2
) , (1, ∞) ;concave down (− 1
2
, 1) ; inflection points (− 1
2
, √5) , (1, 2√2)
4.4 E: Sketch the GRAPH Exercises is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.

One common application of calculus is calculating the minimum or maximum value of a function. For example, companies often
want to minimize production costs or maximize revenue. In manufacturing, it is often desirable to minimize the amount of material
used to package a product with a certain volume. In this section, we show how to set up these types of minimization and
maximization problems and solve them by using the tools developed in this chapter.
The basic idea of the optimization problems that follow is the same. We have a particular quantity that we are interested in
maximizing or minimizing. However, we also have some auxiliary condition that needs to be satisfied. For example, in Example
4.5.1, we are interested in maximizing the area of a rectangular garden. Certainly, if we keep making the side lengths of the garden
larger, the area will continue to become larger. However, what if we have some restriction on how much fencing we can use for the
perimeter? In this case, we cannot make the garden as large as we like. Let’s look at how we can maximize the area of a rectangle
subject to some constraint on the perimeter.
Example 4.5.1: Maximizing the Area of a Garden

A rectangular garden is to be constructed using a rock wall as one side of the garden and wire fencing for the other three sides
(Figure). Given 100 ft of wire fencing, determine the dimensions that would create a garden of maximum area. What is the
maximum area?
Figure 4.5.1 : We want to determine the measurements x and y that will create a garden with a maximum area using 100 ft of
fencing.
Solution: Let x denote the length of the side of the garden perpendicular to the rock wall and y denote the length of the side
parallel to the rock wall. Then the area of the garden is
A = x ⋅ y.
We want to find the maximum possible area subject to the constraint that the total fencing is 100f t. From Figure, the total
amount of fencing used will be 2x + y. Therefore, the constraint equation is
2x + y = 100.
Solving this equation for y , we have y = 100 − 2x. Thus, we can write the area as
2
A(x) = x ⋅ (100 − 2x) = 100x − 2 x .
Before trying to maximize the area function A(x) = 100x − 2x , we need to determine the domain under consideration. To
2
construct a rectangular garden, we certainly need the lengths of both sides to be positive. Therefore, we need x > 0 and y > 0 .
Since y = 100 − 2x , if y > 0 , then x < 50. Therefore, we are trying to determine the maximum value of A(x) for x over the
open interval (0, 50).
Maximize A(x) = 100x − 2x over the interval (0, 50).
2
Differentiating the function A(x), we obtain

A'(x) = 100 − 4x.
Solving for x, we get the only critical point is x = 25

We use the same process to look for a maximum or a minimum. At this point, we use the Second Derivative Test (SDT)
determine if this critical point corresponds to a minimum or a maximum.
A''(x) = −4, thus A''(25) = −4. Since the second derivative at x = 25 is negative, we conclude that the maximum area must
occur when x = 25. Then we have y = 100 − 2x = 100 − 2(25) = 50. To maximize the area of the garden, let x = 25 ft and
y = 50 ft. The area of this garden is 1250 f t .
2
ANSWER: The maximum area of this garden is 1250 f t . 2
See Figure4.5.2 .
Figure 4.5.2 : To maximize the area of the garden, we need to find the maximum value of the function A(x) = 100x − 2x . 2
Exercise 4.5.1
Determine the maximum area if we want to make the same rectangular garden as in Figure, but we have 200 ft of fencing.
Hint
We need to maximize the function A(x) = 200x − 2x over the interval [0, 100].
2
Answer
The maximum area is 5000f t . 2
Now let’s look at a general strategy for solving optimization problems similar to Example 4.5.1.
Steps to Solve Optimization Problems

1. Determine which quantity is to be optimized; is it to be maximized or minimized? If applicable, draw a figure and label all
variables.
2. Write a formula (function) for the quantity to be optimized in terms of the variables. Write constraint equation(s) on the side.
3. Write your function from step 2 in terms of one variable (use the constraints to relate variables). Identify the domain based on
the physical problem to be solved.
4. Find the derivative of your function.
5. Set the derivative equal to zero & solve to find critical points.
6. Test the critical point to see if it yields a maximum or minimum value of the function; use second derivative test (SDT) (or first
(FDT)) & also consider endpoints.
7. If needed, find the value of the "other" variable.
8. If needed, calculate the quantity to optimize.
9. State the answer to the question.
Now let’s apply this strategy to maximize the volume of an open-top box given a constraint on the amount of material to be used.

Example 4.5.2: Maximizing the Volume of a Box
An open-top box is to be made from a 24 in. by 36 in. piece of cardboard by removing a square from each corner of the box and
folding up the flaps on each side. What size square should be cut out of each corner to get a box with the maximum volume?
Solution: Step 0: Let x be the side length of the square to be removed from each corner (Figure). Then, the remaining four flaps
can be folded up to form an open-top box. Let V be the volume of the resulting box.
Figure 4.5.3 : A square with side length x inches is removed from each corner of the piece of cardboard. The remaining flaps
are folded to form an open-top box.
Step 1: We are trying to maximize the volume of a box. Therefore, the problem is to maximize V .
Step 2: The volume of a box is V = L⋅W ⋅H , where L, W ,and H are the length, width, and height, respectively.
Step 3: From Figure, we see that the height of the box is x inches, the length is 36 − 2x inches, and the width is 24 − 2x
inches. Therefore, the volume of the box is

V (x) = (36 − 2x)(24 − 2x)x = 4 x
3
− 120 x
2
+ 864x .
To determine the domain of consideration, let’s examine Figure 4.5.3 . Certainly, we need x > 0. Furthermore, the side length
of the square cannot be greater than or equal to half the length of the shorter side, 24 in.; otherwise, one of the flaps would be
completely cut off. Therefore, we are trying to determine whether there is a maximum volume of the box for x over the open
interval (0, 12).
Step 4: The derivative is V '(x) = 12x 2
− 240x + 864.
Step 5: To find the critical points, we need to solve the equation

2
12 x − 240x + 864 = 0.
Dividing both sides of this equation by 12, the problem simplifies to solving the equation
2
x − 20x + 72 = 0.
Using the quadratic formula, we find that the critical points are
−−−−−−−−−−−−− − −−− –
2
20 ± √(−20 ) − 4(1)(72) 20 ± √112 20 ± 4 √7 –
x = = = = 10 ± 2 √7 .
2 2 2
– –
Since 10 + 2√7 is not in the domain of consideration, the only critical point we need to consider is 10 − 2√7 .
– – –
Step 6: SDT: The second derivative is V ''(x) = 24x − 240. V ''(10 − 2 √7) = 24(10 − 2 √7) − 240 = −48 √7. Since
V ''(x) < 0, we have found a maximum.
Step 7: there is no other variable.

–
Step 8: Therefore, the volume is maximized if we let x = 10 − 2√7 in. The maximum volume is
– –
V (10 − 2 √7) = 640 + 448 √7 ≈ 1825 in.
3
as shown in the following graph.
–
Step 9: ANSWER: Squares with sides of 10 − 2√7 in. should be cut out of the corners to obtain the maximum volume.

Figure 4.5.4 : Maximizing the volume of the box leads to finding the maximum value of a cubic polynomial.
Watch a video about optimizing the volume of a box.
Exercise 4.5.2
Suppose the dimensions of the cardboard in Example are 20 in. by 30 in. Let x be the side length of each square and write the
volume of the open-top box as a function of x. Determine the domain of consideration for x.
Hint
The volume of the box is L ⋅ W ⋅ H .
Answer
V (x) = x(20 − 2x)(30 − 2x). The domain is (0, 10).
Example 4.5.3: Minimizing Travel Time

An island is 2 mi due north of its closest point along a straight shoreline. A visitor is staying at a cabin on the shore that is 6 mi
west of that point. The visitor is planning to go from the cabin to the island. Suppose the visitor runs at a rate of 8 mph and
swims at a rate of 3 mph. How far should the visitor run before swimming to minimize the time it takes to reach the island?
Solution
Step 0: Let x be the distance running and let y be the distance swimming (Figure). Let T be the time it takes to get from the
cabin to the island.
Figure 4.5.5 : How can we choose x and y to minimize the travel time from the cabin to the island?

Step 1: The problem is to minimize T , the travel time.
Step 2: To find the time spent traveling from the cabin to the island, add the time spent running and the time spent swimming.
Since Distance = Rate × Time (D = R × T ), the time spent running is
Drunning x
Trunning = = ,
Rrunning 8
and the time spent swimming is

Dswimming y
Tswimming = = .
Rswimming 3
Therefore, the total time spent traveling is

x y
T = + .
8 3
Step 3: From Figure, the line segment of y miles forms the hypotenuse of a right triangle with legs of length 2 mi and 6 − x mi.
− −−−− −− −−−
Therefore, by the Pythagorean theorem, 2 + (6 − x ) = y , and we obtain y = √(6 − x ) + 4 . Thus, the total time spent
2 2 2 2
traveling is given by the function

−−− −−− − −−−
x √(6 − x )2 + 4
T (x) = + .
8 3
From Figure, we see that 0 ≤ x ≤ 6 . Therefore, [0, 6] is the domain of consideration.

Step 4: The derivative is
2 −1/2
1 1 [(6 − x ) + 4] 1 (6 − x)
T '(x) = − ⋅ 2(6 − x) = − − −−−− − − −−− (4.5.1)
8 2 3 8 2
3 √ (6 − x ) + 4
Step 5: If T '(x) = 0, then

1 6 −x
= − −−−− − − −−− (4.5.2)
8 2
3 √ (6 − x ) + 4
Therefore,
−−−−−−−−−−
2
3 √ (6 − x ) + 4 = 8(6 − x). (4.5.3)
Squaring both sides of this equation, we see that if x satisfies this equation, then x must satisfy
2 2
9[(6 − x ) + 4] = 64(6 − x ) , (4.5.4)
which implies
2
55(6 − x ) = 36. (4.5.5)
We conclude that if x is a critical point, then x satisfies

36
2
(x − 6 ) = . (4.5.6)
55
Therefore, the possibilities for critical points are

6
x =6± . (4.5.7)
−−
√55
−− −−
Since x = 6 + 6/√55 is not in the domain, it is not a possibility for a critical point. On the other hand, x = 6 − 6/√55 is in
the domain. Since we squared both sides of an equation to arrive at the possible critical points, it remains to verify that
−− −−
x = 6 − 6/ √55 satisfies does satisfy the equation. x = 6 − 6/√55 does satisfy that equation, we conclude that
−−
x = 6 − 6/ √55 is a critical point, and it is the only one.
Step 6: Rather than use the Second Derivative Test (which does not look quick to use) we can use the fact that T (x) is a
continuous function over a closed, bounded interval, and thus must have a maximum and a minimum. We just need to check the

values of T (x) at the endpoints x = 0 and x = 6 , and compare them with the value of T (x) at the critical point
−− −−
x = 6 − 6/ √55 . We find that T (0) ≈ 2.108h and T (6) ≈ 1.417 h, whereas T (6 − 6/√55) ≈ 1.368 h. Therefore, we
conclude that T has a local minimum at x ≈ 5.19 mi.
Step 7 & Step 8: not asked for in this problem.
−−
Step 9: ANSWER: The visitor should run 6 − 6/ √55 mi (about 5.19 mi) before swimming in order to minimize the time
traveled.
Exercise 4.5.3
Suppose the island is 1 mi from shore, and the distance from the cabin to the point on the shore closest to the island is 15 mi.
Suppose a visitor swims at the rate of 2.5 mph and runs at a rate of 6 mph. Let x denote the distance the visitor will run before
swimming, and find a function for the time it takes the visitor to get from the cabin to the island.
Hint
The time T = Trunning + Tswimming .
Answer
− −−−−− − − −−−
2
x √ (15 − x ) + 1
T (x) = + (4.5.8)
6 2.5
In business, companies are interested in maximizing revenue. In the following example, we consider a scenario in which a
company has collected data on how many cars it is able to lease, depending on the price it charges its customers to rent a car. Let’s
use these data to determine the price the company should charge to maximize the amount of money it brings in.
Example 4.5.4: Maximizing Revenue

Owners of a car rental company have determined that if they charge customers p dollars per day to rent a car, where
50 ≤ p ≤ 200 , the number of cars n they rent per day can be modeled by the linear function n(p) = 1000 − 5p . If they charge
$50 per day or less, they will rent all their cars. If they charge $200 per day or more, they will not rent any cars. Assuming the
owners plan to charge customers between $50 per day and $200 per day to rent a car, how much should they charge to
maximize their revenue?
Solution
Step 0: Let p be the price charged per car per day and let n be the number of cars rented per day. Let R be the revenue per day.
Step 1: The problem is to maximize R.
Step 2: The revenue (per day) is equal to the number of cars rented per day times the price charged per car per day—that is,
R = n × p.
Step 3: Since the number of cars rented per day is modeled by the linear function n(p) = 1000 − 5p, the revenue R can be
represented by the function
2
R(p) = n × p = (1000 − 5p)p = −5 p + 1000p.
Since the owners plan to charge between $50 per car per day and $200 per car per day, the problem is to find the maximum
revenue R(p) for p in the closed interval [50, 200].
Step 4: The derivative is R'(p) = −10p + 1000.
Step 5: Set the derivative equal to zero −10p + 1000 = 0
Therefore, the critical point is p = 100
Step 6: SDT: R''(p) = −10, so R''(100) = −10, R''(x) < 0, we have found a maximum.
When p = 100, R(100) = $50, 000.

Checking the endpoints: when p = 50, R(p) = $37, 500 & when p = 200, R(p) = $0 . Therefore, the absolute maximum
occurs at p = $100. T
Step 7 & Step 8: not asked for in this problem.
Step 9: ANSWER: The car rental company should charge $100 per car per day to maximize revenue as shown in the following
figure.
Figure 4.5.6 : To maximize revenue, a car rental company has to balance the price of a rental against the number of cars
people will rent at that price.
Exercise 4.5.4
A car rental company charges its customers p dollars per day, where 60 ≤ p ≤ 150 . It has found that the number of cars rented
per day can be modeled by the linear function n(p) = 750 − 5p. How much should the company charge each customer to
maximize revenue?
Hint
R(p) = n × p, where n is the number of cars rented and p is the price charged per car.
Answer
The company should charge $75 per car per day.
Example 4.5.5: Maximizing the Area of an Inscribed Rectangle

A rectangle is to be inscribed in the ellipse given by this equation:
2
x
2
+y = 1. (4.5.9)
4
What should the dimensions of the rectangle be to maximize its area? What is the maximum area?
Solution:
Step 0: For a rectangle to be inscribed in the ellipse, the sides of the rectangle must be parallel to the axes. Let L be the length of
the rectangle and W be its width. Let A be the area of the rectangle.

Figure 4.5.7 : We want to maximize the area of a rectangle inscribed in an ellipse.
Step 1: The problem is to maximize the area of the rectangle, A .
Step 2: The area of the rectangle is A = LW .
Step 3: Let (x, y) be the corner of the rectangle that lies in the first quadrant, as shown in Figure. We can write length L = 2x
−−−−−−
2 2
x 1 −x
and width W = 2y . Since and y > 0 , we have y = √ . Therefore, the area is
4 + y2 = 1 4
−−−−−−
2
1 −x −−−− −
2
A = LW = (2x)(2y) = 4x √ = 2x √4 − x
4
From Figure, we see that to inscribe a rectangle in the ellipse, the x-coordinate of the corner in the first quadrant must satisfy
0 < x < 2 . Therefore, the problem reduces to looking for the maximum value of A(x) over the open interval (0, 2).
Step 4: Taking the derivative of A(x), we obtain

−−−− − 1
′ 2
A (x) = 2 √4 − x + 2x ⋅ −−−− − (−2x)
2
2 √4 − x
2
−−−− − 2x
2
= 2 √4 − x − −−−− −
√4 − x2
2
8 − 4x
= −−−− − .
√4 − x2
Step 5: Setting the derivative equal to zero

2
8 − 4x
−−−− −
=0 ,
√4 − x2
then x must satisfy

2
8 − 4x = 0.
–
Therefore, x = 2. Thus,
2
are the possible solutions of our equation. Since we are considering x over the interval
x = ±√2
– – –
[0, 2], x = √2 is a possibility for a critical point, but x = −√2 is not. Therefore, we check whether √2 is a solution of our
– –
equation. Since x = √2 is a solution of our equation, we conclude that √2 is the only critical point of A(x) in the interval
(0, 2).
Step 6: The First Derivative Test might be easier than finding the second derivative. Staying within the domain we get:
A
′
+-
____|_______*_________|
– –
0.1 √2 1.9 indicating we have a maximum at x = √2.

2
4x(x − 6) – –
If you use the SDT, you get A ′′
(x) =
2 3/2
and A
′′
(√2) < 0 , therefore a maximum at x = √2.
(4 − x )
–
A(x) has an absolute maximum at the critical point x = √2 .
–
Step 7: To determine the dimensions of the rectangle, we need to find the length L and the width W . If x = √2 then
−−−−−−− −−
– −−−−−
2
(√2) 1 1
y = √1 − = √1 − = –. (4.5.10)
4 2 √2
– 2 –
length L = 2x and width W = 2y , so L = 2√2 and W = – =
√2 .
√2
– –
Step 8: The area of this rectangle isA = LW = (2 √2)(√2) = 4.
– –
Step 9: ANSWER: (a) The dimensions of the rectangle to maximize the area are L = 2√2 and W = √2 .
(b) The maximum area of this rectangle is 4.
Exercise 4.5.5
Modify the area function A if the rectangle is to be inscribed in the unit circle x
2
+y
2
=1 . What is the domain of
consideration?
Hint
If (x, y) is the vertex of the square that lies in the first quadrant, then the area of the square is A = (2x)(2y) = 4xy.
Answer
−−−− −
2
A(x) = 4x √1 − x . The domain of consideration is (0, 1).
In the previous examples, we considered functions on closed, bounded domains. Consequently, by the extreme value theorem, we
were guaranteed that the functions had absolute extrema. Let’s now consider functions for which the domain is neither closed nor
bounded.
Many functions still have at least one absolute extrema, even if the domain is not closed or the domain is unbounded. For example,
the function f (x) = x + 4 over (−∞, ∞) has an absolute minimum of 4 at x = 0 . Therefore, we can still consider functions
2
over unbounded domains or open intervals and determine whether they have any absolute extrema. In the next example, we try to
minimize a function over an unbounded domain. We will see that, although the domain of consideration is (0, ∞), the function has
an absolute minimum.
In the following example, we look at constructing a box of least surface area with a prescribed volume. It is not difficult to show
that for a closed-top box, by symmetry, among all boxes with a specified volume, a cube will have the smallest surface area.
Consequently, we consider the modified problem of determining which open-topped box with a specified volume has the smallest
surface area.
Example 4.5.6: Minimizing Surface Area

A rectangular box with a square base, an open top, and a volume of 216in. is to be constructed. What should the dimensions of
3
the box be to minimize the surface area of the box? What is the minimum surface area?
Solution
Step 0: Draw a rectangular box and introduce the variable x to represent the length of each side of the square base; let y
represent the height of the box. Let S denote the surface area of the open-top box.

Figure 4.5.8 : We want to minimize the surface area of a square-based box with a given volume.
Step 1: We need to minimize the surface area, S .
Step 2: Since the box has an open top, we need only determine the area of the four vertical sides and the base. The area of each
of the four vertical sides is x ⋅ y. The area of the base is x . Therefore, the surface area of the box is
2
S = 4xy + x
2
.
Step 3: Since the volume of this box is x 2
y and the volume is given as 216in. , the constraint equation is3
2
x y = 216 .
216
Solving the constraint equation for y , we have y = 2
. Therefore, we can write the surface area as a function of x only:
x
216
2
S(x) = 4x( )+x . (4.5.11)
2
x
864
Therefore, S(x) = 2
+x .
x
Since we are requiring that x y = 216, we cannot have x = 0 . Therefore, we need x > 0 . On the other hand, x is allowed to
2
have any positive value. Note that as x becomes large, the height of the box y becomes correspondingly small so that
x y = 216 . Similarly, as x becomes small, the height of the box becomes correspondingly large. We conclude that the domain
2
is the open, unbounded interval (0, ∞).

Step 4: The derivative is
864
S'(x) = − + 2x. (4.5.12)
2
x
864 −−− –
Step 5: setting the derivative equal to zero, 2x = . Solving this equation for x, we obtain x , so x = √432 = 6√2.
3 3
3
= 432
x2
Step 6: The second derivative is

1728
S''(x) = + 2. (4.5.13)
3
x
3 – –
so we have a minimum at x = 6√2.
3
S''(6 √2) > 0
–
Since this is the only critical point of S , the absolute minimum must occur at x = 6√2 3
– 216 3 –
Step 7: When x = 6√2 , y =
3
3 –
= 3 √2 .
2
(6 √2)
Step 8:
With these dimensions, the surface area is
3 –
864 3 – 2 3 –
S(6 √2) = + (6 √2) = 108 √4 (4.5.14)
3 –
6 √2
– –
Step 9: ANSWER: (a) The dimensions for the minimum surface area are 6√2 in. for the length & width of the base and 3√2 in.
3 3
for the height.

–
(b) The minimum surface area 108√4 in. 3
2
(see Figure 4.5.9 ).

Figure 4.5.9 : We can use a graph to determine the dimensions of a box of given the volume and the minimum surface area.
Exercise 4.5.6
Consider the same open-top box, which is to have volume 216 in. . Suppose the cost of the material for the base is 20¢/in.
3 2
and the cost of the material for the sides is 30¢/in. and we are trying to minimize the cost of this box. Write the cost as a
2
function of the side lengths of the base. (Let x be the side length of the base and y be the height of the box.)
Hint
If the cost of one of the sides is 30¢/in. , the cost of that side is 0.30xy.
2
Answer
259.2
c(x) = + 0.2 x
2
dollars
x
Key Concepts
To solve an optimization problem, begin by drawing a picture and introducing variables.
Find an equation relating the variables.
Find a function of one variable to describe the quantity that is to be minimized or maximized.
Look for critical points to locate local extrema.
Glossary
optimization problems
problems that are solved by finding the maximum or minimum value of a function
Contributors
This page titled 4.5: Optimization Problems is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by OpenStax.

4.5: Applied Optimization Problems
For the following exercises, answer by proof, counterexample, or explanation.
311) When you find the maximum for an optimization problem, why do you need to check the sign of the derivative around the
critical points?
Answer:
The critical points can be the minima, maxima, or neither, so you need check.
312) Why do you need to check the endpoints for optimization problems?
313) True or False. For every continuous nonlinear function, you can find the value x that maximizes the function.
Answer:
False; y = −x has a minimum only
2
314) True or False. For every continuous nonconstant function on a closed, finite domain, there exists at least one x that minimizes
or maximizes the function.
For the following exercises, set up and evaluate each optimization problem.
315) To carry a suitcase on an airplane, the length +width+ height of the box must be less than or equal to 62in. (a) Assuming
the height is fixed, show that the maximum volume is V = h(31 − ( )h) . (b) What height allows you to have the largest
1
2
2
volume?
Answer:
(a) substitute length = 62 - width - height into Volume to get V (w) ; consider height a constant and set V ′
(w) = 0. Solve for w
& show it's a max. Then rewrite Volume function with this value for w (b) h = 62
3
in.
316) You are constructing a cardboard box from a flat piece of cardboard with dimensions 2m by 4m. You then cut equal-size
squares from each corner so you may fold the edges. What are the dimensions of the box with the largest volume?
317) Find the positive integer that minimizes the sum of the number and its reciprocal.
Answer:
When 1
318) Find two positive integers such that their sum is 10, and minimize and maximize the sum of their squares.
For the following exercises, consider the construction of a pen to enclose an area.
319) You have 400f t of fencing to construct a rectangular pen for cattle. What are the dimensions of the pen that maximize the
area?
Answer:
100f tby100f t

320) You have 800f t of fencing to make a pen for hogs. If you have a river on one side of your property, what is the dimension of
the rectangular pen that maximizes the area?
321) You need to construct a fence around an area of 1600f t. What are the dimensions of the rectangular pen to minimize the
amount of material needed?
Answer:
40f tby40f t
322) Two poles are connected by a wire that is also connected to the ground. The first pole is 20f t tall and the second pole is 10f t
tall. There is a distance of 30f t between the two poles. Where should the wire be anchored to the ground to minimize the amount
of wire needed?
323) [T] You are moving into a new apartment and notice there is a corner where the hallway narrows from 8f tto6f t. What is the
length of the longest item that can be carried horizontally around the corner?
Answer:
19.73 ft
324) A patient’s pulse measures 70bpm, 80bpm, then 120bpm. To determine an accurate measurement of pulse, the doctor wants
to know what value minimizes the expression (x − 70) + (x − 80) + (x − 120) ? What value minimizes it?
2 2 2
325) In the previous problem, assume the patient was nervous during the third measurement, so we only weight that value half as
much as the others. What is the value that minimizes (x − 70) + (x − 80) + (x − 120) ?
2 2 1
2
2
Answer:
84bpm
326) You can run at a speed of 6 mph and swim at a speed of 3 mph and are located on the shore, 4 miles east of an island that is 1
mile north of the shoreline. How far should you run west to minimize the time needed to reach the island?

Removed #327, 328
329) A truck uses gas as g(v) = av + , where v represents the speed of the truck and g represents the gallons of fuel per mile. At
b
what speed is fuel consumption minimized?
Answer:
−
−
b
v=√
a
(120−2v)
For the following exercises, consider a limousine that gets m(v) = 5
mi/gal at speed v , the chauffeur costs $15/h, and gas
is $3.5/gal.
330) Find the cost per mile at speed v.
331) Find the cheapest driving speed.
Answer:
approximately 34.02mph
For the following exercises, consider a pizzeria that sell pizzas for a revenue of R(x) = ax and costs C (x) = b + cx + dx
2
,
where x represents the number of pizzas.
332) Find the profit function for the number of pizzas. How many pizzas gives the largest profit per pizza?
333) Assume that R(x) = 10x and C (x) = 2x + x . How many pizzas sold maximizes the profit?
2
Answer:
4
334) Assume that R(x) = 15x, and C (x) = 60 + 3x + 1
2
2
x . How many pizzas sold maximizes the profit?
For the following exercises, consider a wire 4f t long cut into two pieces. One piece forms a circle with radius r and the other forms
a square of side x.
335) Choose x to maximize the sum of their areas.
Answer:
0 ; if you got a nice critical value, it does NOT test out to be a maximum. Use it for problem #336.
336) Choose x to minimize the sum of their areas.
For the following exercises, consider two nonnegative numbers x and y such that x + y = 10 . Maximize and minimize the
quantities.
337) xy
Answer:
Maximal: x = 5, y = 5; minimal: x = 0, y = 10 and y = 0, x = 10
338 x 2
y
2
339) y − 1
Answer:

Maximal: x = 1, y = 9; minimal: none
340) x 2
−y
For the following exercises, draw the given optimization problem and solve.
341) Find the volume of the largest right circular cylinder that fits in a sphere of radius 1.
Answer:
4π
3 √3
342) Find the volume of the largest right cone that fits in a sphere of radius 1.
y
343) Find the area of the largest rectangle that fits into the triangle with sides x = 0, y = 0 and x
4
+
6
= 1.
Answer:
6
344) Find the largest volume of a cylinder that fits into a cone that has base radius R and height h .
345) Find the dimensions of the closed cylinder volume V = 16π that has the least amount of surface area.
Answer:
r = 2, h = 4
346) Find the dimensions of a right cone with surface area S = 4π that has the largest volume.
For the following exercises, consider the points on the given graphs. Use a calculator to graph the functions.
347) [T] Where is the line y = 5 − 2x closest to the origin?
Answer:
(2, 1)
348) [T] Where is the line y = 5 − 2x closest to point (1, 1)?

349) [T] Where is the parabola y = x closest to point (2, 0)?
2
Answer:
(0.8351, 0.6974)

2
351) A window is composed of a semicircle placed on top of a rectangle. If you have 20f t of window-framing materials for the
outer frame, what is the maximum size of the window you can create (with the maximum area)? Use r to represent the radius of the
semicircle.

Answer:
Maximum area of the window is 200
4+π
. Here is the area function to be maximized: A = 20r − 2r
sq f t
2
−
1
2
2
πr
For the following exercises, set up, but do not evaluate, each optimization problem.
352) You have a garden row of 20 watermelon plants that produce an average of 30 watermelons apiece. For any additional
watermelon plants planted, the output per watermelon plant drops by one watermelon. How many extra watermelon plants should
you plant?
353) You are constructing a box for your cat to sleep in. The plush material for the square bottom of the box costs $5/f t and the
2
material for the sides costs $2/f t . You need a box with volume 4f t . Find the dimensions of the box that minimize cost. Use x to
2 2
represent the length of the side of the box.
Answer:
2 32
C (x) = 5 x +
x
354) You are building five identical pens adjacent to each other with a total area of 1000m , as shown in the following figure.
2
What dimensions should you use to minimize the amount of fencing?
355) You are the manager of an apartment complex with 50 units. When you set rent at $800/month, all apartments are rented. As
you increase rent by $25/month, one fewer apartment is rented. Maintenance costs run $50/month for each occupied unit. What
is the rent that maximizes the total amount of profit?
Answer:
P (x) = (50 − x)(800 + 25x − 50)

True or False? Justify your answer with a proof or a counterexample. Assume that f (x) is continuous and differentiable unless
stated otherwise.
1) If f (−1) = −6 and f (1) = 2 , then there exists at least one point x ∈ [−1, 1] such that f '(x) = 4.
Solution: True, by Mean Value Theorem
2) If f '(c) = 0, there is a maximum or minimum at x = c.
3) There is a function such that f (x) < 0, f '(x) > 0, and f ′′
(x) < 0. (A graphical “proof” is acceptable for this answer.)
Solution: True
4) There is a function such that there is both an inflection point and a critical point for some value x = a.
5) Given the graph of f ', determine where f is increasing or decreasing.
Solution: Increasing: (−2, 0) ∪ (4, ∞), decreasing: (−∞, −2) ∪ (0, 4)

6) The graph of f is given below. Draw f '.
7) Find the linear approximation L(x) to y = x 2

+ tan(πx) near x = 1
4
.
Solution: L(x) = 17
16
+
1
2
(1 + 4π)(x −
1
4
)
8) Find the differential of y = x 2

− 5x − 6 and evaluate for x = 2 with dx = 0.1.
Find the critical points and the local and absolute extrema of the following functions on the given interval.
9) f (x) = x + si n 2
(x) over [0, π]
Solution: Critical point: x = 3π
4
, absolute minimum: x = 0, absolute maximum: x = π
10) f (x) = 3x 4
− 4x
3
− 12 x
2
+6 over [−3, 3]
Determine over which intervals the following functions are increasing, decreasing, concave up, and concave down.
11) x(t) = 3t 4
− 8t
3
− 18 t
2
−− −−
Solution: Increasing: (−1, 0) ∪ (3, ∞), decreasing: (−∞, −1) ∪ (0, 3), concave up: (−∞,
1
3
(2 − √13)) ∪ (
1
3
(2 + √13), ∞) ,
−− −−
concave down: ( (2 − √13), (2 + √13))
1
3
1
12) y = x + sin(πx)

13) g(x) = x − √−
x
Solution: Increasing: ( 1
4
, ∞), decreasing: (0, 1
4
, concave up: (0, ∞), concave down: nowhere
)
14) f (θ) = sin(3θ)

Evaluate the following limits.
2
3x√x +1
15) lim x→∞
√x4−1
Solution: 3
16) li m x→∞ cos(
1
x
)
17) lim x→1

x−1
sin(πx)
Solution: − 1
18) li m x→∞ (3x )

1/x
Use Newton’s method to find the first two iterations, given the starting point.
19) y = x 3
+ 1, x0 = 0.5
Solution: x 1 = −1, x2 = −1
20) 1
x+1
=
1
2
, x0 = 0
Find the antiderivatives F (x) of the following functions.

21) g(x) = √−
x−
1
2
x
Solution: ](F(x)=\frac{2x^{3/2}}{3}+\frac{1}{x}+C\)
22) f (x) = 2x + 6cosx, F (π) = π 2
+2
Graph the following functions by hand. Make sure to label the inflection points, critical points, zeros, and asymptotes.
23) y = 1
2
x(x+1)
Solution:
Inflection points: none; critical points: x = − ; zeros: none; vertical asymptotes: x = −1, x = 0 ; horizontal asymptote: y = 0
1
−−−−−
24) y = x − √4 − x 2
25) A car is being compacted into a rectangular solid. The volume is decreasing at a rate of 2m /sec . The length and width of the
3
compactor are square, but the height is not the same length as the length and width. If the length and width walls move toward each
other at a rate of 0.25 m/sec, find the rate at which the height is changing when the length and width are 2 m and the height is 1.5
m.
Solution: The height is decreasing at a rate of 0.125 m/sec
26) A rocket is launched into space; its kinetic energy is given by K(t) = ( )m(t)v(t) , where K is the kinetic energy in joules,
1
2
2
m is the mass of the rocket in kilograms, and v is the velocity of the rocket in meters/second. Assume the velocity is increasing at a
rate of 15m/sec and the mass is decreasing at a rate of 10 kg/sec because the fuel is being burned. At what rate is the rocket’s
2

kinetic energy changing when the mass is 2000 kg and the velocity is 5000 m/sec? Give your answer in mega-Joules (MJ), which
is equivalent to 10 J.
6
27) The famous Regiomontanus’ problem for angle maximization was proposed during the 15 th century. A painting hangs on a
wall with the bottom of the painting a distance a feet above eye level, and the top b feet above eye level. What distance x (in feet)
from the wall should the viewer stand to maximize the angle subtended by the painting, θ ?
−
−
Solution: x = √ab feet
28) An airline sells tickets from Tokyo to Detroit for $1200. There are 500 seats available and a typical flight books 350 seats. For
every $10 decrease in price, the airline observes an additional five seats sold. What should the fare be to maximize profit? How
many passengers would be onboard?
4.5 E: Optimization Exercises is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.

We have just seen how derivatives allow us to compare related quantities that are changing over time. In this section, we examine
another application of derivatives: the ability to approximate functions locally by linear functions. Linear functions are the easiest
functions with which to work, so they provide a useful tool for approximating function values. In addition, the ideas presented in
this section are generalized later in the text when we study how to approximate functions by higher-degree polynomials
Introduction to Power Series and Functions.
Linear Approximation of a Function at a Point

Consider a function f that is differentiable at a point x =a . Recall that the tangent line to the graph of f at a is given by the
equation
′
y = f (a) + f (a)(x − a). (4.6.1)
For example, consider the function f (x) = at a = 2 . Since f is differentiable at x = 2 and

1
x
′
f (x) = −
1
2
x
, we see that
′
f (2) = − . Therefore, the tangent line to the graph of f at a = 2 is given by the equation
1
1 1
y = − (x − 2). (4.6.2)
2 4
Figure(a) shows a graph of f (x) = along with the tangent line to f at x = 2 . Note that for x near 2, the graph of the tangent line
1
is close to the graph of f . As a result, we can use the equation of the tangent line to approximate f (x) for x near 2. For example, if
x = 2.1 , the y value of the corresponding point on the tangent line is
1 1
y = − (2.1 − 2) = 0.475. (4.6.3)
2 4
The actual value of f (2.1) is given by

1
f (2.1) = ≈ 0.47619. (4.6.4)
2.1
Therefore, the tangent line gives us a fairly good approximation of f (2.1) (Figure(b)). However, note that for values of x far from
2, the equation of the tangent line does not give us a good approximation. For example, if x = 10, the y -value of the corresponding
point on the tangent line is
1 1 1
y = − (10 − 2) = − 2 = −1.5, (4.6.5)
2 4 2
whereas the value of the function at x = 10 is f (10) = 0.1.

Figure 4.6.1 : (a) The tangent line to f (x) = 1/x at x = 2 provides a good approximation to f for x near 2. (b) At x = 2.1, the
value of y on the tangent line to f (x) = 1/x is 0.475. The actual value of f (2.1) is 1/2.1, which is approximately 0.47619.
In general, for a differentiable function f , the equation of the tangent line to f at x = a can be used to approximate f (x) for x near
a . Therefore, we can write
′
f (x) ≈ f (a) + f (a)(x − a) for x near a .
We call the linear function
′
L(x) = f (a) + f (a)(x − a) (4.6.6)
the linear approximation, or tangent line approximation, of f at x = a . This function L is also known as the linearization of f
at x = a.
To show how useful the linear approximation can be, we look at how to find the linear approximation for f (x) = √−
x at x = 9.
−
Example 4.6.1 : Linear Approximation of √x
−
−−
Find the linear approximation of f (x) = √−
x at x = 9 and use the approximation to estimate √9.1.
Solution: Since we are looking for the linear approximation at x = 9, using Equation we know the linear approximation is
given by
′
L(x) = f (9) + f (9)(x − 9).
We need to find f (9) and f ′

(9).
− –
f (x) = √x ⇒ f (9) = √9 = 3
′ 1 ′ 1 1
f (x) = ⇒ f (9) = =
2 √x 2 √9 6
Therefore, the linear approximation is given by Figure.

1
L(x) = 3 + (x − 9)
6
−
−−
Using the linear approximation, we can estimate √9.1 by writing
−
−− 1
√9.1 = f (9.1) ≈ L(9.1) = 3 + (9.1 − 9) ≈ 3.0167.
6
Figure 4.6.2 :The local linear approximation to f (x) = √−

x at x = 9 provides an approximation to f for x near 9.
Analysis
−
−−
Using a calculator, the value of √9.1 to four decimal places is 3.0166. The value given by the linear approximation, 3.0167, is
very close to the value obtained with a calculator, so it appears that using this linear approximation is a good way to estimate
−
√x , at least for x near 9 . At the same time, it may seem odd to use a linear approximation when we can just push a few buttons
−−
− −−−
on a calculator to evaluate √9.1. However, how does the calculator evaluate √9.1? The calculator uses an approximation! In
fact, calculators and computers use approximations all the time to evaluate mathematical expressions; they just use higher-
degree approximations.
Exercise 4.6.1
[
Find the local linear approximation to f (x) = √−
x at x = 8 . Use it to approximate
3
3
]8.1 to five decimal places.
Hint
′
L(x) = f (a) + f (a)(x − a)

Answer
$L(x)=2+\frac{1}{1}2(x−8);$ 2.00833
Example 4.6.2 : Linear Approximation of sinx

Find the linear approximation of f (x) = sinx at x = π
3
and use it to approximate sin(62°).
Solution
First we note that since rad is equivalent to
π
3
60° , using the linear approximation at x = π/3 seems reasonable. The linear
approximation is given by
π ′ π π
L(x) = f ( )+f ( )(x − ).
3 3 3
We see that
π π √3
f (x) = sinx ⇒ f ( ) = sin( ) =
3 3 2
′ ′ π π 1
f (x) = cosx ⇒ f ( ) = cos( ) =
3 3 2
Therefore, the linear approximation of f at x = π/3 is given by Figure.

√3 1 π
L(x) = + (x − )
2 2 3
To estimate sin(62°) using L, we must first convert 62° to radians. We have 62° = 62π
180
radians, so the estimate for sin(62°)
is given by
62π 62π √3 1 62π π √3 1 2π √3 π
sin(62°) = f ( ) ≈ L( ) = + ( − ) = + ( ) = + ≈ 0.88348.
180 180 2 2 180 3 2 2 180 2 180
Figure 4.6.3 : The linear approximation to f (x) = sinx at x = π/3 provides an approximation to sinx for x near π/3.
Exercise 4.6.2
Find the linear approximation for f (x) = cosx at x = π
2
.
Hint
′
L(x) = f (a) + f (a)(x − a)
Answer
π
L(x) = −x +
2
Linear approximations may be used in estimating roots and powers. In the next example, we find the linear approximation for
f (x) = (1 + x)
n
at x = 0 , which can be used to estimate roots and powers for real numbers near 1. The same idea can be
extended to a function of the form f (x) = (m + x) to estimate roots and powers near a different number m.
n
Example 4.6.3 : Approximating Roots and Powers

Find the linear approximation of f (x) = (1 + x) at x = 0 . Use this approximation to estimate (1.01)
n 3
.
Solution

The linear approximation at x = 0 is given by
′
L(x) = f (0) + f (0)(x − 0).
Because
n
f (x) = (1 + x ) ⇒ f (0) = 1
′ n−1 ′
f (x) = n(1 + x ) ⇒ f (0) = n,
the linear approximation is given by Figure(a).

L(x) = 1 + n(x − 0) = 1 + nx
We can approximate (1.01) by evaluating L(0.01) when n = 3 . We conclude that

3
3
(1.01 ) = f (1.01) ≈ L(1.01) = 1 + 3(0.01) = 1.03.
Figure 4.6.4 : (a) The linear approximation of f (x) at x = 0 is L(x). (b) The actual value of 1.01 is 1.030301. The linear
3
approximation of f (x) at x = 0 estimates 1.01 to be 1.03. 3
Exercise 4.6.3
Find the linear approximation of f (x) = (1 + x) at x = 0 without using the result from the preceding example.
4
Hint
′ 3
f (x) = 4(1 + x )
Answer
L(x) = 1 + 4x
Differentials
We have seen that linear approximations can be used to estimate function values. They can also be used to estimate the amount a
function value changes as a result of a small change in the input. To discuss this more formally, we define a related concept:
differentials. Differentials provide us with a way of estimating the amount a function changes as a result of a small change in input
values.
When we first looked at derivatives, we used the Leibniz notation dy/dx to represent the derivative of y with respect to x.
Although we used the expressions dy and dx in this notation, they did not have meaning on their own. Here we see a meaning to
the expressions dy and dx. Suppose y = f (x) is a differentiable function. Let dx be an independent variable that can be assigned
any nonzero real number, and define the dependent variable dy by
′
dy = f (x)dx. (4.6.7)

It is important to notice that dy is a function of both x and dx. The expressions dy and dx are called differentials. We can divide
both sides of Equation by dx, which yields
dy ′
= f (x). (4.6.8)
dx
This is the familiar expression we have used to denote a derivative. Equation is known as the differential form of Equation.
Example 4.6.4 : Computing differentials

For each of the following functions, find dy and evaluate when x = 3 and dx = 0.1.
a. y = x + 2x
2
b. y = cosx
Solution
The key step is calculating the derivative. When we have that, we can obtain dy directly.
a. Since f (x) = x 2
+ 2x, we know f ′
(x) = 2x + 2 , and therefore
dy = (2x + 2)dx.
When x = 3 and dx = 0.1,

dy = (2 ⋅ 3 + 2)(0.1) = 0.8.
b. Since f (x) = cosx, f ′

(x) = −sin(x). This gives us
dy = −sinxdx.
When x = 3 and dx = 0.1,

dy = −sin(3)(0.1) = −0.1sin(3).
Exercise 4.6.4
For y = e , find dy .
2
x
Hint
′
dy = f (x)dx
Answer
2
x
dy = 2x e dx
We now connect differentials to linear approximations. Differentials can be used to estimate the change in the value of a function
resulting from a small change in input values. Consider a function f that is differentiable at point a . Suppose the input x changes
by a small amount. We are interested in how much the output y changes. If x changes from a to a + dx , then the change in x is dx
(also denoted Δx), and the change in y is given by
Δy = f (a + dx) − f (a). (4.6.9)
Instead of calculating the exact change in y , however, it is often easier to approximate the change in y by using a linear
approximation. For x near a, f (x) can be approximated by the linear approximation
′
L(x) = f (a) + f (a)(x − a). (4.6.10)
Therefore, if dx is small,
′
f (a + dx) ≈ L(a + dx) = f (a) + f (a)(a + dx − a). (4.6.11)
That is,
′
f (a + dx) − f (a) ≈ L(a + dx) − f (a) = f (a)dx. (4.6.12)

In other words, the actual change in the function f if x increases from a to a + dx is approximately the difference between
L(a + dx) and f (a) , where L(x) is the linear approximation of f at a . By definition of L(x), this difference is equal to f (a)dx .
′
In summary,
′
Δy = f (a + dx) − f (a) ≈ L(a + dx) − f (a) = f (a)dx = dy. (4.6.13)
Therefore, we can use the differential dy = f ′

(a)dx to approximate the change in y if x increases from x = a to x = a + dx . We
can see this in the following graph.
Figure 4.6.5 : differential dy=f'(a)dx is used to approximate the actual change in y if x increases from a to a+dx.
We now take a look at how to use differentials to approximate the change in the value of the function that results from a small
change in the value of the input. Note the calculation with differentials is much simpler than calculating actual values of functions
and the result is very close to what we would obtain with the more exact calculation.
Example 4.6.5 : Approximating Change with Differentials

Let y = x 2
+ 2x. Compute Δy and dy at x = 3 if dx = 0.1.
Solution
The actual change in y if x changes from x = 3 to x = 3.1is given by
2 2
Δy = f (3.1) − f (3) = [(3.1 ) + 2(3.1)] − [ 3 + 2(3)] = 0.81.
The approximate change in y is given by dy = f ′

(3)dx . Since f ′
(x) = 2x + 2, we have
′
dy = f (3)dx = (2(3) + 2)(0.1) = 0.8.
Exercise 4.6.5
For y = x 2
+ 2x, find Δy and dy at x = 3 if dx = 0.2.
Hint
′
dy = f (3)dx, Δy = f (3.2) − f (3)
Answer
dy = 1.6, Δy = 1.64
Calculating the Amount of Error

Any type of measurement is prone to a certain amount of error. In many applications, certain quantities are calculated based on
measurements. For example, the area of a circle is calculated by measuring the radius of the circle. An error in the measurement of
the radius leads to an error in the computed value of the area. Here we examine this type of error and study how differentials can be
used to estimate the error.
Consider a function f with an input that is a measured quantity. Suppose the exact value of the measured quantity is a , but the
measured value is a + dx . We say the measurement error is dx (or Δx). As a result, an error occurs in the calculated quantity f (x).
This type of error is known as a propagated error and is given by

Δy = f (a + dx) − f (a). (4.6.14)
Since all measurements are prone to some degree of error, we do not know the exact value of a measured quantity, so we cannot
calculate the propagated error exactly. However, given an estimate of the accuracy of a measurement, we can use differentials to
approximate the propagated error Δy. Specifically, if f is a differentiable function at a,the propagated error is
′
Δy ≈ dy = f (a)dx. (4.6.15)
Unfortunately, we do not know the exact value a. However, we can use the measured value a + dx, and estimate
′
Δy ≈ dy ≈ f (a + dx)dx. (4.6.16)
In the next example, we look at how differentials can be used to estimate the error in calculating the volume of a box if we assume
the measurement of the side length is made with a certain amount of accuracy.
Example 4.6.6 : Volume of a Cube

Suppose the side length of a cube is measured to be 5 cm with an accuracy of 0.1 cm.
a. Use differentials to estimate the error in the computed volume of the cube.
b. Compute the volume of the cube if the side length is (i) 4.9 cm and (ii) 5.1 cm to compare the estimated error with the actual
potential error.
Solution
a. The measurement of the side length is accurate to within ±0.1cm. Therefore,
−0.1 ≤ dx ≤ 0.1.
The volume of a cube is given by V =x

3
, which leads to
2
dV = 3 x dx.
Using the measured side length of 5 cm, we can estimate that

2 2
−3(5 ) (0.1) ≤ dV ≤ 3(5 ) (0.1).
Therefore,
−7.5 ≤ dV ≤ 7.5.
b. If the side length is actually 4.9 cm, then the volume of the cube is
3 3
V (4.9) = (4.9 ) = 117.649c m .
If the side length is actually 5.1 cm, then the volume of the cube is
3 3
V (5.1) = (5.1 ) = 132.651c m .
Therefore, the actual volume of the cube is between 117.649 and 132.651. Since the side length is measured to be 5 cm,
the computed volume is V (5) = 5 = 125. Therefore, the error in the computed volume is
3
117.649 − 125 ≤ ΔV ≤ 132.651 − 125.
That is,
−7.351 ≤ ΔV ≤ 7.651.
We see the estimated error dV is relatively close to the actual potential error in the computed volume.
Exercise 4.6.6
Estimate the error in the computed volume of a cube if the side length is measured to be 6 cm with an accuracy of 0.2 cm.
Hint
2
dV = 3 x dx
Answer
The volume measurement is accurate to within 21.6cm 3
.

The measurement error dx (=Δx) and the propagated error Δy are absolute errors. We are typically interested in the size of an error
relative to the size of the quantity being measured or calculated. Given an absolute error Δq for a particular quantity, we define the
Δq
relative error as q
, where q is the actual value of the quantity. The percentage error is the relative error expressed as a
percentage. For example, if we measure the height of a ladder to be 63 in. when the actual height is 62 in., the absolute error is 1 in.
but the relative error is1
62
= 0.016 , or 1.6. By comparison, if we measure the width of a piece of cardboard to be 8.25 in. when the
actual width is 8 in., our absolute error is in., whereas the relative error is
1
4
= , or 3.1 Therefore, the percentage error in
0.25
8
1
32
the measurement of the cardboard is larger, even though 0.25 in. is less than 1 in.
Example 4.6.7 :
Relative and Percentage Error
An astronaut using a camera measures the radius of Earth as 4000 mi with an error of ±80 mi. Let’s use differentials to estimate
the relative and percentage error of using this radius measurement to calculate the volume of Earth, assuming the planet is a
perfect sphere.
Solution: If the measurement of the radius is accurate to within ±80, we have
−80 ≤ dr ≤ 80.
Since the volume of a sphere is given by V =(

4
3
)πr3, we have
2
dV = 4π r dr.
Using the measured radius of 4000 mi, we can estimate

2 2
−4π(4000 ) (80) ≤ dV ≤ 4π(4000 ) (80).
To estimate the relative error, consider dV
V
. Since we do not know the exact value of the volume V , use the measured radius
r = 4000mi to estimate V . We obtain V )π(4000 ) . Therefore the relative error satisfies
4 3
≈(
3
2 2
−4π(4000 ) (80) dV 4π(4000 ) (80)
3
≤ ≤ 3
,
V
4π(4000 ) /3 4π(4000 ) /3
which simplifies to
dV
−0.06 ≤ ≤ 0.06.
V
The relative error is 0.06 and the percentage error is 6
Exercise 4.6.7
Determine the percentage error if the radius of Earth is measured to be 3950 mi with an error of ±100 mi.
Hint
Use the fact that dV 2
= 4π r dr to find dV /V .
Answer
7.6%
Key Concepts
A differentiable function y = f (x) can be approximated at a by the linear function
′
L(x) = f (a) + f (a)(x − a).
For a function y = f (x), if x changes from a to a + dx , then

′
dy = f (x)dx
is an approximation for the change in y . The actual change in y is

Δy = f (a + dx) − f (a).

A measurement error dx can lead to an error in a calculated quantity f (x). The error in the calculated quantity is known
as the propagated error. The propagated error can be estimated by
′
dy ≈ f (x)dx.
Δq
To estimate the relative error of a particular quantity q, we estimate q
.
Key Equations
Linear approximation
′
L(x) = f (a) + f (a)(x − a)
A differential
′
dy = f (x)dx
Glossary
differential
the differential dx is an independent variable that can be assigned any nonzero real number; the differential dy is defined to be
′
dy = f (x)dx
differential form
given a differentiable function y = f ′
(x), the equation dy = f ′
(x)dx is the differential form of the derivative of y with
respect to x
linear approximation
the linear function L(x) = f (a) + f ′
(a)(x − a) is the linear approximation of f at x = a
percentage error
the relative error expressed as a percentage
propagated error
the error that results in a calculated quantity f (x) resulting from a measurement error dx
relative error
Δq
given an absolute error Δq for a particular quantity, q
is the relative error.
tangent line approximation (linearization)

since the linear approximation of f at x = a is defined using the equation of the tangent line, the linear approximation of f at
x = a is also known as the tangent line approximation to f at x = a
Contributors
This page titled 4.6: Linear Approximations and Differentials is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or

The Mean Value Theorem is one of the most important theorems in calculus. We look at some of its implications at the end of this
section. First, let’s start with a special case of the Mean Value Theorem, called Rolle’s theorem.
Rolle’s Theorem
Informally, Rolle’s theorem states that if the outputs of a differentiable function f are equal at the endpoints of an interval, then
there must be an interior point c where f (c) = 0 . Figure illustrates this theorem.
′
Figure 4.7.1 : If a differentiable function f satisfies f(a)=f(b), then its derivative must be zero at some point(s) between a and b.
Rolle’s Theorem
Let be a continuous function over the closed interval [a, b] and differentiable over the open interval
f (a, b) such that
f (a) = f (b) . There then exists at least one c ∈ (a, b) such that f (c) = 0.
′
Proof
Let k = f (a) = f (b). We consider three cases:
1. f (x) = k for all x ∈ (a, b).
2. There exists x ∈ (a, b) such that f (x) > k.
3. There exists x ∈ (a, b) such that f (x) < k.
Case 1: If f (x) = 0 for all x ∈ (a, b), then f ′
(x) = 0 for all x ∈ (a, b).
Case 2: Since f is a continuous function over the closed, bounded interval [a, b], by the extreme value theorem, it has an
absolute maximum. Also, since there is a point x ∈ (a, b) such that f (x) > k , the absolute maximum is greater than k .
Therefore, the absolute maximum does not occur at either endpoint. As a result, the absolute maximum must occur at an interior
point c ∈ (a, b) . Because f has a maximum at an interior point c , and f is differentiable at (c\), by Fermat’s theorem, f (c) = 0. ′
Case 3: The case when there exists a point x ∈ (a, b) such that f (x) < k is analogous to case 2, with maximum replaced by
minimum.
□
An important point about Rolle’s theorem is that the differentiability of the function f is critical. If f is not differentiable, even at a
single point, the result may not hold. For example, the function f(x)=|x|−1 is continuous over [−1, 1] and f (−1) = 0 = f (1) , but
f (c) ≠ 0 for any c ∈ (−1, 1) as shown in the following figure.
′

Figure 4.7.2 : Since f (x) = |x| − 1 is not differentiable at x = 0 , the conditions of Rolle’s theorem are not satisfied. In fact, the
conclusion does not hold here; there is no c ∈ (−1, 1) such that f (c) = 0.
′
Let’s now consider functions that satisfy the conditions of Rolle’s theorem and calculate explicitly the points c where f ′
(c) = 0.
Example 4.7.1 : Using Rolle’s Theorem

For each of the following functions, verify that the function satisfies the criteria stated in Rolle’s theorem and find all values c in
the given interval where f (c) = 0.
′
a. f (x) = x 2
+ 2x over [−2, 0]
b. f (x) = x 3
− 4x over [−2, 2]
Solution
Since f is a polynomial, it is continuous and differentiable everywhere. In addition, f (−2) = 0 = f (0). Therefore, f satisfies
the criteria of Rolle’s theorem. We conclude that there exists at least one value c ∈ (−2, 0) such that f (c) = 0 . Since
′
f (x) = 2x + 2 = 2(x + 1), we see that f (c) = 2(c + 1) = 0 implies c = −1 as shown in the following graph.
′ ′
Figure 4.7.3 : This function is continuous and differentiable over [−2,0], f'(c)=0 when c=−1.
b. As in part a. f is a polynomial and therefore is continuous and differentiable everywhere. Also, f (−2) = 0 = f (2). That
said, f satisfies the criteria of Rolle’s theorem. Differentiating, we find that f (x) = 3x − 4. Therefore, f (c) = 0 when
′ 2 ′
x =±
2
√3
. Both points are in the interval [−2, 2], and, therefore, both points satisfy the conclusion of Rolle’s theorem as shown

–
Figure 4.7.4 : For this polynomial over [−2, 2], f ′
(c) = 0 at x = ±2/√3 .
Exercise 4.7.1
Verify that the function f (x) = 2x − 8x + 6 defined over the interval
2
[1, 3] satisfies the conditions of Rolle’s theorem. Find
all points c guaranteed by Rolle’s theorem.
Hint
Find all values c, where f ′
(c) = 0 .
Answer
c =2
The Mean Value Theorem and Its Meaning

Rolle’s theorem is a special case of the Mean Value Theorem. In Rolle’s theorem, we consider differentiable functions f that are
zero at the endpoints. The Mean Value Theorem generalizes Rolle’s theorem by considering functions that are not necessarily zero
at the endpoints. Consequently, we can view the Mean Value Theorem as a slanted version of Rolle’s theorem (Figure). The Mean
Value Theorem states that if f is continuous over the closed interval [a, b] and differentiable over the open interval (a, b), then
there exists a point c ∈ (a, b) such that the tangent line to the graph of f at c is parallel to the secant line connecting (a, f (a)) and
(b, f (b)).

Figure 4.7.5 : The Mean Value Theorem says that for a function that meets its conditions, at some point the tangent line has the
same slope as the secant line between the ends. For this function, there are two values c and c such that the tangent line to f at
1 2
c and c has the same slope as the secant line.

1 2
Mean Value Theorem

Let f be continuous over the closed interval [a, b] and differentiable over the open interval (a, b). Then, there exists at least one
point c ∈ (a, b) such that
f (b) − f (a)
′
f (c) = (4.7.1)
b −a
Proof
The proof follows from Rolle’s theorem by introducing an appropriate function that satisfies the criteria of Rolle’s theorem.
Consider the line connecting (a, f (a)) and (b, f (b)). Since the slope of that line is
f (b) − f (a)
(4.7.2)
b −a
and the line passes through the point (a, f (a)), the equation of that line can be written as
f (b) − f (a)
y = (x − a) + f (a). (4.7.3)
b −a
Let g(x) denote the vertical difference between the point (x, f (x)) and the point (x, y) on that line. Therefore,
f (b) − f (a)
g(x) = f (x) − [ (x − a) + f (a)]. (4.7.4)
b −a
Figure 4.7.6 : The value g(x) is the vertical difference between the point (x,f(x)) and the point (x,y) on the secant line
connecting (a,f(a)) and (b,f(b)).
Since the graph of f intersects the secant line when x = a and x = b , we see that g(a) = 0 = g(b) . Since f is a differentiable
function over (a, b), g is also a differentiable function over (a, b). Furthermore, since f is continuous over [a, b], g is also
continuous over [a, b]. Therefore, g satisfies the criteria of Rolle’s theorem. Consequently, there exists a point c ∈ (a, b) such
that g (c) = 0. Since
′
f (b) − f (a)
′ ′
g (x) = f (x) − , (4.7.5)
b −a
we see that
f (b) − f (a)
′ ′
g (c) = f (c) − . (4.7.6)
b −a
Since g ′
(c) = 0, we conclude that
f (b) − f (a)
′
f (c) = . (4.7.7)
b −a

In the next example, we show how the Mean Value Theorem can be applied to the function f (x) = √−
x over the interval [0, 9]. The
method is the same for other functions, although sometimes with more interesting consequences.
Example 4.7.2 : Verifying that the Mean Value Theorem Applies

For f (x) = √− x over the interval [0, 9], show that f satisfies the hypothesis of the Mean Value Theorem, and therefore there
exists at least one value c ∈ (0, 9) such that f '(c) is equal to the slope of the line connecting (0, f (0)) and (9, f (9)). Find these
values c guaranteed by the Mean Value Theorem.
Solution
−
We know that f (x) = √x is continuous over [0, 9] and differentiable over (0, 9). Therefore, f satisfies the hypotheses of the
Mean Value Theorem, and there must exist at least one value c ∈ (0, 9) such that f '(c) is equal to the slope of the line
connecting (0, f (0)) and (9, f (9)) (Figure). To determine which value(s) of c are guaranteed, first calculate the derivative of f .
The derivative f '(x) = 1
. The slope of the line connecting (0, f (0)) and (9, f (9)) is given by
(2 √x)
– –
f (9) − f (0) √9 − √0 3 1
= = = . (4.7.8)
9 −0 9 −0 9 3
We want to find c such that f '(c) = . That is, we want to find c such that
1
1 1
= . (4.7.9)
2 √c 3
Solving this equation for c , we obtain c = 9
4
. At this point, the slope of the tangent line equals the slope of the line joining the
endpoints.
Figure 4.7.7 : The slope of the tangent line at c=9/4 is the same as the slope of the line segment connecting (0,0) and (9,3).
One application that helps illustrate the Mean Value Theorem involves velocity. For example, suppose we drive a car for 1 h
down a straight road with an average velocity of 45 mph. Let s(t) and v(t) denote the position and velocity of the car,
respectively, for 0 ≤ t ≤ 1 h. Assuming that the position function s(t) is differentiable, we can apply the Mean Value Theorem
to conclude that, at some time c ∈ (0, 1), the speed of the car was exactly
s(1) − s(0)
v(c) = s'(c) = = 45mph. (4.7.10)
1 −0
Example 4.7.3 : Mean Value Theorem and Velocity

If a rock is dropped from a height of 100 ft, its position t seconds after it is dropped until it hits the ground is given by the
function s(t) = −16t + 100.
2
a. Determine how long it takes before the rock hits the ground.
b. Find the average velocity v of the rock for when the rock is released and the rock hits the ground.
avg

c. Find the time t guaranteed by the Mean Value Theorem when the instantaneous velocity of the rock is v avg .
Solution
a. When the rock hits the ground, its position is s(t) = 0. Solving the equation −16t + 100 = 0 for t , we find that
2
t = ± sec . Since we are only considering t ≥ 0 , the ball will hit the ground sec after it is dropped.
5 5
2 2
b. The average velocity is given by

s(5/2)−s(0) 1−100
vavg = = = −40f t/sec.
5/2−0 5/2
c. The instantaneous velocity is given by the derivative of the position function. Therefore, we need to find a time t such that
v(t) = s'(t) = vavg = −40f t/sec. Since s(t) is continuous over the interval [0, 5/2] and differentiable over the interval
(0, 5/2), by the Mean Value Theorem, there is guaranteed to be a point c ∈ (0, 5/2) such that
s(5/2)−s(0)
s'(c) = = −40.
5/2−0
Taking the derivative of the position function s(t) , we find that s'(t) = −32t. Therefore, the equation reduces to
s'(c) = −32c = −40. Solving this equation for c , we have c = . Therefore, sec after the rock is dropped, the instantaneous
5 5
4 4
velocity equals the average velocity of the rock during its free fall: −40 ft/sec.
Figure 4.7.8 : At time t = 5/4 sec, the velocity of the rock is equal to its average velocity from the time it is dropped until it
hits the ground.
Exercise 4.7.2
Suppose a ball is dropped from a height of 200 ft. Its position at time t is 2
s(t) = −16 t + 200. Find the time t when the
instantaneous velocity of the ball equals its average velocity.
Hint
First, determine how long it takes for the ball to hit the ground. Then, find the average velocity of the ball from the time it is
dropped until it hits the ground.
Answer
5
sec
2 √2
Corollaries of the Mean Value Theorem

Let’s now look at three corollaries of the Mean Value Theorem. These results have important consequences, which we use in
upcoming sections.
At this point, we know the derivative of any constant function is zero. The Mean Value Theorem allows us to conclude that the
converse is also true. In particular, if f '(x) = 0 for all x in some interval I , then f (x) is constant over that interval. This result may
seem intuitively obvious, but it has important implications that are not obvious, and we discuss them shortly.
Corollary 1: Functions with a Derivative of Zero
Let f be differentiable over an interval I . If f '(x) = 0 for all x ∈ I , then f (x) = constant for all x ∈ I .

Proof
Since f is differentiable over I , f must be continuous over I . Suppose f (x) is not constant for all x in I . Then there exist
a, b ∈ I , where a ≠ b and f (a) ≠ f (b). Choose the notation so that a < b. Therefore,
f (b)−f (a)
≠ 0.
b−a
Since f s a differentiable function, by the Mean Value Theorem, there exists c ∈ (a, b) such that
f (b)−f (a)
f '(c) =
b−a
.
Therefore, there exists c ∈ I such that f '(c) ≠ 0 , which contradicts the assumption that f '(x) = 0 for all x ∈ I .
□
From Note, it follows that if two functions have the same derivative, they differ by, at most, a constant.
Corollary 2: Constant Difference Theorem
If f and g are differentiable over an interval I and f '(x) = g'(x) for all x ∈ I , then f (x) = g(x) + C for some constant C .
Proof
Let h(x) = f (x) − g(x). Then, h'(x) = f '(x) − g'(x) = 0 for all x ∈ I. By Corollary 1, there is a constant C such that
h(x) = C for all x ∈ I . Therefore, f (x) = g(x) + C for all x ∈ I .
□
The third corollary of the Mean Value Theorem discusses when a function is increasing and when it is decreasing. Recall that a
function f is increasing over I if f (x ) < f (x ) whenever x < x , whereas f is decreasing over I if f (x ) > f (x ) whenever
1 2 1 2 1 2
x < x . Using the Mean Value Theorem, we can show that if the derivative of a function is positive, then the function is
1 2
increasing; if the derivative is negative, then the function is decreasing (Figure). We make use of this fact in the next section, where
we show how to use the derivative of a function to locate local maximum and minimum values of the function, and how to
determine the shape of the graph.
This fact is important because it means that for a given function f , if there exists a function F such that F '(x) = f (x); then, the
only other functions that have a derivative equal to f are F (x) + C for some constant C . We discuss this result in more detail later
in the chapter.
Figure 4.7.9 : If a function has a positive derivative over some interval I , then the function increases over that interval I ; if the
derivative is negative over some interval I , then the function decreases over that interval I .
Corollary 3: Increasing and Decreasing Functions
Let f be continuous over the closed interval [a, b] and differentiable over the open interval (a, b).
i. If f '(x) > 0 for all x ∈ (a, b), then f is an increasing function over [a, b].
ii. If f '(x) < 0 for all x ∈ (a, b), then f is a decreasing function over [a, b].
Proof

We will prove i.; the proof of ii. is similar. Suppose f is not an increasing function on I . Then there exist a and b in I such that
a < b , but f (a) ≥ f (b) . Since f is a differentiable function over I , by the Mean Value Theorem there exists c ∈ (a, b) such
that
f (b) − f (a)
f '(c) = . (4.7.11)
b −a
Since f (a) ≥ f (b) , we know that f (b) − f (a) ≤ 0 . Also, a < b tells us that b − a > 0. We conclude that
f (b) − f (a)
f '(c) = ≤ 0. (4.7.12)
b −a
However, f '(x) > 0 for all x ∈ I . This is a contradiction, and therefore f must be an increasing function over I .
□
Key Concepts
If f is continuous over [a, b] and differentiable over (a, b) and f (a) = 0 = f (b) , then there exists a point c ∈ (a, b) such
that f '(c) = 0. This is Rolle’s theorem.
If f is continuous over [a, b] and differentiable over (a, b), then there exists a point c ∈ (a, b) such that
f (b)−f (a)
′
f (c) = .
b−a
This is the Mean Value Theorem.

If f (x) = 0 over an interval I , then f is constant over I .
′
If two differentiable functions f and g satisfy f '(x) = g'(x) over I , then f (x) = g(x) + C for some constant C .
If f '(x) > 0 over an interval I , then f is increasing over I . If f '(x) < 0 over I , then f is decreasing over I .
Glossary
mean value theorem
if f is continuous over [a, b] and differentiable over (a, b) , then there exists c ∈ (a, b) such that
f (b)−f (a)
f '(c) =
b−a
rolle’s theorem
if f is continuous over [a, b] and differentiable over (a, b) , and if f (a) = f (b) , then there exists c ∈ (a, b) such that f '(c) = 0
Contributors
This page titled 4.7: The Mean Value Theorem is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by
OpenStax.

At this point, we have seen how to calculate derivatives of many functions and have been introduced to a variety of their applications. We now
ask a question that turns this process around: Given a function f , how do we find a function with the derivative f and why would we be
interested in such a function?
We answer the first part of this question by defining antiderivatives. The antiderivative of a function f is a function with a derivative f . Why are
we interested in antiderivatives? The need for antiderivatives arises in many situations, and we look at various examples throughout the
remainder of the text. Here we examine one specific example that involves rectilinear motion. In our examination in Derivatives of rectilinear
motion, we showed that given a position function s(t) of an object, then its velocity function v(t) is the derivative of s(t) —that is, v(t) = s'(t) .
Furthermore, the acceleration a(t) is the derivative of the velocity v(t) —that is, a(t) = v'(t) = s (t) . Now suppose we are given an
′′
acceleration function a , but not the velocity function v or the position function s . Since a(t) = v'(t) , determining the velocity function requires
us to find an antiderivative of the acceleration function. Then, since v(t) = s'(t), determining the position function requires us to find an
antiderivative of the velocity function. Rectilinear motion is just one case in which the need for antiderivatives arises. We will see many more
examples throughout the remainder of the text. For now, let’s look at the terminology and notation for antiderivatives, and determine the
antiderivatives for several types of functions. We examine various techniques for finding antiderivatives of more complicated functions later in
the text (Introduction to Techniques of Integration).
The Reverse of Differentiation

At this point, we know how to find derivatives of various functions. We now ask the opposite question. Given a function f , how can we find a
function with derivative f ? If we can find a function F derivative f , we call F an antiderivative of f .
Definition: Antiderivative
A function F is an antiderivative of the function f if
F '(x) = f (x) (4.8.1)
for all x in the domain of f .
Consider the function f (x) = 2x. Knowing the power rule of differentiation, we conclude that F (x) = x is an antiderivative of f since
2
F '(x) = 2x. Are there any other antiderivatives of f ? Yes; since the derivative of any constant C is zero, x + C is also an antiderivative of 2x.
2
–
Therefore, x + 5 and x − √2 are also antiderivatives. Are there any others that are not of the form x + C for some constant C ? The answer
2 2 2
is no. From Corollary 2 of the Mean Value Theorem, we know that if F and G are differentiable functions such that F '(x) = G'(x), then
F (x) − G(x) = C for some constant C . This fact leads to the following important theorem.
General Form of an Antiderivative

Let F be an antiderivative of f over an interval I . Then,
I. for each constant C , the function F (x) + C is also an antiderivative of f over I ;
II. if G is an antiderivative of f over I , there is a constant C for which G(x) = F (x) + C over I .
In other words, the most general form of the antiderivative of f over I is F (x) + C .
We use this fact and our knowledge of derivatives to find all the antiderivatives for several functions.
Example 4.8.1 : Finding Antiderivatives

For each of the following functions, find all antiderivatives.
a. f (x) = 3x
2
1
b. f (x) =
x
c. f (x) = cos x
d. f (x) = e x
Solution:
a. Because
d
3 2
(x ) = 3 x
dx
then F (x) = x is an antiderivative of 3x . Therefore, every antiderivative of

3 2
3x
2
is of the form 3
x +C for some constant C , and every
function of the form x + C is an antiderivative of 3x .
3 2
b. Let f (x) = ln |x|. For x > 0, f (x) = ln(x) and

d 1
(ln x) = .
dx x
Forx < 0, f (x) = ln(−x) and

d 1 1
(ln(−x)) = − = .
dx −x x
Therefore,
d 1
(ln |x|) = .
dx x
1 1
Thus, F (x) = ln |x| is an antiderivative of . Therefore, every antiderivative of is of the form ln |x| + C for some constant C and every
x x
1
function of the form ln |x| + C is an antiderivative of .
x
c. We have
d
(sin x) = cos x,
dx
so F (x) = sin x is an antiderivative of cos x. Therefore, every antiderivative of cos x is of the form sin x + C for some constant C and
every function of the form sin x + C is an antiderivative of cos x.
d. Since
d
x x
(e ) = e ,
dx
then F (x) = e is an antiderivative of e . Therefore, every antiderivative of

x x
e
x
is of the form e
x
+C for some constant C and every
function of the form e + C is an antiderivative of e .
x x
Exercise 4.8.1
Find all antiderivatives of f (x) = sin x .
Hint
What function has a derivative of sin x ?
Answer
− cos x + C
Indefinite Integrals
We now look at the formal notation used to represent antiderivatives and examine some of their properties. These properties allow us to find
df
antiderivatives of more complicated functions. Given a function f , we use the notation f '(x) or to denote the derivative of f . Here we
dx
introduce notation for antiderivatives. If F is an antiderivative of f , we say that F (x) + C is the most general antiderivative of f and write
∫ f (x)dx = F (x) + C . (4.8.2)
The symbol ∫ is called an integral sign, and ∫ f (x)dx is called the indefinite integral of f .
Definition: Indefinite Integrals
Given a function f , the indefinite integral of f , denoted
∫ f (x)dx, (4.8.3)
is the most general antiderivative of f . If F is an antiderivative of f , then
∫ f (x)dx = F (x) + C . (4.8.4)
The expression f (x) is called the integrand and the variable x is the variable of integration.
Given the terminology introduced in this definition, the act of finding the antiderivatives of a function f is usually referred to as integrating f .

For a function f and an antiderivative F , the functions F (x) + C , where C is any real number, is often referred to as the family of
antiderivatives of f . For example, since x is an antiderivative of 2x and any antiderivative of 2x is of the form x + C , we write
2 2
2
∫ 2xdx = x + C. (4.8.5)
The collection of all functions of the form x 2

+ C, where C is any real number, is known as the family of antiderivatives of 2x. Figure shows a
graph of this family of antiderivatives.
Figure 4.8.1 : The family of antiderivatives of 2x consists of all functions of the form x 2
+C , where C is any real number.
For some functions, evaluating indefinite integrals follows directly from properties of derivatives. For example, for n ≠ −1 ,
n+1
x
n
∫ x dx = + C,
n+1
which comes directly from

n+1 n
d x x
( ) = (n + 1)
n
=x .
dx n+1 n+1
This fact is known as the power rule for integrals.

Power Rule for Integrals
For n ≠ −1,
n+1
n
x
∫ x dx = + C. (4.8.6)
n+1
Evaluating indefinite integrals for some other functions is also a straightforward calculation. The following table lists the indefinite integrals for
several common functions. A more complete list appears in Appendix B.
Table : Integration Formulas
Differentiation Formula Indefinite Integral
d
0
(k) = 0 ∫ kdx = ∫ kx dx = kx + C
dx
n+1
d x
n
(x ) = n x
n−1 n
∫ x dn = +C for n ≠ −1
dx n+1
d 1 1
(ln |x|) = ∫ dx = ln |x| + C
dx x x
d
x x x x
(e ) = e ∫ e dx = e +C
dx

Differentiation Formula Indefinite Integral
d
(sin x) = cosx ∫ cosxdx = sin x + C
dx
d
(cosx) = − sin x ∫ sin xdx = − cosx + C
dx
d
2 2
(tan x) = sec x ∫ sec xdx = tan x + C
dx
d
(cscx) = −cscx cot x ∫ cscx cot xdx = −cscx + C
dx
d
(secx) = secx tan x ∫ secx tan xdx = secx + C
dx
d
2 2
(cot x) = −csc x ∫ csc xdx = − cot x + C
dx
d 1 1
−1 −1
(sin x) = ∫ = sin x +C
−−−− − −−−− −
dx √1 − x
2 √1 − x2
d 1 1
−1 −1
(tan x) = ∫ dx = tan x +C
2 2
dx 1 +x 1 +x
d 1 1
−1 −1
(sec |x|) = ∫ dx = sec |x| + C
−−−−− −−−−−
dx 2 2
x √x − 1
x √x − 1
From the definition of indefinite integral of f , we know
∫ f (x)dx = F (x) + C (4.8.7)
if and only if F is an antiderivative of f . Therefore, when claiming that
∫ f (x)dx = F (x) + C (4.8.8)
it is important to check whether this statement is correct by verifying that F '(x) = f (x).
Example 4.8.2 : Verifying an Indefinite Integral

Each of the following statements is of the form ∫ f (x)dx = F (x) + C . Verify that each statement is correct by showing that F '(x) = f (x).
2
x
a. x
∫ (x + e )dx = +e
x
+C
2
b. ∫ x e x
dx = x e
x
−e
x
+C
Solution:
a. Since
2
d x
( +e
x
+ C) = x + e
x
,
dx 2
the statement
2
x
x x
∫ (x + e )dx = +e +C
2
is correct.
2
x
Note that we are verifying an indefinite integral for a sum. Furthermore, and e are antiderivatives of x and e , respectively, and the sum
x x
2
of the antiderivatives is an antiderivative of the sum. We discuss this fact again later in this section.
b. Using the product rule, we see that
d x x x x x x
(x e −e + C) = e + xe −e = xe .
dx
Therefore, the statement
x x x
∫ x e dx = x e −e +C
is correct.

Note that we are verifying an indefinite integral for a product. The antiderivative xex−ex is not a product of the antiderivatives. Furthermore,
the product of antiderivatives, x e /2 is not an antiderivative of xe since
2 x x
2 x 2 x
d x e x e
( ) = xe
x
+ ≠ xe
x
.
dx 2 2
In general, the product of antiderivatives is not an antiderivative of a product.
Exercise 4.8.2
Verify that
∫ x cos x dx = x sin x + cos x + C .
Hint
Calculate
d
(x sin x + cos x + C ).
dx
Answer
d
(x sin x + cos x + C ) = sin x + x cos x − sin x = x cos x
dx
In Table, we listed the indefinite integrals for many elementary functions. Let’s now turn our attention to evaluating indefinite integrals for more
complicated functions. For example, consider finding an antiderivative of a sum f + g . In Example a. we showed that an antiderivative of the
2
x
sum x + e is given by the sum (
x
)+e
x
—that is, an antiderivative of a sum is given by a sum of antiderivatives. This result was not specific
2
to this example. In general, if F and G are antiderivatives of any functions f and g , respectively, then
d
(F (x) + G(x)) = F '(x) + G'(x) = f (x) + g(x).
dx
Therefore, F (x) + G(x) is an antiderivative of f (x) + g(x) and we have
∫ (f (x) + g(x))dx = F (x) + G(x) + C .
Similarly,
∫ (f (x) − g(x))dx = F (x) − G(x) + C .
In addition, consider the task of finding an antiderivative of kf (x), where k is any real number. Since
d d
(kf (x)) = k F (x) = kF '(x)
dx dx
for any real number k , we conclude that
∫ kf (x)dx = kF (x) + C .
These properties are summarized next.

Properties of Indefinite Integrals
Let F and G be antiderivatives of f and g , respectively, and let k be any real number.
Sums and Differences
∫ (f (x) ± g(x))dx = F (x) ± G(x) + C
Constant Multiples
∫ kf (x)dx = kF (x) + C
From this theorem, we can evaluate any integral involving a sum, difference, or constant multiple of functions with antiderivatives that are
known. Evaluating integrals involving products, quotients, or compositions is more complicated (see Exampleb. for an example involving an

antiderivative of a product.) We look at and address integrals involving these more complicated functions in Introduction to Integration. In the
next example, we examine how to use this theorem to calculate the indefinite integrals of several functions.
Example 4.8.3 : Evaluating Indefinite Integrals

Evaluate each of the following indefinite integrals:
a. ∫ (5 x
3
− 7x
2
+ 3x + 4)dx
2 3 −
x + 4 √x
b. ∫ dx
x
4
c. ∫
2
dx
1 +x
d. ∫ tan x cos xdx
Solution:
a. Using Note, we can integrate each of the four terms in the integrand separately. We obtain
3 2 3 2
∫ (5 x − 7x + 3x + 4)dx = ∫ 5 x dx − ∫ 7 x dx + ∫ 3xdx + ∫ 4dx.
From the second part of Note, each coefficient can be written in front of the integral sign, which gives
3 2 3 2
∫ 5 x dx − ∫ 7 x dx + ∫ 3xdx + ∫ 4dx = 5 ∫ x dx − 7 ∫ x dx + 3 ∫ xdx + 4 ∫ 1dx.
Using the power rule for integrals, we conclude that

5 7 3
3 2 4 3 2
∫ (5 x − 7x + 3x + 4)dx = x − x + x + 4x + C .
4 3 2
b. Rewrite the integrand as

2 3
− 2 3
−
x + 4 √x x 4 √x
= + = 0.
x x x
Then, to evaluate the integral, integrate each of these terms separately. Using the power rule, we have
4
−2/3
∫ (x + )dx = ∫ xdx + 4 ∫ x dx
2/3
x
1 1
2 (−2/3)+1
= x +4 x + C ])
2 −2
( )+1
3
1
2 1/3
= x + 12 x + C.
2
c. Using Note, write the integral as

1
4∫ dx.
2
1 +x
1
Then, use the fact that tan −1
(x) is an antiderivative of 2
to conclude that
(1 + x )
4
−1
∫ dx = 4tan (x) + C .
2
1 +x
d. Rewrite the integrand as

sin x
tan x cos x = cos x = sin x.
cos x
Therefore,
∫ tan x cos x = ∫ sin x = − cos x + C .
Exercise 4.8.3
Evaluate ∫ (4x 3
− 5x
2
+ x − 7)dx .
Hint
Integrate each term in the integrand separately, making use of the power rule.
Answer
5 1
4 3 2
x − x + x − 7x + C
3 2

Initial-Value Problems
We look at techniques for integrating a large variety of functions involving products, quotients, and compositions later in the text. Here we turn
to one common use for antiderivatives that arises often in many applications: solving differential equations.
A differential equation is an equation that relates an unknown function and one or more of its derivatives. The equation
dy
= f (x)
dx
is a simple example of a differential equation. Solving this equation means finding a function y with a derivative f . Therefore, the solutions of
Equation are the antiderivatives of f . If F is one antiderivative of f , every function of the form y = F (x) + C is a solution of that differential
equation. For example, the solutions of
dy
2
= 6x
dx
are given by
2
y = ∫ 6 x dx = 2 x
3
+C .
Sometimes we are interested in determining whether a particular solution curve passes through a certain point (x0 , y0 ) —that is, y(x0 ) = y0 .
The problem of finding a function y that satisfies a differential equation
dy
= f (x)
dx
with the additional condition

y(x0 ) = y0
is an example of an initial-value problem. The condition y(x 0) = y0 is known as an initial condition. For example, looking for a function y that
satisfies the differential equation
dy
2
= 6x
dx
and the initial condition

y(1) = 5
is an example of an initial-value problem. Since the solutions of the differential equation are y = 2x + C , to find a function y that also satisfies
3
the initial condition, we need to find C such that y(1) = 2(1) + C = 5 . From this equation, we see that C = 3 , and we conclude that
3
y = 2 x + 3 is the solution of this initial-value problem as shown in the following graph.

3
dy
Figure 4.8.2 : Some of the solution curves of the differential equation = 6x
2
are displayed. The function y = 2x 3
+3 satisfies the
dx
differential equation and the initial condition y(1) = 5.
Example 4.8.4 : Solving an Initial-Value Problem

Solve the initial-value problem
dy
= sin x, y(0) = 5. (4.8.9)
dx
Solution
dy
First we need to solve the differential equation. If = sin x , then
dx
y =∫ sin(x)dx = − cos x + C . (4.8.10)
Next we need to look for a solution y that satisfies the initial condition. The initial condition y(0)=5 means we need a constant C such that
− cos x + C = 5. Therefore,
C = 5 + cos(0) = 6. (4.8.11)
The solution of the initial-value problem is y = − cos x + 6.
Exercise 4.8.4
dy
Solve the initial value problem = 3x
−2
, y(1) = 2 .
dx
Hint
Find all antiderivatives of f (x) = 3x −2.
Answer
3
y =− +5
x
Initial-value problems arise in many applications. Next we consider a problem in which a driver applies the brakes in a car. We are interested in
how long it takes for the car to stop. Recall that the velocity function v(t) is the derivative of a position function s(t), and the acceleration a(t)
is the derivative of the velocity function. In earlier examples in the text, we could calculate the velocity from the position and then compute the
acceleration from the velocity. In the next example we work the other way around. Given an acceleration function, we calculate the velocity
function. We then use the velocity function to determine the position function.
Example 4.8.5 :
A car is traveling at the rate of 88 ft/sec (60 mph) when the brakes are applied. The car begins decelerating at a constant rate of 15 ft/sec2.
a. How many seconds elapse before the car stops?
b. How far does the car travel during that time?
Solution
a. First we introduce variables for this problem. Let t be the time (in seconds) after the brakes are first applied. Let a(t) be the acceleration of
the car (in feet per seconds squared) at time t . Let v(t) be the velocity of the car (in feet per second) at time t . Let s(t) be the car’s position
(in feet) beyond the point where the brakes are applied at time t .
The car is traveling at a rate of 88f t/sec. Therefore, the initial velocity is v(0) = 88 ft/sec. Since the car is decelerating, the acceleration is
a(t) = −15f t/s
2
.
The acceleration is the derivative of the velocity,
v'(t) = 15.
Therefore, we have an initial-value problem to solve:

v'(t) = −15, v(0) = 88.
Integrating, we find that

v(t) = −15t + C .
Since v(0) = 88, C = 88. Thus, the velocity function is

v(t) = −15t + 88.

To find how long it takes for the car to stop, we need to find the time t such that the velocity is zero. Solving −15t + 88 = 0, we obtain
88
t = sec.
15
88
b. To find how far the car travels during this time, we need to find the position of the car after sec. We know the velocity v(t) is the
15
derivative of the position s(t) . Consider the initial position to be s(0) = 0 . Therefore, we need to solve the initial-value problem
s'(t) = −15t + 88, s(0) = 0.
Integrating, we have
15
2
s(t) = − t + 88t + C .
2
Since s(0) = 0 , the constant is C =0 . Therefore, the position function is

15
2
s(t) = − t + 88t.
2
88 88
After t = sec, the position is s( ) ≈ 258.133 ft.
15 15
Exercise 4.8.5
Suppose the car is traveling at the rate of 44 ft/sec. How long does it take for the car to stop? How far will the car travel?
Hint
v(t) = −15t + 44.
Answer
2.93sec, 64.5f t
Key Concepts
If F is an antiderivative of f , then every antiderivative of f is of the form F (x) + C for some constant C .
Solving the initial-value problem
dy
= f (x), y(x0 ) = y0
dx
requires us first to find the set of antiderivatives of f and then to look for the particular antiderivative that also satisfies the initial condition.
Glossary
antiderivative
a function F such that F '(x) = f (x) for all x in the domain of f is an antiderivative of f
indefinite integral
the most general antiderivative of f (x) is the indefinite integral of f ; we use the notation ∫ f (x)dx to denote the indefinite integral of f
initial value problem

dy
a problem that requires finding a function y that satisfies the differential equation = f (x) together with the initial condition y(x
0) = y0
dx
Contributors
Gilbert Strang (MIT) and Edwin “Jed” Herman (Harvey Mudd) with many contributing authors. This content by OpenStax is licensed with a
CC-BY-SA-NC 4.0 license. Download for free at http://cnx.org.
This page titled 4.8: Antiderivatives is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by OpenStax.

For the following exercises, find the antiderivative F (x) of each function f (x).
470) f (x) = x
1
2
+x
471) f (x) = e x
− 3x
2
+ sinx
Answer:
x 3
F (x) = e −x − cos(x) + C
472) f (x) = e x
+ 3x − x
2
473) f (x) = x − 1 + 4sin(2x)
Answer:
2
x
F (x) = − x − 2cos(2x) + C
2
474) f (x) = 5x 4
+ 4x
5
475) f (x) = x + 12x 2
Answer:
1 2 3
F (x) = x + 4x +C
2
476) f (x) = √x
1
477) f (x) = (√−

x)
3
Answer:
2 − 5
F (x) = (√x ) + C
5
478) f (x) = x 1/3

+ (2x )
1/3
1/3
479) f (x) = x
2/3
x
Answer:
3 2/3
(F (x) = x +C
2
480) f (x) = 2sin(x) + sin(2x)

481) f (x) = sec 2
(x) + 1
Answer:
(F(x)=x+tan(x)+C\)
482) f (x) = sinxcosx

483) f (x) = si n 2
(x)cos(x)
Answer:
1 3
F (x) = si n (x) + C
3
484) f (x) = 0
485) f (x) = 1
2
csc (x) +
2
x
1
2
Answer:
1 1
F (x) = − cot(x) − +C
2 x
486) f (x) = cscxcotx + 3x

487) f (x) = 4cscxcotx − secxtanx
Answer:
F (x) = −secx − 4cscx + C
488) f (x) = 8secx(secx − 4tanx)

489) f (x) = 1
2
e
−4x
+ sinx
Answer:
1 −4x
F (x) = − e − cosx + C
8
For the following exercises, evaluate the integral.

490) ∫ (−1)dx
491) ∫ sinxdx
Answer:
−cosx + C
492) ∫ (4x + √−
x )dx
493) ∫ 3 x +2
x
2
dx
Answer:
2
3x − +C
x
494) ∫ (secxtanx + 4x)dx

495) ∫ (4√− −
x + √x )dx
4
Answer:
8 3/2 4 5/4
x + x +C
3 5
496) ∫ (x −1/3
−x
2/3
)dx
3
14 x +2x+1
497) ∫ x
3
dx
Answer:
2 1
14x − − +C
x 2x
2
498) ∫ (e x
+e
−x
)dx
For the following exercises, solve the initial value problem.

499) f '(x) = x −3
, f (1) = 1
Answer:
1 3
f (x) = − +
2x2 2
500) f '(x) = √−
x +x
2
, f (0) = 2
√2
501) f '(x) = cosx + sec 2
(x), f (
π
4
) =2+
2
Answer:
f (x) = sinx + tanx + 1
502) f '(x) = x 3
− 8x
2
+ 16x + 1, f (0) = 0
503) f '(x) = x2
2
−
x
2
, f (1) = 0
Answer:
1 3 2 13
f (x) = − x − +
6 x 6
J4.8.1) not here yet
Answer:
8

Answer:
8
For the following exercises, find two possible functions f given the second- or third-order derivatives
504) f ′′
(x) = x
2
+2
505) f ′′
(x) = e
−x
Solution: Answers may vary; one possible answer is f (x) = e −x
506) f ′′
(x) = 1 + x
507) f ′′′
(x) = cosx
Solution: Answers may vary; one possible answer is f (x) = −sinx

508) f ′′′
(x) = 8 e
−2x
− sinx
509) A car is being driven at a rate of 40 mph when the brakes are applied. The car decelerates at a constant rate of 10 f t/sec
2
.
How long before the car stops?
Solution: 5.867 sec
510) In the preceding problem, calculate how far the car travels in the time it takes to stop.
511) You are merging onto the freeway, accelerating at a constant rate of 12 ft/sec2. How long does it take you to reach merging
speed at 60 mph?
Solution: 7.333 sec
512) Based on the previous problem, how far does the car travel to reach merging speed?
513) A car company wants to ensure its newest model can stop in 8 sec when traveling at 75 mph. If we assume constant
deceleration, find the value of deceleration that accomplishes this.
Solution: 13.75f t/sec 2
514) A car company wants to ensure its newest model can stop in less than 450 ft when traveling at 60 mph. If we assume constant
For the following exercises, find the antiderivative of the function, assuming F (0) = 0.
515) [T] f (x) = x 2
+2
Solution: F (x) = 1
3
x
3
+ 2x
516) [T] f (x) = 4x − √−

x
517) [T] f (x) = sinx + 2x
Solution: F (x) = x 2
− cosx + 1
518) [T ]f (x) = e x
519) [T ]f (x) = 1
2
(x+1)
Solution: F (x) = − (x+1)

1
+1
520) [T] f (x) = e −2x

+ 3x
2
For the following exercises, determine whether the statement is true or false. Either prove it is true or find a counterexample if it is
false.
521) If f (x) is the antiderivative of v(x), then 2f (x) is the antiderivative of 2v(x).
Solution: True
522) If f (x) is the antiderivative of v(x), then f (2x) is the antiderivative of v(2x).
523) If f (x) is the antiderivative of v(x), then f (x) + 1 is the antiderivative of v(x) + 1.
Solution: False
524) If f (x) is the antiderivative of v(x), then (f (x)) is the antiderivative of (v(x))
2 2
.
4.8E: AntiDerivative & Indefinite Integral Exercises is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by
LibreTexts.
CHAPTER OVERVIEW
Chapter 5: Integration
Topic hierarchy
5.0E: Exercises
5.5: U-Substitution
5.6 Notes
5.7: Net Change
Contributors
This page titled Chapter 5: Integration is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by OpenStax.
1
Iceboats are a common sight on the lakes of Wisconsin and Minnesota on winter weekends. Iceboats are similar to sailboats, but
they are fitted with runners, or “skates,” and are designed to run over the ice, rather than on water. Iceboats can move very quickly,
and many ice boating enthusiasts are drawn to the sport because of the speed. Top iceboat racers can attain speeds up to five times
the wind speed. If we know how fast an iceboat is moving, we can use integration to determine how far it travels. We revisit this
question later in the chapter (see [link]).
Figure 5.0.1 : Iceboating is a popular winter sport in parts of the northern United States and Europe. (credit: modification of
work by Carter Brown, Flickr)
Determining distance from velocity is just one of many applications of integration. In fact, integrals are used in a wide variety of
mechanical and physical applications. In this chapter, we first introduce the theory behind integration and use integrals to calculate
areas. From there, we develop the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, which relates differentiation and integration. We then study
some basic integration techniques and briefly examine some applications.
Contributors
5.0: Prelude to Integration is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
5.0E: Exercises
5.0E: Exercises
0.1) Ice boats ?! Did you ever see on of these?
0.2) Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, impressive right? Do you know the Fundamental Theorem of Algebra? or the Fundamental
Theorem of Arithmetic?
Answer:
Ice Boats & Fundamental Theorems are intriguing.
Archimedes was fascinated with calculating the areas of various shapes—in other words, the amount of space enclosed by the shape. He used a process that has come to be known
as the method of exhaustion, which used smaller and smaller shapes, the areas of which could be calculated exactly, to fill an irregular region and thereby obtain closer and closer
approximations to the total area. In this process, an area bounded by curves is filled with rectangles, triangles, and shapes with exact area formulas. These areas are then summed to
approximate the area of the curved region.
In this section, we develop techniques to approximate the area between a curve, defined by a function f (x), and the x-axis on a closed interval [a, b]. Like Archimedes, we first
approximate the area under the curve using shapes of known area (namely, rectangles). By using smaller and smaller rectangles, we get closer and closer approximations to the area.
(Next section: Taking a limit allows us to calculate the exact area under the curve.)
Let’s start by introducing some notation to make the calculations easier. We then consider the case when f (x) is continuous and nonnegative. Later in the chapter, we relax some of
these restrictions and develop techniques that apply in more general cases.
Sigma (Summation) Notation

As mentioned, we will use shapes of known area to approximate the area of an irregular region bounded by curves. This process often requires adding up long strings of numbers.
To make it easier to write down these lengthy sums, we look at some new notation here, called sigma notation (also known as summation notation). The Greek capital letter Σ,
sigma, is used to express long sums of values in a compact form. For example, if we want to add all the integers from 1 to 20 without sigma notation, we have to write
1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + 6 + 7 + 8 + 9 + 10 + 11 + 12 + 13 + 14 + 15 + 16 + 17 + 18 + 19 + 20.
We could probably skip writing a couple of terms and write
1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + ⋯ + 19 + 20,
which is better, but still cumbersome. With sigma notation, we write this sum as
20
∑i
i=1
which is much more compact. Typically, sigma notation is presented in the form
n
∑ ai
i=1
where a describes the terms to be added, and the i is called the index. Each term is evaluated, then we sum all the values, beginning with the value when i = 1 and ending with
i
the value when i = n. For example, an expression like

7
∑ si (5.1.1)
i=2
is interpreted as s 2 + s3 + s4 + s5 + s6 + s7 .
Note that the index is used only to keep track of the terms to be added; it does not factor into the calculation of the sum itself. The index is therefore called a dummy variable. We
can use any letter we like for the index. Typically, mathematicians use i, j , k , m, and n for indices. For example, the sum in Expression 5.1.1 can be rewritten as
7
∑ sn
n=2
Let’s try a couple of examples of using sigma notation.
Example 5.1.1 : Using Sigma Notation

a. Write in sigma notation and evaluate the sum of terms 3 for i = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5.
i
b. Write the sum in sigma notation:

1 1 1 1
1+ + + + .
4 9 16 25
Solution
a. Write
5
i 2 3 4 5
∑3 = 3 +3 +3 +3 +3 = 363.
i=1
5
1
b. The denominator of each term is a perfect square. Using sigma notation, this sum can be written as ∑ 2
.
i
i=1
Exercise 5.1.1
Write in sigma notation and evaluate the sum of terms 2 for i = 3, 4, 5, 6.
i
Hint
Use the solving steps in Example 5.1.1as a guide.
Answer
6
i 3 4 5 6
∑2 =2 +2 +2 +2 = 120
i=3
The properties associated with the summation process are given in the following rule.

Rule: Properties of Sigma Notation
Let a 1, a2 , … , an and b 1, b2 , … , bn represent two sequences of terms and let c be a constant. The following properties hold for all positive integers n and for integers m, with
1 ≤ m ≤ n.
i. ∑ c = nc
i=1
n n
ii. ∑ ca i = c ∑ ai
i=1 i=1
n n n
iii. ∑(ai + bi ) = ∑ ai + ∑ bi
i=1 i=1 i=1

n n n
iv. ∑(ai − bi ) = ∑ ai − ∑ bi
i=1 i=1 i=1

n m n
v. ∑ a i = ∑ ai + ∑ ai
i=1 i=1 i=m+1
Proof
We prove properties 2. and 3. here, and leave proof of the other properties to the exercises below.
2. We have
n n
∑ c ai = c a1 + c a2 + c a3 + ⋯ + c an = c(a1 + a2 + a3 + ⋯ + an ) = c ∑ ai .
i=1 i=1
3. We have
n
∑(ai + bi ) = (a1 + b1 ) + (a2 + b2 ) + (a3 + b3 ) + ⋯ + (an + bn )
i=1
= (a1 + a2 + a3 + ⋯ + an ) + (b1 + b2 + b3 + ⋯ + bn )
n n
= ∑ ai + ∑ bi .
i=1 i=1
A few more formulas for frequently found functions simplify the summation process further. These are shown in the next rule, for sums and powers of integers, and we use them
in the next set of examples.
Rule: Sums and Powers of Integers
1. The sum of n integers is given by
n
n(n + 1)
∑i = 1 +2 +⋯ +n = . (5.1.2)
2
i=1
2. The sum of consecutive integers squared is given by

n
n(n + 1)(2n + 1)
2 2 2 2
∑i =1 +2 +⋯ +n = . (5.1.3)
6
i=1
3. The sum of consecutive integers cubed is given by

n 2 2
n (n + 1 )
3 3 3 3
∑i =1 +2 +⋯ +n = . (5.1.4)
4
i=1
Example 5.1.2 : Evaluation Using Sigma Notation

Write using sigma notation and evaluate:
a. The sum of the terms (i − 3) for i = 1, 2, … , 200. 2
b. The sum of the terms (i − i ) for i = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6

3 2
Solution
a. Multiplying out (i − 3) , we can break the expression into three terms.
2
200 200
2 2
∑(i − 3 ) = ∑(i − 6i + 9)
i=1 i=1
200 200 200
2
= ∑i − ∑ 6i + ∑ 9
i=1 i=1 i=1
200 200 200

2
= ∑i −6 ∑i +∑9
i=1 i=1 i=1
200(200 + 1)(400 + 1) 200(200 + 1)

= −6 [ ] + 9(200)
6 2
= 2, 686, 700 − 120, 600 + 1800
= 2, 567, 900

b. Use sigma notation property iv. and the rules for the sum of squared terms and the sum of cubed terms.
6 6 6
3 2 3 2
∑(i −i ) = ∑i −∑i
i=1 i=1 i=1
2 2
6 (6 + 1 ) 6(6 + 1)(2(6) + 1)
= −
4 6
1764 546
= −
4 6
= 350
Exercise 5.1.2
Find the sum of the values of 4 + 3i for i = 1, 2, … , 100.
Hint
Use the properties of sigma notation to solve the problem.
Answer
15,550
Example 5.1.3 : Finding the Sum of the Function Values

Find the sum of the values of f (x) = x over the integers 1, 2, 3, … , 10.
3
Solution
Using the the rule for sum of consecutive integers cubed (Equation 5.1.4), we have
10 2 2
(10 ) (10 + 1 ) 100(121)
3
∑i = = = 3025
4 4
i=0
Exercise 5.1.3
20
Evaluate the sum indicated by the notation ∑(2k + 1) .

k=1
Hint
Use the rule on sum and powers of integers.
Answer
440
Approximating Area
Now that we have the necessary notation, we return to the problem at hand: approximating the area under a curve. Let f (x) be a continuous, nonnegative function defined on the
closed interval [a, b]. We want to approximate the area A bounded by f (x) above, the x-axis below, the line x = a on the left, and the line x = b on the right (Figure 5.1.1).
Figure 5.1.1 : An area (shaded region) bounded by the curve f (x) at top, the x-axis at bottom, the line x = a to the left, and the line x = b at right.
How do we approximate the area under this curve? The approach is a geometric one. By dividing a region into many small shapes that have known area formulas, we can sum these
b −a
areas and obtain a reasonable estimate of the true area. We begin by dividing the interval [a, b] into n subintervals of equal width, . We do this by selecting equally spaced
n
points x0 , x1 , x2 , … , xn with x
0 = a, xn = b, and
b −a
xi − xi−1 = (5.1.5)
n
for i = 1, 2, 3, … , n.
We denote the width of each subinterval with the notation Δx, so Δx = b−a
n
and
xi = x0 + iΔx (5.1.6)
for i = 1, 2, 3, … , n. This notion of dividing an interval [a, b] into subintervals by selecting points from within the interval is used quite often in approximating the area under a
curve, so let’s define some relevant terminology.

Definition: Partitions
A set of points P = xi for i = 0, 1, 2, … , n with a =x <x <x <⋯ <x =b ,
0 1 2 n which divides the interval [a, b] into subintervals of the form
[ x0 , x1 ], [ x1 , x2 ], … , [ xn−1 , xn ] is called a partition of [a, b]. If the subintervals all have the same width, the set of points forms a regular partition of the interval [a,b].
We can use this regular partition as the basis of a method for estimating the area under the curve. We next examine two methods: the left-endpoint approximation and the right-
endpoint approximation.
Rule: Left-Endpoint Approximation

On each subinterval [x , x ] (for i = 1, 2, 3, … , n), construct a rectangle with width Δx and height equal to f (x ), which is the function value at the left endpoint of the
i−1 i i−1
subinterval. Then the area of this rectangle is f (x )Δx. Adding the areas of all these rectangles, we get an approximate value for A (Figure 5.1.2). We use the notation Ln to
i−1
denote that this is a left-endpoint approximation of A using n subintervals.

n
A ≈ Ln = f (x0 )Δx + f (x1 )Δx + ⋯ + f (xn−1 )Δx = ∑ f (xi−1 )Δx (5.1.7)
i=1
Figure 5.1.2 : In the left-endpoint approximation of area under a curve, the height of each rectangle is determined by the function value at the left of each subinterval.
The second method for approximating area under a curve is the right-endpoint approximation. It is almost the same as the left-endpoint approximation, but now the heights of the
rectangles are determined by the function values at the right of each subinterval.
Rule: Right-Endpoint Approximation
Construct a rectangle on each subinterval [x , x ], only this time the height of the rectangle is determined by the function value f(xi) at the right endpoint of the subinterval.
i−1 i
Then, the area of each rectangle is f (x )Δx and the approximation for A is given by
i
A ≈ Rn = f (x1 )Δx + f (x2 )Δx + ⋯ + f (xn )Δx = ∑ f (xi )Δx. (5.1.8)
i=1
The notation R indicates this is a right-endpoint approximation for A (Figure 5.1.3).

n
Figure 5.1.3 :In the right-endpoint approximation of area under a curve, the height of each rectangle is determined by the function value at the right of each subinterval. Note
that the right-endpoint approximation differs from the left-endpoint approximation in Figure 5.1.2.
2
x
The graphs in Figure 5.1.4 represent the curve f (x) = .
2
Figure 5.1.4 : Methods of approximating the area under a curve by using (a) the left endpoints and (b) the right endpoints.
In Figure 5.1.4b we divide the region represented by the interval [0, 3] into six subintervals, each of width 0.5. Thus, Δx = 0.5. We then form six rectangles by drawing vertical
lines perpendicular to x , the left endpoint of each subinterval. We determine the height of each rectangle by calculating f (x ) for i = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6. The intervals are
i−1 i−1
[0, 0.5], [0.5, 1], [1, 1.5], [1.5, 2], [2, 2.5], [2.5,. 3]
We find the area of each rectangle by multiplying the height by the width. Then, the sum of the rectangular areas approximates the
area between f (x) and the x-axis. When the left endpoints are used to calculate height, we have a left-endpoint approximation. Thus,

6
A ≈ L6 = ∑ f (xi−1 )Δx = f (x0 )Δx + f (x1 )Δx + f (x2 )Δx + f (x3 )Δx + f (x4 )Δx + f (x5 )Δx
i=1
= f (0)0.5 + f (0.5)0.5 + f (1)0.5 + f (1.5)0.5 + f (2)0.5 + f (2.5)0.5
= (0)0.5 + (0.125)0.5 + (0.5)0.5 + (1.125)0.5 + (2)0.5 + (3.125)0.5
= 0 + 0.0625 + 0.25 + 0.5625 + 1 + 1.5625
= 3.4375
In Figure 5.1.4b, we draw vertical lines perpendicular to x such that x is the right endpoint of each subinterval, and calculate f (x ) for i = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6. We multiply each f (x
i i i i)
by Δx to find the rectangular areas, and then add them. This is a right-endpoint approximation of the area under f (x). Thus,
6
A ≈ R6 = ∑ f (xi )Δx = f (x1 )Δx + f (x2 )Δx + f (x3 )Δx + f (x4 )Δx + f (x5 )Δx + f (x6 )Δx
i=1
= f (0.5)0.5 + f (1)0.5 + f (1.5)0.5 + f (2)0.5 + f (2.5)0.5 + f (3)0.5
= (0.125)0.5 + (0.5)0.5 + (1.125)0.5 + (2)0.5 + (3.125)0.5 + (4.5)0.5
= 0.0625 + 0.25 + 0.5625 + 1 + 1.5625 + 2.25
= 5.6875.
Example 5.1.4 : Approximating the Area Under a Curve

Use both left-endpoint and right-endpoint approximations to approximate the area under the curve of f (x) = x on the interval [0, 2]; use n = 4 .
2
Solution
(2 − 0)
First, divide the interval [0, 2] into n equal subintervals. Using n = 4, Δx = = 0.5 . This is the width of each rectangle. The intervals [0, 0.5], [0.5, 1], [1, 1.5], [1.5, 2]
4
are shown in Figure 5.1.5. Using a left-endpoint approximation (Equation 5.1.7), the heights are f (0) = 0, f (0.5) = 0.25, f (1) = 1, f (1.5) = 2.25.Then,
L4 = f (x0 )Δx + f (x1 )Δx + f (x2 )Δx + f (x3 )Δx = 0(0.5) + 0.25(0.5) + 1(0.5) + 2.25(0.5) = 1.75
Figure 5.1.5 : The graph shows the left-endpoint approximation of the area under f (x) = x from 0 to 2.
2
The right-endpoint approximation is shown in Figure 5.1.6. The intervals are the same, Δx = 0.5, but now use the right endpoint to calculate the height of the rectangles. We
have
R4 = f (x1 )Δx + f (x2 )Δx + f (x3 )Δx + f (x4 )Δx = 0.25(0.5) + 1(0.5) + 2.25(0.5) + 4(0.5) = 3.75
Figure 5.1.6 : The graph shows the right-endpoint approximation of the area under f (x) = x from 0 to 2.
2
The left-endpoint approximation is 1.75; the right-endpoint approximation is 3.75.
Exercise 5.1.4
1
Sketch left-endpoint and right-endpoint approximations for f (x) = on [1, 2]; use n = 4 . Approximate the area using both methods.
x
Hint
Follow the solving strategy in Example 5.1.4step-by-step.
Answer
The left-endpoint approximation (Equation 5.1.7) is 0.7595 and The right-endpoint approximation (Equation 5.1.8) is 0.6345.

Looking at Figure 5.1.4 and the graphs in Example 5.1.4, we can see that when we use a small number of intervals, neither the left-endpoint approximation nor the right-endpoint
approximation is a particularly accurate estimate of the area under the curve. However, it seems logical that if we increase the number of points in our partition, our estimate of A
will improve. We will have more rectangles, but each rectangle will be thinner, so we will be able to fit the rectangles to the curve more precisely.
We can demonstrate the improved approximation obtained through smaller intervals with an example. Let’s explore the idea of increasing n , first in a left-endpoint approximation
with four rectangles, then eight rectangles, and finally 32 rectangles. Then, let’s do the same thing in a right-endpoint approximation, using the same sets of intervals, of the same
curved region. Figure 5.1.7 shows the area of the region under the curve f (x) = (x − 1) + 4 on the interval [0, 2] using a left-endpoint approximation where n = 4. he width of
3
each rectangle is
2 −0 1
Δx = = . (5.1.9)
4 2
The area is approximated by the summed areas of the rectangles, or
L4 = f (0)(0.5) + f (0.5)(0.5) + f (1)(0.5) + f (1.5)0.5 = 7.5 (5.1.10)
Figure 5.1.7 : With a left-endpoint approximation and dividing the region from a to b into four equal intervals, the area under the curve is approximately equal to the sum of the
areas of the rectangles.
Figure 5.1.8 shows the same curve divided into eight subintervals. Comparing the graph with four rectangles in Figure 5.1.7 with this graph with eight rectangles, we can see there
appears to be less white space under the curve when n = 8. This white space is area under the curve we are unable to include using our approximation. The area of the rectangles is
L8 = f (0)(0.25) + f (0.25)(0.25) + f (0.5)(0.25) + f (0.75)(0.25) + f (1)(0.25) + f (1.25)(0.25) + f (1.5)(0.25) (5.1.11)
+ f (1.75)(0.25) = 7.75
Figure 5.1.8 : The region under the curve is divided into n = 8 rectangular areas of equal width for a left-endpoint approximation.
The graph in Figure 5.1.9 shows the same function with 32 rectangles inscribed under the curve. There appears to be little white space left. The area occupied by the rectangles is
L32 = f (0)(0.0625) + f (0.0625)(0.0625) + f (0.125)(0.0625) + ⋯ + f (1.9375)(0.0625) = 7.9375. (5.1.12)
Figure 5.1.9 : Here, 32 rectangles are inscribed under the curve for a left-endpoint approximation.

We can carry out a similar process for the right-endpoint approximation method. A right-endpoint approximation of the same curve, using four rectangles (Figure 5.1.10), yields an
area
R4 = f (0.5)(0.5) + f (1)(0.5) + f (1.5)(0.5) + f (2)(0.5) = 8.5 (5.1.13)
Figure 5.1.10 : Now we divide the area under the curve into four equal subintervals for a right-endpoint approximation.
2 −0
Dividing the region over the interval [0, 2] into eight rectangles results in Δx = = 0.25. The graph is shown in Figure 5.1.11. The area is
8
R8 = f (0.25)(0.25) + f (0.5)(0.25) + f (0.75)(0.25) + f (1)(0.25) + f (1.25)(0.25) + f (1.5)(0.25) + f (1.75)(0.25) (5.1.14)
+ f (2)(0.25) = 8.25
Figure 5.1.11 : Here we use right-endpoint approximation for a region divided into eight equal subintervals.
Last, the right-endpoint approximation with n = 32 is close to the actual area (Figure 5.1.12). The area is approximately
R32 = f (0.0625)(0.0625) + f (0.125)(0.0625) + f (0.1875)(0.0625) + ⋯ + f (2)(0.0625) = 8.0625 (5.1.15)
Figure 5.1.12 : The region is divided into 32 equal subintervals for a right-endpoint approximation.
Based on these figures and calculations, it appears we are on the right track; the rectangles appear to approximate the area under the curve better as n gets larger. Furthermore, as n
increases, both the left-endpoint and right-endpoint approximations appear to approach an area of 8 square units. Table shows a numerical comparison of the left- and right-
endpoint methods. The idea that the approximations of the area under the curve get better and better as n gets larger and larger is very important, and we now explore this idea in
more detail.
Table 5.1.15: Converging Values of Left- and Right-Endpoint Approximations as n Increases
Value of n Approximate Area L n Approximate Area R n
n = 4 7.5 8.5
n = 8 7.75 8.25
n = 32 7.94 8.06
Forming Riemann Sums

So far we have been using rectangles to approximate the area under a curve. The heights of these rectangles have been determined by evaluating the function at either the right or
left endpoints of the subinterval [x , x ]. In reality, there is no reason to restrict evaluation of the function to one of these two points only. We could evaluate the function at any
i−1 i
point ci in the subinterval [x , x ], and use f (x ) as the height of our rectangle. This gives us an estimate for the area of the form
i−1 i
∗
i
∗
A ≈ ∑ f (x )Δx. (5.1.16)
i
i=1
A sum of this form is called a Riemann sum, named for the 19th-century mathematician Bernhard Riemann, who developed the idea.
Note
Let f (x) be defined on a closed interval [a, b] and let P be a regular partition of [a, b]. Let Δx be the width of each subinterval [ xi−1 , xi ] and for each i, let x be any point in
∗
i
[xi−1 , x ]. A Riemann sum is defined for f (x) as

i

n
∗
∑ f (x )Δx. (5.1.17)
i
i=1
Recall that with the left- and right-endpoint approximations (Equations 5.1.7 and 5.1.8, respectively), the estimates seem to get better and better as n get larger and larger. The
same thing happens with Riemann sums. Riemann sums give better approximations for larger values of n. In the next section we will define the area under a curve in terms of
Riemann sums.
We look at some examples shortly. But, before we do, let’s take a moment and talk about some specific choices for x . Although any choice for x gives us an estimate of the area
∗
i
∗
i
under the curve, we don’t necessarily know whether that estimate is too high (overestimate) or too low (underestimate). If it is important to know whether our estimate is high or
low, we can select our value for x to guarantee one result or the other.
∗
i
If we want an overestimate, for example, we can choose ∗

x
i
such that for ∗
i = 1, 2, 3, … , n, f (x ) ≥ f (x)
i
for all x ∈ [ xi − 1, xi ] . In other words, we choose x
∗
i
so that for
n
∗
i = 1, 2, 3, … , n, f (x )
i
is the maximum function value on the interval . If we select
[ xi−1 , xi ] x
∗
i
in this way, then the Riemann sum ∑ f (x )Δx
∗
i
is called an upper sum.
i=1
Similarly, if we want an underestimate, we can choose {x∗i} so that for i=1,2,3,…,n,f(x∗i) is the minimum function value on the interval [x , x ]. In this case, the associated i−1 i
Riemann sum is called a lower sum. Note that if f(x) is either increasing or decreasing throughout the interval [a, b], then the maximum and minimum values of the function occur
at the endpoints of the subintervals, so the upper and lower sums are just the same as the left- and right-endpoint approximations.
Example 5.1.5 : Finding Lower and Upper Sums

Find a lower sum for f (x) = 10 − x on [1, 2]; let n = 4 subintervals.
2
Solution
1
With n = 4 over the interval [1, 2], Δx = . We can list the intervals as [1, 1.25], [1.25, 1.5], [1.5, 1.75], [1.75, 2] . Because the function is decreasing over the interval [1, 2],
4
Figure shows that a lower sum is obtained by using the right endpoints.
Figure 5.1.13 : The graph of f (x) = 10 − x is set up for a right-endpoint approximation of the area bounded by the curve and the x-axis on [1, 2], and it shows a lower sum.
2
The Riemann sum is

4
2 2 2 2 2
∑(10 − x )(0.25) = 0.25[10 − (1.25 ) + 10 − (1.5 ) + 10 − (1.75 ) + 10 − (2 ) ]
k=1
= 0.25[8.4375 + 7.75 + 6.9375 + 6]
= 7.28.
The area of 7.28 is a lower sum and an underestimate.
Exercise 5.1.5
a. Find an upper sum for f (x) = 10 − x on [1, 2]; let n = 4.
2
b. Sketch the approximation.
Hint
f (x) is decreasing on [1, 2], so the maximum function values occur at the left endpoints of the subintervals.
Answer
a. Upper sum=8.0313.
b.
Example 5.1.6 : Finding Lower and Upper Sums for f (x) = sin x
π
Find a lower sum for f (x) = sin x over the interval [a, b] = [0, ; let n = 6.
]
2

Solution
Let’s first look at the graph in Figure to get a better idea of the area of interest.
π/2 π
Figure 5.1.14 : The graph of y = sin x is divided into six regions: Δx = = .
6 12
π π π π π π π π 5π 5π π π
The intervals are [0, ], [ , ], [ , ], [ , ], [ , ,] and [ , . Note that f (x) = sin x is increasing on the interval [0,
] , so a left-endpoint approximation gives us
]
12 12 6 6 4 4 3 3 12 12 2 2
5
π
the lower sum. A left-endpoint approximation is the Riemann sum ∑ sin x i( ) .We have
12
i=0
π π π π π π π π π 5π π
A ≈ sin(0)( ) + sin( )( ) + sin( )( ) + sin( )( ) + sin( )( ) + sin( )( ) = 0.863. (5.1.18)
12 12 12 6 12 4 12 3 12 12 12
Exercise 5.1.6
π
Using the function f (x) = sin x over the interval [0, ], find an upper sum; let n = 6.
2
Hint
Follow the steps from Example 5.1.6.
Answer
A ≈ 1.125
Key Concepts
n
The use of sigma (summation) notation of the form ∑ a is useful for expressing long sums of values in compact form.
i
i=1
For a continuous function defined over an interval [a, b], the process of dividing the interval into n equal parts, extending a rectangle to the graph of the function, calculating the
areas of the series of rectangles, and then summing the areas yields an approximation of the area of that region.
b −a
The width of each rectangle is Δx = .
n
n
Riemann sums are expressions of the form ∑ f (x ∗

i
)Δx, and can be used to estimate the area under the curve y = f (x). Left- and right-endpoint approximations are special
i=1
kinds of Riemann sums where the values of x are chosen to be the left or right endpoints of the subintervals, respectively.
∗
i
Riemann sums allow for much flexibility in choosing the set of points x at which the function is evaluated, often with an eye to obtaining a lower sum or an upper sum.
∗
i
Key Equations
Properties of Sigma Notation
n
∑ c = nc
i=1
n n
∑ c ai = c ∑ ai
i=1 i=1
n n n
∑(ai + bi ) = ∑ ai + ∑ bi
i=1 i=1 i=1
n n n
∑(ai − bi ) = ∑ ai − ∑ bi
i=1 i=1 i=1
n m n
∑ ai = ∑ ai + ∑ ai
i=1 i=1 i=m+1
Sums and Powers of Integers

n
n(n + 1)
∑i = 1 +2 +⋯ +n =
2
i=1
n
n(n + 1)(2n + 1)
2 2 2 2
∑i =1 +2 +⋯ +n =
6
i=1
n 2 2
n (n + 1 )
3 3 3 3
∑i =1 +2 +⋯ +n =
4
i=0
Left-Endpoint Approximation
n
A ≈ Ln = f (x0 )Δx + f (x1 )Δx + ⋯ + f (xn−1 )Δx = ∑i=1 f (xi−1 )Δx

Right-Endpoint Approximation
n
A ≈ Rn = f (x1 )Δx + f (x2 )Δx + ⋯ + f (xn )Δx = ∑ f (xi )Δx
i=1
Glossary
left-endpoint approximation
an approximation of the area under a curve computed by using the left endpoint of each subinterval to calculate the height of the vertical sides of each rectangle
lower sum
a sum obtained by using the minimum value of $f(x)$ on each subinterval
partition
a set of points that divides an interval into subintervals
regular partition
a partition in which the subintervals all have the same width
riemann sum
n
an estimate of the area under the curve of the form A ≈ ∑ i=1
∗
f (x )Δx
i
right-endpoint approximation
the right-endpoint approximation is an approximation of the area of the rectangles under a curve using the right endpoint of each subinterval to construct the vertical sides of
each rectangle
sigma notation
(also, summation notation) the Greek letter sigma (Σ ) indicates addition of the values; the values of the index above and below the sigma indicate where to begin the
summation and where to end it
upper sum
a sum obtained by using the maximum value of $f(x)$ on each subinterval
Contributors
Gilbert Strang (MIT) and Edwin “Jed” Herman (Harvey Mudd) with many contributing authors. This content by OpenStax is licensed with a CC-BY-SA-NC 4.0 license.
Download for free at http://cnx.org.
This page titled 5.1: Approximating Areas is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by OpenStax.

These are homework exercises to accompany OpenStax's "Calculus" Textmap.

1.) State whether the given sums are equal or unequal.
10 10
a. ∑i and ∑ k
i=1 k=1
10 15
b. ∑ i and ∑(i − 5)
i=1 i=6
10 9
c. ∑ i(i − 1) and ∑(j + 1)j

i=1 j=0
10 10
d. ∑ i(i − 1) and ∑(k 2

− k)
i=1 k=1
Answer:
a. They are equal; both represent the sum of the first 10 whole numbers.
b. They are equal; both represent the sum of the first 10 whole numbers.
c. They are equal by substituting j = i − 1.
d. They are equal; the first sum factors the terms of the second.
In the following exercises, compute the sums. (You can use the rules for sums of powers of integers.)
10
2) ∑ i
i=5
10
3) ∑ i 2
i=5
Answer:
355
100 100
Suppose that ∑ a i = 15 and ∑ b i = −12. In the following exercises, compute the sums.
i=1 i=1
100
4) ∑(a i + bi )
i=1
100
5) ∑(a i − bi )
i=1
Answer:
15 − (−12) = 27
100
6) ∑(3a i − 4 bi )
i=1
100
7) ∑(5a i + 4 bi )
i=1
Answer:
5(15) + 4(−12) = 27
In the following exercises, use summation properties and formulas to rewrite and evaluate the sums.
20
8) ∑ 100(k 2
− 5k + 1)
k=1
50
9) ∑(j 2
− 2j)
j=1
Answer:
50
∑j
j=1
20
10) ∑ (j
2
− 10j)
j=11
25
11) ∑[(2k) 2
− 100k]
k=1
Answer:
25 25
4(25)(26)(51)
2
4∑k − 100 ∑ k = − 50(25)(26) = −10, 400
9
k=1 k=1
Let L denote the left-endpoint sum using n subintervals and let R denote the corresponding right-endpoint sum. In the following
n n
exercises, compute the indicated left and right sums for the given functions on the indicated interval.
1
12) L for f (x) =
4 on [2, 3]
x −1
13) R for g(x) = cos(πx) on [0, 1]

4
Answer:
R4 = −0.25
1
14) L for f (x) =
6 on [2, 5]
x(x − 1)
1
15) R (right hand sum, 6 intervals) for f (x) =
6 on [2, 5]
x(x − 1)
Answer:
R6 = 0.372
1
16) R (right hand sum, 4 intervals) for
4
2
on [−2, 2]
x +1
1
17) L (left hand sum, 4 intervals) for
4
2
on [−2, 2]
x +1
Answer:
L4 = 2.20
18) R (right hand sum, 4 intervals) for x

4
2
− 2x + 1 on [0, 2]
19) L for x8
2
− 2x + 1 on [0, 2]
Answer:
L8 = 0.6875
20) Compute the left and right Riemann sums— L and R , respectively—for f (x) = (2 − |x|) on [−2, 2]. Compute their average
4 4
value and compare it with the area under the graph of f.

21) Compute the left and right Riemann sums— L and R , respectively—for 6 6 f (x) = (3 − |3 − x|) on [0, 6]. Compute their
average value and compare it with the area under the graph of f.
Answer:
L6 = 9.000 = R6 . The graph of f is a triangle with area 9.
−−−− −
22) Compute the left and right Riemann sums— L4 and R4 , respectively—for f (x) = √4 − x
2
on [−2, 2] and compare their
values.
−−−−−−−−−−
23) Compute the left and right Riemann sums— L and R , respectively—for f (x) = √9 − (x − 3)
6 6
2
on [0, 6] and compare their
values.
Answer:
L6 = 13.12899 = R6 . They are equal.
Express the following endpoint sums in sigma notation but do not evaluate them.
24) L30 for f (x) = x on [1, 2]
2
−−−−−
25) L10 for f (x) = √4 − x on [−2, 2]
2
Answer:
−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−
10
4 (i − 1)
L10 = ∑ √4 − (−2 + 4 )
10 10
i=1
26) R 20 for f (x) = sinx on [0, π]

27) R 100 for lnx on [1, e]
Answer:
100
e−1 i
R100 = ∑ ln(1 + (e − 1) )
100 100
i=1
In the following exercises, graph the function then use a calculator or a computer program to evaluate the following left and right
endpoint sums. Is the area under the curve between the left and right endpoint sums?
28) [T] L 100 and R 100 for y = x 2
− 3x + 1 on the interval [−1, 1]
29) [T] L 100 and R 100 for y = x on the interval [0, 1]
2
Answer:
R100 = 0.33835, L100 = 0.32835. The plot shows that the left Riemann sum is an underestimate because the function is
increasing. Similarly, the right Riemann sum is an overestimate. The area lies between the left and right Riemann sums. Ten
rectangles are shown for visual clarity. This behavior persists for more rectangles.
x +1
30) [T] L 50 and R50 for y = on the interval [2, 4]
x2 − 1
31) [T] L 100 and R 100 for y = x on the interval [−1, 1]

3
Answer:
L100 = −0.02, R100 = 0.02 . The left endpoint sum is an underestimate because the function is increasing. Similarly, a right
endpoint approximation is an overestimate. The area lies between the left and right endpoint estimates.
π
32) [T] L 50 and R50 for y = tan(x) on the interval [0, ]
4
33) [T] L 100 and R 100 for y = e 2x

on the interval [−1, 1]
Answer:
L100 = 3.555, R100 = 3.670 . The plot shows that the left Riemann sum is an underestimate because the function is increasing.
Ten rectangles are shown for visual clarity. This behavior persists for more rectangles.
34) Let t denote the time that it took Tejay van Garteren to ride the jth stage of the Tour de France in 2014. If there were a total of
j
21
21 stages, interpret ∑ t . j
j=1
31
35) Let r denote the total rainfall in Portland on the jth day of the year in 2009. Interpret ∑ r .
j j
j=1
Answer:
The sum represents the cumulative rainfall in January 2009.
36) Let d denote the hours of daylight and δ denote the increase in the hours of daylight from day j − 1 to day j in Fargo, North
j j
365
Dakota, on thejth day of the year. Interpret d1 + ∑ δ . j
j=2
1
37) To help get in shape, Joe gets a new pair of running shoes. If Joe runs 1 mi each day in week 1 and adds mi to his daily
10
routine each week, what is the total mileage on Joe’s shoes after 25 weeks?
Answer:
25
(i − 1) 7
The total mileage is 7 × ∑(1 + ) = 7 × 25 + × 12 × 25 = 385mi .
10 10
i=1
38) The following table gives approximate values of the average annual atmospheric rate of increase in carbon dioxide (CO2) each
decade since 1960, in parts per million (ppm). Estimate the total increase in atmospheric CO2 between 1964 and 2013.
Decade Ppm/y
1964-1973 1.07
1976-1983 1.34
1984-1993 1.40
1994-2003 1.87
2004-2013 2.07
Average Annual Atmospheric CO2 Increase, 1964–2013 Source: http://www.esrl.noaa.gov/gmd/ccgg/trends/.

39) The following table gives the approximate increase in sea level in inches over 20 years starting in the given year. Estimate the
net change in mean sea level from 1870 to 2010.
Starting Year 20- Year Change
1870 0.3
1890 1.5
1910 0.2
1930 2.8
1950 0.7
1970 1.1
1990 1.5
Approximate 20-Year Sea Level Increases, 1870–1990

Source: http://link.springer.com/article/10....712-011-9119-1
Answer:
Add the numbers to get 8.1-in. net increase.
40) The following table gives the approximate increase in dollars in the average price of a gallon of gas per decade since 1950. If
the average price of a gallon of gas in 2010 was $2.60, what was the average price of a gallon of gas in 1950?
1950 0.03
1960 0.05
1970 0.86
1980 −0.03
1990 0.29
2000 1.12
Approximate 10-Year Gas Price Increases, 1950–2000

Source: http://epb.lbl.gov/homepages/Rick_Di...011-trends.pdf.
41) The following table gives the percent growth of the U.S. population beginning in July of the year indicated. If the U.S.
population was 281,421,906 in July 2000, estimate the U.S. population in July 2010.
Year % Change/Year
2000 1.12
2001 0.99
2002 0.93
2003 0.86
2004 0.93
2005 0.93
2006 0.97
2007 0.96
2008 0.95
2009 0.88
Annual Percentage Growth of U.S. Population, 2000–2009

Source: http://www.census.gov/popest/data.
(Hint: To obtain the population in July 2001, multiply the population in July 2000 by 1.0112 to get 284,573,831.)
Answer:
309,389,957
In the following exercises, estimate the areas under the curves by computing the left Riemann sums, L 8.
42)
43)
Answer:
L8 = 3 + 2 + 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + 4 = 24
44)
45)
Answer:
L8 = 3 + 5 + 7 + 6 + 8 + 6 + 5 + 4 = 44
−−−−−
46) [T] Use a computer algebra system to compute the Riemann sum, L , for N
N = 10, 30, 50 for f (x) = √1 − x on [−1, 1].
2
1
47) [T] Use a computer algebra system to compute the Riemann sum, L , for N
N = 10, 30, 50 for f (x) = −−−− − on [−1, 1].
√1 + x2
Answer:
L10 ≈ 1.7604, L30 ≈ 1.7625, L50 ≈ 1.76265
48) [T] Use a computer algebra system to compute the Riemann sum, LN , for N = 10, 30, 50 for f (x) = si n x
2
on [0, 2π] .
Compare these estimates with π.
In the following exercises, use a calculator or a computer program to evaluate the endpoint sums R N and L N for N = 1, 10, 100 .
How do these estimates compare with the exact answers, which you can find via geometry?
49) [T] y = cos(πx) on the interval [0, 1]
Answer:
R1 = −1, L1 = 1, R10 = −0.1, L10 = 0.1, L100 = 0.01, and R 100 = −0.1. By symmetry of the graph, the exact area is zero.
50) [T] y = 3x + 2 on the interval [3, 5]

In the following exercises, use a calculator or a computer program to evaluate the endpoint sums R and L for N N N = 1, 10, 100.
32
51) [T] y = x 4
− 5x
2
+4 on the interval [−2, 2], which has an exact area of
15
Answer:
R1 = 0, L1 = 0, R10 = 2.4499, L10 = 2.4499, R100 = 2.1365, L100 = 2.1365
52) [T] y = lnx on the interval [1, 2], which has an exact area of 2ln(2) − 1
53) Explain why, if f (a) ≥ 0 and f is increasing on [a, b], that the left endpoint estimate is a lower bound for the area below the
graph of f on [a, b].
Answer:
If [c, d]is a subinterval of [a, b] under one of the left-endpoint sum rectangles, then the area of the rectangle contributing to the
left-endpoint estimate is f (c)(d − c) . But, f (c) ≤ f (x) for c ≤ x ≤ d , so the area under the graph of f between c and d is
f (c)(d − c) plus the area below the graph of f but above the horizontal line segment at height f (c), which is positive. As this is
true for each left-endpoint sum interval, it follows that the left Riemann sum is less than or equal to the area below the graph of
f on [a, b].
54) Explain why, if f (b) ≥ 0 and f is decreasing on [a, b], that the left endpoint estimate is an upper bound for the area below the
f (b) − f (a)
55) Show that, in general, R N − LN = (b − a) × .
N
Answer:
N N −1 N
b −a i −1 b −a i b −a i
LN = ∑ f (a + (b − a) ) = ∑ f (a + (b − a) ) and R N = ∑ f (a + (b − a) ) . The left
N N N N N N
i=1 i=0 i=1
sum has a term corresponding to i = 0 and the right sum has a term corresponding to i = N . In R − L , any term N N
corresponding to i = 1, 2, … , N − 1 occurs once with a plus sign and once with a minus sign, so each such term cancels and
b −a N 0 b −a
one is left with R N − LN = (f (a + (b − a)) ) − (f (a) + (b − a) ) = (f (b) − f (a)).
N N N N
56) Explain why, if f is increasing on [ a, b], the error between either LN or R N and the area A below the graph of f is at most \
(\displaystyle (b−a)\frac{f(b)−f(a)}{N]|).
57) For each of the three graphs:
a. Obtain a lower bound L(A) for the area enclosed by the curve by adding the areas of the squares enclosed completely by
the curve.
b. Obtain an upper bound U (A) for the area by adding to L(A) the areas B(A) of the squares enclosed partially by the
curve.
Answer:
Graph 1: a. L(A) = 0, B(A) = 20; b. U (A) = 20. Graph 2: a. L(A) = 9; b. B(A) = 11, U (A) = 20. Graph 3: a.
L(A) = 11.0; b. B(A) = 4.5, U (A) = 15.5.
58) In the previous exercise, explain why L(A) gets no smaller while U (A) gets no larger as the squares are subdivided into four
boxes of equal area.
59) A unit circle is made up of n wedges equivalent to the inner wedge in the figure. The base of the inner triangle is 1 unit and its
π π π π 2π
height is sin( ). The base of the outer triangle is B = cos( ) + sin( )tan( ) and the height is H = Bsin( ) . Use this
n n n n n
information to argue that the area of a unit circle is equal to π.\)
Answer:
2π
sin( ) n 2π
n
Let A be the area of the unit circle. The circle encloses n congruent triangles each of area , so sin( ) ≤ A.
2 2 n
BH 1 π π π 2π
Similarly, the circle is contained inside n congruent triangles each of area = (cos( ) + sin( )tan( ))sin( ) , so
2 2 n n n n
2π
n 2π π π π n 2π πsin( )
A ≤ sin( )(cos( )) + sin( )tan( ) . As n → ∞, sin( ) =
n
→ π , so we conclude π ≤ A . Also, as
2π
2 n n n n 2 n ( )
n
π π π
n → ∞, cos( ) + sin( )tan( ) → 1 , so we also have A ≤ π . By the squeeze theorem for limits, we conclude that
n n n
A = π.
J5.1.1) Consider the area under the curve f (x) = ln(x) on [2, 6].
(a) If we use 20 subintervals, what is the length of each subinterval?
(b) What condition does this function have on this interval that allows us to use the Maximum Possible Error formula?
(c) What is the maximum possible error when a Riemann sum is used to estimate the exact value of the area under the curve with n
= 8 for ln(x) on [2, 6]?
(d) How many subintervals do we need to use for the maximum possible error to be no more than 0.001?
J5.1.2) Consider the area under the curve g(x) = cos(πx) on [0, 1].
a) Find L for g(x) = cos(πx) on [0, 1].
4
b) Find R for g(x) = cos(πx) on [0, 1].

4
c) Look at a graph of g(x) = cos(πx) on [0, 1]. What do you think the actual area for this region is?
d) Do Riemann sums estimate net area or total area?
5.1 Approximating Area (Riemann Sum) Exercises is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by
LibreTexts.
In the preceding section we defined the area under a curve in terms of Riemann sums:
n
∗
A = lim ∑ f (x )Δx. (5.2.2)
i
n→∞
i=1
However, this definition came with restrictions. We required f (x) to be continuous and nonnegative. Unfortunately, real-world
problems don’t always meet these restrictions. In this section, we look at how to apply the concept of the area under the curve to a
broader set of functions through the use of the definite integral.
Definition and Notation

The definite integral generalizes the concept of the area under a curve. We lift the requirements that f (x) be continuous and
nonnegative, and define the definite integral as follows. Definition
Definition: definite integral
If f (x) is a function defined on an interval [a, b], the definite integral of f from a to b is given by
b n
∗
∫ f (x)dx = lim ∑ f (x )Δx, (5.2.3)
i
n→∞
a i=1
provided the limit exists. If this limit exists, the function f (x) is said to be integrable on [a,b], or is an integrable function.
The integral symbol in the previous definition should look familiar. We have seen similar notation in the chapter on Applications of
Derivatives, where we used the indefinite integral symbol (without the a and b above and below) to represent an antiderivative.
Although the notation for indefinite integrals may look similar to the notation for a definite integral, they are not the same. A
definite integral is a number. An indefinite integral is a family of functions. Later in this chapter we examine how these concepts
are related. However, close attention should always be paid to notation so we know whether we’re working with a definite integral
or an indefinite integral.
Integral notation goes back to the late seventeenth century and is one of the contributions of Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, who is
often considered to be the codiscoverer of calculus, along with Isaac Newton. The integration symbol ∫ is an elongated S,
suggesting sigma or summation. On a definite integral, above and below the summation symbol are the boundaries of the interval,
[a, b]. The numbers a and b are x-values and are called the limits of integration; specifically, a is the lower limit and b is the upper
limit. To clarify, we are using the word limit in two different ways in the context of the definite integral. First, we talk about the
limit of a sum as n → ∞. Second, the boundaries of the region are called the limits of integration.
We call the function f (x) the integrand, and the dx indicates that f (x) is a function with respect to x, called the variable of
integration. Note that, like the index in a sum, the variable of integration is a dummy variable, and has no impact on the
computation of the integral. We could use any variable we like as the variable of integration:
b b b
∫ f (x)dx = ∫ f (t)dt = ∫ f (u)du (5.2.4)

a a a
Previously, we discussed the fact that if f (x) is continuous on [a, b], then the limit n
limn→∞ ∑
i=1
∗
f (x )Δx
i
exists and is unique.
This leads to the following theorem, which we state without proof.
Continuous Functions Are Integrable
If f (x) is continuous on [a, b], then f is integrable on [a, b].
Functions that are not continuous on [a, b] may still be integrable, depending on the nature of the discontinuities. For example,
functions with a finite number of jump discontinuities on a closed interval are integrable.
It is also worth noting here that we have retained the use of a regular partition in the Riemann sums. This restriction is not strictly
necessary. Any partition can be used to form a Riemann sum. However, if a nonregular partition is used to define the definite
integral, it is not sufficient to take the limit as the number of subintervals goes to infinity. Instead, we must take the limit as the

width of the largest subinterval goes to zero. This introduces a little more complex notation in our limits and makes the calculations
more difficult without really gaining much additional insight, so we stick with regular partitions for the Riemann sums.
Example 5.2.1 : Evaluating an Integral Using the Definition

Note to Calc I students: this example is more detailed than the exercises you need to know how to do.
2
Use the definition of the definite integral to evaluate ∫
0
2
x dx. Use a right-endpoint approximation to generate the Riemann
sum.
Solution
We first want to set up a Riemann sum. Based on the limits of integration, we have a = 0 and b = 2 . For i = 0, 1, 2, … , n, let
P = x be a regular partition of [0, 2]. Then
i
b −a 2
Δx = = . (5.2.5)
n n
Since we are using a right-endpoint approximation to generate Riemann sums, for each i, we need to calculate the function value
at the right endpoint of the interval [x , x ]. The right endpoint of the interval is x , and since P is a regular partition,
i−1 i i
2 2i
xi = x0 + iΔx = 0 + i[ ] = . (5.2.6)
n n
Thus, the function value at the right endpoint of the interval is

2
2i 4i
2 2
f (xi ) = x =( ) = . (5.2.7)
i 2
n n
Then the Riemann sum takes the form

2 2
4i 2 8i 8
∑
n
i=1
f (xi )Δx = ∑
n
i=1
(
2
) =∑
n
i=1 3
=
3
n
∑
i=1
i
2
.
n n n n
n
Using the summation formula for ∑ i=1
i
2
, we have
n
8 n 2
∑ f (xi )Δx = ∑ i
i=1 3 i=1
n
8 n(n + 1)(2n + 1)
= [ ]
3
n 6
3 2
8 2n + 3n +n
= [ ]
3
n 6
3 2
16 n + 24 n + 8n
=
3
6n
8 4 4
= + + .
3 n 3n2
Now, to calculate the definite integral, we need to take the limit as n → ∞ . We get
2 n
8 4 4
2
∫ x dx = limn→∞ ∑ f (xi )Δx = limn→∞ ( + + )
0 i=1 2
3 n 3n
8 4 4 8 8
= limn→∞ ( ) + limn→∞ ( ) + limn→∞ (
2
) = +0 +0 = .
3 n 3n 3 3
Exercise 5.2.1
3
Use the definition of the definite integral to evaluate ∫ 0
(2x − 1)dx .
Use a right-endpoint approximation to generate the Riemann sum.
Hint
Use the solving strategy from Example 5.2.1.

Answer
6
Evaluating Definite Integrals

Evaluating definite integrals this way can be quite tedious because of the complexity of the calculations. Later in this chapter we
develop techniques for evaluating definite integrals without taking limits of Riemann sums. However, for now, we can rely on the
fact that definite integrals represent the area under the curve, and we can evaluate definite integrals by using geometric formulas to
calculate that area. We do this to confirm that definite integrals do, indeed, represent areas, so we can then discuss what to do in the
case of a curve of a function dropping below the x-axis.
Example 5.2.2 : Using Geometric Formulas to Calculate Definite Integrals

6 −−−− −−−− −−
Use the formula for the area of a circle to evaluate ∫ 3
√9 − (x − 3)
2
dx .
Solution
The function describes a semicircle with radius 3. To find
6 −−−−−−−−−−
2
∫ √ 9 − (x − 3) dx (5.2.8)
3
we want to find the area under the curve over the interval [3, 6]. The formula for the area of a circle is A = πr . The area of a 2
1
semicircle is just one-half the area of a circle, or A = ( )π r
2
. The shaded area in Figure covers one-half of the semicircle, or
2
1
A =(
2
)π r . Thus,
4
6 −−−−−−−−−− 1 9
2 2
∫ √ 9 − (x − 3) = π(3 ) = π ≈ 7.069. (5.2.9)
3
4 4
Figure 5.2.1 : The value of the integral of the function f (x) over the interval [3, 6] is the area of the shaded region.
Exercise 5.2.2
4
Use the formula for the area of a trapezoid to evaluate ∫ 2
(2x + 3)dx .
Hint
Graph the function f (x) and calculate the area under the function on the interval [2, 4].
Answer
18 square units
Area and the Definite Integral

When we defined the definite integral, we lifted the requirement that f (x) be nonnegative. But how do we interpret “the area under
the curve” when f (x) is negative?

Net Signed Area
Let us return to the Riemann sum. Consider, for example, the function f (x) = 2 − 2x (shown in Figure) on the interval [0, 2].
2
Use n = 8 and choose {x } as the left endpoint of each interval. Construct a rectangle on each subinterval of height f (x ) and
∗
i
∗
i
width Δx. When f (x ) is positive, the product f (x )Δx represents the area of the rectangle, as before. When f (x ) is negative,
∗
i
∗
i
∗
i
however, the product f (x )Δx represents the negative of the area of the rectangle. The Riemann sum then becomes
∗
i
∗
∑ f (x )Δx = (5.2.10)
i
i=1
(Area of rectangles above thex-axis)−(Area of rectangles below thex-axis)
Figure 5.2.2 : For a function that is partly negative, the Riemann sum is the area of the rectangles above the x-axis less the area of
the rectangles below the x-axis.
Taking the limit as n → ∞, the Riemann sum approaches the area between the curve above the x-axis and the x-axis, less the area
between the curve below the x-axis and the x-axis, as shown in Figure. Then,
2 n
∫ f (x)dx = lim ∑ f (ci )Δx = A1 − A2 . (5.2.11)

n→∞
0
i=1
The quantity A 1 − A2 is called the net signed area.
Figure 5.2.3 : In the limit, the definite integral equals area A1 less area A2, or the net signed area.
Notice that net signed area can be positive, negative, or zero. If the area above the x-axis is larger, the net signed area is positive. If
the area below the x-axis is larger, the net signed area is negative. If the areas above and below the x-axis are equal, the net signed
area is zero.
Example 5.2.3 : Finding the Net Signed Area

Find the net signed area between the curve of the function f (x) = 2x and the x-axis over the interval [−3, 3].
Solution
The function produces a straight line that forms two triangles: one from x = −3 to x =0 and the other from x =0 to x =3
1
(Figure). Using the geometric formula for the area of a triangle, A = bh , the area of triangle A1, above the axis, is
2
1
A1 = 3(6) = 9 ,
2
where 3 is the base and 2(3) = 6 is the height. The area of triangle A2, below the axis, is
1
A2 = (3)(6) = 9,
2
where 3 is the base and 6 is the height. Thus, the net area is
3
∫ 2xdx = A1 − A2 = 9 − 9 = 0.
−3
Figure 5.2.4 : The area above the curve and below the x-axis equals the area below the curve and above the x-axis.
Analysis
If A1 is the area above the x-axis and A2 is the area below the x-axis, then the net area is A 1 − A2 . Since the areas of the two
triangles are equal, the net area is zero.
Exercise 5.2.3
Find the net signed area of f (x) = x − 2 over the interval [0, 6], illustrated in the following image.
Hint
Use the solving method described in Example 5.2.3.
Answer
6
Total Area
One application of the definite integral is finding displacement when given a velocity function. If v(t) represents the velocity of an
object as a function of time, then the area under the curve tells us how far the object is from its original position. This is a very

important application of the definite integral, and we examine it in more detail later in the chapter. For now, we’re just going to
look at some basics to get a feel for how this works by studying constant velocities.
When velocity is a constant, the area under the curve is just velocity times time. This idea is already very familiar. If a car travels
away from its starting position in a straight line at a speed of 75 mph for 2 hours, then it is 150 mi away from its original position
(Figure). Using integral notation, we have
2
∫
0
75dt = 150 .
Figure 5.2.5 : The area under the curve v(t) = 75 tells us how far the car is from its starting point at a given time.
In the context of displacement, net signed area allows us to take direction into account. If a car travels straight north at a speed of
60 mph for 2 hours, it is 120 mi north of its starting position. If the car then turns around and travels south at a speed of 40 mph for
3 hours, it will be back at it starting position (Figure). Again, using integral notation, we have
2 5
∫ 60 dt + ∫ −40 dt = 120 − 120 = 0. (5.2.12)

0 2
In this case the displacement is zero.
Figure 5.2.6 : The area above the axis and the area below the axis are equal, so the net signed area is zero.
Suppose we want to know how far the car travels overall, regardless of direction. In this case, we want to know the area between
the curve and the x-axis, regardless of whether that area is above or below the axis. This is called the total area.

Graphically, it is easiest to think of calculating total area by adding the areas above the axis and the areas below the axis (rather
than subtracting the areas below the axis, as we did with net signed area). To accomplish this mathematically, we use the absolute
value function. Thus, the total distance traveled by the car is
2 5 2 5
∫ |60|dt + ∫ | − 40|dt = ∫ 60dt + ∫ 40dt = 120 + 120 = 240. (5.2.13)

0 2 0 2
Bringing these ideas together formally, we state the following definitions.

Definition: net signed area
Let f (x) be an integrable function defined on an interval [a, b]. Let A represent the area between f (x) and the x-axis that lies
1
above the axis and let A represent the area between f (x) and the x-axis that lies below the axis. Then, the net signed area
2
between f (x) and the x-axis is given by

b
∫ f (x)dx = A1 − A2 . (5.2.14)
a
The total area between f (x) and the x-axis is given by

b
∫ |f (x)|dx = A1 + A2 . (5.2.15)
a
Example 5.2.4 : Finding the Total Area

Find the total area between f (x) = x − 2 and the x-axis over the interval [0, 6].
Solution
Calculate the x-intercept as (2, 0) (set y = 0, solve for x). To find the total area, take the area below the x-axis over the
subinterval [0, 2] and add it to the area above the x-axis on the subinterval [2, 6] (Figure).
Figure 5.2.7 : The total area between the line and the x-axis over [0, 6] is A plus A . 2 1
We have
6
∫ |(x − 2)|dx = A2 + A1 .
0
Then, using the formula for the area of a triangle, we obtain

1 1
A2 = bh = ⋅2⋅2 =2
2 2
1 1
A1 = bh = ⋅4⋅4 =8 .
2 2
The total area, then, is

A1 + A2 = 8 + 2 = 10 .
Exercise 5.2.4
Find the total area between the function f (x) = 2x and the x-axis over the interval [−3, 3].
Hint

Review the solving strategy in Example 5.2.4.
Answer
18
Properties of the Definite Integral

The properties of indefinite integrals apply to definite integrals as well. Definite integrals also have properties that relate to the
limits of integration. These properties, along with the rules of integration that we examine later in this chapter, help us manipulate
expressions to evaluate definite integrals.
Rule: Properties of the Definite Integral
1.
a
∫ f (x) dx = 0 (5.2.16)
a
If the limits of integration are the same, the integral is just a line and contains no area.
2.
a b
∫ f (x) dx = − ∫ f (x)dx (5.2.17)

b a
If the limits are reversed, then place a negative sign in front of the integral.
3.
b b b
∫ [f (x) + g(x)] dx = ∫ f (x)dx + ∫ g(x)dx (5.2.18)

a a a
The integral of a sum is the sum of the integrals.

4.
b b b
∫ [f (x) − g(x)] dx = ∫ f (x)dx − ∫ g(x)dx (5.2.19)

a a a
The integral of a difference is the difference of the integrals

5.
b b
∫ cf (x) dx = c ∫ f (x) (5.2.20)

a a
for constant c. The integral of the product of a constant and a function is equal to the constant multiplied by the integral of the
function.
6.
b c b
∫ f (x) dx = ∫ f (x) dx + ∫ f (x) dx (5.2.21)

a a c
Although this formula normally applies when c is between a and b, the formula holds for all values of a , b , and c , provided f (x)
is integrable on the largest interval.
Example 5.2.5 : Using the Properties of the Definite Integral

Use the properties of the definite integral to express the definite integral of f (x) = −3x 3
+ 2x + 2 over the interval [−2, 1] as
the sum of three definite integrals.
Solution

1
Using integral notation, we have ∫ −2
(−3 x
3
+ 2x + 2)dx. We apply properties 3. and 5. to get
1 1 1 1
3 3
∫ (−3 x + 2x + 2)dx = ∫ −3 x dx + ∫ 2xdx + ∫ 2dx
−2 −2 −2 −2
1 3 1 1
= −3 ∫ x dx + 2 ∫ xdx + ∫ 2dx.
−2 −2 −2
Exercise 5.2.5
Use the properties of the definite integral to express the definite integral of f (x) = 6x 3 2
− 4x + 2x − 3 over the interval [1, 3]
as the sum of four definite integrals.
Hint
Use the solving strategy from Example 5.2.5and the properties of definite integrals.
Answer
3 3 3 3
3 2
6∫ x dx − 4 ∫ x dx + 2 ∫ xdx − ∫ 3dx (5.2.22)
1 1 1 1

8 5 8
If it is known that ∫ 0
f (x)dx = 10 and ∫ 0
f (x)dx = 5 , find the value of ∫ 5
f (x)dx .
Solution
By property 6.,
b c b
∫ f (x)dx = ∫ f (x)dx + ∫ f (x)dx.
a a c
Thus,
8 5 8
∫ f (x)dx = ∫ f (x)dx + ∫ f (x)dx
0 0 5
8
10 = 5 + ∫ f (x)dx
5
8
5 =∫
5
f (x)dx .
Exercise 5.2.6
5 5 2
If it is known that ∫ 1
f (x)dx = −3 and ∫2
f (x)dx.
Hint
Use the solving strategy from Example 5.2.6and the rule on properties of definite integrals.
Answer
−7
Comparison Properties of Integrals

A picture can sometimes tell us more about a function than the results of computations. Comparing functions by their graphs as
well as by their algebraic expressions can often give new insight into the process of integration. Intuitively, we might say that if a
function f (x) is above another function g(x), then the area between f (x) and the x-axis is greater than the area between g(x) and
the x-axis. This is true depending on the interval over which the comparison is made. The properties of definite integrals are valid
whether a < b, a = b , or a > b . The following properties, however, concern only the case a ≤ b , and are used when we want to
compare the sizes of integrals.
Comparison Theorem
i. If f (x) ≥ 0 for a ≤ x ≤ b , then

b
∫ f (x)dx ≥ 0. (5.2.23)
a
ii. If f (x) ≥ g(x) for a ≤ x ≤ b , then

b b
∫ f (x)dx ≥ ∫ g(x)dx. (5.2.24)

a a
iii. If m and M are constants such that m ≤ f (x) ≤ M for a ≤ x ≤ b , then

b
m(b − a) ≤ ∫ f (x)dx ≤ M (b − a). (5.2.25)

a
Example 5.2.7 : Comparing Two Functions over a Given Interval

−−−−− −−−−−
Compare f (x) = √1 + x and g(x) = √1 + x over the interval [0, 1].
2
Solution
Graphing these functions is necessary to understand how they compare over the interval [0, 1]. Initially, when graphed on a
graphing calculator, f (x) appears to be above g(x) everywhere. However, on the interval [0, 1], the graphs appear to be on top
of each other. We need to zoom in to see that, on the interval [0, 1], g(x) is above f (x). The two functions intersect at x = 0 and
x = 1 (Figure).
Figure 5.2.8 : (a) The function f (x) appears above the function g(x) except over the interval [0, 1] (b) Viewing the same graph
with a greater zoom shows this more clearly.
We can see from the graph that over the interval [0, 1], g(x) ≥ f (x). Comparing the integrals over the specified interval [0, 1],
1 1
we also see that ∫ g(x)dx ≥ ∫ f (x)dx (Figure). The thin, red-shaded area shows just how much difference there is between
0 0
these two integrals over the interval [0, 1].
Figure 5.2.9 : (a) The graph shows that over the interval [0, 1], g(x) ≥ f (x), where equality holds only at the endpoints of the
interval. (b) Viewing the same graph with a greater zoom shows this more clearly.
Key Concepts
The definite integral can be used to calculate net signed area, which is the area above the x-axis less the area below the x-
axis. Net signed area can be positive, negative, or zero.

The component parts of the definite integral are the integrand, the variable of integration, and the limits of integration.
Continuous functions on a closed interval are integrable. Functions that are not continuous may still be integrable,
depending on the nature of the discontinuities.
The properties of definite integrals can be used to evaluate integrals.
The area under the curve of many functions can be calculated using geometric formulas.
Key Equations
Definite Integral
b n
∗
∫ f (x)dx = lim ∑ f (x )Δx
i
n→∞
a
i=1

a
∫ f (x)dx = 0
a
a b
∫ f (x)dx = − ∫ f (x)dx
b a
b b b
∫ [f (x) + g(x)]dx = ∫ f (x)dx + ∫ g(x)dx

a a a
b b b
∫ [f (x) − g(x)]dx = ∫ f (x)dx − ∫ g(x)dx

a a a
b b
∫ cf (x)dx = c ∫ f (x) for constant c

a a
b c b
∫ f (x)dx = ∫ f (x)dx + ∫ f (x)dx

a a c
Glossary
definite integral
a primary operation of calculus; the area between the curve and the x-axis over a given interval is a definite integral
integrable function
a function is integrable if the limit defining the integral exists; in other words, if the limit of the Riemann sums as n goes to
infinity exists
integrand
the function to the right of the integration symbol; the integrand includes the function being integrated
limits of integration
these values appear near the top and bottom of the integral sign and define the interval over which the function should be
integrated
net signed area

the area between a function and the x-axis such that the area below the x-axis is subtracted from the area above the x-axis; the
result is the same as the definite integral of the function
total area
total area between a function and the x-axis is calculated by adding the area above the x-axis and the area below the x-axis; the
result is the same as the definite integral of the absolute value of the function
variable of integration
indicates which variable you are integrating with respect to; if it is x, then the function in the integrand is followed by dx

Contributors
This page titled 5.2: The Definite Integral is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by OpenStax.

T

In the following exercises, express the limits as integrals.
n
60) lim ∑(x )Δx

∗
i
over [1, 3]
n→∞
i=1
61) lim ∑(5(x )

∗
i
2
− 3(x ) )Δx
∗
i
3
over [0, 2]
n→∞
i=1
Answer:
2
2 3
∫ (5 x − 3 x )dx
0
62) lim ∑ si n (2π x )Δx

2 ∗
i
over [0, 1]
n→∞
i=1
63) lim ∑ cos (2π x )Δx

2 ∗
i
over [0, 1]
n→∞
i=1
Answer:
1
2
∫ cos (2πx)dx
0
In the following exercises, given L or R as indicated, express their limits as n → ∞ as definite integrals, identifying the correct
n n
intervals.
n
1 i −1
64) L n = ∑
n n
i=1
n
1 i
65) R n = ∑
n n
i=1
Answer:
45
fave =
28
Solution: ∫ xdx
0
n
2 i −1
66) Ln = ∑(1 + 2 )
n n
i=1
n
3 i
67) R n = ∑(3 + 3 )
n n
i=1
Solution: ∫ xdx
3
n
2π i −1 i −1
68) L n = ∑ 2π cos(2π )
n n n
i=1
n
1 i i
69 R n = ∑(1 + )log((1 +
2
) )
n n n
i=1

2
Solution: ∫ 2
xlog(x )dx
1
In the following exercises, evaluate the integrals of the functions graphed using the formulas for areas of triangles and circles, and
subtracting the areas below the x-axis.
70)
71)
Solution: 1 + 2 ⋅ 2 + 3 ⋅ 3 = 14
72)
73)

Solution: 1 − 4 + 9 = 6
74)
75)
Solution: 1 − 2π + 9 = 10 − 2π
In the following exercises, evaluate the integral using area formulas.
3
76) ∫ (3 − x)dx
0
77) ∫ (3 − x)dx
2
Answer:
1
The integral is the area of the triangle,
2

3
78) ∫ (3 − |x|)dx
−3
79) ∫ (3 − |x − 3|)dx
0
Solution: The integral is the area of the triangle, 9.

2
−−−− −
80) ∫ 2
√4 − x dx
−2
5 −−−−−−−−−−
81) ∫ √4 − (x − 3)
2
dx
1
1
Soluti0n: The integral is the area πr
2
= 2π.
2
12 −−−−−−−−−−−
82) ∫ √36 − (x − 6)
2
dx
0
83) ∫ (3 − |x|)dx
−2
1
Solution: The integral is the area of the “big” triangle less the “missing” triangle, 9 − .
2
In the following exercises, use averages of values at the left (L) and right (R) endpoints to compute the integrals of the piecewise
linear functions with graphs that pass through the given list of points over the indicated intervals.
84) (0, 0), (2, 1), (4, 3), (5, 0), (6, 0), (8, 3)over [0, 8]
85) (0, 2), (1, 0), (3, 5), (5, 5), (6, 2), (8, 0)over [0, 8]
L+R
Solution: L = 2 + 0 + 10 + 5 + 4 = 21, R = 0 + 10 + 10 + 2 + 0 = 22, = 21.5
2
86) (−4, −4), (−2, 0), (0, −2), (3, 3), (4, 3)over [−4, 4]
87) (−4, 0), (−2, 2), (0, 0), (1, 2), (3, 2), (4, 0)over [−4, 4]
L+R
Solution: L = 0 + 4 + 0 + 4 + 2 = 10, R = 4 + 0 + 2 + 4 + 0 = 10, = 10
2
4 2 4 2
Suppose that ∫ f (x)dx = 5 and ∫ f (x)dx = −3 , and ∫ g(x)dx = −1 and ∫ g(x)dx = 2 . In the following exercises,
0 0 0 0
compute the integrals.

4
88) ∫ (f (x) + g(x))dx

0
89) ∫ (f (x) + g(x))dx

2
Answer:
4 4
∫ f (x)dx + ∫ g(x)dx = 8 − 3 = 5
2 2
90) ∫ (f (x) − g(x))dx

0
91) ∫ (f (x) − g(x))dx

2
Answer:
4 4
∫ f (x)dx − ∫ g(x)dx = 8 + 3 = 11
2 2

2
92) ∫ (3f (x) − 4g(x))dx

0
93) ∫ (4f (x) − 3g(x))dx

2
Answer:
4 4
4∫ f (x)dx − 3 ∫ g(x)dx = 32 + 9 = 41
2 2
A 0 A
In the following exercises, use the identity ∫ f (x)dx = ∫ f (x)dx + ∫ f (x)dx to compute the integrals.
−A −A 0
π
sint
94) ∫ 2
dt (Hint: sin(−t) = −sin(t))
−π 1 +t
√π
t
95) ∫ dt
√−π
1 + cost
Solution: The integrand is odd; the integral is zero.

3
96) ∫ (2 − x)dx (Hint: Look at the graph of f.)

1
97) ∫ (x − 3 ) dx
3
(Hint: Look at the graph of f.)
2
Solution: The integrand is antisymmetric with respect to x = 3. The integral is zero.

1 1 1
1 1 1
In the following exercises, given that ∫ xdx = ,∫
2
x dx = , and ∫ 3
x dx = , compute the integrals.
0
2 0
3 0
4
98) ∫ (1 + x + x
2
+ x )dx
3
99) ∫ (1 − x + x
2
− x )dx
3
Answer:
1 1 1 7
1− + − =
2 3 4 12
100) ∫ (1 − x ) dx
2
101) ∫ (1 − 2x ) dx
3
1
4 2
Solution: ∫ (1 − 2x + 4 x
2 3
− 8 x )dx = 1 − 1 + −2 = −
0
3 3
1
4
102) ∫ (6x −
2
x )dx
0
3
103) ∫ (7 − 5 x )dx
3
5 23
Solution: 7 − =
4 4
In the following exercises, use the comparison theorem.

3
104) Show that ∫ (x

2
− 6x + 9)dx ≥ 0.
0

3
105) Show that ∫ (x − 3)(x + 2)dx ≤ 0.

−2
Solution: The integrand is negative over [−2, 3].

1 1
−−−− − −−−− −
106) Show that ∫ √1 + x3 dx ≤ ∫ √1 + x2 dx .
0 0
2 2
−−−−− −−−− −
107) Show that ∫ √1 + x dx ≤ ∫
2
√1 + x dx.
1 1
−−−−− −−−− −
Solution: x ≤ x over [1, 2], so
2
√1 + x ≤ √1 + x
2
over [1, 2].
π/2
π 2t π
108) Show that ∫ sintdt ≥ ) (Hint: sint ≥ over [0, ])
0 4 π 2
π/4
–
109) Show that ∫ costdt ≥ π √2/4 .
−π/4
–
√2
Solution: cos(t) ≥ . Multiply by the length of the interval to get the inequality.
2
In the following exercises, approximate the average value using Riemann sums L100 and R100 . How does your answer compare
with the exact given answer?
ln(256)
116) [T] y = ln(x) over the interval [1, 4]; the exact solution is − 1.
3
117) [T] y = e x/2

over the interval [0, 1]; the exact solution is 2(√e − 1).
5olution: L 100 = 1.294, R100 = 1.301; the exact average is between these values.
π 2ln(2)
118) [T] y = tanx over the interval [0, ; the exact solution is
] .
4 π
x +1 π
119) [T] y = −−−− −
over the interval [−1, 1]; the exact solution is .
√4 − x2 6
1 1
Solution: L 100 ×( ) = 0.5178, R100 × ( ) = 0.5294
2 2
In the following exercises, compute the average value using the left Riemann sums L for N N = 1, 10, 100 . How does the accuracy
compare with the given exact value?
8
120) [T] y = x 2
−4 over the interval [0, 2]; the exact solution is − .
3
2 1
121) [T] y = xe x
over the interval [0, 2]; the exact solution is (e
4
− 1).
4
1 1
Solution: L 1 = 0, L10 × ( ) = 8.743493, L100 × ( ) = 12.861728. The exact answer ≈ 26.799, so L 100 is not accurate.
2 2
1 15
122) [T] y = ( )
x
over the interval [0, 4]; the exact solution is .
2 64ln(2)
2
cos(π ) − 1
123) [T] y = xsin(x 2
) over the interval [−π, 0]; the exact solution is
2π.
1 1
Solution: L1 × ( ) = 1.352, L10 × ( ) = −0.1837, L100 × (1π) = −0.2956. The exact answer ≈ −0.303, so L100 is not
π π
accurate to first decimal.
2π 2π
124) Suppose that A = ∫ 2

si n tdt and B = ∫ 2
cos tdt. Show that A + B = 2π and A = B.
0 0
π/4 π/4
π
sec tdt = π and B = ∫ 2
4tan tdt. Show that A − B = .
−π/4 −π/
2

π/4
π
Solution: Use tan 2
θ + 1 = sec θ.
2
Then, B − A = ∫ 1dx = .
−π/4
2
126) Show that the average value of si n t over [0, 2π] is equal to 1/2 Without further calculation, determine whether the average
2
value of si n t over [0, π] is also equal to 1/2.

2
127) Show that the average value of cos t over [0, 2π] is equal to 1/2. Without further calculation, determine whether the average
2
value of cos (t) over [0, π] is also equal to 1/2.

2
2π
Solution: ∫ 2
cos tdt = π, so divide by the length 2π of the interval. cos 2
t has period π, so yes, it is true.
0
128) Explain why the graphs of a quadratic function (parabola) p(x) and a linear function ℓ(x) can intersect in at most two points.
b b d d
Suppose that p(a) = ℓ(a) and p(b) = ℓ(b) , and that ∫ p(t)dt > ∫ ℓ(t)dt . Explain why ∫ p(t) > ∫ ℓ(t)dt whenever
a a c c
a ≤ c < d ≤ b.
−b
129) Suppose that parabola p(x) = ax 2
+ bx + c opens downward (a < 0) and has a vertex of y = >0 . For which interval
2a
B
[A, B] is ∫ (ax
2
+ bx + c)dx as large as possible?
A
−− −−−−−
2
−b − √b − 4ac
Solution: The integral is maximized when one uses the largest interval on which p is nonnegative. Thus, A =
2a
−− −−−−−
2
−b + √b − 4ac
and B = .
2a
130) Suppose [a, b] can be subdivided into subintervals a = a 0 < a1 < a2 < ⋯ < aN = b such that either f ≥0 over [a i−1 , ai ]
ai
or f ≤0 over [a i−1 , ai ]. Set A i =∫ f (t)dt.

ai−1
a. Explain why ∫ f (t)dt = A1 + A2 + ⋯ + AN .

a
b b
b. Then, explain why ∫ f (t)dt ∣∣∣≤ ∫ |f (t)|dt.

a a
d d
131) Suppose f and g are continuous functions such that ∫ f (t)dt ≤ ∫ g(t)dt for every subinterval [c, d] of [a, b]. Explain
c c
why f (x) ≤ g(x) for all values of x.

Solution: If f (t0 ) > g(t0 ) for some t0 ∈ [a, b] , then since f −g is continuous, there is an interval containing t0 such that
d d
f (t) > g(t) over the interval [c, d], and then ∫ f (t)dt > ∫ g(t)d over this interval.
d c
132) Suppose the average value of f over [a, b] is 1 and the average value of f over [b,c] is 1 where a <c <b . Show that the
average value of f over [a, c] is also 1.
133) Suppose that [a, b] can be partitioned. taking a = a < a < ⋯ < a = b such that the average value of f over each 0 1 N
subinterval [a , a ] = 1 is equal to 1 for each i = 1, … , N . Explain why the average value of f over [a, b] is also equal to 1.
i−1 i
Solution: The integral of f over an interval is the same as the integral of the average of f over that interval. Thus,
b a1 a2 aN a1 a2 aN
∫ f (t)dt = ∫ f (t)dt + ∫ 1f (t)dt + ⋯ + ∫ f (t)dt = ∫ 1dt + ∫ 1dt + ⋯ + ∫ 1dt

a a0 a aN+1 a0 a1 aN+1
= (a1 − a0 ) + (a2 − a1 ) + ⋯ + (aN − aN −1 ) = aN − a0 = b − a .

Dividing through by b − a gives the desired identity.
i N
N (N + 1)
134) Suppose that for each i such that 1 ≤ i ≤ N one has ∫ f (t)dt = i . Show that ∫ f (t)dt = .
i−1 0
2

i N
N (N + 1)(2N + 1)
135) Suppose that for each i such that 1 ≤ i ≤ N one has ∫ f (t)dt = i
2
. Show that ∫ f (t)dt = .
i−1 0
6
N N i N
N (N + 1)(2N + 1)
Solution: ∫ f (t)dt = ∑ ∫ f (t)dt = ∑ i
2
=
0 i−1
6
i=1 i=1
L10 + R10
136) [T] Compute the left and right Riemann sums L 10 and R 10 and their average for f (t) = t over [0, 1]. Given that
2
2
1
L10 + R10
∫
2
t dt = 1/3 , to how many decimal places is accurate?
0 2
L10 + R10
137) [T] Compute the left and right Riemann sums, L1 0 and R10 , and their average for 2
f (t) = (4 − t ) over [1, 2] .
2
2
L10 + R10
Given that ∫ 2
(4 − t )dt = 1.66 , to how many decimal places is accurate?
1
2
L10 + R10
Solution: L 10 = 1.815, R10 = 1.515, = 1.665, so the estimate is accurate to two decimal places.
2
5 5
−−−− − −−−− −
138) If ∫ √1 + t4 dt = 41.7133..., what is ∫ √1 + u4 du?
1 1
139) Estimate ∫ tdt using the left and right endpoint sums, each with a single rectangle. How does the average of these left and
0
1
right endpoint sums compare with the actual value ∫ tdt?

0
Solution: The average is 1/2, which is equal to the integral in this case.
1
1
140) Estimate ∫ tdt by comparison with the area of a single rectangle with height equal to the value of t at the midpoint t = .
0
2
1
How does this midpoint estimate compare with the actual value ∫ tdt?
0
141) From the graph of sin(2πx) shown:
a. Explain why ∫ sin(2πt)dt = 0.

0
a+1
b. Explain why, in general, ∫ sin(2πt)dt = 0 for any value of a.

a
Answer:
1
a. The graph is antisymmetric with respect to t = over [0, 1], so the average value is zero.
2
b. For any value of a, the graph between [a, a + 1] is a shift of the graph over [0, 1], so the net areas above and below the axis
do not change and the average remains zero.

1
142) If f is 1-periodic (f (t + 1) = f (t)) , odd, and integrable over [0, 1], is it always true that ∫ f (t)dt = 0?
0
1+a
143) If f is 1-periodic and ∫ 10f (t)dt = A, is it necessarily true that ∫ f (t)dt = A for all A?
a
Solution: Yes, the integral over any interval of length 1 is the same.
5.2 E: Definite Integral Intro Exercises is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.

In the previous two sections, we looked at the definite integral and its relationship to the area under the curve of a function.
Unfortunately, so far, the only tools we have available to calculate the value of a definite integral are geometric area formulas and
limits of Riemann sums, and both approaches are extremely cumbersome. In this section we look at some more powerful and useful
techniques for evaluating definite integrals.
These new techniques rely on the relationship between differentiation and integration. This relationship was discovered and
explored by both Sir Isaac Newton and Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (among others) during the late 1600s and early 1700s, and it is
codified in what we now call the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, which has two parts that we examine in this section. Its
very name indicates how central this theorem is to the entire development of calculus.
Isaac Newton’s contributions to mathematics and physics changed the way we look at the world. The relationships he discovered,
codified as Newton’s laws and the law of universal gravitation, are still taught as foundational material in physics today, and his
calculus has spawned entire fields of mathematics. To learn more, read a brief biography of Newton with multimedia clips.
Fundamental Theorem of Calculus Part 1: Integrals and Antiderivatives

The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus is an extremely powerful theorem that establishes the relationship between differentiation
and integration, and gives us a way to evaluate definite integrals without using Riemann sums or calculating areas. The theorem is
comprised of two parts, the first of which, the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, Part 1, is stated here. Part 1 establishes the
relationship between differentiation and integration.
Fundamental Theorem of Calculus I
If f (x) is continuous over an interval [a, b], and the function F (x) is defined by
x
F (x) = ∫ f (t)dt, (5.3.1)

a
then F '(x) = f (x) over [a, b].
A couple of subtleties are worth mentioning here. First, a comment on the notation. Note that we have defined a function, F (x), as
the definite integral of another function, f (t), from the point a to the point x. At first glance, this is confusing, because we have
said several times that a definite integral is a number, and here it looks like it’s a function. The key here is to notice that for any
particular value of x, the definite integral is a number. So the function F (x) returns a number (the value of the definite integral) for
each value of x.
Second, it is worth commenting on some of the key implications of this theorem. There is a reason it is called the Fundamental
Theorem of Calculus. Not only does it establish a relationship between integration and differentiation, but also it guarantees that
any integrable function has an antiderivative. Specifically, it guarantees that any continuous function has an antiderivative.
Example 5.3.3 : Finding a Derivative with the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus

Use the Note to find the derivative of
x
1
g(x) = ∫ dt.
3
1 t +1
Solution: According to the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, the derivative is given by

1
g'(x) = .
3
x +1
Exercise 5.3.3
r
−−−−−
Use the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, Part 1 to find the derivative of g(r) = ∫ 2
√x + 4 dx .
0
Hint
Follow the procedures from Example to solve the problem.

Answer
−− −−−
2
g'(r) = √r + 4
Example 5.3.4 : Using the Fundamental Theorem and the Chain Rule to Calculate Derivatives
√x
Let F (x) = ∫ sintdt. Find F '(x).

1
Solution
u(x)
Letting u(x) = √−
x , we have F (x) = ∫ sintdt . Thus, by the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus and the chain rule,
1
−
du 1 sin√x
−1/2
F '(x) = sin(u(x)) = sin(u(x)) ⋅ ( x ) = − . (5.3.2)
dx 2 2 √x
Exercise 5.3.4
3
x
Let F (x) = ∫ costdt . Find F '(x).

1
Hint
Use the chain rule to solve the problem.
Answer
2 3
F '(x) = 3 x cosx
Example 5.3.5 : Using the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus with Two Variable Limits of
Integration
2x
Let F (x) = ∫ t3dt . Find F '(x).

x
2x
We have F (x) = ∫ 3
t dt . Both limits of integration are variable, so we need to split this into two integrals. We get
x
2x 0 2x x 2x
3 3 3 3
F (x) = ∫ t dt = ∫ t dt + ∫ t dt = − ∫ t dt + ∫ t3dt.
x x 0 0 0
Differentiating the first term, we obtain

x
d
[− ∫
3
t dt] = −x
3
.
dx 0
Differentiating the second term, we first let (x) = 2x. Then,

2x u(x)
d 3
d 3 3 3 3
[∫ t dt] = [∫ t dt] = (u(x)) dudx = (2x ) ⋅ 2 = 16 x .
dx 0 dx 0
Thus,
x 2x
d 3
d 3 3 3 3
F '(x) = [− ∫ t dt] + [∫ t dt] = −x + 16 x = 15 x
dx 0
dx 0
Exercise 5.3.5
x2
Let F (x) = ∫ costdt. Find F '(x).

x
Hint
Use the procedures from Example to solve the problem

Answer
2
F '(x) = 2xcosx − cosx
Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, Part 2: The Evaluation Theorem

The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, Part 2, is perhaps the most important theorem in calculus. After tireless efforts by
mathematicians for approximately 500 years, new techniques emerged that provided scientists with the necessary tools to explain
many phenomena. Using calculus, astronomers could finally determine distances in space and map planetary orbits. Everyday
financial problems such as calculating marginal costs or predicting total profit could now be handled with simplicity and accuracy.
Engineers could calculate the bending strength of materials or the three-dimensional motion of objects. Our view of the world was
forever changed with calculus.
After finding approximate areas by adding the areas of n rectangles, the application of this theorem is straightforward by
comparison. It almost seems too simple that the area of an entire curved region can be calculated by just evaluating an
antiderivative at the first and last endpoints of an interval.
The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, Part 2
If f is continuous over the interval [a, b] and F (x) is any antiderivative of f (x), then
b
∫ f (x)dx = F (b) − F (a). (5.3.3)

a
We often see the notation F (x)| to denote the expression F (b) − F (a) . We use this vertical bar and associated limits a and b to
b
indicate that we should evaluate the function F (x) at the upper limit (in this case, b), and subtract the value of the function F (x)
evaluated at the lower limit (in this case, a).
The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, Part 2 (also known as the evaluation theorem) states that if we can find an
antiderivative for the integrand, then we can evaluate the definite integral by evaluating the antiderivative at the endpoints of the
interval and subtracting.
Proof
Let P = xi , i = 0, 1, … , n be a regular partition of [a, b]. Then, we can write
F (b) − F (a) = F (xn ) − F (x0 )
= [F (xn ) − F (xn−1 )] + [F (xn−1 ) − F (xn−2 )] + … + [F (x1 ) − F (x0 )]

n
= ∑[F (xi ) − F (xi−1 )].
i=1
Now, we know F is an antiderivative of f over [a, b], so by the Mean Value Theorem (see The Mean Value Theorem) for
i = 0, 1, … , n we can find c in [x , x ] such that

i i−1 i
F (xi ) − F (xi−1 ) = F '(ci )(xi − xi−1 ) = f (ci )Δx. (5.3.4)
Then, substituting into the previous equation, we have

n
F (b) − F (a) = ∑ f (ci )Δx. (5.3.5)
i=1
Taking the limit of both sides as n → ∞, we obtain

n b
F (b) − F (a) = lim ∑ f (ci )Δx = ∫ f (x)dx. (5.3.6)

n→∞
i=1 a
Example 5.3.6 : Evaluating an Integral with the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus

Use Note to evaluate

2
2
∫ (t − 4)dt. (5.3.7)
−2
Solution
Recall the power rule for Antiderivatives:
If
n+1
x
n n
y =x ,∫ x dx = + C. (5.3.8)
n+1
Use this rule to find the antiderivative of the function and then apply the theorem. We have
2 3
t 2
2
∫ (t − 4)dt = − 4t| −2
−2
3
3 3
(2) (−2)
=[ − 4(2)] − [ − 4(−2)]
3 3
8 8
=( − 8) − (− + 8)
3 3
8 8 16 32
= −8 + −8 = − 16 = − .
3 3 3 3
Analysis
Notice that we did not include the “+ C” term when we wrote the antiderivative. The reason is that, according to the
Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, Part 2, any antiderivative works. So, for convenience, we chose the antiderivative with
C = 0. If we had chosen another antiderivative, the constant term would have canceled out. This always happens when
evaluating a definite integral.

The region of the area we just calculated is depicted in Figure. Note that the region between the curve and the x-axis is all below
the x-axis. Area is always positive, but a definite integral can still produce a negative number (a net signed area). For example,
if this were a profit function, a negative number indicates the company is operating at a loss over the given interval.
Figure 5.3.3 : The evaluation of a definite integral can produce a negative value, even though area is always positive.
Example 5.3.7 : Evaluating a Definite Integral Using the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, Part
2
Evaluate the following integral using the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, Part 2:
9
x −1
∫ − .
1 √x dx
First, eliminate the radical by rewriting the integral using rational exponents. Then, separate the numerator terms by writing
each one over the denominator:
9 9
x −1 x 1
∫ dx = ∫ ( − )dx.
1/2 1/2 1/2
1 x 1 x x

Use the properties of exponents to simplify:
9 9
x 1 1/2 −1/2
∫ ( − )dx = ∫ (x −x )dx.
1 x1/2 x1/2 1
Now, integrate using the power rule:

9
9 3/2 1/2 ∣
x x
1/2 −1/2 ∣
∫ (x −x )dx = ( − )
3 1 ∣
1 ∣1
2 2
3/2 1/2 3/2 1/2

(9) (9) (1) (1)
=[ − ] −[ − ]
3 1 3 1
2 2 2 2
2 2 2 40
=[ (27) − 2(3)] − [ (1) − 2(1)] = 18 − 6 − +2 = .
3 3 3 3
See Figure.
.
Figure 5.3.4 : The area under the curve from x = 1 to x = 9 can be calculated by evaluating a definite integral.
Exercise 5.3.6
2
Use Note to evaluate ∫ −4

x dx.
1
Hint
Use the power rule.
Answer
7
24
Example 5.3.8 : A Roller-Skating Race

James and Kathy are racing on roller skates. They race along a long, straight track, and whoever has gone the farthest after 5 sec
wins a prize. If James can skate at a velocity of f (t) = 5 + 2t ft/sec and Kathy can skate at a velocity of g(t) = 10 + cos( t) π
ft/sec, who is going to win the race?

Solution
5
We need to integrate both functions over the interval [0, 5] and see which value is bigger. We are using ∫
0
v(t)dt to find the
distance traveled over 5 seconds. For James, we want to calculate
5
∫ (5 + 2t)dt. (5.3.9)
0
Using the power rule, we have

5
2 5
∫ (5 + 2t)dt = (5t + t ) ∣ = (25 + 25) = 50. (5.3.10)
0
0

Thus, James has skated 50 ft after 5 sec. Turning now to Kathy, we want to calculate
5
π
∫ 10 + cos( t)dt. (5.3.11)
0 2
We know sint is an antiderivative of cost , so it is reasonable to expect that an antiderivative of cos( t) would involve π
sin( t) . However, when we differentiate \(sin(π2t), we get π2cos(π2t) as a result of the chain rule, so we have to account for
π
this additional coefficient when we integrate. We obtain

5 5
π 2 π ∣
∫ 10 + cos( t)dt = (10t + sin( t))∣ (5.3.12)
0
2 π 2 ∣
0
2 2
= (50 + ) − (0 − sin0) ≈ 50.6. (5.3.13)
π π
Kathy has skated approximately 50.6 ft after 5 sec. Kathy wins, but not by much!
Exercise 5.3.7
Suppose James and Kathy have a rematch, but this time the official stops the contest after only 3 sec. Does this change the
outcome?
Hint
Change the limits of integration from those in Example.
Answer
Kathy still wins, but by a much larger margin: James skates 24 ft in 3 sec, but Kathy skates 29.3634 ft in 3 sec.
A Parachutist in Free Fall

Julie is an avid skydiver. She has more than 300 jumps under her belt and has mastered the art of making adjustments to her
body position in the air to control how fast she falls. If she arches her back and points her belly toward the ground, she reaches a
terminal velocity of approximately 120 mph (176 ft/sec). If, instead, she orients her body with her head straight down, she falls
faster, reaching a terminal velocity of 150 mph (220 ft/sec).

Figure 5.3.5 : Skydivers can adjust the velocity of their dive by changing the position of their body during the free fall. (credit:
Jeremy T. Lock)
Since Julie will be moving (falling) in a downward direction, we assume the downward direction is positive to simplify our
calculations. Julie executes her jumps from an altitude of 12,500 ft. After she exits the aircraft, she immediately starts falling at
a velocity given by v(t) = 32t.
She continues to accelerate according to this velocity function until she reaches terminal velocity. After she reaches terminal
velocity, her speed remains constant until she pulls her ripcord and slows down to land.
On her first jump of the day, Julie orients herself in the slower “belly down” position (terminal velocity is 176 ft/sec). Using this
information, answer the following questions.
1. How long after she exits the aircraft does Julie reach terminal velocity?
2. Based on your answer to question 1, set up an expression involving one or more integrals that represents the distance
Julie falls after 30 sec.
3. If Julie pulls her ripcord at an altitude of 3000 ft, how long does she spend in a free fall?
4. Julie pulls her ripcord at 3000 ft. It takes 5 sec for her parachute to open completely and for her to slow down, during
which time she falls another 400 ft. After her canopy is fully open, her speed is reduced to 16 ft/sec. Find the total time
Julie spends in the air, from the time she leaves the airplane until the time her feet touch the ground. On Julie’s second
jump of the day, she decides she wants to fall a little faster and orients herself in the “head down” position. Her
terminal velocity in this position is 220 ft/sec. Answer these questions based on this velocity:
5. How long does it take Julie to reach terminal velocity in this case?
6. Before pulling her ripcord, Julie reorients her body in the “belly down” position so she is not moving quite as fast
when her parachute opens. If she begins this maneuver at an altitude of 4000 ft, how long does she spend in a free fall
before beginning the reorientation?
Some jumpers wear “wingsuits” (see Figure). These suits have fabric panels between the arms and legs and allow the wearer to
glide around in a free fall, much like a flying squirrel. (Indeed, the suits are sometimes called “flying squirrel suits.”) When
wearing these suits, terminal velocity can be reduced to about 30 mph (44 ft/sec), allowing the wearers a much longer time in
the air. Wingsuit flyers still use parachutes to land; although the vertical velocities are within the margin of safety, horizontal
velocities can exceed 70 mph, much too fast to land safely.
Figure 5.3.6 : The fabric panels on the arms and legs of a wingsuit work to reduce the vertical velocity of a skydiver’s fall.
(credit: Richard Schneider)
Answer the following question based on the velocity in a wingsuit.
7. If Julie dons a wingsuit before her third jump of the day, and she pulls her ripcord at an altitude of 3000 ft, how long does she
get to spend gliding around in the air

Key Concepts
The Mean Value Theorem for Integrals states that for a continuous function over a closed interval, there is a value c such
that f (c) equals the average value of the function. See Note.
The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, Part 1 shows the relationship between the derivative and the integral. See Note.
The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, Part 2 is a formula for evaluating a definite integral in terms of an antiderivative
of its integrand. The total area under a curve can be found using this formula. See Note.
Key Equations
Mean Value Theorem for Integrals
b
1
If f(x)is continuous over an interval [a, b], then there is at least one point c∈[a,b] such that f (c) = ∫ f (x)dx.
b −a a
Fundamental Theorem of Calculus Part 1

x
If f (x) is continuous over an interval [a,b], and the function F (x) is defined by F (x) = ∫ f (t)dt, then F '(x) = f (x).
a

b
If f is continuous over the interval [a, b] and F (x) is any antiderivative of f (x), then ∫ f (x)dx = F (b) − F (a).
a
Glossary
fundamental theorem of calculus
the theorem, central to the entire development of calculus, that establishes the relationship between differentiation and
integration
fundamental theorem of calculus, part 1

uses a definite integral to define an antiderivative of a function

(also, evaluation theorem) we can evaluate a definite integral by evaluating the antiderivative of the integrand at the endpoints
of the interval and subtracting
mean value theorem for integrals

guarantees that a point c exists such that f (c) is equal to the average value of the function
Contributors
This page titled 5.3: The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus Basics is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed,

5.3: The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus
144) Consider two athletes running at variable speeds v (t) and v (t). The runners start and finish a race at exactly the same time.
1 2
Explain why the two runners must be going the same speed at some point.
145) Two mountain climbers start their climb at base camp, taking two different routes, one steeper than the other, and arrive at the
peak at exactly the same time. Is it necessarily true that, at some point, both climbers increased in altitude at the same rate?
Answer:
Yes. It is implied by the Mean Value Theorem for Integrals.
146) To get on a certain toll road a driver has to take a card that lists the mile entrance point. The card also has a timestamp. When
going to pay the toll at the exit, the driver is surprised to receive a speeding ticket along with the toll. Explain how this can happen.
x
147) Set F (x) = ∫ (1 − t)dt. Find F '(2) and the average value of F over [1, 2].
′
Answer:
F '(2) = −1; average value of F over [1, 2] is −1/2.
′
In the following exercises, use the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, Part 1, to find each derivative.
x
d 2
148) ∫ e
−t
dt
dx 1
x
d
149) ∫ e
cost
dt
dx 1
Answer:
cos x
e
x −−−−−
d
150) ∫ √9 − y
2
dy
dx 3
x
d ds
151) ∫ −−−−− −
dx 4 √16 − s2
Answer:
1
−−−−− −
√16 − x2
2x
d
152) ∫ xt dt
dx
√x
d
153) ∫ tdt
dx 0
Answer:
d 1
− −
√x √x =
dx 2
sinx
d −−−− −
154) ∫
2
√1 − t dt
dx 0
1
d −−−− −
155) ∫
2
√1 − t dt
dx cosx
Answer:

−−−− −−− − d
2
−√1 − cos x cosx = |sinx|sinx
dx
√x 2
d t
156) ∫
4
dt
dx 1 1 +t
2
x
d √t
157) ∫ dt
dx 1
1 +t
Answer:
|x|
2x
2
1 +x
lnx
d
158) ∫ e dt
t
dx 0
2
e
d
159) ∫ lnu du
2
dx 1
Answer:
2x
d x x
ln(e ) e = 2x e
dx
160) The graph of y = ∫ f (t)dt , where f is a piecewise constant function, is shown here.
0
a. Over which intervals is f positive? Over which intervals is it negative? Over which intervals, if any, is it equal to zero?
b. What are the maximum and minimum values of f?
c. What is the average value of f?
x
0
Answer:
a. f is positive over [1, 2] and [5, 6], negative over [0, 1] and [3, 4], and zero over [2, 3] and [4, 5]. b. The maximum value is 2 and
the minimum is −3. c. The average value is 0.

x
162) The graph of y = ∫ ℓ(t)dt , where ℓ is a piecewise linear function, is shown here.
0
a. Over which intervals is ℓ positive? Over which intervals is it negative? Over which, if any, is it zero?
b. Over which intervals is ℓ increasing? Over which is it decreasing? Over which, if any, is it constant?
c. What is the average value of ℓ?
x
0
b. Over which intervals is ℓ increasing? Over which is it decreasing? Over which intervals, if any, is it constant?
Answer:
a. ℓ is positive over [0, 1] and [3, 6], and negative over [1, 3]. b. It is increasing over [0, 1] and [3, 5], and it is constant over [1, 3]
1
and [5, 6]. c. Its average value is .
3
In the following exercises, use a calculator to estimate the area under the curve by computing T , the average of the left- and right-
10
endpoint Riemann sums using N = 10 rectangles. Then, using the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, Part 2, determine the exact
area.
164) [T] y = x over [0, 4]
2
165) [T] y = x 3
+ 6x
2
+x −5 over [−4, 2]
Answer:
3
3 2
T10 = 49.08, ∫ x + 6x + x − 5dx = 48
−2
−−
166) [T] y = √x over [0, 6]
3
167) [T] y = √−
x +x over [1, 9]
2
Answer:
9
− 2
T10 = 260.836, ∫ (√x + x )dx = 260
1

168) [T] ∫ (cosx − sinx)dx over [0, π]
4
169) [T] ∫ 2
dx over [1, 4]
x
Answer:
4
4
T10 = 3.058, ∫ dx = 3
1 x2
In the following exercises, evaluate each definite integral using the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, Part 2.
2
170) ∫ (x
2
− 3x)dx
−1
171) ∫ (x
2
+ 3x − 5)dx
−2
Answer:
3 2
x 3x 35
F (x) = + − 5x, F (3) − F (−2) = −
3 2 6
172) ∫ (t + 2)(t − 3)dt

−2
173) ∫ (t
2
− 9)(4 − t )dt
2
Answer:
5 3
t 13t 62
F (x) = − + − 36t, F (3) − F (2) =
5 3 15
174) ∫ 9
x dx
1
175) ∫ x
99
dx
0
Answer:
100
x 1
F (x) = , F (1) − F (0) =
100 100
176) ∫ (4 t
5/2
− 3t
3/2
)dt
4
4
1
177) ∫ (x
2
−
2
)dx
1/4 x
Answer:
3
x x 1 1125
F (x) = +1 F (4) − F ( ) =
3 , 4 64
2
2
178) ∫ 3
dx
1 x
4
1
179) ∫ −
dx
1 2 √x
Answer:

−
F (x) = √x , F (4) − F (1) = 1
4
2 − √t
180) ∫ 2
dt
1 t
16
dt
181) ∫
1 t1/4
Answer:
4 28
3/4
F (x) = t , F (16) − F (1) =
3 3
2π
182) ∫ cosθdθ
0
π/2
183) ∫ sinθdθ
0
Answer:
π
F (x) = −cosx, F ( ) − F (0) = 1
2
π/4
184) ∫ sec θdθ

2
π/4
185) ∫ secθtanθ
0
Answer:
π –
F (x) = secx, F ( ) − F (0) = √2 − 1
4
π/4
186) ∫ cscθcotθdθ
π/3
π/2
187) (∫ csc θdθ

2
π/4
Answer:
π π
F (x) = −cot(x), F ( )−F( ) =1
2 4
2
1 1
188) ∫ (
2
−
3
)dt
1 t t
−1
1 1
189) ∫ (
2
−
3
)dt
−2 t t
Answer:
1 1 7
F (x) = − + , F (−1) − F (−2) =
2
x 2x 8
In the following exercises, use the evaluation theorem to express the integral as a function F (x).
x
190) ∫ t dt
2
191) ∫ e dt
t
Answer:

x
F (x) = e −e
192) ∫ costdt
0
193) ∫ sintdt
−x
Answer:
F (x) = 0
In the following exercises, identify the roots of the integrand to remove absolute values, then evaluate using the Fundamental
Theorem of Calculus, Part 2.
3
194) ∫ |x|dx
−2
195) ∫ ∣ t
2
− 2t − 3 ∣ dt
−2
Answer:
−1 3 4
46
2 2 2
∫ (t − 2t − 3)dt − ∫ (t − 2t − 3)dt + ∫ (t − 2t − 3)dt =
−2 −1 3 3
196) ∫ |cost|dt
0
π/2
197) ∫ |sint|dt
−π/2
Answer:
0 π/2
−∫ sintdt + ∫ sintdt = 2
−π/2 0
πt
198) Suppose that the number of hours of daylight on a given day in Seattle is modeled by the function −3.75cos( ) + 12.25 ,
6
with t given in months and t = 0 corresponding to the winter solstice.
a. What is the average number of daylight hours in a year?
b. At which times t and t , where 0 ≤ t
1 2 1 < t2 < 12, do the number of daylight hours equal the average number?
c. Write an integral that expresses the total number of daylight hours in Seattle between t and t 1 2
d. Compute the mean hours of daylight in Seattle between t and t , where 0 ≤ t 1 2 1 < t2 < 12 , and then between t2 and t1 ,
and show that the average of the two is equal to the average day length.
199) Suppose the rate of gasoline consumption in the United States can be modeled by a sinusoidal function of the form
πt
(11.21 − cos( )) × 10
9
gal/mo.
6
a. What is the average monthly consumption, and for which values of t is the rate at time t equal to the average rate?
b. What is the number of gallons of gasoline consumed in the United States in a year?
c. Write an integral that expresses the average monthly U.S. gas consumption during the part of the year between the
beginning of April (t = 3) and the end of September (t = 9).
Answer:
πt
a. The average is 11.21 × 10 since cos( 9
) has period 12 and integral 0 over any period. Consumption is equal to the average
6
πt
when cos( ) =0 , when t = 3 , and when t = 9 . b. Total consumption is the average rate times duration:
6

9
1 πt
11.21 × 12 × 10
9
= 1.35 × 10
11
c. 10 9
(11.21 − ∫ cos(
9
)dt) = 10 (11.21 + 2π) = 11.84x 10
9
6 3
6
b
1
200) Explain why, if f is continuous over [a, b], there is at least one point c ∈ [a, b] such that f (c) = ∫ f (t)dt.
b −a a
201) Explain why, if f is continuous over [a, b] and is not equal to a constant, there is at least one point M ∈ [a, b] such that
b b
1 1
f (M ) = ∫ f (t)dt and at least one point m ∈ [a, b] such that f (m) < ∫ f (t)dt .
b −a a
b −a a
Answer:
If f is not constant, then its average is strictly smaller than the maximum and larger than the minimum, which are attained over
[a, b] by the extreme value theorem.
202) Kepler’s first law states that the planets move in elliptical orbits with the Sun at one focus. The closest point of a planetary
orbit to the Sun is called the perihelion (for Earth, it currently occurs around January 3) and the farthest point is called the
aphelion (for Earth, it currently occurs around July 4). Kepler’s second law states that planets sweep out equal areas of their
elliptical orbits in equal times. Thus, the two arcs indicated in the following figure are swept out in equal times. At what time of
year is Earth moving fastest in its orbit? When is it moving slowest?Kepler’s first law states that the planets move in elliptical
orbits with the Sun at one focus. The closest point of a planetary orbit to the Sun is called the perihelion (for Earth, it currently
occurs around January 3) and the farthest point is called the aphelion (for Earth, it currently occurs around July 4). Kepler’s second
law states that planets sweep out equal areas of their elliptical orbits in equal times. Thus, the two arcs indicated in the following
figure are swept out in equal times. At what time of year is Earth moving fastest in its orbit? When is it moving slowest?
203) A point on an ellipse with major axis length 2a and minor axis length 2b has the coordinates (acosθ, bsinθ), 0 ≤ θ ≤ 2π.
−−−−−−
a. Show that the distance from this point to the focus at (−c, 0) is d(θ) = a + ccosθ , where c = √a 2
−b
2
.
Use these coordinates to show that the average distance d¯ from a point on the ellipse to the focus at (−c, 0), with respect to
angle θ, is a.
Answer:
309,389,957
Solution: a. d 2
θ = (acosθ + c )
2 2 2
+ b si n θ = a
2 2 2
+ c cos θ + 2accosθ = (a + ccosθ) ;
2
2π
1
¯
b. d = ∫ (a + 2ccosθ)dθ = a
2π 0
204) As implied earlier, according to Kepler’s laws, Earth’s orbit is an ellipse with the Sun at one focus. The perihelion for Earth’s
orbit around the Sun is 147,098,290 km and the aphelion is 152,098,232 km.
a. By placing the major axis along the x-axis, find the average distance from Earth to the Sun.
b. The classic definition of an astronomical unit (AU) is the distance from Earth to the Sun, and its value was computed as
the average of the perihelion and aphelion distances. Is this definition justified?
GmM
205) The force of gravitational attraction between the Sun and a planet is F (θ) = 2
, where m is the mass of the planet, M is
r (θ)
the mass of the Sun, G is a universal constant, and r(θ) is the distance between the Sun and the planet when the planet is at an

angle θ with the major axis of its orbit. Assuming that M, m, and the ellipse parameters a and b (half-lengths of the major and
minor axes) are given, set up—but do not evaluate—an integral that expresses in terms of G, m, M , a, b the average gravitational
force between the Sun and the planet.
Answer:
2π
GmM 1
Mean gravitational force = ∫ −−− −−− dθ .
2 0
2 2
(a + 2 √a − b cosθ)
2
206) The displacement from rest of a mass attached to a spring satisfies the simple harmonic motion equation
x(t) = Acos(ωt − ϕ), where ϕ is a phase constant, ω is the angular frequency, and A is the amplitude. Find the average velocity,
the average speed (magnitude of velocity), the average displacement, and the average distance from rest (magnitude of
displacement) of the mass.
5.3 E: FTOC Exercises is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.

5.4 Average Value of a Function
We often need to find the average of a set of numbers, such as an average test grade. Suppose you received the following test scores
in your algebra class: 89, 90, 56, 78, 100, and 69. Your semester grade is your average of test scores and you want to know what
grade to expect. We can find the average by adding all the scores and dividing by the number of scores. In this case, there are six
test scores. Thus,
89 + 90 + 56 + 78 + 100 + 69 482
= ≈ 80.33. (5.4.2)
6 6
Therefore, your average test grade is approximately 80.33, which translates to a B− at most schools.
Suppose, however, that we have a function v(t) that gives us the speed of an object at any time t, and we want to find the object’s
average speed. The function v(t) takes on an infinite number of values, so we can’t use the process just described. Fortunately, we
can use a definite integral to find the average value of a function such as this.
Let f (x) be continuous over the interval [a, b] and let [a, b] be divided into n subintervals of width Δx = (b − a)/n . Choose a
representative x in each subinterval and calculate f (x ) for i = 1, 2, … , n. In other words, consider each f (x ) as a sampling of
∗
i
∗
i
∗
i
the function over each subinterval. The average value of the function may then be approximated as
∗ ∗ ∗
f (x ) + f (x ) + ⋯ + f (xn )
1 2
, (5.4.3)
n
which is basically the same expression used to calculate the average of discrete values.
b −a b −a
But we know Δx = , so n = , and we get
n Δx
∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗
f (x ) + f (x ) + ⋯ + f (xn ) f (x ) + f (x ) + ⋯ + f (xn )
1 2 1 2
= . (5.4.4)
n (b − a)
Δx
n
Following through with the algebra, the numerator is a sum that is represented as ∑ f (x ∗ i), and we are dividing by a fraction. i=1
To divide by a fraction, invert the denominator and multiply. Thus, an approximate value for the average value of the function is
given by
n ∗
∑ f (x ) Δx 1
i=1 i n n
∗ ∗
=( )∑ f (x ) = ( )∑ f (x )Δx.
i=1 i i=1 i
(b − a) b −a b −a
Δx
This is a Riemann sum. Then, to get the exact average value, take the limit as n goes to infinity. Thus, the average value of a
function is given by
1 n 1 b
limn→∞ ∑ f (xi )Δx = ∫ f (x)dx.
i=1 a
b −a b −a
Definition: average value of the function

Let f (x) be continuous over the interval [a, b]. Then, the average value of the function f (x) (or f ave ) on [a, b] is given by
b
1
fave = ∫ f (x)dx. (5.4.5)
b −a a
Example 5.4.8 : Finding the Average Value of a Linear Function

Find the average value of f (x) = x + 1 over the interval [0, 5].
Solution
First, graph the function on the stated interval, as shown in Figure.

Figure 5.4.10 :The graph shows the area under the function (x) = x + 1 over [0, 5].
1
The region is a trapezoid lying on its side, so we can use the area formula for a trapezoid A = h(a + b), where h represents
2
height, and a and b represent the two parallel sides. Then,
5 1 1 35
∫
0
x + 1dx = h(a + b) = ⋅ 5 ⋅ (1 + 6) = .
2 2 2
Thus the average value of the function is

1 5 1 35 7
∫
0
x + 1dx = ⋅ = .
5 −0 5 2 2
Exercise 5.4.7
Find the average value of f (x) = 6 − 2x over the interval [0, 3].
Hint
Use the average value formula, and use geometry to evaluate the integral.
Answer
3
Key Concepts
The average value of a function can be calculated using definite integrals.
Key Equations
Definite Integral
b n
∗
i
n→∞
a i=1
Glossary
average value of a function
(or f ) the average value of a function on an interval can be found by calculating the definite integral of the function and
ave
dividing that value by the length of the interval

Contributors
This page titled 5.4: Average Value of a Function is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by
OpenStax.

5.4: The Average Value of a Function Exercises
In the following exercises, find the average value f ave of f between a and b, and find a point c, where f (c) = fave
110) f (x) = x 2
, a = −1, b = 1
111) f (x) = x 5
, a = −1, b = 1
Answer:
fave = 0
−−−−−
112) f (x) = √4 − x 2
, a = 0, b = 2
113) f (x) = (3 − |x|), a = −3, b = 3
Answer:
3
114) f (x) = sinx, a = 0, b = 2π

115) f (x) = cosx, a = 0, b = 2π
Answer:
fave = 0
J5.4.1) f (x) = √− 3
x , a = 1, b = 8
Answer:
45
fave =
28
1
J5.4.2) f (x) = , a = 2, b = 5
x
Answer:
1
fave = ln(2.5)
3
5.4E: Average Value of a Function Exercises is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
5.5: U-Substitution
The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus gave us a method to evaluate integrals without using Riemann sums. The drawback of this
method, though, is that we must be able to find an antiderivative, and this is not always easy. In this section we examine a
technique, called integration by substitution, to help us find antiderivatives. Specifically, this method helps us find antiderivatives
when the integrand is the result of a chain-rule derivative.
At first, the approach to the substitution procedure may not appear very obvious. However, it is primarily a visual task—that is, the
integrand shows you what to do; it is a matter of recognizing the form of the function. So, what are we supposed to see? We are
looking for an integrand of the form f [g(x)]g'(x)dx. For example, in the integral
2 3
∫ (x − 3 ) 2x dx. (5.5.1)
we have
3
f (x) = x (5.5.2)
and
2
g(x) = x − 3. (5.5.3)
Then
′
g (x) = 2x. (5.5.4)
and
2 3
f [g(x)]g'(x) = (x − 3 ) (2x), (5.5.5)
and we see that our integrand is in the correct form. The method is called substitution because we substitute part of the integrand
with the variable u and part of the integrand with du. It is also referred to as change of variables because we are changing variables
to obtain an expression that is easier to work with for applying the integration rules.
Substitution with Indefinite Integrals
Let u = g(x) ,, where g'(x) is continuous over an interval, let f (x) be continuous over the corresponding range of g, and let
F (x) be an antiderivative of f (x). Then,
∫ f [g(x)]g'(x) dx = ∫ f (u) du
= F (u) + C
= F (g(x)) + C (5.5.6)
Proof
Let f , g , u, and F be as specified in the theorem. Then
d
F (g(x)) = F '(g(x))g'(x) = f [g(x)]g'(x). (5.5.7)
dx
Integrating both sides with respect to x, we see that
∫ f [g(x)]g'(x) dx = F (g(x)) + C . (5.5.8)
If we now substitute u = g(x) , and du = g ′

(x)dx , we get
∫ f [g(x)]g'(x) dx = ∫ f (u) du = F (u) + C = F (g(x)) + C . (5.5.9)
Returning to the problem we looked at originally, we let u = x 2

−3 and then du = 2x dx.

Rewrite the integral (Equation 5.5.1) in terms of u:
2 3 3
∫ (x − 3 ) (2x dx) = ∫ u du. (5.5.10)
Using the power rule for integrals, we have

4
3
u
∫ u du = + C. (5.5.11)
4
Substitute the original expression for x back into the solution:

4 2 4
u (x − 3)
+C = + C. (5.5.12)
4 4
We can generalize the procedure in the following Problem-Solving Strategy.

Problem-Solving Strategy: Integration by Substitution
1. Look carefully at the integrand and select an expression g(x) within the integrand to set equal to u. Let’s select g(x). such
that g'(x) is also part of the integrand.
2. Substitute u = g(x) and du = g'(x)dx. into the integral.
3. We should now be able to evaluate the integral with respect to u. If the integral can’t be evaluated we need to go back and
select a different expression to use as u.
4. Evaluate the integral in terms of u.
5. Write the result in terms of x and the expression g(x).
Example 5.5.1 : Using Substitution to Find an Antiderivative

Use substitution to find the antiderivative of ∫ 6x(3x 2
+ 4)
4
dx.
Solution
The first step is to choose an expression for u. We choose u = 3x 2
+4 because then du = 6x dx and we already have du in the
integrand. Write the integral in terms of u:
2 4 4
∫ 6x(3 x + 4 ) dx = ∫ u du. (5.5.13)
Remember that du is the derivative of the expression chosen for u, regardless of what is inside the integrand. Now we can
evaluate the integral with respect to u:
5 2 5
u (3 x + 4)
4
∫ u du = +C = + C. (5.5.14)
5 5
Analysis
We can check our answer by taking the derivative of the result of integration. We should obtain the integrand. Picking a value
1
for C of 1, we let y = 2
(3 x
5
+ 4) + 1. We have
5
1
2 5
y = (3 x + 4) + 1, (5.5.15)
5
so
1
2 4 2 4
y' = ( )5(3 x + 4 ) 6x = 6x(3 x + 4) . (5.5.16)
5
This is exactly the expression we started with inside the integrand.
Exercise 5.5.1
Use substitution to find the antiderivative of ∫ 3x 2
(x
3
− 3 ) dx.
2
Hint

Let u = x 3
− 3.
Answer
2 3 2
1 3 3
∫ 3 x (x − 3 ) dx = (x − 3) +C (5.5.17)
3
Sometimes we need to adjust the constants in our integral if they don’t match up exactly with the expressions we are substituting.
Example 5.5.2 : Using Substitution with Alteration

Use substitution to find the antiderivative of
− − −−−
2
∫ z√ z − 5 dz. (5.5.18)
Solution
Rewrite the integral as ∫ z(z − 5) dz. Let u = z − 5 and du = 2z dz . Now we have a problem because du = 2z dz and
2 1/2 2
the original expression has only z dz . We have to alter our expression for du or the integral in u will be twice as large as it
1
should be. If we multiply both sides of the du equation by . we can solve this problem. Thus,
2
2
u =z −5 (5.5.19)
du = 2z dz (5.5.20)
1 1
du = (2z) dz = z dz. (5.5.21)
2 2
1
Write the integral in terms of u, but pull the outside the integration symbol:
2
1
2 1/2 1/2
∫ z(z − 5) dz = ∫ u du. (5.5.22)
2
Integrate the expression in u:

3/2
1 1 u
1/2
∫ u du = ( ) +C
2 2 3
1 2
3/2
=( )( )u +C
2 3
1
3/2
= u +C
3
1
2 3/2
= (z − 5) +C
3
Exercise 5.5.2
Use substitution to find the antiderivative of ∫ x 2
(x
3
+ 5)
9
dx.
Hint
1
Multiply the du equation by .
3
Answer
3 10
(x + 5)
+C (5.5.23)
30
Example 5.5.3 : Using Substitution with Integrals of Trigonometric Functions

sin t
Use substitution to evaluate the integral ∫ dt.
cos3 t
Solution
We know the derivative of cos t is − sin t , so we set u = cos t . Then du = − sin t dt.
Substituting into the integral, we have
sin t du
∫ dt = − ∫ . (5.5.24)
3 3
cos t u
Evaluating the integral, we get

du 1
−3 −2
−∫ = −∫ u du = −(− )u + C. (5.5.25)
3
u 2
Putting the answer back in terms of t, we get

sin t 1 1
∫ dt = +C = + C. (5.5.26)
3 2 2
cos t 2u 2 cos t
Exercise 5.5.3
Use substitution to evaluate the integral
cos t
∫ dt. (5.5.27)
2
sin t
Hint
Use the process from Example to solve the problem.
Answer
1
− +C
sin t
Sometimes we need to manipulate an integral in ways that are more complicated than just multiplying or dividing by a constant.
We need to eliminate all the expressions within the integrand that are in terms of the original variable. When we are done, u should
be the only variable in the integrand. In some cases, this means solving for the original variable in terms of u. This technique
should become clear in the next example.
Example 5.5.4 : Finding an Antiderivative Using u-Substitution

Use substitution to find the antiderivative of
x
∫ −−−−− dx. (5.5.28)
√x − 1
Solution
If we let u = x − 1, then du = dx . But this does not account for the x in the numerator of the integrand. We need to express x
in terms of u. If u = x − 1 , then x = u + 1. Now we can rewrite the integral in terms of u:
x u +1 − 1 1/2 −1/2
∫ −−−−− dx = ∫ − du = ∫ √u + − du = ∫ (u +u ) du. (5.5.29)
√x − 1 √u √u
Then we integrate in the usual way, replace u with the original expression, and factor and simplify the result. Thus,
2
1/2 −1/2 3/2 1/2
∫ (u +u ) du = u + 2u +C
3
2
3/2 1/2
= (x − 1 ) + 2(x − 1 ) +C
3

2
1/2
= (x − 1 ) [ (x − 1) + 2] + C
3
2 2 6
1/2
= (x − 1 ) ( x− + )
3 3 3
2 4
1/2
= (x − 1 ) ( x+ )
3 3
2
1/2
= (x − 1 ) (x + 2) + C .
3
Exercise 5.5.4
Use substitution to evaluate the indefinite integral
3
∫ cos t sin t dt. (5.5.30)
Hint
Answer
4
cos t
− +C (5.5.31)
4
Substitution for Definite Integrals

Substitution can be used with definite integrals, too. However, using substitution to evaluate a definite integral requires a change to
the limits of integration. If we change variables in the integrand, the limits of integration change as well.
Substitution with Definite Integrals
Let u = g(x) and let g be continuous over an interval [a, b], and let f be continuous over the range of u = g(x). Then,
′
b g(b)
∫ f (g(x))g'(x)dx = ∫ f (u) du. (5.5.32)

a g(a)
Although we will not formally prove this theorem, we justify it with some calculations here. From the substitution rule for
indefinite integrals, if F (x) is an antiderivative of f (x), we have
∫ f (g(x))g'(x) dx = F (g(x)) + C . (5.5.33)
Then
b x=b
∣
∫ f [g(x)]g'(x) dx = F (g(x))∣
∣
a x=a
= F (g(b)) − F (g(a))
u=g(b)
∣
= F (u)∣
∣
u=g(a)
g(b)
=∫ f (u) du
g(a)
and we have the desired result.
Example 5.5.5 : Using Substitution to Evaluate a Definite Integral

Use substitution to evaluate
1
2 3 5
∫ x (1 + 2 x ) dx. (5.5.34)
0

Solution
Let u = 1 + 2x , so du = 6x dx . Since the original function includes one factor of
3 2
x
2
and 2
du = 6 x dx , multiply both sides
of the du equation by 1/6. Then,
2
du = 6 x dx (5.5.35)
1 2
du = x dx. (5.5.36)
6
To adjust the limits of integration, note that when x = 0, u = 1 + 2(0) = 1, and when x = 1, u = 1 + 2(1) = 3. Then
1 3
2 3 5
1 5
∫ x (1 + 2 x ) dx = ∫ u du. (5.5.37)
0
6 1
Evaluating this expression, we get

3 6
1 5
1 u 3 1 6 6
182
∫ u du = ( )( )|1 = [(3 ) − (1 ) ] = . (5.5.38)
6 1 6 6 36 9
Exercise 5.5.5
Use substitution to evaluate the definite integral
0
2 5
∫ y(2 y − 3) dy. (5.5.39)
−1
Hint
Use the steps from Example to solve the problem.
Answer
91
Example 5.5.6 : Using Substitution with an Exponential Function

1
2
4 x +3
∫ xe dx. (5.5.40)
0
Solution
Let u = 4x
3
+ 3. Then, du = 8x dx. To adjust the limits of integration, we note that when x = 0, u = 3 , and when
x = 1, u = 7 . So our substitution gives
1 7 7 3
2
4 x +3
1 u
1 u 7
e −e
∫ xe dx = ∫ e du = e | = ≈ 134.568 (5.5.41)
3
0
8 3
8 8
Exercise 5.5.6
1
π
2 3
∫ x cos( x ) dx. (5.5.42)
0
2
Hint
Answer

2
≈ 0.2122
3π
Substitution may be only one of the techniques needed to evaluate a definite integral. All of the properties and rules of integration
apply independently, and trigonometric functions may need to be rewritten using a trigonometric identity before we can apply
substitution. Also, we have the option of replacing the original expression for u after we find the antiderivative, which means that
we do not have to change the limits of integration. These two approaches are shown in Example.
Example 5.5.7 : Using Substitution to Evaluate a Trigonometric Integral

π/2
2
∫ cos θ dθ. (5.5.43)
0
Solution
1 + cos 2θ
Let us first use a trigonometric identity to rewrite the integral. The trig identity cos
2
θ = allows us to rewrite the
2
integral as
π/2 π/2
2
1 + cos 2θ
∫ cos θdθ = ∫ dθ. (5.5.44)
0 0 2
Then,
π/2 π/2
1 + cos 2θ 1 1
∫ ( )dθ = ∫ ( + cos 2θ) dθ (5.5.45)
0 2 0 2 2
π/2 π/2
1
= ∫ dθ + ∫ cos 2θ dθ. (5.5.46)
2 0 0
We can evaluate the first integral as it is, but we need to make a substitution to evaluate the second integral. Let u = 2θ. Then,
1
du = 2 dθ, or du = dθ . Also, when θ = 0, u = 0, and when θ = π/2, u = π. Expressing the second integral in terms of u,
2
we have
1 π/2 1 π/2 1 π/2 1 1 π
2
∫ dθ + ∫ cos θ dθ = ∫ dθ + ( )∫ cos u du
0 0 0 0
2 2 2 2 2
θ θ=π/2 1 u=θ
= | + sinu |
θ=0 u=0
2 4
π π
=( − 0) + (0 − 0) =
4 4
Key Concepts
Substitution is a technique that simplifies the integration of functions that are the result of a chain-rule derivative. The
term ‘substitution’ refers to changing variables or substituting the variable u and du for appropriate expressions in the
integrand.
When using substitution for a definite integral, we also have to change the limits of integration.
Key Equations
Substitution with Indefinite Integrals
∫ f [g(x)]g'(x)dx = ∫ f (u)du = F (u) + C = F (g(x)) + C
Substitution with Definite Integrals

b g(b)
′
∫ f (g(x))g (x)dx = ∫ f (u)du
a g(a)

Glossary
change of variables
the substitution of a variable, such as u, for an expression in the integrand
integration by substitution
a technique for integration that allows integration of functions that are the result of a chain-rule derivative
Contributors
This page titled 5.5: U-Substitution is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by OpenStax.

5.5: Substitution
In the following exercises, find the antiderivative.
261) ∫ (x + 1 ) dx
4
Answer:
1 5
(x + 1 ) +C
5
262) ∫ (x − 1 ) dx
5
263) ∫ (2x − 3 )
−7
dx
Answer:
1
− +C
12(3 − 2x)6
264) ∫ (3x − 2 )
−11
dx
x
265) ∫ −−−−− dx
√x2 + 1
Answer:
−−−−−
2
√x + 1 + C
x
266) ∫ −−−− −
dx
√1 − x2
267) ∫ (x − 1)(x
2
− 2x ) dx
3
Answer:
1
2 4
(x − 2x ) +C
8
268) ∫ (x
2
− 2x)(x
3 2
− 3 x ) dx
2
269) ∫ 3
cos θdθ(H int : cos θ = 1 − si n θ)
2 2
Answer:
3
sin θ
\displaystylesinθ − +C
3
270) ∫ 3
si n θdθ(H int : si n θ = 1 − cos θ)
2 2
271) ∫ x(1 − x )
99
dx
101 100
(1 − x) (1 − x)
Solution: − +C
101 100
272) ∫ t(1 − t )
2 10
dt
273) ∫ (11x − 7 )
−3
dx
Answer:
1
− +C
2
22(7 − 11 x )
274) ∫ (7x − 11 ) dx
4
275) ∫ 3
cos θsinθdθ
Answer:
4
cos θ
− +C
4
276) ∫ 3
sin θdθ; u = cosθ(Hint : sin θ = 1 − co s θ)
2 2
(removed exercises 277- 280)

2
x
281) ∫ 3 2
dx
(x − 3)
Answer:
1
− +C
3
3(x − 3)
In the following exercises, evaluate the definite integral.

1
−−−−−
292) ∫ x √1 − x
2
dx
0
1
x
293) ∫ −−−− − dx
0 √1 + x2
Answer:
2
1 –
2 −1/2
u = 1 + x , du = 2xdx, ∫ u du = √2 − 1
2 1
2
t
294) ∫ −− −−− dt
0 √5 + t2
1
t
295) ∫ −− −−− dt
0 √1 + t3
Answer:
2
1 2 –
3 2 −1/2
u = 1 + t , du = 3 t , ∫ u du = (√2 − 1)
3 1 3
π/4
296) ∫ sec θtanθdθ

2
π/4
sinθ
297) ∫ 4
dθ
0 cos θ
Answer:
1
−4
1 –
u = cosθ, du = −sinθdθ, ∫ u du = (2 √2 − 1)
1/ √2
3
J5.5.1)
J5.5.2)
5.6: Integrals Involving Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

In the following exercises, compute each indefinite integral.
320) ∫ e
2x
dx
321) ∫ e
−3x
dx
Answer:
−1
−3x
e +C
3
322) ∫ 2 dx
x
323) ∫ 3
−x
dx
Answer:
−x
3
− +C
ln3
1
324) ∫ dx
2x
2
325) ∫ dx
x
Answer:
2
ln(x ) + C or 2ln|x| + C
1
326) ∫ 2
dx
x
1
327) ∫ − dx
√x
Answer:
−
2 √x + C
In the following exercises, find each indefinite integral by using appropriate substitutions.
lnx
328) ∫ dx
x
dx
329) ∫ 2
x(lnx)
Answer:
1
− +C
lnx
336) ∫ xe
−x
dx
3
337) ∫ x e
2 −x
dx
Answer:
3
−x
−e
+C
3
338) ∫ e
sinx
cosxdx
339) ∫ e
tanx
sec xdx
2
Answer:
tanx
e +C
dx
340) ∫ e
lnx
ln(1−t)
e
341) ∫ dt
1 −t
Answer:
t +C

2 2
1 + 2x + x
355) ∫ 2 3
dx
1 3x + 3 x +x
Answer:
1 26
ln( )
3 7
π/4
356) ∫ tanxdx
0
π/3
sinx − cosx
357) ∫ dx
0
sinx + cosx
Answer:
–
ln(√3 − 1)
π/2
358) ∫ cscxdx
π/6
π/3
359) ∫ cotxdx
π/4
Answer:
1 3
ln
2 2
In the following exercises, integrate using the indicated substitution.

x
360) ∫ dx; u = x − 100
x − 100
y −1
361) ∫ dy; u = y + 1
y +1
Answer:
y − 2ln|y + 1| + C
2
1 −x
362) ∫ 3
dx; u = 3x − x
3
3x − x
sinx + cosx
363) ∫ dx; u = sinx − cosx
sinx − cosx
Answer:
ln|sinx − cosx| + C
−−−− −−
364) ∫ e
2x
√1 − e2x dx; u = e2x
−−−−−−− −
2
√1 − (lnx)
365) ∫ ln(x) dx; u = lnx
x
Answer:
1 2 3/2
− (1 − (lnx )) +C
3
In the following exercises, f (x) ≥ 0 for a ≤x ≤b . Find the area under the graph of f (x) between the given values a and b by
integrating.
log10 (x)
372) f (x) = ; a = 10, b = 100
x
log2 (x)
373) f (x) = ; a = 32, b = 64
x
Answer:
11
ln2
2
374) f (x) = 2 −x
; a = 1, b = 2
375) f (x) = 2 −x
; a = 3, b = 4
Answer:
1
ln(65, 536)
376) Find the area under the graph of the function f (x) = xe −x
between x = 0 and x = 5 .
2 2
377) Compute the integral of f (x) = xe and find the smallest value of N such that the area under the graph
−x
f (x) = xe
−x
between x = N and x = N + 10 is, at most, 0.01.
Answer:
N +1
1 2 2
The quantity is less than 0.01 when N .

2
−x −N −(N +1)
∫ xe dx = (e −e ). =2
N 2
378) Find the limit, as N tends to infinity, of the area under the graph of f (x) = xe −x
b 1/a
dt dt
379) Show that ∫ =∫ when 0 < a ≤ b .
a
t 1/b
t
Answer:
b 1/a
dx 1 1 dx
∫ = ln(b) − ln(a) = ln( ) − ln( ) =∫
a
x a b 1/b
x
380) Suppose that f (x) > 0 for all x and that f and g are differentiable. Use the identity f
g
=e
glnf
and the chain rule to find the
derivative of f . g
381) Use the previous exercise to find the antiderivative of h(x) = x x

(1 + lnx) and evaluate ∫ x
x (1 + lnx)dx .
2
Answer:
23
382) Show that if c > 0 , then the integral of 1/x from ac to bc (0 < a < b) is the same as the integral of 1/x from a to b.
The following exercises are intended to derive the fundamental properties of the natural log starting from the definition
x
dt
ln(x) = ∫ , using properties of the definite integral and making no further assumptions.
1
t
x
dt 1
383) Use the identity ln(x) = ∫ to derive the identity ln( ) = −lnx .
1
t x
1/x
1 dt 1 dt
Solution: We may assume that x >1 ,so < 1. Then, ∫ . Now make the substitution u = , so du = − and
x 1
t t t2
1/x x
du dt dt du
=− , and change endpoints: ∫ = −∫ = −lnx.
u t 1 t 1 u
xy
1
384) Use a change of variable in the integral ∫ dt to show that lnxy = lnx + lny for x, y > 0.
1
t
x
dt
385) Use the identity lnx = ∫ to show that ln(x) is an increasing function of x on [0, ∞), and use the previous exercises to
1
x
show that the range of ln(x) is (−∞, ∞). Without any further assumptions, conclude that ln(x) has an inverse function defined on
(−∞, ∞).
386) Pretend, for the moment, that we do not know that e is the inverse function of ln(x), but keep in mind that ln(x) has an
x
inverse function defined on (−∞, ∞). Call it E. Use the identity lnxy = lnx + lny to deduce that E(a + b) = E(a)E(b) for any
real numbers a, b.
387) Pretend, for the moment, that we do not know that e is the inverse function of lnx, but keep in mind that lnx has an inverse
x
function defined on (−∞, ∞). Call it E. Show that E (t) = E(t). ′
′
E (lnx)
Solution: x = E(ln(x)). Then, 1 = or x = E (lnx)
′
. Since any number t can be written t = lnx for some x, and for
x
such t we have x = E(t) , it follows that for any t, E ′
(t) = E(t).
x
sint
388) The sine integral, defined as S(x) = ∫ dt is an important quantity in engineering. Although it does not have a simple
0 t
1
closed formula, it is possible to estimate its behavior for large x. Show that for k ≥ 1, |S(2πk) − S(2π(k + 1))| ≤ .
k(2k + 1)π
(Hint: sin(t + π) = −sint )

1 2 2
389) [T] The normal distribution in probability is given by p(x) = −−e

−(x−μ ) /2 σ
, where σ is the standard deviation and μ is
σ √2π
the average. The standard normal distribution in probability, ps , corresponds to μ =0 and σ =1 . Compute the left endpoint
1
1 2/2
estimates R 10 and R 100 of ∫ −−e

−x
dx.
−1 √2π
Solution: R 10 = 0.6811, R100 = 0.6827
5
1 2
390) [T] Compute the right endpoint estimates R 50 and R100 of ∫ −−e
−(x−1 ) /8
.
−3 2 √2π
5.5E & 5.6E U-Substitution Exercises is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
Exponential and logarithmic functions are used to model population growth, cell growth, and financial growth, as well as
depreciation, radioactive decay, and resource consumption, to name only a few applications. In this section, we explore integration
involving exponential and logarithmic functions.
Integrals of Exponential Functions

The exponential function is perhaps the most efficient function in terms of the operations of calculus. The exponential function,
y = e , is its own derivative and its own integral.
x
Rule: Integrals of Exponential Functions

Exponential functions can be integrated using the following formulas.
x x
∫ e dx = e +C (5.6.1)
x
a
x
∫ a dx = +C (5.6.2)
ln a
Example 5.6.1 : Finding an Antiderivative of an Exponential Function

Find the antiderivative of the exponential function e −x
.
Solution: Use substitution, setting u = −x, and then du = −1dx . Multiply the du equation by −1, so you now have −du = dx .
Then,
−x u u −x
∫ e dx = − ∫ e du = −e + C = −e + C.
Exercise 5.6.1
3
Find the antiderivative of the function using substitution: x 2

e
−2x
.
Hint
Let u equal the exponent on e.
Answer
3 1 3
2 −2x −2x
∫ x e dx = − e +C
6
A common mistake when dealing with exponential expressions is treating the exponent on e the same way we treat exponents in
polynomial expressions. We cannot use the power rule for the exponent on e. This can be especially confusing when we have both
exponentials and polynomials in the same expression, as in the previous checkpoint. In these cases, we should always double-check
to make sure we’re using the right rules for the functions we’re integrating.
Example 5.6.2 : Square Root of an Exponential Function

−−−− −
Find the antiderivative of the exponential function e x
√1 + e
x
.
Solution
First rewrite the problem using a rational exponent:
x −−−− −
x x x 1/2
∫ e √1 + e dx = ∫ e (1 + e ) dx.
Using substitution, choose u = 1 + e x

. u = 1 +e
x
Then, du = e x
dx . We have (Figure)
x x 1/2 1/2
∫ e (1 + e ) dx = ∫ u du.
Then
3/2
u 2 2
1/2 3/2 x 3/2
∫ u du = +C = u +C = (1 + e ) +C
3/2 3 3

Figure 5.6.1 : The graph shows an exponential function times the square root of an exponential function.
Exercise 5.6.2
Find the antiderivative of e x
(3 e
x
− 2)
2
.
Hint
Let u = 3e x
− 2u = 3 e
x
− 2.
Answer
1
x x 2 x 3
∫ e (3 e − 2 ) dx = (3 e − 2)
9
Example 5.6.3 : Using Substitution with an Exponential Function

Use substitution to evaluate the indefinite integral ∫ 3x
3
2 2x
e dx.
Solution
Here we choose to let u equal the expression in the exponent on e. Let u = 2x and du = 6x 3 2
dx .. Again, du is off by a constant
1
multiplier; the original function contains a factor of 3x , not 6x . Multiply both sides of the equation by
2 2
so that the integrand
2
in u equals the integrand in x. Thus,
1
.
3
2 2x u
∫ 3x e dx = ∫ e du
2
Integrate the expression in u and then substitute the original expression in x back into the u integral:
1 1 1
u u 2 3
∫ e du = e +C = e x + C.
2 2 2
Exercise 5.6.3
Evaluate the indefinite integral ∫ 2x 3 4
ex dx .
Hint
Let u = x 4
.
Answer
1 4
3 4 x
∫ 2 x ex dx = e
2
As mentioned at the beginning of this section, exponential functions are used in many real-life applications. The number e is often
associated with compounded or accelerating growth, as we have seen in earlier sections about the derivative. Although the
derivative represents a rate of change or a growth rate, the integral represents the total change or the total growth. Let’s look at an
example in which integration of an exponential function solves a common business application.
A price–demand function tells us the relationship between the quantity of a product demanded and the price of the product. In
general, price decreases as quantity demanded increases. The marginal price–demand function is the derivative of the price–
demand function and it tells us how fast the price changes at a given level of production. These functions are used in business to

determine the price–elasticity of demand, and to help companies determine whether changing production levels would be
profitable.
Example 5.6.4 : Finding a Price–Demand Equation

Find the price–demand equation for a particular brand of toothpaste at a supermarket chain when the demand is 50 tubes per
week at $2.35 per tube, given that the marginal price—demand function, p'(x), for x number of tubes per week, is given as
′ −0.01x
p (x) = −0.015 e . (5.6.3)
If the supermarket chain sells 100 tubes per week, what price should it set?
Solution
To find the price–demand equation, integrate the marginal price–demand function. First find the antiderivative, then look at the
particulars. Thus,
−0.01x −0.01x
p(x) = ∫ −0.015 e dx = −0.015 ∫ e dx. (5.6.4)
Using substitution, let u = −0.01x and du = −0.01dx. Then, divide both sides of the du equation by −0.01. This gives
−0.015
u u u −0.01
∫ e du = 1.5 ∫ e du = 1.5 e + C = 1.5 e x + C. (5.6.5)
−0.01
The next step is to solve for C. We know that when the price is $2.35 per tube, the demand is 50 tubes per week. This means
−0.01(50)
p(50) = 1.5 e + C = 2.35. (5.6.6)
Now, just solve for C:

−0.5
C = 2.35 − 1.5 e = 2.35 − 0.91 = 1.44. (5.6.7)
Thus,
−0.01x
p(x) = 1.5 e + 1.44. (5.6.8)
If the supermarket sells 100 tubes of toothpaste per week, the price would be
p(100) = 1.5e − 0.01(100) + 1.44 = 1.5e − 1 + 1.44 ≈ 1.99. (5.6.9)
The supermarket should charge $1.99 per tube if it is selling 100 tubes per week.
Example 5.6.5 : Evaluating a Definite Integral Involving an Exponential Function

Evaluate the definite integral
2
1−x
∫ e dx. (5.6.10)
1
Solution
Again, substitution is the method to use. Let u = 1 − x, so du = −1dx or −du = dx . Then ∫ e
1−x u
dx = − ∫ e du. Next,
change the limits of integration. Using the equation u = 1 − x , we have
u = 1 − (1) = 0 (5.6.11)
u = 1 − (2) = −1. (5.6.12)
The integral then becomes

2 −1 0
1−x u u 0 0 −1 −1
∫ e dx = − ∫ e du = ∫ e du = eu | =e − (e ) = −e + 1. (5.6.13)
−1
1 0 −1
See Figure.

Figure 5.6.2 : The indicated area can be calculated by evaluating a definite integral using substitution.
Exercise 5.6.4
2
Evaluate ∫ 0
e
2x
dx.
Hint
Let u = 2x.
Answer
1 4 1
u 4
∫ e du = (e − 1)
0
2 2
Example 5.6.6 : Growth of Bacteria in a Culture

Suppose the rate of growth of bacteria in a Petri dish is given by q(t) = 3 , where t is given in hours and q(t) is given in
t
thousands of bacteria per hour. If a culture starts with 10,000 bacteria, find a function Q(t) that gives the number of bacteria in
the Petri dish at any time t. How many bacteria are in the dish after 2 hours?
Solution
We have
t
3
t
Q(t) = ∫ 3 dt = + C. (5.6.14)
ln 3
1
Then, at t = 0 we have Q(0) = 10 = + C, so C ≈ 9.090 and we get
ln 3
t
3
Q(t) = + 9.090. (5.6.15)
ln 3
At time t = 2 , we have
2
3
Q(2) = + 9.090 (5.6.16)
ln 3
= 17.282. (5.6.17)
After 2 hours, there are 17,282 bacteria in the dish.
Exercise 5.6.5
From Example, suppose the bacteria grow at a rate of q(t) = 2 . Assume the culture still starts with 10,000 bacteria. Find Q(t).
t
How many bacteria are in the dish after 3 hours?
Hint
Use the procedure from Example to solve the problem
Answer
t
2
Q(t) = + 8.557. There are 20,099 bacteria in the dish after 3 hours.
ln 2

Example 5.6.7 : Fruit Fly Population Growth
Suppose a population of fruit flies increases at a rate of g(t) = 2e 0.02t
, in flies per day. If the initial population of fruit flies is
100 flies, how many flies are in the population after 10 days?
Solution
Let G(t) represent the number of flies in the population at time t. Applying the net change theorem, we have
10 0.02t
G(10) = G(0) + ∫ 2e dt
0
10
2 ∣
0.02t
= 100 + [ e ]∣
0.02 ∣
0
10
0.02t
= 100 + [100 e ]∣
∣
0
0.2
= 100 + 100 e − 100
≈ 122.
There are 122 flies in the population after 10 days.
Exercise 5.6.6
Suppose the rate of growth of the fly population is given by g(t) = e 0.01t
, and the initial fly population is 100 flies. How many
flies are in the population after 15 days?
Hint
Answer
There are 116 flies.
Example 5.6.8 : Evaluating a Definite Integral Using Substitution

Evaluate the definite integral using substitution:
2 1/x
e
∫ dx. (5.6.18)
2
1 x
Solution
This problem requires some rewriting to simplify applying the properties. First, rewrite the exponent on e as a power of x, then
bring the x in the denominator up to the numerator using a negative exponent. We have
2
2 1/x 2
e −1
x −2
∫ dx = ∫ e x dx. (5.6.19)
2
1
x 1
Let u = x −1
, the exponent on e . Then
−2
du = −x dx (5.6.20)
−2
−du = x dx. (5.6.21)
Bringing the negative sign outside the integral sign, the problem now reads
u
−∫ e du. (5.6.22)
Next, change the limits of integration:

−1
u = (1 ) =1 (5.6.23)

−1
1
u = (2 ) = . (5.6.24)
2
Notice that now the limits begin with the larger number, meaning we must multiply by −1 and interchange the limits. Thus,
1/2 1
u u u 1 1/2
−∫ e du = ∫ e du = e | = e−e = e − √e. (5.6.25)
1/2
1 1/2
Exercise 5.6.7
Evaluate the definite integral using substitution:
2
1 −2
4x
∫ e dx. (5.6.26)
3
1 x
Hint
Let u = 4x −2
.
Answer
2
1 −2 1
4x 4
∫ e dx = [e − e] (5.6.27)
3
1 x 8
Integrals Involving Logarithmic Functions

Integrating functions of the form f (x) = x result in the absolute value of the natural log function, as shown in the following
−1
rule. Integral formulas for other logarithmic functions, such as f (x) = ln x and f (x) = log x, are also included in the rule. a
Rule: Integration Formulas Involving Logarithmic Functions

The following formulas can be used to evaluate integrals involving logarithmic functions.
−1
∫ x dx = ln |x| + C (5.6.28)
∫ ln x dx = x ln x − x + C = x(ln x − 1) + C (5.6.29)
x
∫ loga x dx = (ln x − 1) + C (5.6.30)
ln a
Example 5.6.9 : Finding an Antiderivative Involving ln x

Find the antiderivative of the function
3
. (5.6.31)
x − 10
Solution
First factor the 3 outside the integral symbol. Then use the u −1
rule. Thus,
3 1 du
∫ dx = 3 ∫ dx = 3 ∫ = 3 ln |u| + C = 3 ln |x − 10| + C , x ≠ 10. (5.6.32)
x − 10 x − 10 u
See Figure.

Figure 5.6.3 : The domain of this function is x ≠ 10.
Exercise 5.6.8
Find the antiderivative of
1
. (5.6.33)
x +2
Hint
Follow the pattern from Example to solve the problem.
Answer
ln |x + 2| + C (5.6.34)
Example 5.6.10 : Finding an Antiderivative of a Rational Function

Find the antiderivative of
3
2x + 3x
. (5.6.35)
4 2
x + 3x
Solution
This can be rewritten as ∫ (2x 3
+ 3x)(x
4
+ 3x )
2 −1
dx. Use substitution. Let u = x 4
+ 3x
2
, then du = 4x 3
+ 6x. Alter du by
factoring out the 2. Thus,
3 3
du = (4 x + 6x)dx = 2(2 x + 3x)dx (5.6.36)
1 3
du = (2 x + 3x)dx. (5.6.37)
2
Rewrite the integrand in u:
3 4 2 −1
1 −1
∫ (2 x + 3x)(x + 3x ) dx = ∫ u du. (5.6.38)
2
Then we have
1 −1
1 1 4 2
∫ u du = ln |u| + C = ln ∣ x + 3x ∣ +C . (5.6.39)
2 2 2
Example 5.6.11 : Finding an Antiderivative of a Logarithmic Function

Find the antiderivative of the log function \[log_2x.\)
Solution
Follow the format in the formula listed in the rule on integration formulas involving logarithmic functions. Based on this format,
we have

x
∫ log2 xdx = (ln x − 1) + C . (5.6.40)
ln 2
Exercise 5.6.9
Find the antiderivative of log 3x .
Hint
Follow Example and refer to the rule on integration formulas involving logarithmic functions.
Answer
x
(ln x − 1) + C (5.6.41)
ln 3
Example is a definite integral of a trigonometric function. With trigonometric functions, we often have to apply a trigonometric
property or an identity before we can move forward. Finding the right form of the integrand is usually the key to a smooth
integration.
Example 5.6.12 : Evaluating a Definite Integral

Find the definite integral of
π/2
sin x
∫ dx. (5.6.42)
0 1 + cos x
Solution
We need substitution to evaluate this problem. Let u = 1 + cos x so du = − sin x dx. Rewrite the integral in terms of u,
changing the limits of integration as well. Thus,
u = 1 + cos(0) = 2 (5.6.43)
π
u = 1 + cos( ) = 1. (5.6.44)
2
Then
π/2 1 2
sin x −1 −1 2
∫ = −∫ +2 u du = ∫ u du = ln |u |1 = [ln 2 − ln 1] = ln 2 (5.6.45)
0 1 + cos x 1
Key Concepts
Exponential and logarithmic functions arise in many real-world applications, especially those involving growth and
decay.
Substitution is often used to evaluate integrals involving exponential functions or logarithms.
Key Equations
Integrals of Exponential Functions
x x
∫ e dx = e +C
x
a
x
∫ a dx = +C
ln a
Integration Formulas Involving Logarithmic Functions

−1
∫ x dx = ln |x| + C
∫ ln xdx = x ln x − x + C = x(ln x − 1) + C
x
∫ loga xdx = (ln x − 1) + C
ln a

Contributors
This page titled 5.6: More U-Substitution - Exponential and Logarithmic Functions is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license and was
authored, remixed, and/or curated by OpenStax.

5.6 Notes
Section 5.5 & section 5.6 are both on U-Substitution.
The exercises for sections 5.4 & 5.7 are just a handful.
All of sections of Chapter 5 are: section 5.1 through section 5.7.
Glossary
integration



Contributors
This page titled 5.6 Notes is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by OpenStax.
Access for free at OpenStax 1 https://math.libretexts.org/@go/page/13918

5.7: Net Change
In this section, we use some basic integration formulas studied previously to solve some key applied problems. It is important to
note that these formulas are presented in terms of indefinite integrals. Although definite and indefinite integrals are closely related,
there are some key differences to keep in mind. A definite integral is either a number (when the limits of integration are constants)
or a single function (when one or both of the limits of integration are variables). An indefinite integral represents a family of
functions, all of which differ by a constant. As you become more familiar with integration, you will get a feel for when to use
definite integrals and when to use indefinite integrals. You will naturally select the correct approach for a given problem without
thinking too much about it. However, until these concepts are cemented in your mind, think carefully about whether you need a
definite integral or an indefinite integral and make sure you are using the proper notation based on your choice.
Basic Integration Formulas

Recall the integration formulas given in [link] and the rule on properties of definite integrals. Let’s look at a few examples of how
to apply these rules.
Example 5.7.1 : Integrating a Function Using the Power Rule

4
Use the power rule to integrate the function ∫ 1
√t(1 + t)dt .
Solution
The first step is to rewrite the function and simplify it so we can apply the power rule:
4 4 4
1/2 1/2 3/2
∫ √t(1 + t)dt = ∫ t (1 + t)dt = ∫ (t +t )dt. (5.7.1)
1 1 1
Now apply the power rule:

4
4
2 2 ∣
1/2 3/2 3/2 5/2
∫ (t +t )dt = ( t + t )∣ (5.7.2)
1 3 5 ∣
1
2 3/2
2 5/2
2 3/2
2 5/2
256
=[ (4 ) + (4 ) ] −[ (1 ) + (1 ) ] = . (5.7.3)
3 5 3 5 15
Exercise 5.7.1
Find the definite integral of f (x) = x 2
− 3x over the interval [1, 3].
Hint
Follow the process from Example to solve the problem.
Answer
10
− (5.7.4)
3
The Net Change Theorem

The net change theorem considers the integral of a rate of change. It says that when a quantity changes, the new value equals the
initial value plus the integral of the rate of change of that quantity. The formula can be expressed in two ways. The second is more
familiar; it is simply the definite integral.
Net Change Theorem
The new value of a changing quantity equals the initial value plus the integral of the rate of change:
b
′
F (b) = F (a) + ∫ F (x)dx (5.7.5)
a
or

b
′
∫ F (x)dx = F (b) − F (a). (5.7.6)
a
Subtracting F (a) from both sides of the first equation yields the second equation. Since they are equivalent formulas, which one
we use depends on the application.
The significance of the net change theorem lies in the results. Net change can be applied to area, distance, and volume, to name
only a few applications. Net change accounts for negative quantities automatically without having to write more than one integral.
To illustrate, let’s apply the net change theorem to a velocity function in which the result is displacement.
We looked at a simple example of this in The Definite Integral. Suppose a car is moving due north (the positive direction) at 40
mph between 2 p.m. and 4 p.m., then the car moves south at 30 mph between 4 p.m. and 5 p.m. We can graph this motion as shown
in Figure.
Figure 5.7.1 : The graph shows speed versus time for the given motion of a car.
Just as we did before, we can use definite integrals to calculate the net displacement as well as the total distance traveled. The net
displacement is given by
5 4 5
∫ v(t)dt = ∫ 40dt + ∫ −30dt = 80 − 30 = 50. (5.7.7)

2 2 4
Thus, at 5 p.m. the car is 50 mi north of its starting position. The total distance traveled is given by
5 4 5
∫ |v(t)|dt = ∫ 40dt + ∫ 30dt = 80 + 30 = 110. (5.7.8)

2 2 4
Therefore, between 2 p.m. and 5 p.m., the car traveled a total of 110 mi.
To summarize, net displacement may include both positive and negative values. In other words, the velocity function accounts for
both forward distance and backward distance. To find net displacement, integrate the velocity function over the interval. Total
distance traveled, on the other hand, is always positive. To find the total distance traveled by an object, regardless of direction, we
need to integrate the absolute value of the velocity function.
Example 5.7.2 : Finding Net Displacement

Given a velocity function v(t) = 3t − 5 (in meters per second) for a particle in motion from time t = 0 to time t = 3, find the
net displacement of the particle.
Solution
Applying the net change theorem, we have
3 2 2
3t 3(3) 27 27 30 3
3
∫ (3t − 5)dt = − 5t ∣ = [ − 5(3)] − 0 = − 15 = − =− . (5.7.9)
0
0
2 2 2 2 2 2
The net displacement is − m (Figure).

3

Figure 5.7.2 : The graph shows velocity versus time for a particle moving with a linear velocity function.
Example 5.7.3 : Finding the Total Distance Traveled

Use Example to find the total distance traveled by a particle according to the velocity function v(t) = 3t − 5 m/sec over a time
interval [0, 3].
Solution
The total distance traveled includes both the positive and the negative values. Therefore, we must integrate the absolute value of
the velocity function to find the total distance traveled.
To continue with the example, use two integrals to find the total distance. First, find the t-intercept of the function, since that is
where the division of the interval occurs. Set the equation equal to zero and solve for t. Thus,
3t − 5 = 0
3t = 5
5
t = .
3
The two subintervals are [0, ] and [ , 3]. To find the total distance traveled, integrate the absolute value of the function. Since
5
3
5
the function is negative over the interval [0, ], we have |v(t)| = −v(t) over that interval. Over [ , 3], the function is positive,
5
3
5
so |v(t)| = v(t) . Thus, we have

3 5/3 3
∫ |v(t)|dt = ∫ −v(t)dt + ∫ v(t)dt
0 0 5/3
5/3 3
=∫ 5 − 3tdt + ∫ 3t − 5dt
0 5/3
2 2
3
3t 5/3 3t ∣
= (5t − ) ∣ +( − 5t)
2 0 2 ∣
5/3
2 2
5 3(5/3) 27 3(5/3) 25
= [5( )− ] −0 +[ − 15] − [ − ]
3 2 2 2 3
=
25
3
−
25
6
+
27
2
− 15 −
25
6
+
25
3
=
41
6
.
So, the total distance traveled is 14
6
m.
Exercise 5.7.2
Find the net displacement and total distance traveled in meters given the velocity function f (t) =
1
2
t
e −2 over the interval
[0, 2].
Hint
Follow the procedures from Example and Example. Note that f (t) ≤ 0 for t ≤ ln4 and f (t) ≥ 0 for t ≥ ln4 .

Answer
2 2
e −9
Net displacement: 2
≈ −0.8055m; total distance traveled: 4ln4 − 7.5 + e
2
≈ 1.740m
Applying the Net Change Theorem

The net change theorem can be applied to the flow and consumption of fluids, as shown in Example.
Example 5.7.4 : How Many Gallons of Gasoline Are Consumed?

If the motor on a motorboat is started at t = 0 and the boat consumes gasoline at the rate of 5 − t gal/hr, how much gasoline is 3
used in the first 2 hours?

Solution
Express the problem as a definite integral, integrate, and evaluate using the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus. The limits of
integration are the endpoints of the interval [0,2]. We have
2 4 4
t (2) 16
3 2
∫ (5 − t )dt = (5t − ) ∣ = [5(2) − ] − 0 = 10 − = 6. (5.7.10)
0
0
4 4 4
Thus, the motorboat uses 6 gal of gas in 2 hours.
Example 5.7.5 : Chapter Opener: Iceboats

As we saw at the beginning of the chapter, top iceboat racers can attain speeds of up to five times the wind speed. Andrew is an
intermediate iceboater, though, so he attains speeds equal to only twice the wind speed.
Figure 5.7.3 : (credit: modification of work by Carter Brown, Flickr)

Suppose Andrew takes his iceboat out one morning when a light 5-mph breeze has been blowing all morning. As Andrew gets
his iceboat set up, though, the wind begins to pick up. During his first half hour of iceboating, the wind speed increases
according to the function v(t) = 20t + 5. For the second half hour of Andrew’s outing, the wind remains steady at 15 mph. In
other words, the wind speed is given by
1
20t + 5 f or0 ≤ t ≤
2
v(t) = { . (5.7.11)
1
15 f or ≤t ≤1
2
Recalling that Andrew’s iceboat travels at twice the wind speed, and assuming he moves in a straight line away from his starting
point, how far is Andrew from his starting point after 1 hour?
Solution
To figure out how far Andrew has traveled, we need to integrate his velocity, which is twice the wind speed. Then
1
Distance =∫ 0
2v(t)dt.

Substituting the expressions we were given for v(t) , we get
1 1/2 1
∫ 2v(t)dt = ∫ 2v(t)dt + ∫ 2v(t)dt
0 0 1/2
1/2 1
=∫ 2(20t + 5)dt + ∫ 2(15)dt
0 1/3
1/2 1
=∫ (40t + 10)dt + ∫ 30dt
0 1/2
2 1/2 1
= [20 t + 10t] | + [30t] |
0 1/2
20
=( + 5) − 0 + (30 − 15)
4
= 25.
Andrew is 25 mi from his starting point after 1 hour.
Exercise 5.7.3
Suppose that, instead of remaining steady during the second half hour of Andrew’s outing, the wind starts to die down according
to the function v(t) = −10t + 15. In other words, the wind speed is given by
1
20t + 5 f or0 ≤ t ≤
v(t) = {
1
2
.
−10t + 15 f or ≤t ≤1
2
Under these conditions, how far from his starting point is Andrew after 1 hour?
Hint
Don’t forget that Andrew’s iceboat moves twice as fast as the wind.
Answer
17.5mi
Integrating Even and Odd Functions

We saw in Functions and Graphs that an even function is a function in which f (−x) = f (x) for all x in the domain—that is, the
graph of the curve is unchanged when x is replaced with −x. The graphs of even functions are symmetric about the y-axis. An odd
function is one in which f (−x) = −f (x) for all x in the domain, and the graph of the function is symmetric about the origin.
Integrals of even functions, when the limits of integration are from −a to a, involve two equal areas, because they are symmetric
about the y-axis. Integrals of odd functions, when the limits of integration are similarly [−a, a], evaluate to zero because the areas
above and below the x-axis are equal.
Rule: Integrals of Even and Odd Functions
For continuous even functions such that f (−x) = f (x),
a a
∫ f (x)dx = 2 ∫ f (x)dx. (5.7.12)

−a 0
For continuous odd functions such that f (−x) = −f (x),

a
∫ f (x)dx = 0. (5.7.13)
−a
Example 5.7.6 : Integrating an Even Function

2
Integrate the even function ∫ −2
(3 x
8
− 2)dx and verify that the integration formula for even functions holds.
Solution
The symmetry appears in the graphs in Figure. Graph (a) shows the region below the curve and above the x-axis. We have to
zoom in to this graph by a huge amount to see the region. Graph (b) shows the region above the curve and below the x-axis. The

signed area of this region is negative. Both views illustrate the symmetry about the y-axis of an even function. We have
9 2
2 8 x
∫ (3 x − 2)dx = ( − 2x)∣
−2 3 ∣−2
9 9
(2) (−2)
=[ − 2(2)] − [ − 2(−2)]
3 3
512 512
=( − 4) − (− + 4)
3 3
=
1000
3
.
To verify the integration formula for even functions, we can calculate the integral from 0 to 2 and double it, then check to make
sure we get the same answer.
2 9
8
x 512 500
2
∫ (3 x − 2)dx = ( − 2x) ∣ = −4 = (5.7.14)
0
0
3 3 3
Since 2 ⋅ 500
3
=
1000
3
, we have verified the formula for even functions in this particular example.
Figure 5.7.4 : Graph (a) shows the positive area between the curve and the x-axis, whereas graph (b) shows the negative area
between the curve and the x-axis. Both views show the symmetry about the y-axis.
Example 5.7.7 : Integrating an Odd Function

Evaluate the definite integral of the odd function −5sinx over the interval [−π, π].
Solution
The graph is shown in Figure. We can see the symmetry about the origin by the positive area above the x-axis over [−π, 0], and
the negative area below the x-axis over [0, π]. we have
π
π π
∫ −5sinxdx = −5(−cosx)| = 5cosx | = [5cosπ] − [5cos(−π)] = −5 − (−5) = 0. (5.7.15)
−π −π
−π

Figure 5.7.5 :The graph shows areas between a curve and the x-axis for an odd function.
Exercise 5.7.4
2
Integrate the function ∫ −2
4
x dx.
Hint
Integrate an even function.
Answer
64
Key Concepts
The net change theorem states that when a quantity changes, the final value equals the initial value plus the integral of the rate
of change. Net change can be a positive number, a negative number, or zero.
The area under an even function over a symmetric interval can be calculated by doubling the area over the positive x-axis. For
an odd function, the integral over a symmetric interval equals zero, because half the area is negative.
Key Equations
Net Change Theorem
b b
F (b) = F (a) + ∫
a
′
F (x)dx or ∫a
′
F (x)dx = F (b) − F (a)
Glossary
net change theorem
if we know the rate of change of a quantity, the net change theorem says the future quantity is equal to the initial quantity plus
the integral of the rate of change of the quantity
Contributors
This page titled 5.7: Net Change is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by OpenStax.

5.7: Net Change Exercises
Use basic integration formulas to compute the following antiderivatives.
− 1
207) ∫ (√x − − )dx
√x
Answer:
− 1 1/2 −1/2
2 3/2 1/2+
2 3/2 1/2
∫ (√x − )dx = ∫ x dx − ∫ x dx = x + C1 − 2 x C2 = x − 2x +C
−
√x 3 3
1
208) ∫ (e
2x
− e
x/2
)dx
2
dx
209) ∫
2x
Answer:
dx 1
∫ = ln|x| + C
2x 2
x −1
210) ∫ 2
dx
x
π
211) ∫ (sinx − cosx)dx

0
Answer:
π π
π π
∫ sinxdx − ∫ cosxdx = −cosx | − (sinx)| = (−(−1) + 1) − (0 − 0) = 2
0 0
0 0
π/2
212) ∫ (x − sinx)dx
0
NET CHANGE
223) Suppose that a particle moves along a straight line with velocity v(t) = 4 − 2t, where 0 ≤ t ≤ 2 (in meters per second). Find
the displacement at time t and the total distance traveled up to t = 2.
Answer:
t
d(t) = ∫ v(s)ds = 4t − t
2
. The total distance is d(2) = 4m.
0
224) Suppose that a particle moves along a straight line with velocity defined by v(t) = t 2
− 3t − 18, where 0 ≤ t ≤ 6 (in meters
per second). Find the displacement at time t and the total distance traveled up to t = 6.
225) Suppose that a particle moves along a straight line with velocity defined by v(t) = |2t − 6|, where 0 ≤ t ≤ 6 (in meters per
second). Find the displacement at time t and the total distance traveled up to t = 6.
Answer:
t t t
d(t) = ∫ v(s)ds. For t < 3, d(t) = ∫ (6 − 2t)dt = 6t − t

2
. For t > 3, d(t) = d(3) + ∫ (2t − 6)dt = 9 + (t
2
− 6t) .
0 0 3
The total distance is d(6) = 9m.
226) Suppose that a particle moves along a straight line with acceleration defined by a(t) = t − 3, where 0 ≤ t ≤ 6 (in meters per
second). Find the velocity and displacement at time t and the total distance traveled up to t = 6 if v(0) = 3 and d(0) = 0.
227) A ball is thrown upward from a height of 1.5 m at an initial speed of 40 m/sec. Acceleration resulting from gravity is −9.8
m/sec2. Neglecting air resistance, solve for the velocity v(t) and the height h(t) of the ball t seconds after it is thrown and before it
returns to the ground.
Answer:
v(t) = 40 − 9.8t; h(t) = 1.5 + 40t − 4.9t
2
m/s
228) A ball is thrown upward from a height of 3 m at an initial speed of 60 m/sec. Acceleration resulting from gravity is
−9.8m/sec . Neglecting air resistance, solve for the velocity v(t) and the height h(t) of the ball t seconds after it is thrown and
2
before it returns to the ground.
5.7E: Net Change Exercises is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
Before we get to this crucial theorem, however, let’s examine another important theorem, the Mean Value Theorem for Integrals,
which is needed to prove the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus.
The Mean Value Theorem for Integrals

The Mean Value Theorem for Integrals states that a continuous function on a closed interval takes on its average value at the same
point in that interval. The theorem guarantees that if f (x) is continuous, a point c exists in an interval [a, b] such that the value of
the function at c is equal to the average value of f (x) over [a, b]. We state this theorem mathematically with the help of the formula
for the average value of a function that we presented at the end of the preceding section.
The Mean Value Theorem for Integrals, Part 1
If f (x) is continuous over an interval [a, b], then there is at least one point c ∈ [a, b] such that
b
1
f (c) = ∫ f (x)dx. (Xtra full 5.3.1)
b −a a
This formula can also be stated as

b
∫ f (x)dx = f (c)(b − a). (Xtra full 5.3.2)

a
Proof
Since f (x) is continuous on [a, b], by the extreme value theorem (see Maxima and Minima), it assumes minimum and
maximum values—m and M, respectively—on [a,b]. Then, for all x in [a, b], we have m ≤ f (x) ≤ M . Therefore, by the
comparison theorem (see The Definite Integral), we have
b
m(b − a) ≤ ∫ f (x)dx ≤ M (b − a). (Xtra full 5.3.3)

a
Dividing by b − a gives us
b
1
m ≤ ∫ f (x)dx ≤ M . (Xtra full 5.3.4)
b −a a
b
1
Since ∫ f (x)dx is a number between m and M, and since f(x) is continuous and assumes the values m and M over
b −a a
[a, b], by the Intermediate Value Theorem (see Continuity), there is a number c over [a, b] such that
1
f (c) = ∫ ba f (x)dx, (Xtra full 5.3.5)
b −a
and the proof is complete.

□
Access for free at OpenStax Xtra full 5.3.1 https://math.libretexts.org/@go/page/13812

Example Xtraf ull5.3.1 : Finding the Average Value of a Function
Find the average value of the function f (x) = 8 − 2x over the interval [0, 4] and find c such that f (c) equals the average value
of the function over [0, 4].
Solution
The formula states the mean value of f (x) is given by
4
1
∫ (8 − 2x)dx. (Xtra full 5.3.6)
4 −0 0
We can see in Figure that the function represents a straight line and forms a right triangle bounded by the x- and y-axes. The
area of the triangle is A = (base)(height). We have
1
1
A = (4)(8) = 16. (Xtra full 5.3.7)
2
The average value is found by multiplying the area by 1/(4 − 0). Thus, the average value of the function is
1
(16) = 4 (Xtra full 5.3.8)
4
Set the average value equal to f (c) and solve for c .
8 − 2c = 4 (Xtra full 5.3.9)
c =2 (Xtra full 5.3.10)
At c = 2, f (2) = 4.
Figure Xtraf ull5.3.1: By the Mean Value Theorem, the continuous function f (x) takes on its average value at c at least
once over a closed interval.
Exercise Xtraf ull5.3.1

x
Find the average value of the function f (x) = over the interval [0, 6] and find c such that f (c) equals the average value of
2
the function over [0, 6].
Hint
Answer
Average value= 1.5; c = 3

Example Xtraf ull5.3.2 : Finding the Point Where a Function Takes on Its Average Value
3
Given ∫ 2
x dx = 9 , find c such that f (c) equals the average value of f (x) = x over [0, 3].
2
Solution
We are looking for the value of c such that
3
1 1
f (c) = ∫ x2dx = (9) = 3. (Xtra full 5.3.11)
3 −0 0
3
Replacing f (c) with c , we have

2
2
c =3 (Xtra full 5.3.12)
–
c = ±√3. (Xtra full 5.3.13)
– –
Since −√3 is outside the interval, take only the positive value. Thus, c = √3 (Figure).
–
Figure Xtraf ull5.3.2:Over the interval [0, 3], the function f (x) = x takes on its average value at c = √3 .
2

3
Given ∫ (2 x
2
− 1)dx = 15 , find c such that f (c) equals the average value of f (x) = 2x 2
−1 over [0, 3].
0
Hint
Use the procedures from Example to solve the problem.
Answer
–
c = √3

As mentioned earlier, the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus is an extremely powerful theorem that establishes the relationship
between differentiation and integration, and gives us a way to evaluate definite integrals without using Riemann sums or
calculating areas. The theorem is comprised of two parts, the first of which, the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, Part 1, is
stated here. Part 1 establishes the relationship between differentiation and integration.

x
F (x) = ∫ f (t)dt, (Xtra full 5.3.14)

a
Before we delve into the proof, a couple of subtleties are worth mentioning here. First, a comment on the notation. Note that we
have defined a function, F (x), as the definite integral of another function, f (t), from the point a to the point x. At first glance, this
is confusing, because we have said several times that a definite integral is a number, and here it looks like it’s a function. The key
here is to notice that for any particular value of x, the definite integral is a number. So the function F (x) returns a number (the
value of the definite integral) for each value of x.
Proof
Applying the definition of the derivative, we have
F (x + h) − F (x)
F '(x) = lim
h→0 h
x+h x
1
= lim [∫ f (t)dt − ∫ f (t)dt]
h→0 h a a
x+h a
1
= lim [∫ f (t)dt + ∫ f (t)dt]
h→0 h a x
x+h
1
= lim ∫ f (t)dt.
h→0 h x
x+h
1
Looking carefully at this last expression, we see ∫ f (t)dt is just the average value of the function f (x) over the interval
h x
[x, x + h] . Therefore, by Note, there is some number c in [x, x + h] such that

x+h
1
∫ f (x)dx = f (c) .
h x
In addition, since c is between x and h, c approaches x as h approaches zero. Also, since f (x) is continuous, we have
lim f (c) = lim f (c) = f (x) .
h→0 c→x
Putting all these pieces together, we have

x+h
1
F '(x) = lim ∫ f (x)dx = lim f (c) = f (x) ,
h→0 h x
h→0

□
Example Xtraf ull5.3.3 : Finding a Derivative with the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus
x
1
g(x) = ∫ dt.
3
1 t +1

1
g'(x) = .
3
x +1

r
−−−−−
√x + 4 dx .
0
Hint
Answer
−− −−−
2
g'(r) = √r + 4
Example Xtraf ull5.3.4 : Using the Fundamental Theorem and the Chain Rule to Calculate
Derivatives
√x

1
Solution
u(x)
1
−
du 1 sin√x
−1/2
F '(x) = sin(u(x)) = sin(u(x)) ⋅ ( x ) = − . (Xtra full 5.3.15)
dx 2 2 √x

3
x

1
Hint
Answer
2 3
F '(x) = 3 x cosx
Example Xtraf ull5.3.5 : Using the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus with Two Variable Limits of
Integration
2x

x
2x
x
2x 0 2x x 2x
3 3 3 3
x x 0 0 0

x
d
[− ∫
3
t dt] = −x
3
.
dx 0

2x u(x)
d 3
d 3 3 3 3
[∫ t dt] = [∫ t dt] = (u(x)) dudx = (2x ) ⋅ 2 = 16 x .
dx 0
dx 0
Thus,
x 2x
d 3
d 3 3 3 3
F '(x) = [− ∫ t dt] + [∫ t dt] = −x + 16 x = 15 x
dx 0
dx 0

x2

x
Hint
Answer
2

b
∫ f (x)dx = F (b) − F (a). (Xtra full 5.3.16)

a
b
a
Proof
F (b) − F (a) = F (xn ) − F (x0 )

n
= ∑[F (xi ) − F (xi−1 )].
i=1

i i−1 i
F (xi ) − F (xi−1 ) = F '(ci )(xi − xi−1 ) = f (ci )Δx. (Xtra full 5.3.17)

n
F (b) − F (a) = ∑ f (ci )Δx. (Xtra full 5.3.18)
i=1

\[\displaystyle F(b)−F(a)=\lim_{n→∞}\sum_{i=1}^nf(c_i)Δx=∫^b_af(x)dx.\\]
□
Example Xtraf ull5.3.6 : Evaluating an Integral with the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus
2
2
∫ (t − 4)dt. (Xtra full 5.3.19)
−2
Solution
If
n+1
n n
x
y =x ,∫ x dx = + C. (Xtra full 5.3.20)
n+1
2 3
2
t 2
∫ (t − 4)dt = − 4t| −2
−2
3
3 3
(2) (−2)
=[ − 4(2)] − [ − 4(−2)]
3 3
8 8
=( − 8) − (− + 8)
3 3
8 8 16 32
= −8 + −8 = − 16 = − .
3 3 3 3
Analysis

Figure Xtraf ull5.3.3: The evaluation of a definite integral can produce a negative value, even though area is always
positive.
Example Xtraf ull5.3.7 : Evaluating a Definite Integral Using the Fundamental Theorem of
Calculus, Part 2

9
x −1
∫ .
−
1 √x dx
9 9
x −1 x 1
∫ dx = ∫ ( − )dx.
1/2 1/2 1/2
1 x 1 x x

9 9
x 1
1/2 −1/2
∫ ( − )dx = ∫ (x −x )dx.
1/2 1/2
1 x x 1

9
9 3/2 1/2 ∣
x x
1/2 −1/2 ∣
∫ (x −x )dx = ( − )
3 1 ∣
1
2 2
∣
1
3/2 1/2 3/2 1/2

(9) (9) (1) (1)
=[ − ] −[ − ]
3 1 3 1
2 2 2 2
2 2 2 40
=[ (27) − 2(3)] − [ (1) − 2(1)] = 18 − 6 − +2 = .
3 3 3 3
See Figure.
.
Figure Xtraf ull5.3.4: The area under the curve from x = 1 to x = 9 can be calculated by evaluating a definite integral.

2

x dx.
1
Hint
Use the power rule.
Answer
7
24
Example Xtraf ull5.3.8 : A Roller-Skating Race


Solution
We need to integrate both functions over the interval [0, 5] and see which value is bigger. For James, we want to calculate

5
∫ (5 + 2t)dt. (Xtra full 5.3.21)

0

5
2 5
∫ (5 + 2t)dt = (5t + t ) ∣ = (25 + 25) = 50. (Xtra full 5.3.22)
0
0
5
π
∫ 10 + cos( t)dt. (Xtra full 5.3.23)
0
2
π

5 5
π 2 π ∣
∫ 10 + cos( t)dt = (10t + sin( t))∣ (Xtra full 5.3.24)
0
2 π 2 ∣
0
2 2
= (50 + ) − (0 − sin0) ≈ 50.6. (Xtra full 5.3.25)
π π

outcome?
Hint
Answer


Figure Xtraf ull5.3.5: Skydivers can adjust the velocity of their dive by changing the position of their body during the free
fall. (credit: Jeremy T. Lock)

Figure Xtraf ull5.3.6: The fabric panels on the arms and legs of a wingsuit work to reduce the vertical velocity of a
skydiver’s fall. (credit: Richard Schneider)
Key Concepts
Key Equations
b
1
b −a a

x
a

b
a
Glossary
integration



Contributors
This page titled Xtra full 5.3: includes Proof of The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license and was
authored, remixed, and/or curated by OpenStax.

CHAPTER OVERVIEW
professor playground
0.0 Special Symbols
2.E: Limits (Exercises)
3.3: Differentiation Rules
3.4: Product & Quotient Rules
3.9: Derivatives of Exponential and Logarithmic Functions
3.E: Derivatives (ALL Chapter 3 Exercises)
4.6: Limits at Infinity and Asymptotes
4.E: Applications of Derivatives (ALL Chap 4 Exercises)
4.E: Open Stax 4.1 - 4.5 Exercises
5.2: originalThe Definite Integral
5.3: original The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus
5.4: Original Integration Formulas and the Net Change Theorem
5.E: Integration (Exercises)
professor playground is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
1
0.0 Special Symbols
piece-wise function:
−x if x < 0
|x| = {
x if x ≥ 0
ℵ0 ℵ1
\altneg
\boldthis
~
\~
k⋅5
p ⇔ q
±
lim (3 x
3
− 2x + 7) .
x→−2
2
2x − 3x + 1 10
lim = .
x→3 5x + 4 19
x→±∞
−−−−−
f (x) = √x − 3 .
1
1
dfrac makes a bigger "display" fraction & text can insert text including a space & not italic
4
1 − cos θ
lim =0
θ→0 θ
M ≠ 0
M ≠0
y ∈ R
+
−1 ∉ Z
∃x p(x), (1)
∀x p(x), (2)

Contributors
This page titled 0.0 Special Symbols is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by OpenStax.

2.E: Limits (Exercises)
2.1: A Preview of Calculus
x y Q(x, y) msex
1.1 a. e. i.
1.01 b. f. j.
1.001 c. g. k.
1.0001 d. h. l.
Solution: a. 2.2100000; b. 2.0201000; c. 2.0020010; d. 2.0002000; e. (1.1000000, 2.2100000); f. (1.0100000, 2.0201000); g.

(1.0010000, 2.0020010); h. (1.0001000, 2.0002000); i. 2.1000000; j. 2.0100000; k. 2.0010000; l. 2.0001000
x = 1.
Solution: y = 2x
For the following exercises, points P (1, 1) and Q(x, y) are on the graph of the function f (x) = x .3
x y Q(x, y) msec
1.1 a. e. i.
1.01 b. f. j.
1.001 c. g. k.
1.0001 d. h. l.2
x = 1.
Solution: 3
For the following exercises, points P (4, 2) and Q(x, y) are on the graph of the function f (x) = √−
x.
x y Q(x, y) msec
4.1 a. e. i.
4.01 b. f. j.
4.001 c. g. k.
4.0001 d. h. l.
Solution: a. 2.0248457; b. 2.0024984; c. 2.0002500; d. 2.0000250; e. (4.1000000,2.0248457); f. (4.0100000,2.0024984); g.

(4.0010000,2.0002500); h. (4.00010000,2.0000250); i. 0.24845673; j. 0.24984395; k. 0.24998438; l. 0.24999844
2.E.1 https://math.libretexts.org/@go/page/3123
x = 4.
Solution: y = x
4
+1
For the following exercises, points P (1.5, 0) and Q(ϕ, y) are on the graph of the function \9f(ϕ)=cos(πϕ)\).
x y Q(x, y) msec
1.4 a. e. i.
1.49 b. f. j.
1.499 c. g. k.
1.4999 d. h. l.
x = 4.
Solution: $ π $
For the following exercises, points P (−1, −1) and Q(x, y) are on the graph of the function f (x) = 1
x
.
[T] Complete the following table with the appropriate values: y-coordinate of Q, the point Q(x, y), and the slope of the secant line
passing through points P and Q. Round your answer to eight significant digits.
x y Q(x, y) msec
-1.05 a. e. i.
-1.01 b. f. j.
-1.005 c. g. k.
-1.001 d. h. l.
Solution: a. −0.95238095; b. −0.99009901; c. −0.99502488; d. −0.99900100; e. (−1;.0500000,−0;.95238095); f.

(−1;.0100000,−0;.9909901); g. (−1;.0050000,−0;.99502488); h. (1.0010000,−0;.99900100); i. −0.95238095; j. −0.99009901; k.
−0.99502488; l. −0.99900100
x = −1 .
Solution: y = −x − 2
For the following exercises, the position function of a ball dropped from the top of a 200-meter tall building is given by
s(t) = 200 − 4.9t , where position s is measured in meters and time t is measured in seconds. Round your answer to eight
2
significant digits.
1) [T] Compute the average velocity of the ball over the given time intervals.
1. a. [4.99,5]
2. b. [5,5.01]
3. c. [4.999,5]
4. d. [5,5.001]
2) Use the preceding exercise to guess the instantaneous velocity of the ball at t = 5 sec.
Solution: −49 m/sec (velocity of the ball is 49 m/sec downward)
For the following exercises, consider a stone tossed into the air from ground level with an initial velocity of 15 m/sec. Its height in
meters at time t seconds is h(t) = 15t − 4.9t .
2
1) [T] Compute the average velocity of the stone over the given time intervals.
1. a. [1,1.05]
2. b. [1,1.01]
3. c. [1,1.005]
4. d. [1,1.001]
2) Use the preceding exercise to guess the instantaneous velocity of the stone at t = 1 sec.
Solution: 5.2m/sec
For the following exercises, consider a rocket shot into the air that then returns to Earth. The height of the rocket in meters is given
by h(t) = 600 + 78.4t − 4.9t , where t is measured in seconds.
2
1) [T] Compute the average velocity of the rocket over the given time intervals.
1. a. [9,9.01]
2. b. [8.99,9]
3. c. [9,9.001]
4. d. [8.999,9]
2) Use the preceding exercise to guess the instantaneous velocity of the rocket at t = 9 sec.
Solution: -9.8m/sec
3
For the following exercises, consider an athlete running a 40-m dash. The position of the athlete is given by d(t) = t
6
+ 4t , where
d is the position in meters and t is the time elapsed, measured in seconds.
1) [T] Compute the average velocity of the runner over the given time intervals.
1. a. [1.95,2.05]
2. b. [1.995,2.005]
3. c. [1.9995,2.0005]
4. d. [2,2.00001]
2) Use the preceding exercise to guess the instantaneous velocity of the runner at t = 2 sec.
Solution:6 m/sec
For the following exercises, consider the functionf (x) = |x|.
1) Sketch the graph of f over the interval [−1, 2] and shade the region above the x-axis.
2) Use the preceding exercise to find the exact value of the area between the x-axis and the graph of f over the interval [−1, 2]
using rectangles. For the rectangles, use the square units, and approximate both above and below the lines. Use geometry to find
the exact answer.
Solution: Under, 1 unit ; over: 4 unit . The exact area of the two triangles is
2 2 1
2
(1)(1) +
1
2
(2)(2) = 2.5units
2
.
−−−− −
For the following exercises, consider the function f (x) = √1 − x2 . (Hint: This is the upper half of a circle of radius 1 positioned
at (0, 0).)
2) Use the preceding exercise to find the exact area between the x-axis and the graph of f over the interval [−1, 1] using rectangles.
For the rectangles, use squares 0.4 by 0.4 units, and approximate both above and below the lines. Use geometry to find the exact
answer.
2
π(1)
Solution: Under, 0.96 unit ; over, 1.92 unit . The exact area of the semicircle with radius 1 is
2 2
2
=
π
2
2
uni t
For the following exercises, consider the function f (x) = −x 2

+1 .
2) Approximate the area of the region between the x-axis and the graph of f over the interval [−1, 1].
Solution: Approximately 1.3333333 unit 2
2.2: The Limit of a Function

1) [T] Complete the following table for the function. Round your solutions to four decimal places.
x f(x) x f(x)
0.9 a. 1.1 e.
0.99 b. 1.01 f.
0.999 c. 1.001 g.
0.9999 d. 1.0001 h.
2) What do your results in the preceding exercise indicate about the two-sided limit li m x→1 ? Explain your response.
f (x)
Solution: lim x→1 f (x) does not exist because

limx→1− f (x) = −2 ≠ limx→1+ f (x) = 2 .
For the following exercises, consider the function f (x) = (1 + x) 1/x
.
3) [T] Make a table showing the values of f for x = −0.01, −0.001, −0.0001, −0.00001 and for
x = 0.01, 0.001, 0.0001, 0.00001 . Round your solutions to five decimal places.
x f(x) \(x)\ f(x)
-0.01 a. 0.01 e.
-0.001 b. 0.001 f.
-0.0001 c. 0.0001 g.
-0.00001 d. 0.00001 h.
4) What does the table of values in the preceding exercise indicate about the function f (x) = (1 + x) 1/x
?
Solution: lim x→0 (1 + x )
1/x
= 2.7183
5) To which mathematical constant does the limit in the preceding exercise appear to be getting closer?
In the following exercises, use the given values to set up a table to evaluate the limits. Round your solutions to eight decimal
places.
6) [T] lim x→0
sin2x
x
; ±0.1, ±0.01, ±0.001, ±.0001
sin2x sin2x
x x
x x
-0.1 a. 0.1 e.
-0.01 b. 0.01 f.
-0.001 c. 0.001 g.
-0.0001 d. 0.0001 h.
Solution: a. 1.98669331; b. 1.99986667; c. 1.99999867; d. 1.99999999; e. 1.98669331; f. 1.99986667; g. 1.99999867; h.

1.99999999; li m x→0 =2
sin2x
7) [T] lim x→0

sin3x
x
± 0.1, ±0.01, ±0.001, ±0.0001
sin3x sin3x
x x
x x
-0.1 a. 0.1 e.
sin3x sin3x
x x
x x
-0.01 b. 0.01 f.
-0.001 c. 0.001 g.
-0.0001 d. 0.0001 h.
8) Use the preceding two exercises to conjecture (guess) the value of the following limit: lim x→0
sinax
x
for a, a positive real value.
Solution: lim x→0
sinax
x
=a
[T] In the following exercises, set up a table of values to find the indicated limit. Round to eight digits.
2
9) lim x→2
x −4
x2 +x−6
2 2
x −4 x −4
x x
x2 +x−6 x2 +x−6
1.9 a. 2.1 e.
1.99 b. 2.01 f.
1.999 c. 2.001 g.
1.9999 d. 2.0001 h.
10) li m x→1 (1 − 2x)
x 1 − 2x x 1 − 2x
0.9 a. 1.1 e.
0.99 b. 1.01 f.
0.999 c. 1.001 g.
0.9999 d. 1.0001 h.
Solution: a. −0.80000000; b. −0.98000000; c. −0.99800000; d. −0.99980000; e. −1.2000000; f. −1.0200000; g. −1.0020000; h.

−1.0002000; lim (1 − 2x) = −1
x→1
11) lim x→0

1−e1/x
5
5 5
x x
1−e1/x 1−e1/x
-0.1 a. 0.1 e.
-0.01 b. 0.01 f.
-0.001 c. 0.001 g.
-0.0001 d. 0.0001 h.
12) lim z→0

z
z−1
2
(z+3)
z−1 z−1
z 2 z 2
z ( z+3) z ( z+3)
-0.1 a. 0.1 e.
-0.01 b. 0.01 f.
-0.001 c. 0.001 g.
-0.0001 d. 0.0001 h.
Solution: a. −37.931934; b. −3377.9264; c. −333,777.93; d. −33,337,778; e. −29.032258; f. −3289.0365; g. −332,889.04; h.

−33,328,889 lim = −∞
x→0
z−1
z 2 (z+3)
13) lim +
t→0
cost
cost
\(t) t
0.1 a.
0.01 b.
0.001 c.
0.0001 d.
2
1−
14) lim x→2
x −4
2
x
2 2
1− 1−
x x
x x
2 2
x −4 x −4
1.9 a. 2.1 e.
1.99 b. 2.01 f.
1.999 c. 2.001 g.
1.9999 d. 2.0001 h.
Solution: a. 0.13495277; b. 0.12594300; c. 0.12509381; d. 0.12500938; e. 0.11614402; f. 0.12406794; g. 0.12490631; h.

2
1−
0.12499063; ∴ lim x→2 2
x −4
x
= 0.1250 =
1
[T] In the following exercises, set up a table of values and round to eight significant digits. Based on the table of values, make a
guess about what the limit is. Then, use a calculator to graph the function and determine the limit. Was the conjecture correct? If
not, why does the method of tables fail?
15) li m θ→0 sin(
π
θ
)
π π
θ sin( ) θ sin( )
θ θ
-0.1 a. 0.1 e.
-0.01 b. 0.01 f.
-0.001 c. 0.001 g.
-0.0001 d. 0.0001 h.
16) li m α→0
+
1
α
cos(
π
α
)
1 π
a cos( )
α α
0.1 a.
0.01 b.
0.001 c.
0.0001 d.
Solution: a. −10.00000; b. −100.00000; c. −1000.0000; d. −10,000.000; Guess: lim +

α→0
1
α
cos(
π
α
) =∞ , actual: DNE
In the following exercises, consider the graph of the functiony = f (x) shown here. Which of the statements about y = f (x) are
true and which are false? Explain why a statement is false.
1) li m x→10 f (x) = 0
2) li m x→−2
+ f (x) = 3
Solution: False; li m x→−2

+ f (x) = +∞
3) li m x→−8 f (x) = f (−8)
4) li m x→6 f (x) = 5
Solution: False; li m x→6 f (x) DNE since li m −

x→6
f (x) = 2 and li m +
x→6
f (x) = 5 .
In the following exercises, use the following graph of the function y = f (x) to find the values, if possible. Estimate when
necessary.
1) li m −
x→1
f (x)
2) li m +
x→1
f (x)
Solution: 2
3) li m x→1 f (x)
4) li m x→2 f (x)
Solution: 1
5) f (1)
necessary.
1) li m −
x→0
f (x)
Solution: 1
2) li m +
x→0
f (x)
3) li m x→0 f (x)
Solution: DNE
4) li m x→2 f (x)
necessary.
1) li m x→−2
− f (x)
Solution: 0
2) li m x→−2
+ f (x)
3) li m x→−2 f (x)
Solution: DNE
4) li m x→2
− f (x)
5) li m x→2
+ f (x)
Solution: 2
6) li m x→ f (x)
In the following exercises, use the graph of the function y = g(x) shown here to find the values, if possible. Estimate when
necessary.
1) li m x→0
− g(x)
Solution: 3
2) li m x→0
+ g(x)
3) li m x→0 g(x)
Solution: DNE
In the following exercises, use the graph of the function y = h(x) shown here to find the values, if possible. Estimate when
necessary.
1) li m −
x→0
h(x)
2) li m +
x→0
h(x)
Solution: 0
3) li m x→0 h(x)
necessary.
1) li m −
x→0
f (x)
Solution: −2
2) li m +
x→0
f (x)
3) li m x→0 f (x)
Solution: DNE
4) li m x→1 f (x)
5) li m x→2 f (x)
Solution: 0
In the following exercises, sketch the graph of a function with the given properties.
1) li m x→2 f (x) = 1, li mx→4− f (x) = 3, li mx→4+ f (x) = 6, x = 4 is not defined.
2) li m x→−∞ f (x) = 0, li mx→−1− f (x) = −∞, li mx→−1+ f (x) = ∞, li mx→0 f (x) = f (0), f (0) = 1, li mx→∞ f (x) = −∞
Solution: Answer may vary
3) li m x→−∞ f (x) = 2, li mx→3− f (x) = −∞, li mx→3+ f (x) = ∞, li mx→∞ f (x) = 2, f (0) =
−1
4) limx → −∞f (x) = 2, limx → −2f (x) = −∞, limx → ∞f (x) = 2, f (0) = 0
Solution: Answer may vary
5) li m x→−∞ f (x) = 0, li mx→−1− f (x) = ∞, li mx→−1+ f (x) = −∞, f (0) = −1, li mx→1− f (x) = −∞, li mx→1+ f (x) =
∞, li mx→∞ f (x) = 0
6) Shock waves arise in many physical applications, ranging from supernovas to detonation waves. A graph of the density of a
shock wave with respect to distance, x, is shown here. We are mainly interested in the location of the front of the shock, labeled
xSF in the diagram.
a. Evaluate li m x→x
+
SF
.
ρ(x)
b. Evaluate li m x→x
−
SF
.
ρ(x)
c. Evaluate li m x→xSF . Explain the physical meanings behind your answers.

ρ(x)
Solution: a. ρ b. ρ c. DNE unless ρ = ρ . As you approach xSF from the right, you are in the high-density area of the shock.
2 1 1 2
When you approach from the left, you have not experienced the “shock” yet and are at a lower density.
7) A track coach uses a camera with a fast shutter to estimate the position of a runner with respect to time. A table of the values of
position of the athlete versus time is given here, where x is the position in meters of the runner and t is time in seconds. What is
li mt→2 x(t)? What does it mean physically?
t(sec) x(m)
1.75 4.5
1.95 6.1
1.99 6.42
2.01 6.58
2.05 6.9
2.25 8.5
2.3: The Limit Laws

1) li m x→0 (4 x
2
− 2x + 3)
Solution: Use constant multiple law and difference law:

2 2
li mx→0 (4 x − 2x + 3) = 4li mx→0 x − 2li mx→0 x + li mx→0 3 = 3
3 2
2) lim x→1
x +3 x +5
4−7x
−−−−−−−− −
3) lim x→−2
√x2 − 6x + 3
−−−−−−−− − −−−−−−−−−−−−−−−− − −−
Solution: Use root law: li m x→−2
√x2 − 6x + 3 = √li m
x→−2 (x2 − 6x + 3) =
√19
4) li m x→−1 (9x + 1 )
2

5) li m x→7 x )
2
Solution: 49
6) li m x→−2 (4 x
2
− 1)
7) lim x→0
1+sinx
1
Solution: 1
2
8) lim x→2 e
2x−x
9) lim x→1
2−7x
x+6
Solution: − 5
10) li m x→3 lne

3x
limit.
2
11) lim x→4

x −16
x−4
2 2
x −16 16−16 x −16 (x+4)(x−4)
Solution:li m x→4
x−4
=
4−4
=
0
0
; then, li mx→4
x−4
= li mx→4
x−4
=8
12) lim x→2

x−2
2
x −2x
13) lim x→6

3x−18
2x−12
3x−18 18−18 3x−18 3(x−6)

2x−12
=
12−12
=
0
0
; then, li mx→6
2x−12
= li mx→6
2(x−6)
=
3
2
(1+h) −1
14) lim h→0
h
15) lim t→9

t−9
√t−3
√t+3
t−9
=
9−9
3−3
=
0
0
; then, li mt→9
t−9
= li mt→9
t−9
= li mt→9 (√t + 3) = 6
√t−3 √t−3 √t−3 √t+3
1 1
−

a +h a
h→0
h
17) lim θ→π

sinθ
tanθ
Solution: li m θ→π
sinθ
tanθ
=
sinπ
tanπ
=
0
0
; then, li mθ→π
sinθ
tanθ
= li mθ→π
sinθ
sinθ
= li mθ→π cosθ = −1
cosθ
18) lim x→1

x −1
x −1
2
2
2 x +3x−2
19) lim x→1/2
2x−1
1 3
2 + −2 2
Solution: li m x→1/2
2 x +3x−2
2x−1
=
2
1−1
2
=
0
0
; then, li mx→1/2
2 x +3x−2
2x−1
= li mx→1/2 f rac(2x − 1)(x + 2)2x − 1 =
5
√x+4 −1
20) lim x→−3
x+3
2
21) lim x→−2

−
2 x +7x−4
x +x−2
2
Solution: −∞
2
22) lim x→−2

+
2 x +7x−4
x +x−2
2
23) lim x→1

−
2 x +7x−4
2
x +x−2
Solution: −∞
2
24) lim x→1

+
2 x +7x−4
2
x +x−2
In the following exercises, assume that li mx→6 f (x) = 4, li mx→6 g(x) = 9 , and . Use these three facts and the
li mx→6 h(x) = 6
limit laws to evaluate each limit

25) li m x→6 2f (x)g(x)
Solution: li m x→6 2f (x)g(x) = 2li mx→6 f (x)li mx→6 g(x) = 72
g(x)−1
26) lim x→6
f (x)
27) li m x→6 (f (x) +

1
3
g(x))
Solution: li m x→6 (f (x) +

1
3
g(x)) = li mx→6 f (x) +
1
3
li mx→6 g(x) = 7 \
3
(h(x))
28) lim x→6
2
−−−−−−−− −
29) lim x→6 √g(x) − f (x)
−−−−−−−− − −−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−− − –
Solution: li m x→6 √g(x) − f (x) = √li mx→6 g(x) − li mx→6 f (x) = √5
30) li m x→6 x ⋅ h(x)
31) li m x→6 [(x + 1) ⋅ f (x)]
Solution: li m x→6 [(x + 1)f (x)] = (li mx→6 (x + 1))(li mx→6 f (x)) = 28
32) li m x→6 (f (x) ⋅ g(x) − h(x))
[T] In the following exercises, use a calculator to draw the graph of each piecewise-defined function and study the graph to
evaluate the given limits.
x2 x ≤ 3,
33) f (x) = {
x +4 x >3
1. a. li m x→3
− f (x)
2. b. li m x→3
+ f (x)
Solution:
a. 9; b. 7
3
x −1 x ≤0
34) g(x) = {
1 x >0
1. a. li m x→0
− g(x)
2. b. li m x→0
+ g(x)
2
x − 2x + 1 x < 2x ≥ 2
35) h(x) = {
3 −x x ≥2
1. a. li m x→2
− h(x)
2. b. li m x→2
+ h(x)
36) li m x→−3
+ (f (x) + g(x))
37) li m x→−3
− (f (x) − 3g(x))
− (f (x) − 3g(x)) = li mx→−3− f (x) − 3li mx→−3− g(x) = 0 + 6 = 6
f (x)g(x)
38) lim x→0
3
2+g(x)
39) lim x→−5
f (x)
2+g(x) 2+(limx→ −5 g(x))

f (x)
=
limx→ −5 f (x)
=
2+0
2
=1
40) li m x→1 (f (x))

2
−−−−−−−− −
41) limx→1 √f (x) − g(x)
−−−−−−−− − −−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−− − 3 −−−− 3 –

3 3
√f (x) − g(x) = √li mx→1 f (x) − li mx→1 g(x) = √2 + 5 = √7
42) li m x→−7 (x ⋅ g(x))
43) li m x→−9 [x ⋅ f (x) + 2 ⋅ g(x)]
Solution: li m x→−9 (xf (x) + 2g(x)) = (li mx→−9 x)(li mx→−9 f (x)) + 2li mx→−9 (g(x)) = (−9)(6) + 2(4) = −46
h(x) when possible.

− 2x + 3 , then li m x→2 g(x) = 0 .
45) [T] \(lim_{θ→0}θ^2cos(\frac{1}{θ})
Solution: The limit is zero.
0 xrational
46) li m x→0 , where f (x) = {
f (x)
2
x xirrrational
q
2
4πε0r
8.988 × 109N ⋅ m / C .
2 2
.
b. Evaluate li m r→0
+ E(r) . What is the physical meaning of this quantity? Is it physically relevant? Why are you evaluating
from the right?
Solution: a
kg (m = 8 ).
b. Evaluate li m +
x→0
V (ρ) and explain the physical meaning.
2.4: Continuity
For the following exercises, determine the point(s), if any, at which each function is discontinuous. Classify any discontinuity as
jump, removable, infinite, or other.
1) f (x) = √x
1
Solution: The function is defined for all x in the interval (0, ∞).
2) f (x) = x +1
2
2
3) f (x) = x −x
2
x
Solution: Removable discontinuity at x = 0 ; infinite discontinuity at x = 1

4) g(t) = t −1
+1
5) f (x) = e −2
5
x
Solution: Infinite discontinuity at x = ln2

|x−2|
6) f (x) = x−2
7) H (x) = tan2x
(2k+1)π
Solution: Infinite discontinuities at x = 4
, for k = 0, ±1, ±2, ±3, …
8) f (t) = 2
t+3
t +5t+6
For the following exercises, decide if the function continuous at the given point. If it is discontinuous, what type of discontinuity is
it?
2
2 x −5x+3
9) x−1
at x = 1
Solution: No. It is a removable discontinuity.
sinθ−cosθ
10) h(θ) = tanθ
at θ = π
2
6 u +u−2
if u ≠ 12
11) g(u) = { 7
2u−1
, at u = 1
2
if u = 12
2
Solution: Yes. It is continuous.

sin(πy)
12) f (y) = tan(πy)
, at y = 1
2 x
x −e if x < 0
13) f (x) = { , at x = 0
x −1 if x ≥ 0
Solution: Yes. It is continuous.

xsin(x) if x ≤ π
14) f (x) = { , at x = π
xtan(x) if x > π
In the following exercises, find the value(s) of k that makes each function continuous over the given interval.
3x + 2 x <k
15) f (x) = {
2x − 3 k ≤x ≤8
k = −5
π
sinθ 0 ≤θ <
16) f (θ) = { π
2
cos(θ + k) ≤θ ≤π
2
2
x +3x+2
x ≠ −2
17) f (x) = { x+2
k x = −2
Solution: k=−1
kx
e 0 ≤x <4
18) f (x) = {
x +3 4 ≤x ≤8
−−
√kx 0 ≤x ≤3
19) f (x) = {
x +1 3 < x ≤ 10
Solution: k = 16
In the following exercises, use the Intermediate Value Theorem (IVT).

2
3x −4 x ≤2
20) Let h(x) = { Over the interval [0, 4], there is no value of x such that h(x) = 10 , although h(0) < 10 and
5 + 4x x >2
h(4) > 10 . Explain why this does not contradict the IVT.
21) A particle moving along a line has at each time t a position function s(t), which is continuous. Assume s(2) = 5 and s(5) = 2 .
Another particle moves such that its position is given by h(t) = s(t) − t . Explain why there must be a value c for 2 < c < 5 such
that h(c) = 0 .
Solution:Since both s and y = t are continuous everywhere, then h(t) = s(t) − t is continuous everywhere and, in particular, it is
continuous over the closed interval [2, 5]. Also, h(2) = 3 > 0 and h(5) = −3 < 0 . Therefore, by the IVT, there is a value x = c
such that h(c) = 0 .
22) [T] Use the statement “The cosine of t is equal to t cubed."
a. Write a mathematical equation of the statement.
b. Prove that the equation in part a. has at least one real solution.
c. Use a calculator to find an interval of length 0.01 that contains a solution.
23) Apply the IVT to determine whether 2
x
=x
3
has a solution in one of the intervals [1.25, 1.375] or [1.375, 1.5]. Briefly
explain your response for each interval.
Solution: The function f (x) = 2 x 3
−x is continuous over the interval [1.25, 1.375] and has opposite signs at the endpoints.
24) Consider the graph of the function y = f (x) shown in the following graph.
a. Find all values for which the function is discontinuous.

b. For each value in part a., state why the formal definition of continuity does not apply.
c. Classify each discontinuity as either jump, removable, or infinite.
3x x >1
25) Let f (x) = { 3
.
x x <1

b. Is it possible to find a value k such that f (1) = k , which makes f (x) continuous for all real numbers? Briefly explain.
Solution:
a.
b. It is not possible to redefine f (1) since the discontinuity is a jump discontinuity.

4
26) Let f (x) = x −1

2
x −1
for x ≠ −1, 1.

b. Is it possible to find values k1 and k2 such that f (−1) = k and f (1) = k2 , and that makes f (x) continuous for all real
numbers? Briefly explain.
27) Sketch the graph of the function y = f (x) with properties i. through vii.
1. i. The domain of f is (−∞, +∞).
2. ii. f has an infinite discontinuity at x = −6 .
3. iii. f (−6) = 3
4. iv. li mx→−3
− f (x) = li m x→−3
+ f (x) = 2
5. v. f (−3) = 3
6. vi. f is left continuous but not right continuous at x = 3 .
7. vii. li m
x→−∞ f (x) = −∞ and li m x→+∞ f (x) = +∞
Solution: Answers may vary; see the following example:
28) Sketch the graph of the function y = f (x) with properties i. through iv.
1. i. The domain of f is [0, 5].
2. ii. li m
x→1
f (x) and li m
+ f (x) exist and are equal.
x→1
−
3. iii. f (x) is left continuous but not continuous at x = 2 , and right continuous but not continuous at x = 3 .
4. iv. f (x) has a removable discontinuity at x = 1 , a jump discontinuity at x = 2 , and the following limits hold:
li mx→3
−f (x) = −∞ and li m f (x) = 2 .
x→3
+
In the following exercises, suppose y = f (x) is defined for all x. For each description, sketch a graph with the indicated property.
29) Discontinuous at x = 1 with li m x→−1 f (x) = −1 and li m x→2 f (x) = 4
Solution: Answers may vary; see the following example:
30) Discontinuous at x = 2 but continuous elsewhere with li m x→0 f (x) =

1
Determine whether each of the given statements is true. Justify your response with an explanation or counterexample.
31) f (t) = e −e
t
2
−t
is continuous everywhere.
Solution: False. It is continuous over (−∞, 0) ∪ (0, ∞).

32) If the left- and right-hand limits of f (x) as x → a exist and are equal, then f cannot be discontinuous at x = a .
33) If a function is not continuous at a point, then it is not defined at that point.
x if x ≠ 0
Solution: False. Consider f (x) = { .
4 if x = 0
34) According to the IVT, cosx − sinx − x = 2 has a solution over the interval [−1, 1].
35) If f (x) is continuous such that f (a) and f (b) have opposite signs, then f (x) = 0 has exactly one solution in [a, b].
Solution: False. Consider f (x) = cos(x) on [−π, 2π].
2
x −4x+3
36) The function f (x) = 2
x −1
is continuous over the interval [0, 3].
37) If f (x) is continuous everywhere and f (a), f (b) > 0 , then there is no root of f (x) in the interval [a, b].
Solution: False. The IVT does not work in reverse! Consider (x − 1) over the interval [−2, 2]. 2
[T] The following problems consider the scalar form of Coulomb’s law, which describes the electrostatic force between two point
| q1 q2 |
charges, such as electrons. It is given by the equation F (r) = k , where k is Coulomb’s constant,
e
r
2 e qi are the magnitudes of
the charges of the two particles, and r is the distance between the two particles.
38) To simplify the calculation of a model with many interacting particles, after some threshold value r = R , we approximate F as
zero.
a. Explain the physical reasoning behind this assumption.
b. What is the force equation?
c. Evaluate the force F using both Coulomb’s law and our approximation, assuming two protons with a charge magnitude of
1.6022 × 10 coulombs (C), and the Coulomb constant k = 8.988 × 10 N m /C are 1 m apart. Also, assume
−19
e
9 2 2
R < 1m . How much inaccuracy does our approximation generate? Is our approximation reasonable?
d. Is there any finite value of R for which this system remains continuous at R?
39) Instead of making the force 0 at R, instead we let the force be 10−20 for r ≥ R . Assume two protons, which have a magnitude
of charge 1.6022 × 10 C, and the Coulomb constant k = 8.988 × 10 N m /C . Is there a value R that can make this system
−19
e
9 2 2
continuous? If so, find it.

Solution: R = 0.0001519m
Recall the discussion on spacecraft from the chapter opener. The following problems consider a rocket launch from Earth’s surface.
The force of gravity on the rocket is given by F (d) = −mk/d , where m is the mass of the rocket, d is the distance of the rocket
2
from the center of Earth, and k is a constant.

40) [T] Determine the value and units of k given that the mass of the rocket on Earth is 3 million kg. (Hint: The distance from the
center of Earth to its surface is 6378 km.)
41) [T] After a certain distance D has passed, the gravitational effect of Earth becomes quite negligible, so we can approximate the
mk
− if d < D
force function by F (d) = { d
2
. Find the necessary condition D such that the force function remains continuous.
10, 000 if d ≥ D
Solution: D = 63.78km
42) As the rocket travels away from Earth’s surface, there is a distance D where the rocket sheds some of its mass, since it no
m1 k
⎧− if d < D
2
longer needs the excess fuel storage. We can write this function as F (d) = ⎨ d
m2 k
. Is there a D value such that this
⎩
− 2
if d ≥ D
d
function is continuous, assuming m 1 ≠ m2 ?
Prove the following functions are continuous everywhere

43) f (θ) = sinθ
Solution: For all values of a , f (a) is defined, li mθ→a f (θ) exists, and li mθ→a f (θ) = f (a) . Therefore, f (θ) is continuous
everywhere.
44) g(x) = |x|
45) Where is f (x) = { continuous?
1 if x is rational
Solution: Nowhere

In the following exercises, write the appropriate ε − δ definition for each of the given statements.
1) li m x→a f (x) = N
2) li m t→b g(t) = M
Solution: For every ε > 0 , there exists a δ > 0 , so that if 0 < |t − b| < δ , then |g(t) − M | < ε
3) li m x→c h(x) = L
4) li m x→a φ(x) = A
Solution: For every ε > 0 , there exists a δ > 0 , so that if 0 < |x − a| < δ , then |φ(x) − A| < ε
The following graph of the function f satisfies li mx→2 f (x) = 2 . In the following exercises, determine a value of δ >0 that
satisfies each statement.
5) If 0 < |x − 2| < δ , then |f (x) − 2| < 1 .
6) If 0 < |x − 2| < δ , then |f (x) − 2| < 0.5 .
Solution: δ ≤ 0.25
The following graph of the function f satisfies li mx→3 f (x) = −1 . In the following exercises, determine a value of δ >0 that
satisfies each statement.
7) If 0 < |x − 3| < δ , then |f (x) + 1| < 1 .

8) If 0 < |x − 3| < δ , then |f (x) + 1| < 2 .
Solution: δ ≤ 2
The following graph of the function f satisfies li m x→3 f (x) = 2. In the following exercises, for each value of ε, find a value of
δ > 0 such that the precise definition of limit holds true.
9) ε = 1.5
10) ε = 3
Solution: δ ≤ 1
[T] In the following exercises, use a graphing calculator to find a number δ such that the statements hold true.
11) ∣∣sin(2x) − 1
2
∣< 0.1 , whenever ∣∣x − π
12
∣< δ
−−−−−
12) ∣
∣√x − 4 − 2 ∣< 0.1 , whenever |x − 8| < δ
Solution: δ < 0.3900
In the following exercises, use the precise definition of limit to prove the given limits.
13) li m x→2 (5x + 8) = 18
14) li m x→3
x −9
x−3
=6
Solution: Let δ = ε . If 0 < |x − 3| < ε , then |x + 3 − 6| = |x − 3| < ε .

2
15) li m x→2
2 x −3x−2
x−2
=5
16) li m x→0 x
4
=0
Solution: Let δ = √ε If 0 < |x| < √ε , then ∣∣x

4 4 4 4
∣= x <ε .
17) li m x→2 (x
2
+ 2x) = 8
In the following exercises, use the precise definition of limit to prove the given one-sided limits.
5−x
18) li m x→5
−
=
0
−−−−− −−−−−
Let δ = ε . If 5 − ε
2
2
<x <5 , then ∣√5 − x ∣= √5 − x < ε .
8x − 3 if x < 0
19) li m x→0
+ f (x) = −2 , where f (x) = { .
4x − 2 if x ≥ 0
5x − 2 if x < 1
20) li m x→1
− f (x) = 3 , where f (x) = { .
7x − 1 if x ≥ 1
Solution: Let δ = ε/5 . If 1 − ε/5 < x < 1 , then |f (x) − 3| = 5x − 5 < ε .

In the following exercises, use the precise definition of limit to prove the given infinite limits.
21) i m x→0
1
x
2
=∞
22) li m x→−1
3
2
=∞
(x+1)
−− −−
Solution: Let δ = √ 3
N
. If 0 < |x + 1| < √ 3
N
, then f (x) = 3
2
>N .
(x+1)
23) li m x→2 −
1
2
= −∞
(x−2)
24) An engineer is using a machine to cut a flat square of Aerogel of area 144 cm2. If there is a maximum error tolerance in the
area of 8 cm2, how accurately must the engineer cut on the side, assuming all sides have the same length? How do these numbers
relate to δ , ε, a, and L?
Solution: 0.033cm, ε = 8, δ = 0.33, a = 12, L = 144
|x−1|
25) Use the precise definition of limit to prove that the following limit does not exist: li m x→1
x−1
.
26) Using precise definitions of limits, prove that li m x→0 f (x) does not exist, given that f (x) is the ceiling function. (Hint: Try any
δ < 1 .)
Solution: Answer may very.

1 if x is rational
27) Using precise definitions of limits, prove that li m x→0 f (x) does not exist: f (x) = { . (Hint: Think about
how you can always choose a rational number 0 < r < d , but |f (r) − 0| = 1 .)
x if x is rational
28) Using precise definitions of limits, determine li m x→0 f (x) for f (x) = { . (Hint: Break into two cases, x
rational and x irrational.)

Solution: 0
29) Using the function from the previous exercise, use the precise definition of limits to show that li m x→a f (x) does not exist for
a ≠0
For the following exercises, suppose that $lim_{x→a}f(x)=L$ and $lim_{x→a}g(x)=M$ both exist. Use the precise definition of
limits to prove the following limit laws:
30) li m x→a (f (x) − g(x)) = L − M
Solution: f (x) − g(x) = f (x) + (−1)g(x)

31) li m x→a [cf (x)] = cL for any real constant c (Hint: Consider two cases: c = 0 and c ≠ 0 .)
32) li mx→a [f (x)g(x)] = LM . (Hint:
|f (x)g(x) − LM | = |f (x)g(x) − f (x)M + f (x)M − LM | ≤ |f (x)||g(x) − M | + |M ||f (x) − L|. )
Solution: Answer may vary.

1) A function has to be continuous at x = a if the li m x→a f (x) exists.
2) You can use the quotient rule to evaluate lim x→0
sinx
x
.
Solution: False
3) If there is a vertical asymptote at x = a for the function f (x), then f is undefined at the point x = a .
4) If li m x→a f (x) does not exist, then f is undefined at the point x = a .
Solution: False. A removable discontinuity is possible.
a. li m x→−1 f (x)
b. li m x→1 f (x)
c. li m x→0
+ f (x)
d. li m x→2 f (x)
2
6) lim x→2
2 x −3x−2
x−2
Solution: 5
7) li m x→0 3x
2
− 2x + 4
3 2
8) lim x→3
x −2 x −1
3x−2
Solution: 8/7
9) lim x→π/2
cotx
cosx
10) lim x→−5

x +25
x+5
Solution:DNE
2
11) lim x→2

3 x −2x−8
x −4
2
2
x −1
12) lim x→1 3
x −1
Solution: 2/3
2
13) lim x→1

x −1
√x−1
4−x
14) lim x→4
√x−2
Solution: −4
15) lim x→4
√x−2
1
16) li m x→0
2
x cos(2πx) = 0
Solution: Since −1 ≤ cos(2πx) ≤ 1 , then 2

−x
2
≤ x cos(2πx) ≤ x
2
. Since 2
li mx→0 x = 0 = li mx→0 − x
2
, it follows that
2
li mx→0 x cos(2πx) = 0 .
17) li m x→0
3
x sin(
π
x
) =0
−−−−−
18) Determine the domain such that the function f (x) = √x − 2 + xe
x
is continuous over its domain.
Solution: [2, ∞]
In the following exercises, determine the value of c such that the function remains continuous. Draw your resulting function to
ensure it is continuous.
2
x +1 x >c
19) f (x) = { x
2 x ≤c
−−−−−
√x + 1 x > −1
20) f (x) = { 2
x +c x ≤ −1
In the following exercises, use the precise definition of limit to prove the limit.
21) li m x→1 (8x + 16) = 24
22) li m x→0 x
3
=0
–
Solution: δ = √3
ε
23) A ball is thrown into the air and the vertical position is given by x(t) = −4.9t + 25t + 5 . Use the Intermediate Value
2
Theorem to show that the ball must land on the ground sometime between 5 sec and 6 sec after the throw.
24) A particle moving along a line has a displacement according to the function x(t) = t 2
− 2t + 4 , where x is measured in meters
and t is measured in seconds. Find the average velocity over the time period t = [0, 2].
Solution: 0 m/sec
25) From the previous exercises, estimate the instantaneous velocity at t = 2 by checking the average velocity within t = 0.01 sec.
2.E: Limits (Exercises) is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
As we have seen, the derivative of a function at a given point gives us the rate of change or slope of the tangent line to the function
at that point. If we differentiate a position function at a given time, we obtain the velocity at that time. It seems reasonable to
conclude that knowing the derivative of the function at every point would produce valuable information about the behavior of the
function. However, the process of finding the derivative at even a handful of values using the techniques of the preceding section
would quickly become quite tedious. In this section we define the derivative function and learn a process for finding it.
Derivative Functions
The derivative function gives the derivative of a function at each point in the domain of the original function for which the
derivative is defined. We can formally define a derivative function as follows.
Definition: derivative function
Let f be a function. The derivative function, denoted by f′, is the function whose domain consists of those values of x such that
the following limit exists:
f (x + h) − f (x)
f '(x) = lim . (3.2.1)
h→0 h
A function f (x) is said to be differentiable at a if f (a) exists. More generally, a function is said to be differentiable on S if it is
′
differentiable at every point in an open set S , and a differentiable function is one in which f '(x) exists on its domain.
In the next few examples we use Equation to find the derivative of a function.
Example 3.2.1 : Finding the Derivative of a Square-Root Function

Find the derivative of f (x) = √−
x.
Solution
Start directly with the definition of the derivative function.
−−−−− −
√x+h−√x
Substitutef (x + h) = √x + h and f (x) = √x into
f '(x) = lim h→0 f(x+h)−f(x)
h f '(x) = lim h→0
h
.
−−−−− −
√x+h−√x √x+h+√x Multiply numerator and denominator by √x + h + √x without
= lim h→0 ⋅
h √x+h+√x
distributing in thedenominator.
h
= lim h→0
h(√x+h+√x
) Multiply the numerators and simplify.
1
= lim h→0
(√x+h+√x)
Cancel the h .
1
=
2√x Evaluate the limit
Example 3.2.2 : Finding the Derivative of a Quadratic Function

Find the derivative of the function f (x) = x 2
− 2x .
Solution
Follow the same procedure here, but without having to multiply by the conjugate.
2
((x+h ) −2(x+h))−(x −2x)
2 Substitute f (x + h) = (x + h ) 2
− 2(x + h) and f (x) = x
2
− 2x
f '(x) = lim h→0 f(x+h)−f(x)
h into f '(x) = lim h→0
h
2 2 2
lim h→0
x +2xh+h −2x−2h−x +2x
h
Expand (x + h ) 2
− 2(x + h) .
2
= lim h→0
2xh−2h+h
h
Simplify
h(2x−2+h)
= lim h→0
h
Factor out h from the numerator
= lim h→0 (2x − 2 + h) Cancel the common factor of h

= 2x − 2 Evaluate the limit
Exercise 3.2.1
Hint
Use Equation and follow the example.
Answer
f '(x) = 2x
We use a variety of different notations to express the derivative of a function. In Example we showed that if f (x) = x − 2x , then 2
f '(x) = 2x − 2 . If we had expressed this function in the form y = x − 2x , we could have expressed the derivative as
2
dy
y' = 2x − 2 or dx
. We could have conveyed the same information by writing
= 2x − 2
dx
d
(x
2
− 2x) = 2x − 2 . Thus, for the
function y = f (x), each of the following notations represents the derivative of f (x):
dy
f '(x),
dx
, y',
d
dx
(f (x)) .
dy dy
In place of f '(a) we may also use ∣ x = a Use of the
dx
notation (called Leibniz notation) is quite common in engineering and
dx
physics. To understand this notation better, recall that the derivative of a function at a point is the limit of the slopes of secant lines
Δy
as the secant lines approach the tangent line. The slopes of these secant lines are often expressed in the form where Δy is the Δx
difference in the y values corresponding to the difference in the x values, which are expressed as Δx (Figure). Thus the derivative,
which can be thought of as the instantaneous rate of change of y with respect to x, is expressed as
dy Δy
dx
= limΔx→0
Δx
.
dy Δy
Figure 3.2.1 : The derivative is expressed as dx
= limΔx→0
Δx
.
Graphing a Derivative
We have already discussed how to graph a function, so given the equation of a function or the equation of a derivative function, we
could graph it. Given both, we would expect to see a correspondence between the graphs of these two functions, since f '(x) gives
the rate of change of a function f (x) (or slope of the tangent line to f (x)).
In Example we found that for f (x) = √− −
x , f '(x) = 1/2 √x. If we graph these functions on the same axes, as in Figure, we can use
the graphs to understand the relationship between these two functions. First, we notice that f (x) is increasing over its entire
domain, which means that the slopes of its tangent lines at all points are positive. Consequently, we expect f '(x) > 0 for all values

of x in its domain. Furthermore, as x increases, the slopes of the tangent lines to f (x) are decreasing and we expect to see a
corresponding decrease in f '(x). We also observe that f (0) is undefined and that lim f '(x) = +∞ , corresponding to a
x→0
+
vertical tangent to f (x) at 0.
Figure 3.2.2 : The derivative f '(x) is positive everywhere because the function f (x) is increasing.
In Example we found that for f (x) = x − 2x, f '(x) = 2x − 2 . The graphs of these functions are shown in Figure. Observe that
2
f (x) is decreasing for x < 1 . For these same values of x, f '(x) < 0. For values of x > 1 , f (x) is increasing and f '(x) > 0. Also,
f (x) has a horizontal tangent at x = 1 and f '(1) = 0 .
Figure 3.2.3 : The derivative f '(x) < 0 where the function f (x) is decreasing and f '(x) > 0 where f (x) is increasing. The
derivative is zero where the function has a horizontal tangent
Example 3.2.3 : Sketching a Derivative Using a Function

Use the following graph of f (x) to sketch a graph of f '(x).

Solution
The solution is shown in the following graph. Observe that f (x) is increasing and f '(x) > 0 on (– 2, 3). Also, f (x) is
decreasing and f '(x) < 0 on (−∞, −2) and on (3, +∞). Also note that f (x) has horizontal tangents at – 2 and 3, and
f '(−2) = 0 and f '(3) = 0 .
Exercise 3.2.2
Sketch the graph of f (x) = x 2
−4 . On what interval is the graph of f '(x) above the x-axis?
Hint
The graph of f '(x) is positive where f (x) is increasing.
Answer
(0,+∞)

Derivatives and Continuity
Now that we can graph a derivative, let’s examine the behavior of the graphs. First, we consider the relationship between
differentiability and continuity. We will see that if a function is differentiable at a point, it must be continuous there; however, a
function that is continuous at a point need not be differentiable at that point. In fact, a function may be continuous at a point and
fail to be differentiable at the point for one of several reasons.
Differentiability Implies Continuity
Let f (x) be a function and a be in its domain. If f (x) is differentiable at a , then f is continuous at a .
Proof
If f (x) is differentiable at a , then f '(a) exists and
f (x)−f (a)
f '(a) = limx→a
x−a
.
We want to show that f (x) is continuous at a by showing that lim x→a f (x) = f (a). Thus,
limx→a f (x) = limx→a (f (x) − f (a) + f (a))
f (x)−f (a)
= limx→a (
x−a
⋅ (x − a) + f (a)) Multiply and divide f (x) − f (a) by x − a .
f (x)−f (a)
= (limx→a ) ⋅ (limx→a (x − a)) + limx→a f (a)
x−a
′
= f (a) ⋅ 0 + f (a)
= f (a).
Therefore, since f (a) is defined and lim x→a f (x) = f (a) , we conclude that f is continuous at a .
□
We have just proven that differentiability implies continuity, but now we consider whether continuity implies differentiability. To
determine an answer to this question, we examine the function f (x) = |x|. This function is continuous everywhere; however, f '(0)
is undefined. This observation leads us to believe that continuity does not imply differentiability. Let’s explore further. For
f (x) = |x|,
f (x)−f (0) |x|−|0| |x|

f '(0) = limx→0
x−0
= limx→0
x−0
= limx→0
x
.
This limit does not exist because
|x| |x|
limx→0−
x
= −1 and lim x→0
+
x
=1 .
See Figure.

Figure 3.2.4 : The function f (x) = |x| is continuous at 0 but is not differentiable at 0.
Let’s consider some additional situations in which a continuous function fails to be differentiable. Consider the function
−
f (x) = √x :
3
3
√x−0
f '(0) = limx→0
x−0
= limx→0 3
1
= +∞ .
√x2
Thus f '(0) does not exist. A quick look at the graph of f (x) = √−
x clarifies the situation. The function has a vertical tangent line at
3
0 (Figure).
Figure 3.2.5 : The function f (x) = √−

x has a vertical tangent at x = 0 . It is continuous at 0 but is not differentiable at 0 .
3
1
xsin( ) if x ≠ 0
The function f (x) = { x
also has a derivative that exhibits interesting behavior at 0. We see that
0if x = 0
xsin(1/x)−0
f '(0) = limx→0
x−0
= limx→0 sin(
1
x
) .
This limit does not exist, essentially because the slopes of the secant lines continuously change direction as they approach zero
(Figure).
1
xsin( ) if x ≠ 0
Figure 3.2.6 : The function f (x) = { x
is not differentiable at 0.
0 if x = 0
In summary:
1. We observe that if a function is not continuous, it cannot be differentiable, since every differentiable function must be
continuous. However, if a function is continuous, it may still fail to be differentiable.
2. We saw that f (x) = |x| failed to be differentiable at 0 because the limit of the slopes of the tangent lines on the left and right
were not the same. Visually, this resulted in a sharp corner on the graph of the function at 0. From this we conclude that in order
to be differentiable at a point, a function must be “smooth” at that point.
3. As we saw in the example of f (x) = √− x , a function fails to be differentiable at a point where there is a vertical tangent line.
3

1
xsin( ) if x ≠ 0
4. As we saw with f (x) = { x
a function may fail to be differentiable at a point in more complicated ways as
0 if x = 0
well.
Example 3.2.4 : A Piecewise Function that is Continuous and Differentiable

A toy company wants to design a track for a toy car that starts out along a parabolic curve and then converts to a straight line
1 2
x + bx + c if x < −10
(Figure). The function that describes the track is to have the form f (x) = {
10
1 5
where x and f (x)
− x+ if x ≥ −10
4 2
are in inches. For the car to move smoothly along the track, the function f (x) must be both continuous and differentiable at
−10. Find values of b and c that make f (x) both continuous and differentiable.
Figure 3.2.7 : For the car to move smoothly along the track, the function must be both continuous and differentiable.
Solution
For the function to be continuous at x = −10 , lim x→10
− f (x) = f (−10) . Thus, since
1 2
limx→−10− f (x) = (−10 ) − 10b + c = 10 − 10b + c
10
and f (−10) = 5 , we must have 10 − 10b + c = 5 . Equivalently, we have c = 10b − 5 .

For the function to be differentiable at −10,
f (x)−f (−10)
f '(10) = limx→−10
x+10
must exist. Since f (x) is defined using different rules on the right and the left, we must evaluate this limit from the right and the
left and then set them equal to each other:
1 2
f (x)−f (−10) x +bx+c−5
10
limx→−10− = limx→−10−
x+10 x+10
1
x2+bx+(10b−5)−5
= limx→−10−
10
x+10
Substitute c = 10b − 5 .
2
x −100+10bx+100b
= limx→−10−
10(x+10)
(x+10)(x−10+10b)
= limx→−10−
10(x+10)
Factor by grouping
= b −2 .
We also have
f (x)−f (−10)
limx→−10+
x+10
1 5
− x+ −5
4 2
= limx→−10+
x+10
−(x+10)
= limx→−10+
4(x+10)
=−
1
4
.
This gives us b − 2 = − . Thus b =
1
4
7
4
and c = 10( 7
4
)−5 =
25
2
.
Exercise 3.2.3

ax + b if x < 3
Find values of a and b that make f (x) = { 2
both continuous and differentiable at 3.
x if x ≥ 3
Hint
Answer
a =6 and b = −9
′′ ′′′ (4) (n)
f (x), f (x), f (x), … , f (x)
′′ ′′′ (4) (n)

y (x), y (x), y (x), … , y (x)
2 3 4 n
d y d y d y d y
, , ,…, n
.
dx2 dy 3 dy 4 dy
2
d y dy
2
may be viewed as an attempt to express dx
d
(
dx
2 3
dy d y d y
d
dx
(
d
dx
(
dx
)) =
d
dx
(
dx2
) =
dx3
.

For f (x) = 2x 2
− 3x + 1 , find f ′′
(x) .
Solution
First find f '(x).
− 3x + 1 and
2 2
f '(x) = lim h→0

(2(x+h ) −3(x+h)+1)−(2x −3x+1)
f (x + h) = 2(x + h )
2
− 3(x + h) + 1 into
h
f(x+h)−f(x)
f '(x) = lim h→0 .
h
= lim h→0
4xh+h −3h
h
Simplify the numerator.
= lim h→0 (4x + h − 3)
denominator.
Next, find f ′′
f'(x+h)−f'(x) f(x+h)−f(x)
f
′′
(x) = lim h→0
h
Use f '(x) = lim h→0
h
with f '(x) in place of f (x).
(4(x+h)−3)−(4x−3)
= lim h→0
h
Substitute f '(x + h) = 4(x + h) − 3 and f '(x) = 4x − 3.
= lim h→0 4 Simplify.
= 4 Take the limit.
Exercise 3.2.4
Find f ′′
(x) for f (x) = x . 2
Hint

Answer
′′
f (x) = 2
Example 3.2.6 : Finding Acceleration

The position of a particle along a coordinate axis at time t (in seconds) is given by 2
s(t) = 3 t − 4t + 1 (in meters). Find the
function that describes its acceleration at time t .
Solution
Since v(t) = s'(t) and a(t) = v'(t) = s ′′
(t) , we begin by finding the derivative of s(t) :
s(t+h)−s(t)
s'(t) = limh→0
h
2 2
3(t+h) −4(t+h)+1−(3 t −4t+1)
= limh→0
h
= 6t − 4.
Next,
s'(t+h)−s'(t)
′′
s (t) = limh→0
h
6(t+h)−4−(6t−4)
= limh→0
h
= 6.
Thus, a = 6m/s . 2
Exercise 3.2.5
For s(t) = t , find a(t).
3
Hint
Answer
a(t) = 6t
Key Concepts
The derivative of a function f (x) is the function whose value at x is f '(x).
The graph of a derivative of a function f (x) is related to the graph of f (x). Where f (x) has a tangent line with positive
slope, f '(x) > 0. Where f (x) has a tangent line with negative slope, f′(x)<0. Where f (x) has a horizontal tangent line,
f '(x) = 0.
If a function is differentiable at a point, then it is continuous at that point. A function is not differentiable at a point if it is
not continuous at the point, if it has a vertical tangent line at the point, or if the graph has a sharp corner or cusp.
Higher-order derivatives are derivatives of derivatives, from the second derivative to the nth derivative.
Key Equations
The derivative function
f (x+h)−f (x)
f '(x) = limh→0
h
Glossary
derivative function
gives the derivative of a function at each point in the domain of the original function for which the derivative is defined

differentiable at a
a function for which f '(a) exists is differentiable at a
differentiable on S
a function for which f '(x) exists for each x in the open set S is differentiable on S
differentiable function
a function for which f '(x) exists is a differentiable function
higher-order derivative
a derivative of a derivative, from the second derivative to the nth derivative, is called a higher-order derivative
Contributors
This page titled 3.2: The Derivative as a Function is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by
OpenStax.

Finding derivatives of functions by using the definition of the derivative can be a lengthy and, for certain functions, a rather
challenging process. For example, previously we found that
d 1
−
(√x ) = − (3.3.1)
dx 2 √x
by using a process that involved multiplying an expression by a conjugate prior to evaluating a limit. The process that we could use
to evaluate
d
3 −
(√x ) (3.3.2)
dx
using the definition, while similar, is more complicated. In this section, we develop rules for finding derivatives that allow us to
bypass this process. We begin with the basics.
The Basic Rules

The functions f (x) = c and g(x) = x where n is a positive integer are the building blocks from which all polynomials and
n
rational functions are constructed. To find derivatives of polynomials and rational functions efficiently without resorting to the limit
definition of the derivative, we must first develop formulas for differentiating these basic functions.
The Constant Rule

We first apply the limit definition of the derivative to find the derivative of the constant function, f (x) = c . For this function, both
f (x) = c and f (x + h) = c , so we obtain the following result:
f (x + h) − f (x)
f '(x) = lim (3.3.3)
h→0 h
c −c
= lim (3.3.4)
h→0 h
0
= lim (3.3.5)
h→0 h
= lim 0 = 0. (3.3.6)
h→0
The rule for differentiating constant functions is called the constant rule. It states that the derivative of a constant function is zero;
that is, since a constant function is a horizontal line, the slope, or the rate of change, of a constant function is 0. We restate this rule
The Constant Rule
Let c be a constant. If f (x) = c , then f '(c) = 0.
d
(c) = 0. (3.3.7)
dx
Example 3.3.1 : Applying the Constant Rule

Find the derivative of f (x) = 8.
Solution
This is just a one-step application of the rule:
f '(8) = 0. (3.3.8)
Exercise 3.3.1
Find the derivative of g(x) = −3 .

Hint
Use the preceding example as a guide
Answer
0
The Power Rule

We have shown that
d 2
d 1/2
1 −1/2
(x ) = 2xand (x ) = x . (3.3.9)
dx dx 2
d
At this point, you might see a pattern beginning to develop for derivatives of the form n
(x ). We continue our examination of
dx
derivative formulas by differentiating power functions of the form f (x) = x where n is a positive integer. We develop formulas n
for derivatives of this type of function in stages, beginning with positive integer powers. Before stating and proving the general rule
d
for derivatives of functions of this form, we take a look at a specific case, (x )
3
. As we go through this derivation, pay special
dx
attention to the portion of the expression in boldface, as the technique used in this case is essentially the same as the technique used
to prove the general case.
Example 3.3.2 : Differentiating x 3
d
Find 3
(x ) .
dx
Solution:
3 3
d (x + h ) −x
3
(x ) = lim h→0
dx h
3 2 2 3 3
Notice that the first term in the expansion of (x + h) is x and the 3 3
x + 3 x h + 3x h +h −x
= lim h→0 second term is 3x h .Allother terms contain powers of h that are two
2
h
or greater
2
3 x h + 3x h
2
+h
3
In this step the x terms have been cancelled, leaving only terms
3
= lim h→0
h containing h .
2 2
h(3 x + 3xh + h )
= lim h→0 Factor out the common factor of h .
h
2 2
After cancelling the common factor of h ,the only term not containing
= lim h→0 (3 x + 3xh + h )
h is 3x .
2
= 3x
2
Let h go to 0.
Exercise 3.3.2
Find
d
4
(x ). (3.3.10)
dx
Hint
Use (x + h) 4
=x
4 3
+ 4x h + 6x h
2 2
+ 4x h
3
+h
4
and follow the procedure outlined in the preceding example.
Answer
3
4x
As we shall see, the procedure for finding the derivative of the general form f (x) = x is very similar. Although it is often unwise n
to draw general conclusions from specific examples, we note that when we differentiate f (x) = x , the power on x becomes the 3

coefficient of x in the derivative and the power on x in the derivative decreases by 1. The following theorem states that the power
2
rule holds for all positive integer powers of x. We will eventually extend this result to negative integer powers. Later, we will see
that this rule may also be extended first to rational powers of x and then to arbitrary powers of x. Be aware, however, that this rule
does not apply to functions in which a constant is raised to a variable power, such as f (x) = 3 . x
The Power Rule

Let n be a positive integer. If f (x) = x ,then n
n−1
f '(x) = nx . (3.3.11)

d n n−1.
x = nx (3.3.12)
dx
Proof
For f (x) = x where n is a positive integer, we have
n
n n
(x + h ) −x
f '(x) = limh→0 .
h
Since (x + h) n
=x
n
+ nx
n−1
h + ( )x
n
2
n−2
h
2
+ ( )x
n
3
n−3
h
3
+ … + nx h
n−1
+h ,
n
we see that
n n n−1 n n−2 2 n n−3 3 n−1 n
(x + h ) −x = nx h + ( )x h + ( )x h + … + nx h +h .
2 3
Next, divide both sides by h:

n n n−1 n n−2 2 n n−3 3 n−1 n
(x + h ) −x nx h + ( )x h + ( )x h + … + nx h +h
2 3
= .
h h
Thus,
n n
(x + h ) −x
n−1 n n−2 n n−3 2 n−2 n−1
= nx + ( )x h + ( )x h + … + nx h +h .
2 3
h
Finally,
n−1 n n−2 n n−3 2 n−1 n
f '(x) = limh→0 (nx + ( )x h + ( )x h + … + nx h +h )
2 3
n−1
= nx .
Example 3.3.3 : Applying the Power Rule

Find the derivative of the function \(f(x)=x^{10} by applying the power rule.
Solution
Using the power rule with n = 10 , we obtain
′ 10−1 9
f (x) = 10 x = 10 x . (3.3.13)
Exercise 3.3.3
Hint
Use the power rule with n = 7.
Answer
6
f '(x) = 7x (3.3.14)

The Sum, Difference, and Constant Multiple Rules
We find our next differentiation rules by looking at derivatives of sums, differences, and constant multiples of functions. Just as
when we work with functions, there are rules that make it easier to find derivatives of functions that we add, subtract, or multiply
by a constant. These rules are summarized in the following theorem.
Sum, Difference, and Constant Multiple Rules
Let f (x) and g(x) be differentiable functions and k be a constant. Then each of the following equations holds.
Sum Rule. The derivative of the sum of a function f and a function g is the same as the sum of the derivative of f and the
derivative of g .
d d d
(f (x) + g(x)) = (f (x)) + (g(x)); (3.3.15)
dx dx dx
that is,
f orj(x) = f (x) + g(x), j'(x) = f '(x) + g'(x). (3.3.16)
Difference Rule. The derivative of the difference of a function f and a function g is the same as the difference of the derivative
of f and the derivative of g :
d d d
(f (x) − g(x)) = (f (x)) − (g(x)); (3.3.17)
dx dx dx
that is,
f orj(x) = f (x) − g(x), j'(x) = f '(x) − g'(x). (3.3.18)
Constant Multiple Rule. The derivative of a constant c multiplied by a function f is the same as the constant multiplied by the
derivative:
d d
(kf (x)) = k (f (x)); (3.3.19)
dx dx
that is,
f orj(x) = kf (x), j'(x) = kf '(x). (3.3.20)
Proof
We provide only the proof of the sum rule here. The rest follow in a similar manner.
For differentiable functions f (x) and g(x), we set j(x) = f (x) + g(x) . Using the limit definition of the derivative we have
j(x + h) − j(x)
j'(x) = lim . (3.3.21)
h→0 h
By substituting j(x + h) = f (x + h) + g(x + h) and j(x) = f (x) + g(x), we obtain

(f (x + h) + g(x + h)) − (f (x) + g(x))
j'(x) = lim . (3.3.22)
h→0 h
Rearranging and regrouping the terms, we have

(f (x + h) − f (x) g(x + h) − g(x)
j'(x) = lim + ). (3.3.23)
h→0 h h
We now apply the sum law for limits and the definition of the derivative to obtain
(f (x + h) − f (x) (g(x + h) − g(x)
j'(x) = lim ) + lim ) = f '(x) + g'(x). (3.3.24)
h→0 h h→0 h
Example 3.3.4 : Applying the Constant Multiple Rule

Find the derivative of g(x) = 3x and compare it to the derivative of f (x) = x
2 2
.
Solution
We use the power rule directly:
d 2
d 2
g'(x) = (3 x ) = 3 (x ) = 3(2x) = 6x. (3.3.25)
dx dx
Since f (x) = x has derivative f '(x) = 2x, we see that the derivative of
2
g(x) is 3 times the derivative of f (x). This
relationship is illustrated in Figure.
Figure 3.3.1 : The derivative of g(x) is 3 times the derivative of f (x).
Example 3.3.5 : Applying Basic Derivative Rules

5
f (x) = 2 x + 7. (3.3.26)
Solution
We begin by applying the rule for differentiating the sum of two functions, followed by the rules for differentiating constant
multiples of functions and the rule for differentiating powers. To better understand the sequence in which the differentiation
rules are applied, we use Leibniz notation throughout the solution:
d
5
f '(x) = (2 x + 7)
dx
d d
= (2 x ) +
5
(7) Apply the sum rule.
dx dx
d d
=2
5
(x ) + (7) Apply the constant multiple rule.
dx dx
= 2(5 x ) + 0
4
Apply the power rule and the constant rule.
= 10x
4
Simplify.
Exercise 3.3.4
3 2
f (x) = 2 x − 6x + 3. (3.3.27)
Hint
Answer
2
f '(x) = 6 x − 12x.

Find the equation of the line tangent to the graph of
2
f (x) = x − 4x + 6 (3.3.28)
at x = 1
Solution
To find the equation of the tangent line, we need a point and a slope. To find the point, compute
2
f (1) = 1 − 4(1) + 6 = 3. (3.3.29)
This gives us the point (1, 3). Since the slope of the tangent line at 1 is f '(1), we must first find f '(x). Using the definition of a
derivative, we have
f '(x) = 2x − 4 (3.3.30)
so the slope of the tangent line is f '(1) = −2 . Using the point-slope formula, we see that the equation of the tangent line is
y − 3 = −2(x − 1). (3.3.31)
Putting the equation of the line in slope-intercept form, we obtain

y = −2x + 5. (3.3.32)
Exercise 3.3.5
Find the equation of the line tangent to the graph of f (x) = 3x 2
− 11 at x = 2 . Use the point-slope form.
Hint
Answer
y = 12x − 23
′′ ′′′ (4) (n)
f (x), f (x), f (x), … , f (x)
′′ ′′′ (4) (n)

y (x), y (x), y (x), … , y (x)
2 3 4 n
d y d y d y d y
2
, 3
, 4
,…, .
dx dy dy dy n
2
d y dy
2
may be viewed as an attempt to express d
dx
(
dx
2 3
dy d y d y
d
dx
(
d
dx
(
dx
)) =
d
dx
(
dx
2
) =
dx
3
.

For f (x) = 2x 2
− 3x + 1 , find f ′′
.
(x)
Solution
First find f '(x).

− 3x + 1 and
2 2
f '(x) = lim h→0

(2(x+h ) −3(x+h)+1)−(2x −3x+1)
f (x + h) = 2(x + h )
2
− 3(x + h) + 1 into
h f(x+h)−f(x)
f '(x) = lim h→0 .
h
= lim h→0
4xh+h −3h
h
Simplify the numerator.
= lim h→0 (4x + h − 3)
denominator.
Next, find f ′′
f'(x+h)−f'(x) f(x+h)−f(x)
f
′′
(x) = lim h→0
h
Use f '(x) = lim h→0
h
with f '(x) in place of f (x).
(4(x+h)−3)−(4x−3)
= lim h→0
h
Substitute f '(x + h) = 4(x + h) − 3 and f '(x) = 4x − 3.
= lim h→0 4 Simplify.
= 4 Take the limit.
Exercise 3.3.4
Find f ′′
(x) for f (x) = x . 2
Hint
Answer
′′
f (x) = 2
The Product Rule

d d
2
(x) ⋅ (x) = 1 ⋅ 1 = 1.
dx dx
Product Rule
d d d
(f (x)g(x)) = (f (x)) ⋅ g(x) + (g(x)) ⋅ f (x). (3.3.33)
dx dx dx
That is,
Proof
limh→0 g(x + h) = g(x).

f (x + h)g(x + h) − f (x)g(x)
j'(x) = lim . (3.3.35)
h→0 h

j'(x) = lim . (3.3.36)
h→0 h
j'(x) = lim ) + lim . (3.3.37)
h→0 h h→0 h
(f (x + h) − f (x) g(x + h) − g(x)
j'(x) = lim ⋅ g(x + h)) + lim( ⋅ f (x)). (3.3.38)
h→0 h h→0 h
product rule,
j'(x) = f '(x)g(x) + g'(x)f (x). (3.3.39)

Solution
j'(2) = f '(2)g(2) + g'(2)f (2) = (−4)(1) + (6)(3) = 14. (3.3.40)

For j(x) = (x 2
+ 2)(3 x
3
differentiating.
Solution
+2 and g(x) = 3x 3
− 5x , then f '(x) = 2x and g'(x) = 9x 2
−5 . Thus,
3 2 2
4 2
j'(x) = 15 x + 3x − 10. (3.3.41)

+x
3
+ 3x
2
− 10.
Exercise 3.3.6
5 2
j(x) = 2 x (4 x + x). (3.3.42)
Hint
5 2
Answer
4 2 5 6 5
j'(x) = 10 x (4 x + x) + (8x + 1)(2 x ) = 56 x + 12 x . (3.3.43)

The Quotient Rule
d
3
(x ) 2
d dx 3x
2 2
(x ) = 2x, not = = 3x . (3.3.44)
dx d 1
(x)
dx
The Quotient Rule

d d
(f (x)) ⋅ g(x) − (g(x)) ⋅ f (x)
d f (x) dx dx
( ) = . (3.3.45)
2
dx g(x) (g(x))
That is, if
f (x)
j(x) = (3.3.46)
g(x)
then
f '(x)g(x) − g'(x)f (x)
j'(x) = . (3.3.47)
2
(g(x))

2
5x
k(x) = . (3.3.48)
4x + 3
Solution
2
2
f '(x)g(x) − g'(x)f (x) 10x(4x + 3) − 4(5 x )
k'(x) = = . (3.3.49)
(g(x))2 (4x + 3)2
2
20 x + 30x
k'(x) = (3.3.50)
2
(4x + 3)
Exercise 3.3.7
3x + 1
4x − 3
Answer
Answer

13
k'(x) = − . (3.3.51)
2
(4x − 3)
k
where k is a
negative integer.
Extended Power Rule
d k k−1
(x ) = kx . (3.3.52)
dx
Proof
1
x
−n
=
n
n
x
g'(x) = nx
n−1
. Thus,
n n−1
d 0(x ) − 1(nx )
−n
(x ) = . (3.3.53)
n 2
d (x )

n−1
d −nx
−n (n−1)−2n −n−1
(x )\)$ = $$ = −nx $\( = −nx . (3.3.54)
2
d x n

d
k k−1
(x ) = kx . (3.3.55)
dx

d
Find (x
−4
) .
dx
Solution
d −4 −4−1 −5
(x ) = −4 x = −4 x . (3.3.56)
dx
6
.
x
Solution
d 6 d 6
f '(x) = (
2
) =
−2
(6 x ) Rewrite 2
as 6x . −2
dx x dx x
d
=6 (x
−2
dx
= 6(−2 x
−3
= −12x
−3
Simplify.

Exercise 3.3.8
1
x
Hint
1
\Rewrite g(x) = 7
=x
−7
x
Answer
g'(x) = −7x
−8
.


For k(x) = 3h(x) + x 2
g(x) , find k'(x).
d d d
k'(x) =
2
(3h(x) + x g(x)) = (3h(x)) +
2
dx dx dx
d d
2
d
2
= 3 (h(x)) + ( (x )g(x) + (g(x))x )
2
2
= 3h'(x) + 2xg(x) + g'(x)x

Solution
We can think of the function k(x) as the product of the function f (x)g(x) and the function h(x). That is,
k(x) = (f (x)g(x)) ⋅ h(x) . Thus,
d d
dx dx
2x3k(x)
3x + 2
Solution
d d
3 3
(2 x k(x)) ⋅ (3x + 2) − (3x + 2) ⋅ (2 x k(x))
dx dx
h'(x) =
2
Apply the quotient rule
(3x + 2)

2 3 3
(6 x k(x) + k'(x) ⋅ 2 x )(3x + 2) − 3(2 x k(x)) d
=
2
.Use
(2 x k(x))
(3x + 2) dx
d
(3x + 2) = 3 .
dx
3 3 2 4 3
=
2
Simplify
(3x + 2)
Exercise 3.3.9
d
Find (3f (x) − 2g(x)).
dx
Hint
Answer
3f '(x) − 2g'(x).

− 7x
2
Solution
Since
2
f '(x) = 3 x − 14x + 8 = (3x − 2)(x − 4), (3.3.57)
2
3

t
t +1
Solution
2
1(t2 + 1) − 2t(t) 1 −t
s'(t) =
2 2
=
t 2
.
(t + 1) ( 2 + 1)

Exercise 3.3.10
2
y = 2x + 3.
Hint
Solve f '(x) = 2 .
Answer
5

3

Key Concepts
The derivative of a constant function is zero.
The derivative of a power function is a function in which the power on x becomes the coefficient of the term and the
power on x in the derivative decreases by 1.
The derivative of a constant c multiplied by a function f is the same as the constant multiplied by the derivative.
The derivative of the sum of a function f and a function g is the same as the sum of the derivative of f and the derivative
of g.
The derivative of the difference of a function f and a function g is the same as the difference of the derivative of f and the
derivative of g.
The derivative of a product of two functions is the derivative of the first function times the second function plus the
derivative of the second function times the first function.
Glossary
the derivative of a constant c multiplied by a function f is the same as the constant multiplied by the derivative:
d
(cf (x)) = cf '(x)
dx
constant rule

d
the derivative of a constant function is zero: (c) = 0 ,where c is a constant
dx
difference rule
the derivative of the difference of a function f and a function g is the same as the difference of the derivative of f and the
d
derivative of g: (f (x) − g(x)) = f '(x) − g'(x)
dx
power rule
the derivative of a power function is a function in which the power on x becomes the coefficient of the term and the power on x
d
in the derivative decreases by 1: If n is an integer, then x
n
= nx
n−1
dx
product rule
d
dx
quotient rule
d f (x) f '(x)g(x) − g'(x)f (x)
( =
2
dx g(x)) (g(x))
sum rule
the derivative of the sum of a function f and a function g is the same as the sum of the derivative of f and the derivative of g:
d
(f (x) + g(x)) = f '(x) + g'(x)
dx
Contributors
This page titled 3.3: Differentiation Rules is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by OpenStax.

The Product Rule
d d
2
(x) ⋅ (x) = 1 ⋅ 1 = 1.
dx dx
Product Rule
d d d
(f (x)g(x)) = (f (x)) ⋅ g(x) + (g(x)) ⋅ f (x). (3.4.1)
dx dx dx
That is,
Proof
limh→0 g(x + h) = g(x).

f (x + h)g(x + h) − f (x)g(x)
j'(x) = lim . (3.4.3)
h→0 h

j'(x) = lim . (3.4.4)
h→0 h
j'(x) = lim ) + lim . (3.4.5)
h→0 h h→0 h
(f (x + h) − f (x) g(x + h) − g(x)
j'(x) = lim ⋅ g(x + h)) + lim( ⋅ f (x)). (3.4.6)
h→0 h h→0 h
product rule,
j'(x) = f '(x)g(x) + g'(x)f (x). (3.4.7)

Solution
j'(2) = f '(2)g(2) + g'(2)f (2) = (−4)(1) + (6)(3) = 14. (3.4.8)

For j(x) = (x 2
+ 2)(3 x
3
differentiating.
Solution
+2 and g(x) = 3x 3
− 5x , then f '(x) = 2x and g'(x) = 9x 2
−5 . Thus,
3 2 2
4 2
j'(x) = 15 x + 3x − 10. (3.4.9)

+x
3
+ 3x
2
− 10.
Exercise 3.4.6
5 2
j(x) = 2 x (4 x + x). (3.4.10)
Hint
5 2
Answer
4 2 5 6 5
j'(x) = 10 x (4 x + x) + (8x + 1)(2 x ) = 56 x + 12 x . (3.4.11)
The Quotient Rule

d
3
(x ) 2
d dx 3x
2 2
(x ) = 2x, not = = 3x . (3.4.12)
dx d 1
(x)
dx
The Quotient Rule

d d
(f (x)) ⋅ g(x) − (g(x)) ⋅ f (x)
d f (x) dx dx
( ) = . (3.4.13)
2
dx g(x) (g(x))
That is, if
f (x)
j(x) = (3.4.14)
g(x)
then
f '(x)g(x) − g'(x)f (x)
j'(x) = . (3.4.15)
2
(g(x))

2
5x
k(x) = . (3.4.16)
4x + 3
Solution
2
2
f '(x)g(x) − g'(x)f (x) 10x(4x + 3) − 4(5 x )
k'(x) = = . (3.4.17)
2 2
(g(x)) (4x + 3)
2
20 x + 30x
k'(x) = (3.4.18)
2
(4x + 3)
Exercise 3.4.7
3x + 1
4x − 3
Answer
Answer
13
k'(x) = − . (3.4.19)
2
(4x − 3)
k
where k is a
negative integer.
Extended Power Rule
d
k k−1
(x ) = kx . (3.4.20)
dx
Proof
1
x
−n
=
n
n
x
g'(x) = nx
n−1
. Thus,
n n−1
d 0(x ) − 1(nx )
−n
(x ) = . (3.4.21)
n 2
d (x )

n−1
d −n
−nx (n−1)−2n −n−1
(x )\)$ = $$ = −nx $\( = −nx . (3.4.22)
2
d x n

d k k−1
(x ) = kx . (3.4.23)
dx

d
Find (x
−4
) .
dx
Solution
d
−4 −4−1 −5
(x ) = −4 x = −4 x . (3.4.24)
dx
6
.
x
Solution
d 6 d 6
f '(x) = (
2
) = (6 x
−2
) Rewrite 2
as 6x . −2
dx x dx x
d
=6 (x
−2
dx
= 6(−2 x
−3
= −12x
−3
Simplify.
Exercise 3.4.8
1
x
Hint
1
\Rewrite g(x) = 7
=x
−7
x
Answer
g'(x) = −7x
−8
.


For k(x) = 3h(x) + x 2
g(x) , find k'(x).
d d d
k'(x) = (3h(x) + x g(x)) =
2
(3h(x)) +
2
dx dx dx
d d
2
d
2
= 3 (h(x)) + ( (x )g(x) + (g(x))x )
2
2
= 3h'(x) + 2xg(x) + g'(x)x

Solution
We can think of the function k(x) as the product of the function f (x)g(x) and the function h(x) . That is,
k(x) = (f (x)g(x)) ⋅ h(x) . Thus,
d d
dx dx
2x3k(x)
3x + 2
Solution
d d
3 3
(2 x k(x)) ⋅ (3x + 2) − (3x + 2) ⋅ (2 x k(x))
dx dx
h'(x) =
2
Apply the quotient rule
(3x + 2)
2 3 3
(6 x k(x) + k'(x) ⋅ 2 x )(3x + 2) − 3(2 x k(x)) d
=
2
(2 x k(x)) .Use
(3x + 2) dx
d
(3x + 2) = 3 .
dx
3 3 2 4 3
=
2
Simplify
(3x + 2)
Exercise 3.4.9
d
Find (3f (x) − 2g(x)).
dx
Hint
Answer
3f '(x) − 2g'(x).

− 7x
2
Solution
Since
2
f '(x) = 3 x − 14x + 8 = (3x − 2)(x − 4), (3.4.25)
2
3


t
t +1
Solution
2
1(t2 + 1) − 2t(t) 1 −t
s'(t) =
2 2
=
t 2
.
(t + 1) ( 2 + 1)
Exercise 3.4.10
2
y = 2x + 3.
Hint
Solve f '(x) = 2 .
Answer
5


3
Key Concepts
The derivative of a product of two functions is the derivative of the first function times the second function plus the derivative
of the second function times the first function.
Glossary
product rule

d
dx
quotient rule
d f (x) f '(x)g(x) − g'(x)f (x)
( =
2
dx g(x)) (g(x))
Contributors
This page titled 3.4: Product & Quotient Rules is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by
OpenStax.

So far, we have learned how to differentiate a variety of functions, including trigonometric, inverse, and implicit functions. In this
section, we explore derivatives of exponential and logarithmic functions. As we discussed in Introduction to Functions and Graphs,
exponential functions play an important role in modeling population growth and the decay of radioactive materials. Logarithmic
functions can help rescale large quantities and are particularly helpful for rewriting complicated expressions.
Derivative of the Exponential Function

Just as when we found the derivatives of other functions, we can find the derivatives of exponential and logarithmic functions using
formulas. As we develop these formulas, we need to make certain basic assumptions. The proofs that these assumptions hold are
beyond the scope of this course.
First of all, we begin with the assumption that the function B(x) = b , b > 0, is defined for every real number and is continuous.
x
In previous courses, the values of exponential functions for all rational numbers were defined—beginning with the definition of b , n
where n is a positive integer—as the product of b multiplied by itself n times. Later, we defined b = 1, b = , for a positive 0 −n
b
1
n
integer n , and b = (√b) for positive integers s and t . These definitions leave open the question of the value of br where r is an
s/t t s
arbitrary real number. By assuming the continuity of B(x) = b , b > 0 , we may interpret b as lim
x
b where the values of x as
r
x→r
x
we take the limit are rational. For example, we may view 4 as the number satisfying
π
3 π 4 3.1 π 3.2 3.14 π 3.15

4 <4 <4 ,4 <4 <4 ,4 <4 <4 , (3.9.1)
3.141 π 3.142 3.1415 π 3.1416

4 <4 <4 ,4 <4 <4 ,…. (3.9.2)
As we see in the following table, 4 π

≈ 77.88.
x x
x 4 x 4
4
3
64 3. 141593
4 77.8802710486
4
3.1
73.5166947198 3.1416
4 77.8810268071
4
3.14
77.7084726013 4
3.142
77.9242251944
4
3.141
77.8162741237 4
3.15
78.7932424541
4
3.1415
77.8702309526 4
3.2
84.4485062895
4
3.14159
77.8799471543 4
4
256
Approximating a Value of 4 π
We also assume that for B(x) = b , b > 0 , the value B'(0) of the derivative exists. In this section, we show that by making this
x
one additional assumption, it is possible to prove that the function B(x) is differentiable everywhere.
We make one final assumption: that there is a unique value of b > 0 for which B'(0) = 1 . We define e to be this unique value, as
we did in Introduction to Functions and Graphs. Figure provides graphs of the functions y = 2 , y = 3 , y = 2.7 , and y = 2.8 . x x x x
A visual estimate of the slopes of the tangent lines to these functions at 0 provides evidence that the value of e lies somewhere
between 2.7 and 2.8. The function E(x) = e is called the natural exponential function. Its inverse, L(x) = log x = lnx is
x
e
called the natural logarithmic function.

Figure 3.9.1 : The graph of E(x) = e is between y = 2 and y = 3 .
x x x
For a better estimate of e , we may construct a table of estimates of B'(0) for functions of the form B(x) = b . Before doing this, x
recall that
x 0 x x
b −b b −1 b −1
B'(0) = li mx→0 = li mx→0 ≈
x−0 x x
for values of x very close to zero. For our estimates, we choose x = 0.00001 and x = −0.00001
to obtain the estimate
−0.00001 0.00001
b −1 b −1
< B'(0) < .
−0.00001 0.00001
See the following table.

Table : Estimating a Value of e
−0.00001 0.00001 −0.00001 0.00001
b b
−0. 00001
−1
< B'(0) <
b
0. 00001
−1
. b b
−0. 00001
−1
< B'(0) <
b
0. 00001
−1
.
2 0.693145 < B'(0) < 0.69315 2.718 1.000002 < B'(0) < 1.000012
2.7 0.993247 < B'(0) < 0.993257 2.719 1.000259 < B'(0) < 1.000269
2.71 0.996944 < B'(0) < 0.996954 2.72 1.000627 < B'(0) < 1.000637
2.718 0.999891 < B'(0) < 0.999901 2.8 1.029614 < B'(0) < 1.029625
2.7182 0.999965 < B'(0) < 0.999975 3 1.098606 < B'(0) < 1.098618
The evidence from the table suggests that 2.7182 < e < 2.7183.
The graph of E(x) = e together with the line y = x + 1 are shown in Figure. This line is tangent to the graph of E(x) = e at
x x
x = 0.

Figure 3.9.2 : The tangent line to E(x) = e at x = 0 has slope 1. x
Now that we have laid out our basic assumptions, we begin our investigation by exploring the derivative of B(x) = b x
,b >0 .
Recall that we have assumed that B'(0) exists. By applying the limit definition to the derivative we conclude that
0+h 0 h
b −b b −1
B'(0) = li mh→0
h
= li mh→0
h
.
Turning to B'(x), we obtain the following.
x+h x
B'(x) = limh→0
b
h
−b
Apply the limit definition of the derivative.
x h x
= limh→0
b b −b
h
Note thatbx+h=bxbh.
x h
b ( b −1)
= limh→0
h
Factor outbx.
h
x
= b li mh→0
b −1
h
Apply a property of limits.
0+h 0 h
x
= b B'(0) Use B'(0) = li m h→0
b
h
−b
= li mh→0
b −1
h
.
We see that on the basis of the assumption that B(x) = b is differentiable at 0, B(x) is not only differentiable everywhere, but its
x
derivative is
x
B'(x) = b B'(0).
For x
E(x) = e , E'(0) = 1. Thus, we have E'(x) = e
x
. (The value of B'(0) for an arbitrary function of the form
x
B(x) = b , b > 0, will be derived later.)
Derivative of the Natural Exponential Function
Let E(x) = e be the natural exponential function. Then
x
x
E'(x) = e .
In general,
d
dx
(e
g(x)
) =e
g(x)
g'(x) .
Example 3.9.1 : Derivative of an Exponential Function

Find the derivative of f (x) = e tan(2x)
.
Solution:
Using the derivative formula and the chain rule,
f '(x) = e
tan(2x) d
dx
(tan(2x)) = e
tan(2x) 2
sec (2x) ⋅ 2 .

2
x
Find the derivative of y = e
x
.
Solution
Use the derivative of the natural exponential function, the quotient rule, and the chain rule.

2 2
x x
(e ⋅2)x⋅x−1⋅ e
y' =
x
2
2
x 2
e (2 x −1)
=
x
2
Simplify.
Exercise 3.9.1
Find the derivative of h(x) = xe . 2x
Hint
Answer
2x 2x
h'(x) = e + 2x e
Example 3.9.3 : Applying the Natural Exponential Function

A colony of mosquitoes has an initial population of 1000. After t days, the population is given by A(t) = 1000e 0.3t
. Show that
the ratio of the rate of change of the population, A'(t), to the population, A(t) is constant.
Solution
First find A'(t). By using the chain rule, we have A'(t) = 300e 0.3t
. Thus, the ratio of the rate of change of the population to the
population is given by
0.3t
300e
A'(t) = = 0.3.
1000e0.3t
The ratio of the rate of change of the population to the population is the constant 0.3.
Exercise 3.9.2
If A(t) = 1000e describes the mosquito population after t days, as in the preceding example, what is the rate of change of
0.3t
A(t) after 4 days?
Hint
Find A'(4).
Answer
996
Derivative of the Logarithmic Function

Now that we have the derivative of the natural exponential function, we can use implicit differentiation to find the derivative of its
inverse, the natural logarithmic function.
Definition: The Derivative of the Natural Logarithmic Function
If x > 0 and y = lnx ,then
dy
dx
=
1
x
.
More generally, let g(x) be a differentiable function. For all values of x for which g'(x) > 0 , the derivative of h(x) = ln(g(x))
is given by
1
h'(x) = g'(x).
g(x)
Proof
If x > 0 and y = lnx , then e y
= x. Differentiating both sides of this equation results in the equation
dy
y
e = 1.
dx

dy
Solving for dx
yields
dy
dx
=
e
1
y
.
Finally, we substitute x = e to obtain y
dy
dx
=
1
x
.
We may also derive this result by applying the inverse function theorem, as follows. Since y = g(x) = lnx
is the inverse of f (x) = e , by applying the inverse function theorem we have
x
dy
dx
=
1
f '(g(x))
=
e
1
lnx
=
1
x
.
Using this result and applying the chain rule to h(x) = ln(g(x)) yields
h'(x) =
1
g(x)
g'(x) .
dy
The graph of y = lnx and its derivative dx
=
1
x
are shown in Figure.
Figure 3.9.3 : The function y = lnx is increasing on (0, +∞). Its derivative y ′
=
1
x
is greater than zero on (0, +∞)
Example 3.9.4 :Taking a Derivative of a Natural Logarithm

Find the derivative of f (x) = ln(x 3
+ 3x − 4) .
Solution
Use Equation directly.
f '(x) =
1
x3 +3x−4
2
⋅ (3 x + 3) Use g(x) = x 3
+ 3x − 4 in h'(x) = g(x)
1
g'(x) .
2
3 x +3
= 3
x +3x−4
Rewrite.
Example 3.9.5 :Using Properties of Logarithms in a Derivative

2
Find the derivative of f (x) = ln( x sinx
2x+1
) .
Solution
At first glance, taking this derivative appears rather complicated. However, by using the properties of logarithms prior to finding
the derivative, we can make the problem much simpler.
2
f (x) = ln(
x sinx
2x+1
) = 2lnx + ln(sinx) − ln(2x + 1) Apply properties of logarithms.
f '(x) =
2
x
+ cotx −
2x+1
2
Apply sum rule and h'(x) = 1
g(x)
g'(x) .
Exercise 3.9.3
Differentiate: f (x) = ln(3x + 2) . 5
Hint
Use a property of logarithms to simplify before taking the derivative.

Answer
15
f '(x) =
3x+2
Now that we can differentiate the natural logarithmic function, we can use this result to find the derivatives of y = logb x and
y =b for b > 0, b ≠ 1 .
x
Derivatives of General Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

Let b > 0, b ≠ 1, and let g(x) be a differentiable function.
i. If, y = log bx , then
dy
dx
=
xlnb
1
.
More generally, if h(x) = log b (g(x)) , then for all values of x for which g(x) > 0 ,
g'(x)
h'(x) =
g(x)lnb
.
ii. If y = b x
, then
dy
dx
x
= b lnb .
More generally, if h(x) = b g(x)
, then
g(x) ′′
h'(x) = b g (x)lnb
Proof
If y = log x, then b = x. It follows that ln(b ) = lnx . Thus ylnb = lnx. Solving for y , we have y =
b
y y lnx
lnb
. Differentiating and
keeping in mind that lnb is a constant, we see that
dy
dx
=
1
xlnb
.
The derivative in Equation now follows from the chain rule.
If y =b
x
. then lny = xlnb. Using implicit differentiation, again keeping in mind that lnb is constant, it follows that
dy dy
1
y dx
= lnb . Solving for dx
and substituting y = b , we see that
x
dy
dx
= ylnb = b lnb
x
.
The more general derivative (Equation) follows from the chain rule.
□
Example 3.9.6 :Applying Derivative Formulas

x
Find the derivative of h(x) = 3

x
3 +2
.
Solution
Use the quotient rule and Note.
x x x x
3 ln3( 3 +2)−3 ln3( 3 )
h'(x) =
x 2
( 3 +2 )
=
2⋅ 3 ln3
2
Simplify.
(3x+2)
Example 3.9.7 : Finding the Slope of a Tangent Line

Find the slope of the line tangent to the graph of y = log 2 (3x + 1) at x = 1 .
Solution
dy
To find the slope, we must evaluate dx
at x = 1 . Using Equation, we see that
dy
dx
=
3
ln2(3x+1)
.

By evaluating the derivative at x = 1 , we see that the tangent line has slope
dy
dx
∣x=1 =
3
4ln2
=
3
ln16
.
Exercise 3.9.4
Find the slope for the line tangent to y = 3 at x = 2. x
Hint
Evaluate the derivative at x = 2.
Answer
9ln(3)
Logarithmic Differentiation
At this point, we can take derivatives of functions of the form y = (g(x)) for certain values of n , as well as functions of the form
n
y =b , where b > 0 and b ≠ 1 . Unfortunately, we still do not know the derivatives of functions such as y = x or y = x .
g(x) x π
These functions require a technique called logarithmic differentiation, which allows us to differentiate any function of the form
h(x) = g(x) . It can also be used to convert a very complex differentiation problem into a simpler one, such as finding the
f (x)
x√2x+1
derivative of y = x
e sin x
3
. We outline this technique in the following problem-solving strategy.
Problem-Solving Strategy: Using Logarithmic Differentiation
1. To differentiate y = h(x) using logarithmic differentiation, take the natural logarithm of both sides of the equation to obtain
lny = ln(h(x)).
2. Use properties of logarithms to expand ln(h(x)) as much as possible.

dy
3. Differentiate both sides of the equation. On the left we will have 1
y dx
.
dy
4. Multiply both sides of the equation by y to solve for dx
.
5. Replace y by h(x).
Example 3.9.8 : Using Logarithmic Differentiation

Find the derivative of y = (2x 4
+ 1)
tanx
.
Solution
Use logarithmic differentiation to find this derivative.
lny = ln(2 x
4
+ 1)
tanx
lny = tanxln(2 x
4
+ 1) Step 2. Expand using properties of logarithms.
3
dy
1
y dx
2
= sec xln(2 x
4
+ 1) +
8x
4
2 x +1
⋅ tanx Step 3. Differentiate both sides. Use theproduct rule on the right.
dy 3
dx
2
= y ⋅ (sec xln(2x4 + 1) +
8x
2 x +1
4
⋅ tanx) Step 4. Multiply byyon both sides.
3
dy
dx
= (2 x
4
+ 1)
tanx 2
(sec xln(2 x
4
+ 1) +
8x
2 x4 +1
⋅ tanx) Step 5. Substitute y = (2x 4
+ 1)
tanx
.
Example 3.9.9 : Extending the Power Rule

x√2x+1
Find the derivative of y = ex sin3 x
.
Solution
This problem really makes use of the properties of logarithms and the differentiation rules given in this chapter.
x √2x+1
lny = ln Step 1. Take the natural logarithm of both sides.
ex si n3 x
lny = lnx +
1
2
ln(2x + 1) − xlne − 3lnsinx Step 2. Expand using properties of logarithms.

dy
1
y dx
=
1
x
+
1
2x+1
−1 −3
cosx
sinx
Step 3. Differentiate both sides.
dy
dx
= y(
1
x
+
1
2x+1
− 1 − 3cotx) Step 4. Multiply by y on both sides.
dy x √2x+1 x √2x+1
dx
=
ex si n3 x
(
1
x
+
1
2x+1
− 1 − 3cotx) Step 5. Substitute y =
ex si n3 x
.
Exercise 3.9.5
Use logarithmic differentiation to find the derivative of y = x . x
Hint
Follow the problem solving strategy.
Answer
dy
Solution: dx
x
= x (1 + lnx)
Exercise 3.9.6
Find the derivative of y = (tanx) . π
Hint
Use the result from Example.
Answer
π−1 2
y' = π(tanx ) sec x
Key Concepts
On the basis of the assumption that the exponential function y = b , b > 0 is continuous everywhere and differentiable at
x
0, this function is differentiable everywhere and there is a formula for its derivative.
We can use a formula to find the derivative of y = lnx , and the relationship log x = allows us to extend our
b
lnx
lnb
differentiation formulas to include logarithms with arbitrary bases.

Logarithmic differentiation allows us to differentiate functions of the form y = g(x) or very complex functions by
f (x)
taking the natural logarithm of both sides and exploiting the properties of logarithms before differentiating.
Key Equations
Derivative of the natural exponential function
d g(x) g(x)
(e ) =e g'(x)
dx
Derivative of the natural logarithmic function

d 1
(lng(x)) = g'(x)
dx g(x)
Derivative of the general exponential function

d g(x) g(x)
(b ) =b g'(x)lnb
dx
Derivative of the general logarithmic function

d g'(x)
(logb g(x)) =
dx g(x)lnb
Glossary
logarithmic differentiation
is a technique that allows us to differentiate a function by first taking the natural logarithm of both sides of an equation,
applying properties of logarithms to simplify the equation, and differentiating implicitly

Contributors
This page titled 3.9: Derivatives of Exponential and Logarithmic Functions is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license and was authored,
remixed, and/or curated by OpenStax.

3.E: Derivatives (ALL Chapter 3 Exercises)
3.1: Defining the Derivative
For the following exercises, use Equation to find the slope of the secant line between the values x1 and x2 for each function
y = f (x).
1) f (x) = 4x + 7; x 1 = 2, x2 = 5
Solution: 4
2) f (x) = 8x − 3; x 1 = −1, x2 = 3
3) f (x) = x 2
+ 2x + 1; x1 = 3, x2 = 3.5
Solution: 8.5
4) f (x) = −x 2
+ x + 2; x1 = 0.5, x2 = 1.5
5) f (x) = 4
3x−1
; x1 = 1, x2 = 3
Solution: − 3
6) f (x) = x−7
2x+1
; x1 = −2, x2 = 0
7) f (x) = √−
x; x 1 = 1, x2 = 16
Solution: 0.2
−−−−−
8) f (x) = √x − 9 ; x 1 = 10, x2 = 13
9) f (x) = x1/3 + 1; x 1 = 0, x2 = 8
Solution: 0.25
10) f (x) = 6x 2/3
+ 2x
1/3
; x1 = 1, x2 = 27

a. use Equation to find the slope of the tangent line m tan = f '(a) , and
b. find the equation of the tangent line to f at x = a .
11) f (x) = 3 − 4x, a = 2
Solution: a. −4 b. y = 3 − 4x
12) f (x) = x
5
+ 6, a = −1
13) f (x) = x 2
+ x, a = 1
Solution: a. 3 b. y = 3x − 1
14) f (x) = 1 − x − x 2
,a =0
15) f (x) = 7
x
,a =3
Solution: a. −7
9
b. y =
−7
9
x+
14
−−−−−
16) f (x) = √x + 8 , a = 1
17) f (x) = 2 − 3x 2
, a = −2
Solution: a. 12b. y = 12x + 14

18) f (x) = −3
x−1
,a =4
19) f (x) = x+3

2
, a = −4
Solution: a. −2b. y = −2x − 10

20) f (x) = 3
x2
,a =3
For the following functions y = f (x), find f '(a) using Equation.
21) f (x) = 5x + 4, a = −1
Solution: 5
22) f (x) = −7x + 1, a = 3
23) f (x) = x 2
+ 9x, a = 2
Solution: 13
24) f (x) = 3x 2
− x + 2, a = 1
25) f (x) = √−
x, a = 4
Solution: 1
−−−−−
26) f (x) = √x − 2 , a = 6
27) f (x) = 1
x
,a =2
Solution: − 1
28) f (x) = x−3

1
, a = −1
29) f (x) = 1
x3
,a =1
Solution: −3
30) f (x) = 1
,a =4
√x
For the following exercises, given the function y = f (x),

a. find the slope of the secant line P Q for each point Q(x, f (x))with x value given in the table.
b. Use the answers from a. to estimate the value of the slope of the tangent line at P .
c. Use the answer from b. to find the equation of the tangent line to f at point P .
31) [T] f (x) = x 2
+ 3x + 4 , P (1, 8) (Round to 6 decimal places.)
1.1 (i) 0.9 (vii)
1.01 (ii) 0.99 (viii)
1.001 (iii) 0.999 (ix)
1.0001 (iv) 0.9999 (x)
1.00001 (v) 0.99999 (xi)
1.000001 (vi) 0.999999 (xii)
Solution:
a. (i)5.100000, (ii)5.010000, (iii)5.001000, (iv)5.000100, (v)5.000010, (vi)5.000001, (vii)4.900000, (viii)4.990000,
(ix)4.999000, (x)4.999900, (xi)4.999990, (x)4.999999
b. m tan =5
c. y = 5x + 3
32) [T] f (x) = x+1
x2 −1
, P (0, −1)
0.1 (i) −0.1 (vii)
0.01 (ii) −0.01 (viii)
0.001 (iii) −0.001 (ix)
0.0001 (iv) −0.0001 (x)
0.00001 (v) −0.00001 (xi)
0.000001 (vi) −0.000001 (xii)
33) [T] f (x) = 10e 0.5x

, P (0, 10) (Round to 4 decimal places.)
x SlopemP Q
−0.1 (i)
−0.01 (ii)
−0.001 (iii)
−0.0001 (iv)
−0.00001 (v)
−0.000001 (vi)
Solution: a. (i)4.8771, (ii)4.9875(iii)4.9988, (iv)4.9999, (v)4.9999, (vi)4.9999

b. m tan =5
c. y = 5x + 10
34) [T] f (x) = tan(x) , P (π, 0)
x SlopemP Q
3.1 (i)
3.14 (ii)
3.141 (iii)
3.1415 (iv)
3.14159 (v)
3.141592 (vi)
[T] For the following position functions y = s(t) , an object is moving along a straight line, where t is in seconds and s is in
meters. Find
a. the simplified expression for the average velocity from t = 2 to t = 2 + h ;
b. the average velocity between t =2 and t = 2 +h , where (i)h = 0.1, (ii)h = 0.01, (iii)h = 0.001 , and
(iv)h = 0.0001; and
c. use the answer from a. to estimate the instantaneous velocity at t = 2 second.

35) s(t) = 1
3
t +5
Solution: a. ; b. (i)0.3 m/s, (ii)0.3 m/s, (iii)0.3 m/s, (iv)0.3 m/s; c. 0.3 = 13 m/s
1
36) s(t) = t 2
− 2t
37) s(t) = 2t 3
+3
Solution: a. 2(h 2
+ 6h + 12) ;
b. (i)25.22m/s, (ii)24.12m/s, (iii)24.01m/s, (iv)24m/s; c. 24m/s
38) s(t) = 16
2
−
4
t
t
39) Use the following graph to evaluate a. f '(1) and b. f '(6).
Solution: a. 1.25; b. 0.5
40) Use the following graph to evaluate a. f '(−3) and b. f '(1.5).
For the following exercises, use the limit definition of derivative to show that the derivative does not exist at x=a for each of the
given functions.
41) f (x) = x 1/3
,x =0
1/3
x −0
−
x−0
= li mx→0−
1
x2/3
=∞
42) f (x) = x 2/3

,x =0
1 x <1
43) f (x) = { ,x =1
x x ≥1
1−1 x−1
−
x−1
= 0 ≠ 1 = li mx→1+
x−1
|x|
44) f (x) = x
,x =0
45) [T] The position in feet of a race car along a straight track after t seconds is modeled by the function s(t) = 8t 2
−
1
16
3
t .
a. Find the average velocity of the vehicle over the following time intervals to four decimal places:
i. [4, 4.1]
ii. [4, 4.01]
iii. [4, 4.001]
iv. [4, 4.0001]
b. Use a. to draw a conclusion about the instantaneous velocity of the vehicle at t = 4 seconds.
Solution: a. (i)61.7244f t/s, (ii)61.0725f t/s(iii)61.0072f t/s(iv)61.0007f t/s
b. At 4 seconds the race car is traveling at a rate/velocity of 61 ft/s.
46) [T] The distance in feet that a ball rolls down an incline is modeled by the function s(t) = 14t ,
2
where t is seconds after the ball begins rolling.
a. Find the average velocity of the ball over the following time intervals:
i. [5, 5.1]
ii. [5, 5.01]
iii. [5, 5.001]
iv. [5, 5.0001]
b. Use the answers from a. to draw a conclusion about the instantaneous velocity of the ball at t = 5 seconds.
47) Two vehicles start out traveling side by side along a straight road. Their position functions, shown in the following graph, are
given by s = f (t) and s = g(t) , where s is measured in feet and t is measured in seconds.
a. Which vehicle has traveled farther at t = 2 seconds?

b. What is the approximate velocity of each vehicle at t = 3 seconds?
c. Which vehicle is traveling faster at t = 4 seconds?
d. What is true about the positions of the vehicles at t = 4 seconds?
Solution: a. The vehicle represented by f (t), because it has traveled 2 feet, whereas g(t) has traveled 1 foot.
c. The vehicle represented by g(t) , with a velocity of approximately 4 ft/s. d. Both have traveled 4 feet in 4 seconds.
48) [T] The total cost C (x), in hundreds of dollars, to produce x jars of mayonnaise is given by C (x) = 0.000003x 3
.
+ 4x + 300
a. Calculate the average cost per jar over the following intervals:
i. [100, 100.1]
ii. [100, 100.01]
iii. [100, 100.001]
iv. [100, 100.0001]
b. Use the answers from a. to estimate the average cost to produce 100 jars of mayonnaise.
49) [T] For the function f (x) = x 3 2
− 2x − 11x + 12 , do the following.
b. Use the ZOOM feature on the calculator to approximate the two values of x = a for which m tan = f '(a) = 0 .
Solution: a.
b. a ≈ −1.361, 2.694
50) [T] For the function f (x) = 1+x
x
2
, do the following.
b. Use the ZOOM feature on the calculator to approximate the values of x = a for which m tan = f '(a) = 0 .
51) Suppose that N (x) computes the number of gallons of gas used by a vehicle traveling x miles. Suppose the vehicle gets 30
mpg.
a. Find a mathematical expression for N (x).
b. What is N (100)? Explain the physical meaning.
c. What is N '(100)? Explain the physical meaning.
Solution: a. N (x) = x
30
b. ∼3.3 gallons. When the vehicle travels 100 miles, it has used 3.3 gallons of gas.
c. 1
30
. The rate of gas consumption in gallons per mile that the vehicle is achieving after having traveled 100 miles.
52) [T] For the function f (x) = x 4
− 5x
2
+4 , do the following.
b. Use the nDeriv function, which numerically finds the derivative, on a graphing calculator to estimate
, and f '(2.718).
f '(−2), f '(−0.5), f '(1.7)
53) [T] For the function f (x) = x

2
x +1
, do the following.

b. Use the nDeriv function on a graphing calculator to find f '(−4), f '(−2), f '(2), and f '(4).
Solution: a.
b. −0.028, −0.16, 0.16, 0.028

Exercise:
For the following exercises, use the definition of a derivative to find f '(x).
1) f (x) = 6
2) f (x) = 2 − 3x
Solution: −3
3) f (x) = 2x
7
+1
4) f (x) = 4x 2
Solution: 8x
5) f (x) = 5x − x 2
−−
6) f (x) = √2x
Solution: 1
√2x
−−−−−
7) f (x) = √x − 6
8) f (x) = 9
−9
Solution: 2
x
9) f (x) = x + 1
10) f (x) = √x
1
Solution: −1
3/2
2x
For the following exercises, use the graph of y = f (x) to sketch the graph of its derivative f '(x)..
11)
12)
Solution:
13)
14)
Solution:
For the following exercises, the given limit represents the derivative of a function y = f (x) at x = a . Find f (x) and a .
2/3
(1+h) −1
15) lim h→0
h
16) \(lim_{h→0}\frac{[3(2+h)^2+2]−14}{h}
Solution: f (x) = 3x 2
+ 2, a = 2
cos(π+h)+1
17) lim h→0
h
4
(2+h) −16
18) lim h→0
h
Solution: f (x) = x 4
,a =2
2
[2(3+h) −(3+h)]−15
19) lim h→0
h
20) lim h→0

e −1
Solution: f (x) = e x
,a =0

a. sketch the graph and
b. use the definition of a derivative to show that the function is not differentiable at x = 1 .
−
2 √x 0 ≤x ≤1
21) f (x) = {
3x − 1 x >1
3 x <1
22) f (x) = {
3x x ≥1
Solution:
a.
b. li m −
h→1
3−3
h
≠ li mh→1+
3h
2
−x +2 x ≤1
23) f (x) = {
x x >1
2x, x ≤1
24) f (x) = { 2
x >1
x
a.
The function starts in the third quadrant as a straight line and passes through the origin with slope 2; then at (1, 2) it decreases convexly as 2/x.
2
−2x
b. li m 2h x+h
−
h→1
≠ li mh→1+ .
h h
For the following graphs,

a. determine for which values of x = a the li m x→a f (x) exists but f is not continuous at x = a , and
b. determine for which values of x = a the function is continuous but not differentiable at x = a .
25)
26)
Solution: a. x = 1, b. x = 2
27) Use the graph to evaluate a. f '(−0.5), b. f '(0), c. f '(1), d. f '(2),and e. f '(3), if it exists.
f '(x+h)−f '(x)
For the following functions, use f ′′
(x) = li mh→0
h
to find f ′′
(x).
28) f (x) = 2 − 3x
Solution: 0
29) f (x) = 4x 2
30) f (x) = x + 1
Solution: 2
x3
For the following exercises, use a calculator to graph f (x). Determine the function f '(x), then use a calculator to graph f '(x).
31) [T ]f (x) = − 5
32) [T ]f (x) = 3x 2
+ 2x + 4.
Solution:f '(x) = 6x + 2
33) [T ]f (x) = √−
x + 3x
34) [T ]f (x) = 1
√2x
Solution: f '(x) = − 1
3/2
(2x)
35) [T ]f (x) = 1 + x + 1
36) [T ]f (x) = x 3
+1
Solution: f '(x) = 3x 2
For the following exercises, describe what the two expressions represent in terms of each of the given situations. Be sure to include
units.
f (x+h)−f (x)
a. h
f (x+h)−f (x)
b. f '(x) = lim h→0
h
37) P (x) denotes the population of a city at time x in years.

38) C (x) denotes the total amount of money (in thousands of dollars) spent on concessions by x customers at an amusement park.
Solution:
a. Average rate at which customers spent on concessions in thousands per customer.
b. Rate (in thousands per customer) at which x customers spent money on concessions in thousands per customer.
39) R(x) denotes the total cost (in thousands of dollars) of manufacturing x clock radios
40) g(x) denotes the grade (in percentage points) received on a test, given x hours of studying.
a. Average grade received on the test with an average study time between two values.
b. Rate (in percentage points per hour) at which the grade on the test increased or decreased for a given average study time of x
hours.
41) B(x)denotes the cost (in dollars) of a sociology textbook at university bookstores in the United States in x years since 1990.
42) p(x) denotes atmospheric pressure at an altitude of x feet.
Solution:
a. Average change of atmospheric pressure between two different altitudes.
b. Rate (torr per foot) at which atmospheric pressure is increasing or decreasing at x feet.
43) Sketch the graph of a function y = f (x) with all of the following properties:
a. f '(x) > 0 for −2 ≤ x < 1
b. f '(2) = 0
c. f '(x) > 0 for x > 2
d. f (2) = 2 and f (0) = 1
e. li m x→−∞ f (x) = 0 and li m x→∞ f (x) = ∞
f. f '(1) does not exist.

44) Suppose temperature T in degrees Fahrenheit at a height x in feet above the ground is given by y = T (x).
a. Give a physical interpretation, with units, of T '(x).
b. If we know that T '(1000) = −0.1, explain the physical meaning.
Solution:
a. The rate (in degrees per foot) at which temperature is increasing or decreasing for a given height x.
b. The rate of change of temperature as altitude changes at 1000 feet is −0.1 degrees per foot.
45) Suppose the total profit of a company is y = P (x) thousand dollars when x units of an item are sold.
P (b)−P (a)
a. What does b−a
for 0 < a < b measure, and what are the units?
b. What does P '(x) measure, and what are the units?
c. Suppose that P '(30) = 5 , what is the approximate change in profit if the number of items sold increases from 30 to 31?
46) The graph in the following figure models the number of people N (t) who have come down with the flu t weeks after its initial
outbreak in a town with a population of 50,000 citizens.
a. Describe what N '(t) represents and how it behaves as t increases.
b. What does the derivative tell us about how this town is affected by the flu outbreak?
Solution: a. The rate at which the number of people who have come down with the flu is changing t weeks after the initial outbreak.
b. The rate is increasing sharply up to the third week, at which point it slows down and then becomes constant.
For the following exercises, use the following table, which shows the height h of the Saturn V rocket for the Apollo 11 mission t
seconds after launch.
T ime(seconds) Height(meters)
0 0
1 2
2 4
3 13
4 25
5 32
47) What is the physical meaning of h'(t)? What are the units?
48) [T] Construct a table of values for h'(t) and graph both h(t) and h'(t) on the same graph. (Hint: for interior points, estimate
both the left limit and right limit and average them.)
Solution:
T ime(seconds) h'(t)(m/s)
0 2
1 2
2 5.5
3 10.5
4 9.5
5 7
49) [T] The best linear fit to the data is given by H (t) = 7.229t − 4.905, where H is the height of the rocket (in meters) and t is
the time elapsed since takeoff. From this equation, determine H '(t). Graph H (t with the given data and, on a separate coordinate
plane, graph H '(t).
50) [T] The best quadratic fit to the data is given by G(t) = 1.429t + 0.0857t − 0.1429, where G is the height of the rocket (in
2
meters) and t is the time elapsed since takeoff. From this equation, determine G'(t). Graph G(t) with the given data and, on a
separate coordinate plane, graph G'(t).
Solution: G'(t) = 2.858t + 0.0857
51) [T] The best cubic fit to the data is given by F (t) = 0.2037t + 2.956t − 2.705t + 0.4683, where F is the height of the
3 2
rocket (in m) and t is the time elapsed since take off. From this equation, determine F '(t). Graph F (t) with the given data and, on
a separate coordinate plane, graph F '(t). Does the linear, quadratic, or cubic function fit the data best?
52) Using the best linear, quadratic, and cubic fits to the data, determine what H ′′ ′′
(t), G (t)andF
′′
(t) are. What are the physical
meanings of H (t), G (t)andF (t), and what are their units?
′′ ′′ ′′
Solution:H (t) = 0, G (t) = 2.858andf

′′ ′′ ′′
(t) = 1.222t + 5.912 represent the acceleration of the rocket, with units of meters per
second squared (m/s2).

Exercise:
1) f (x) = x 7
+ 10
2) f (x) = 5x 3
−x +1

−1
3) f (x) = 4x 2
− 7x
4) f (x) = 8x 4
+ 9x
2
−1

+ 18x
5) f (x) = x 4
+ 2x
6) f (x) = 3x(18x 4
+
13
x+1
)

+
39
2
(x+1)
7) f (x) = (x + 2)(2x 2
− 3)
8) f (x) = x 2
(
2
x
2
+
x
5
3
)
Solution: f '(x) = −5
x
2
3 2
9) f (x) = x +2 x −4
10) \(f(x)=\frac{4x^3−2x+1}{x^2}
4 2
Solution: f '(x) = 4 x +2 x −2x
x
4
11) f (x) = x +4
x −4
2
12) f (x) = 2
x −7x+1
x+9
Solution: f '(x) = −x −18x+64
2
2
( x −7x+1 )
For the following exercises, find the equation of the tangent line T (x) to the graph of the given function at the indicated point. Use
a graphing calculator to graph the function and the tangent line.
13) [T] y = 3x 2
+ 4x + 1 at (0, 1)
−
14) [T] y = 2 √x + 1 at (4, 5)
Solution: T (x) = 1
2
x +3
15) [T] y = x−1

2x
at (−1, 1)
16) [T] y = 2
x
−
3
2
x
at (1, −1)
Solution: T (x) = 4x − 5
For the following exercises, assume that f (x) and g(x) are both differentiable functions for all x. Find the derivative of each of the
functions h(x).
g(x)
17) h(x) = 4f (x) + 7
18) h(x) = x 3
f (x)
Solution: h'(x) = 3x 2
f (x) + x f '(x)
3
f (x)g(x)
19) h(x) = 2
3f (x)
20) h(x) = g(x)+2
3f '(x)(g(x)+2)−3f (x)g'(x)
Solution: h'(x) = 2
(g(x)+2)
For the following exercises, assume that f(x) and g(x) are both differentiable functions with values as given in the following table.
Use the following table to calculate the following derivatives.
x 1 2 3 4
f (x) 3 5 −2 0
g(x) 2 3 −4 6
f '(x) −1 7 8 −3
g'(x) 4 1 2 9
21) Find h'(1) if h(x) = xf (x) + 4g(x) .

f (x)
22) Find h'(2) if h(x) = g(x)
.
Solution: 16
23) Find h'(3) if h(x) = 2x + f (x)g(x) .

g(x)
24) Find h'(4) if h(x) = 1
x
+
f (x)
.
Solution: Undefined
For the following exercises, use the following figure to find the indicated derivatives, if they exist.For the following exercises, use
the following figure to find the indicated derivatives, if they exist.
25) Let h(x) = f (x) + g(x) . Find

a) h'(1),
b) h'(3), and
c) h'(4).
26) Let h(x) = f (x)g(x). Find
a) h'(1),
b) h'(3), and
c) h'(4).
Solution: a. 2, b. does not exist, c. 2.5
f (x)
27) Let h(x) = g(x)
. Find
a) h'(1),
b) h'(3), and
c) h'(4).
For the following exercises,
a) evaluate f '(a), and
b) graph the function f (x) and the tangent line at x = a.
28) [T] f (x) = 2x 3 2
+ 3x − x , a = 2
Solution: a. 23, b. y = 23x − 28
29) [T] f (x) = 1
x
2
−x , a = 1
30) [T] f (x) = x 2

−x
12
+ 3x + 2, a = 0
Solution: a. 3, b. y = 3x + 2
31) [T] f (x) = 1
x
−x
2/3
, a = −1
32) Find the equation of the tangent line to the graph of f (x) = 2x 3
+ 4x
2
− 5x − 3 at x = −1.
Solution: y = −7x − 3
33) Find the equation of the tangent line to the graph of f (x) = x2
+
4
x
− 10 at x = 8 .
34) Find the equation of the tangent line to the graph of f (x) = (3x − x 2
)(3 − x − x )
2
at x = 1 .
Solution: y = −5x + 7
35) Find the point on the graph of f (x) = x such that the tangent line at that point has an x
3
intercept of 6.
36) Find the equation of the line passing through the point P (3, 3) and tangent to the graph of f (x) = x−1
6
.
Solution: y = − 3
2
x+
15
37) Determine all points on the graph of f (x) = x 3

+x
2
−x −1 for which the slope of the tangent line is
a. horizontal
b. −1.
38) Find a quadratic polynomial such that f (1) = 5, f '(1) = 3 and f ′′
(1) = −6.
Solution: ](y=−3x^2+9x−1\)
− 6t
2
2
[T] A herring swimming along a straight line has traveled s(t) = 2

t
feet in t
t +2
seconds.
40) Determine the velocity of the herring when it has traveled 3 seconds.
Solution: 12
121
or 0.0992 ft/s
8t+3
0.2 t +1
, where t is
measured in years.
2
2 t +t
42) [T] The concentration of antibiotic in the bloodstream t hours after being injected is given by the function C (t) = 3
t +50
,
4 3
Solution: a.
−2 t −2 t +200t+50
3
2
( t +50 )
3
43) A book publisher has a cost function given by C (x) = , where x is the number of copies of a book in thousands and C
x +2x+3
x
2
is the cost, per book, measured in dollars. Evaluate C '(2)and explain its meaning.
44) [T] According to Newton’s law of universal gravitation, the force F between two bodies of constant mass m and m is given 1 2
Gm1 m2
by the formula F =
d2
, where G is the gravitational constant and d is the distance between the bodies.
a. Suppose that G, m , and m are constants. Find the rate of change of force F with respect to distance d .
1 2
b. Find the rate of change of force F with gravitational constant G = 6.67 × 10

−11 2
N m /kg
2
, on two bodies 10 meters
apart, each with a mass of 1000 kilograms.
−2Gm1 m2
Solution: a. F ′
(d) =
d3
b. −1.33 × 10
−7
N /m

Exercise:
For the following exercises, the given functions represent the position of a particle traveling along a horizontal line.
a. Find the velocity and acceleration functions.
b. Determine the time intervals when the object is slowing down or speeding up.
1) s(t) = 2t 3
− 3t
2
− 12t + 8
2) s(t) = 2t 3
− 15 t
2
+ 36t − 10
Solution: a. v(t) = 6t 2
− 30t + 36, a(t) = 12t − 30 ; b. speeds up (2, 2.5) ∪ (3, ∞), slows down (0, 2) ∪ (2.5, 3)
3) s(t) = t
1+t
2
4) A rocket is fired vertically upward from the ground. The distance s in feet that the rocket travels from the ground after t seconds
is given by s(t) = −16t + 560t . 2
a. Find the velocity of the rocket 3 seconds after being fired.

b. Find the acceleration of the rocket 3 seconds after being fired.
Solution: a. 464f t/s 2
b. −32f t/s
2
5) A ball is thrown downward with a speed of 8 ft/s from the top of a 64-foot-tall building. After t seconds, its height above the
ground is given by s(t) = −16t − 8t + 64. 2
a. Determine how long it takes for the ball to hit the ground.
b. Determine the velocity of the ball when it hits the ground.
6) The position function s(t) = t − 3t − 4 represents the position of the back of a car backing out of a driveway and then driving
2
in a straight line, where s is in feet and t is in seconds. In this case, s(t) = 0 represents the time at which the back of the car is at
the garage door, so s(0) = −4 is the starting position of the car, 4 feet inside the garage.
a. Determine the velocity of the car when s(t) = 0 .
b. Determine the velocity of the car when s(t) = 14 .
Solution: a. 5f t/s b. 9f t/s
7) The position of a hummingbird flying along a straight line in t seconds is given by s(t) = 3t 3
− 7t meters.
a. Determine the velocity of the bird at t = 1 sec.
b. Determine the acceleration of the bird at t = 1 sec.
c. Determine the acceleration of the bird when the velocity equals 0.
8) A potato is launched vertically upward with an initial velocity of 100 ft/s from a potato gun at the top of an 85-foot-tall building.
The distance in feet that the potato travels from the ground after t seconds is given by s(t) = −16t + 100t + 85 . 2
a. Find the velocity of the potato after 0.5s and 5.75s.

b. Find the speed of the potato at 0.5 s and 5.75 s.
c. Determine when the potato reaches its maximum height.
d. Find the acceleration of the potato at 0.5 s and 1.5 s.
e. Determine how long the potato is in the air.
f. Determine the velocity of the potato upon hitting the ground.
−−− −−−
Solution: a. 84 ft/s, −84 ft/s b. 84 ft/s c. 25
8
s d. −32f t/s in both cases e.
2 1
8
(25 + √965)s f . −4 √965f t/s
9) The position function s(t) = t

3
− 8t gives the position in miles of a freight train where east is the positive direction and t is
measured in hours.
a. Determine the direction the train is traveling when s(t) = 0 .
b. Determine the direction the train is traveling when a(t) = 0 .
c. Determine the time intervals when the train is slowing down or speeding up.
10) The following graph shows the position y = s(t) of an object moving along a straight line.
a. Use the graph of the position function to determine the time intervals when the velocity is positive, negative, or zero.
b. Sketch the graph of the velocity function.
c. Use the graph of the velocity function to determine the time intervals when the acceleration is positive, negative, or zero.
d. Determine the time intervals when the object is speeding up or slowing down.
Solution: a. Velocity is positive on (0, 1.5) ∪ (6, 7), negative on (1.5, 2) ∪ (5, 6), and zero on (2, 5).
b.
c. Acceleration is positive on (5, 7), negative on , and zero on

(0, 2) . d. The object is speeding up on
(2, 5) (6, 7) ∪ (1.5, 2) and
slowing down on (0, 1.5) ∪ (5, 6).
11) The cost function, in dollars, of a company that manufactures food processors is given by C (x) = 200 + 7
x
+
x
27
, where \x is
the number of food processors manufactured.
b. Find the marginal cost of manufacturing 12 food processors.
c. Find the actual cost of manufacturing the thirteenth food processor.
12) The price p (in dollars) and the demand x for a certain digital clock radio is given by the price–demand function
p = 10 − 0.001x.
a. Find the revenue function R(x)

b. Find the marginal revenue function.
c. Find the marginal revenue at x = 2000 and 5000.
Solution: a. R(x) = 10x − 0.001x b.R'(x) = 10 − 0.002x c. $6 per item, $0 per item
2
13) [T] A profit is earned when revenue exceeds cost. Suppose the profit function for a skateboard manufacturer is given by
P (x) = 30x − 0.3 x − 250 , where x is the number of skateboards sold.
2
a. Find the exact profit from the sale of the thirtieth skateboard.
b. Find the marginal profit function and use it to estimate the profit from the sale of the thirtieth skateboard.
14) [T] In general, the profit function is the difference between the revenue and cost functions: P (x) = R(x) − C (x) .
Suppose the price-demand and cost functions for the production of cordless drills is given respectively by p = 143 − 0.03x and
C (x) = 75, 000 + 65x, where x is the number of cordless drills that are sold at a price of p dollars per drill and C (x) is the cost of
producing x cordless drills.

b. Find the revenue and marginal revenue functions.
c. Find R'(1000) and R'(4000). Interpret the results.
d. Find the profit and marginal profit functions.
e. Find P '(1000) and P '(4000). Interpret the results.
Solution: a. C '(x) = 65 b. R(x) = 143x − 0.03x ,R'(x) = 143 − 0.06x c. 83, −97. At a production level of 1000 cordless
2
drills, revenue is increasing at a rate of $83 per drill; at a production level of 4000 cordless drills, revenue is decreasing at a rate of
$97 per drill. d. P (x) = −0.03x + 78x − 75000, P '(x) = −0.06x + 78 e. 18,−162. At a production level of 1000 cordless
2
drills, profit is increasing at a rate of $18 per drill; at a production level of 4000 cordless drills, profit is decreasing at a rate of $162
per drill.
15) A small town in Ohio commissioned an actuarial firm to conduct a study that modeled the rate of change of the town’s
population. The study found that the town’s population (measured in thousands of people) can be modeled by the function
P (t) = − t + 64t + 3000 , where t is measured in years.
1 3
3
a. Find the rate of change function P '(t) of the population function.

b. Find P '(1), P '(2), P '(3), and P '(4). Interpret what the results mean for the town.
c. Find P ′′
(1), P
′′
(2), P
′′
(3) , and P ′′
. Interpret what the results mean for the town’s population.
(4)
16) [T] A culture of bacteria grows in number according to the function N (t) = 3000(1 + 2
4t
t +100
) , where t is measured in hours.
a. Find the rate of change of the number of bacteria.

b. Find N '(0), N '(10), N '(20), and N '(30).
c. Interpret the results in (b).
d. Find N ′′
(0), N
′′
(10), N
′′
(20), and N ′′
(30) . Interpret what the answers imply about the bacteria population growth.
2 2
Solution: a. N '(t) = 3000(

−4 t +400
2
) b. 120, 0, −14.4, −9.6 c. The bacteria population increases from time 0 to 10 hours;
( t +100)
afterwards, the bacteria population decreases. d. 0, −6, 0.384, 0.432. The rate at which the bacteria is increasing is decreasing
during the first 10 hours. Afterwards, the bacteria population is decreasing at a decreasing rate.
2
17) The centripetal force of an object of mass m is given by F (r) =

mv
r
, where v is the speed of rotation and r is the distance
from the center of rotation.
a. Find the rate of change of centripetal force with respect to the distance from the center of rotation.
b. Find the rate of change of centripetal force of an object with mass 1000 kilograms, velocity of 13.89 m/s, and a distance
from the center of rotation of 200 meters.
The following questions concern the population (in millions) of London by decade in the 19th century, which is listed in the
following table.
Year Since 1800 Population (millions)
1 0.8975
11 1.040
21 1.264
31 1.516
41 1.661
51 2.000
61 2.634
71 3.272
81 3.911
91 4.422
Population of LondonSource: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demographics_of_London

18) [T]
a. Using a calculator or a computer program, find the best-fit linear function to measure the population.
b. Find the derivative of the equation in a. and explain its physical meaning.
Solution: a. P (t) = 0.03983 + 0.4280 b. P '(t) = 0.03983. The population is increasing. c. P
′′
(t) = 0 . The rate at which the
population is increasing is constant.
19) [T]
a. Using a calculator or a computer program, find the best-fit quadratic curve through the data.
b. Find the derivative of the equation and explain its physical meaning.
For the following exercises, consider an astronaut on a large planet in another galaxy. To learn more about the composition of this
planet, the astronaut drops an electronic sensor into a deep trench. The sensor transmits its vertical position every second in relation
to the astronaut’s position. The summary of the falling sensor data is displayed in the following table.
Time after dropping (s) Position (m)
0 0
1 −1
2 −2
3 −5
4 −7
5 −14
20) [T]
a. Using a calculator or computer program, find the best-fit quadratic curve to the data.
b. Find the derivative of the position function and explain its physical meaning.
c. Find the second derivative of the position function and explain its physical meaning.
Solution: a. p(t) = −0.6071 x
2
+ 0.4357x − 0.3571 b. p'(t) = −1.214x + 0.4357. This is the velocity of the sensor. c.
′′
p (t) = −1.214 . This is the acceleration of the sensor; it is a constant acceleration downward.
21) [T]
a. Using a calculator or computer program, find the best-fit cubic curve to the data.
b. Find the derivative of the position function and explain its physical meaning.
c. Find the second derivative of the position function and explain its physical meaning.
d. Using the result from c. explain why a cubic function is not a good choice for this problem.
The following problems deal with the Holling type I, II, and III equations. These equations describe the ecological event of growth
of a predator population given the amount of prey available for consumption.
22) [T] The Holling type I equation is described by f (x) = ax ,where x is the amount of prey available and a >0 is the rate at
which the predator meets the prey for consumption.
a. Graph the Holling type I equation, givena = 0.5 .
b. Determine the first derivative of the Holling type I equation and explain physically what the derivative implies.
c. Determine the second derivative of the Holling type I equation and explain physically what the derivative implies.
d. Using the interpretations from b. and c. explain why the Holling type I equation may not be realistic.
Solution:
a.
b. f '(x) = a. The more increase in prey, the more growth for predators. c. f (x) = 0 . As the amount of prey increases, the rate at
′′
which the predator population growth increases is constant. d. This equation assumes that if there is more prey, the predator is able
to increase consumption linearly. This assumption is unphysical because we would expect there to be some saturation point at
which there is too much prey for the predator to consume adequately.
23) [T] The Holling type II equation is described by f (x) =
ax
n+x
, where x is the amount of prey available and a >0 is the
maximum consumption rate of the predator.
a. Graph the Holling type II equation given a = 0.5 and n = 5 . What are the differences between the Holling type I and II
equations?
b. Take the first derivative of the Holling type II equation and interpret the physical meaning of the derivative.
c. Show that f (n) = 1
2
a and interpret the meaning of the parameter n.
d. Find and interpret the meaning of the second derivative. What makes the Holling type II function more realistic than the
Holling type I function?
2
24) [T] The Holling type III equation is described by f (x) =

ax
2
n +x
2
, where x is the amount of prey available and a >0 is the
maximum consumption rate of the predator.
a. Graph the Holling type III equation given a = 0.5 and n = 5. What are the differences between the Holling type II and III
equations?
b. Take the first derivative of the Holling type III equation and interpret the physical meaning of the derivative.
c. Find and interpret the meaning of the second derivative (it may help to graph the second derivative).
d. What additional ecological phenomena does the Holling type III function describe compared with the Holling type II
function?
Solution:
a.
2 2 2
2
2an ( n −3 x )
b. f '(x) = 2axn
2 2 2
. When the amount of prey increases, the predator growth increases. c. f ′′
(x) =
2 2 3
. When the amount
( n +x ) ( n +x )
of prey is extremely small, the rate at which predator growth is increasing is increasing, but when the amount of prey reaches above
a certain threshold, the rate at which predator growth is increasing begins to decrease. d. At lower levels of prey, the prey is more
easily able to avoid detection by the predator, so fewer prey individuals are consumed, resulting in less predator growth.
25) [T] The populations of the snowshoe hare (in thousands) and the lynx (in hundreds) collected over 7 years from 1937 to 1943
are shown in the following table. The snowshoe hare is the primary prey of the lynx.
Population of snowshoe hare (thousands) Population of lynx (hundreds)
20 10
5 15
65 55
95 60
Snowshoe Hare and Lynx PopulationsSource: http://www.biotopics.co.uk/newgcse/predatorprey.html.

a. Graph the data points and determine which Holling-type function fits the data best.
b. Using the meanings of the parameters a and n , determine values for those parameters by examining a graph of the data.
Recall that n measures what prey value results in the half-maximum of the predator value.
c. Plot the resulting Holling-type I, II, and III functions on top of the data. Was the result from part a. correct?

Exercise:
dy
1) y = x 2
− secx + 1
dy
Solution: dx
= 2x − secxtanx
2) y = 3cscx + 5
3) y = x 2
cotx
dy
Solution: dx
= 2xcotx − x csc x
2 2
4) y = x − x 3
sinx
5) y = secx
dy
Solution: dx
=
xsecxtanx−secx
x
2
6) y = sinxtanx
7) y = (x + cosx)(1 − sinx)
dy
Solution: dx
= (1 − sinx)(1 − sinx) − cosx(x + cosx)
8) y = tanx
1−secx
9) y = 1−cotx
1+cotx
2
dy
Solution: dx
=
2csc x
2
(1+cotx)
10) y = cosx(1 + cscx)

For the following exercises, find the equation of the tangent line to each of the given functions at the indicated values of x. Then
use a calculator to graph both the function and the tangent line to ensure the equation for the tangent line is correct.
11) [T ]f (x) = −sinx, x = 0
Solution: y = −x
12) [T ]f (x) = cscx, x = π
13) [T ]f (x) = 1 + cosx, x = 3π
Solution: y = x + 2−3π
14) [T ]f (x) = secx, x = π
15) [T ]f (x) = x 2
− tanxx = 0
Solution: y = −x
16) [T ]f (x) = 5cotxx = π
2
d y
2
17) y = xsinx − cosx
Solution: 3cosx − xsinx
18) y = sinxcosx
19) y = x − 1
2
sinx
Solution: 1
2
sinx
20) y = 1
x
+ tanx
21) y = 2cscx
Solution: csc(x)(3csc 2
(x) − 1 + cot (x))
2
22) y = sec 2
x
23) Find all x values on the graph of f (x) = −3sinxcosx where the tangent line is horizontal.
(2n+1)π
Solution: 4
,where n is an integer
24) Find all x values on the graph of f (x) = x − 2cosx for 0 < x < 2π where the tangent line has slope 2.
25) Let f (x) = cotx. Determine the points on the graph of f for 0 < x < 2π where the tangent line(s) is (are) parallel to the line
y = −2x .
Solution: ( π
4
, 1), (
3π
4
, −1)
26) [T] A mass on a spring bounces up and down in simple harmonic motion, modeled by the function s(t) = −6cost where s is
measured in inches and t is measured in seconds. Find the rate at which the spring is oscillating at t = 5 s.
27) Let the position of a swinging pendulum in simple harmonic motion be given by s(t) = acost + bsint . Find the constants a
and b such that when the velocity is 3 cm/s, s = 0 and t = 0 .

Solution: a = 0, b = 3
28) After a diver jumps off a diving board, the edge of the board oscillates with position given by s(t) = −5cost cm at t seconds
after the jump.
a. Sketch one period of the position function for t ≥ 0 .
b. Find the velocity function.
c. Sketch one period of the velocity function for t ≥ 0 .
d. Determine the times when the velocity is 0 over one period.
e. Find the acceleration function.
f. Sketch one period of the acceleration function for t ≥ 0 .
29) The number of hamburgers sold at a fast-food restaurant in Pasadena, California, is given by y = 10 + 5sinx where y is the
number of hamburgers sold and x represents the number of hours after the restaurant opened at 11 a.m. until 11 p.m., when the
store closes. Find y and determine the intervals where the number of burgers being sold is increasing.
′
Solution: y' = 5cos(x) , increasing on (0, π
2
), (
3π
2
,
5π
2
, and (
)
7π
2
, 12)
30) [T] The amount of rainfall per month in Phoenix, Arizona, can be approximated by y(t) = 0.5 + 0.3cost , where t is months
since January. Find y'and use a calculator to determine the intervals where the amount of rain falling is decreasing.
For the following exercises, use the quotient rule to derive the given equations.
31) d
dx
(cotx) = −csc x
2
32) d
dx
(secx) = secxtanx
33) d
dx
(cscx) = −cscxcotx
Use the definition of derivative and the identity
d(cosx)
Solution: cos(x + h) = cosxcosh − sinxsinh to prove that dx
= −sinx .
For the following exercises, find the requested higher-order derivative for the given functions.
3
d y
34) dx
3
of y = 3cosx
Solution: 3sinx
2
d y
35) dx
2
of y = 3sinx + x 2
cosx
4
d y
36) 4
of y = 5cosx
dx
Solution: 5cosx
2
d y
37) dx
2
of y = secx + cotx
3
d y
38) dx3
of y = x 10
− secx
Solution: 720x 7
− 5tan(x)sec (x) − tan (x)sec(x)
3 3
3.6: The Chain Rule

Exercise:
dy dy
For the following exercises, given y = f (u) and u = g(x) , find dydx by using Leibniz’s notation for the chain rule: dx
=
du dx
du
.
1) y = 3u − 6, u = 2x 2
2) y = 6u 3
, u = 7x − 4
Solution: 18u 2
⋅ 7 = 18(7x − 4 )
2
⋅7
3) y = sinu, u = 5x − 1
4) y = cosu, u = −x
Solution: −sinu ⋅ −1
8=
− sin(
−x
8
)⋅
−1
5) y = tanu, u = 9x + 2
−−−−−
6) y = √4u + 3 , u = x 2
− 6x
8x−24 4x−12
Solution: 2 √4u+3
=
√4 x2 −24x+3
For each of the following exercises,

a. decompose each function in the form y = f (u) and u = g(x), and
dy
b. find dx
as a function of x.
7) y = (3x − 2) 6
8) y = (3x 2
+ 1)
3
Solution: a. u = 3x 2
+1 ; b. 18x(3x 2
+ 1)
2
9) y = si n 5
(x)
10) y = ( x
7
+
7
x
)
7
Solution: a. f (u) = u 7
,u =
x
7
+
7
x
; b. 7(
x
7
+
7
x
6
) ⋅(
1
7
−
7
2
x
)
11) y = tan(secx)
12) y = csc(πx + 1)
Solution: a. f (u) = cscu, u = πx + 1; b. −πcsc(πx + 1) ⋅ cot(πx + 1)
13) y = cot 2
x
14) y = −6si n −3
x
a. f (u) = −6u −3
, u = sinx, b. 18si n
−4
x ⋅ cosx
dy
for each function.
15) y = (3x 2
+ 3x − 1 )
4
16) y = (5 − 2x) −2
Solution: 4
3
(5−2x)
17) y = cos 3
(πx)
18) y = (2x 3
−x
2
+ 6x + 1 )
3
Solution: 6(2x 3
−x
2
+ 6x + 1 ) (3 x
2 2
− x + 3)
19) y = 1
2
sin (x)
20) y = (tanx + sinx) −3
Soution: −3(tanx + sinx ) −4 2

⋅ (sec x + cosx)
21) y = x 2
cos x
4
22) y = sin(cos7x)
Solution: −7cos(cos7x) ⋅ sin7x
−−−−−−−−−
23) y = √6 + secπx 2
24) y = cot 3
(4x + 1)
Solution: −12cot 2
(4x + 1) ⋅ csc (4x + 1)
2
dy
25) Let y = [f (x)] and suppose that f '(1) = 4 and
3
dx
= 10 for x = 1 . Find f (1).
dy
26) Let y = (f (x) + 5x 2
)
4
and suppose that f (−1) = −4 and dx
=3 when x = −1 . Find f '(−1)
Solution: 10 3
dy
27) Let y = (f (u) + 3x) and u = x 2 3
− 2x . If f (4) = 6 and dx
= 18 when x = 2 , find f '(4).
28) [T] Find the equation of the tangent line to y = −sin( x
2
) at the origin. Use a calculator to graph the function and the tangent
line together.
−1
Solution: y = 2
x
29) [T] Find the equation of the tangent line to y = (3x + 1
x
)
2
at the point (1, 16). Use a calculator to graph the function and the
tangent line together.
30) Find the x -coordinates at which the tangent line to y = (x − 6
x
)
8
is horizontal.
–
Solution: x = ±√6
31) [T] Find an equation of the line that is normal to g(θ) = sin2 πθ)
(
at the point (
1
4
,
1
2
. Use a calculator to graph the function
)
and the normal line together.

For the following exercises, use the information in the following table to find h'(a) at the given value for a .
′ ′
x f (x) f (x) g(x) g (x)
0 2 5 0 2
1 1 −2 3 0
2 4 4 1 −1
3 3 −3 2 3
32) h(x) = f (g(x)); a = 0

Solution: 10
33) h(x) = g(f (x)); a = 0
34) h(x) = (x 4
+ g(x))
−2
;a =1
Solution: − 1
f (x)
35) h(x) = ( g(x)
2
) ;a =3
36) h(x) = f (x + f (x)); a = 1

Solution: −4
37) h(x) = (1 + g(x)) 3
;a =2
38) h(x) = g(2 + f (x 2

)); a = 1
Solution: −12
39) h(x)=f(g(sinx));a=0
40) [T] The position function of a freight train is given by
s(t) = 100(t + 1)
−2
, with s in meters and t in seconds. At time t = 6 s, find the train’s
a. velocity and
b. acceleration.
c. Using a. and b. is the train speeding up or slowing down?
Solution: a. − 200
343
m/s, b. 600
2401
m/s^2, c. The train is slowing down since velocity and acceleration have opposite signs.
41) [T] A mass hanging from a vertical spring is in simple harmonic motion as given by the following position function, where t is
measured in seconds and s is in inches:
π
s(t) = −3cos(πt + ).
4
a. Determine the position of the spring at t = 1.5 s.

b. Find the velocity of the spring at t = 1.5 s.
42) [T] The total cost to produce x boxes of Thin Mint Girl Scout cookies is C dollars, where
C = 0.0001 x
3
− 0.02 x
2
+ 3x + 300. In t weeks production is estimated to be x = 1600 + 100t boxes.
a. Find the marginal cost C '(x).
b. Use Leibniz’s notation for the chain rule, dC
dt
=
dC
dx
⋅
dx
dt
, to find the rate with respect to time t that the cost is changing.
c. Use b. to determine how fast costs are increasing when t = 2 weeks. Include units with the answer.
Solution: a. C '(x) = 0.0003x 2
− 0.04x + 3
b. dC dt = 100 ⋅ (0.0003 x
2
− 0.04x + 3) c. Approximately $90,300 per week
43) [T] The formula for the area of a circle is A = πr , where r is the radius of the circle. Suppose a circle is expanding, meaning
2
that both the area A and the radius r (in inches) are expanding.
a. Suppose r = 2 − 100
2
where t is time in seconds. Use the chain rule dA
dt
=
dA
dr
⋅
dr
dt
to find the rate at which the area is
(t+7)
expanding.
b. Use a. to find the rate at which the area is expanding at t = 4 s.
44) [T] The formula for the volume of a sphere is S =
4
3
πr
3
, where r (in feet) is the radius of the sphere. Suppose a spherical
snowball is melting in the sun.
a. Suppose r =
1
2
−
1
12
where t is time in minutes. Use the chain rule dS
dt
=
dS
dr
⋅
dr
dt
to find the rate at which the
(t+1)
snowball is melting.
b. Use a. to find the rate at which the volume is changing at t = 1 min.
2
Solution: a. dS
dt
=−
8πr
3
b. The volume is decreasing at a rate of − π
36
3
ft /min
(t+1)
45) [T] The daily temperature in degrees Fahrenheit of Phoenix in the summer can be modeled by the function
(x − 2)] , where x is hours after midnight. Find the rate at which the temperature is changing at 4 p.m.
π
T (x) = 94 − 10cos[
12
46) [T] The depth (in feet) of water at a dock changes with the rise and fall of tides. The depth is modeled by the function
) + 8 , where t is the number of hours after midnight. Find the rate at which the depth is changing at 6 a.m.
π 7π
D(t) = 5sin( t −
6 6
Solution: 2.3 ft/hr
3.7: Derivatives of Inverse Functions

Exercise:
For the following exercises, use the graph of y = f (x) to
(x) , and
)'(1) .
1)
2)
Solution:
a.
b. (f −1
)'(1) 2
3)
4)
Solution:
a.
–
b. (f −1
)'(1) − 1/ √3
For the following exercises, use the functions y = f (x) to find
df
a. dx
at x = a and
b. $x=f^{−1}(y).
−1
df
c. Then use part b. to find dy
at y = f (a).
5) f (x) = 6x − 1, x = −2
6) f (x) = 2x 3
− 3, x = 1
y+3
Solution: a. 6, b. x = f −1
(y) = (
2
)
1/3
, c.
1
7) f (x) = 9 − x 2
, 0 ≤ x ≤ 3, x = 2
8) f (x) = sinx, x = 0
Solution: a. 1, b. x = f −1
(y) = si n
−1
y, c. 1
For each of the following functions, find (f −1

)'(a) .
9) f (x) = x 2
+ 3x + 2, x ≥ −1, a = 2
10 f (x) = x 3
+ 2x + 3, a = 0
Solution: 1
11) f (x) = x + √−
x, a = 2
12) f (x) = x − 2
x
, x < 0, a = 1
Solution: \\frac{1}{3}$
13) f (x) = x + sinx, a = 0
14) f (x) = tanx + 3x 2
,a =0
Solution: 1
For each of the given functions y = f (x),
a. find the slope of the tangent line to its inverse function f −1
at the indicated point P , and
b. find the equation of the tangent line to the graph of f −1
at the indicated point.
15) f (x) = 1+x
4
2
, P (2, 1)
−−−−−
16) f (x) = √x − 4 , P (2, 8)
Solution: a. 4, b. y = 4x
17) f (x) = (x 3 4
+ 1 ) , P (16, 1)
18) f (x) = −x 3
− x + 2, P (−8, 2)
Solution: a. − 1
96
, b. y = −
1
13
x+
18
13
19) f (x) = x 5
+ 3x
3
− 4x − 8, P (−8, 1)
dy
for the given function.
20) y = si n −1
(x )
2
Solution: 2x
√1−x4
−
21) y = cos −1
(√x )
22) y = sec −1
(
1
x
)
−1
Solution: √1−x2
−−−−−−
23) y = √csc −1
x
24) y = (1 + tan −1
x)
3
−1 2
3(1+tan x)
Solution: 1+x
2
25) y = cos −1
(2x) ⋅ si n
−1
(2x)
26) y = tan
1
−1
(x)
Solution: 2
−1
−1 2
(1+x )(tan x)
27) y = sec −1
(−x)
−−−− −
28) y = cot −1
√4 − x2
Solution: 2
x
2
(5−x ) √4−x
29) y = x ⋅ csc −1
x
For the following exercises, use the given values to find (f −1

)'(a) .
30) f (π) = 0, f ′
(π) = −1, a = 0
Solution: −1
31) f (6) = 2, f '(6) = 1
3
,a =2
32) f ( 1
3
) = −8, f (
′ 1
3
) = 2, a = −8
Solution: 1
– –
33) f (√3) = 1
2
′
, f (√3) =
2
3
,a =
1
34) f (1) = −3, f ′

(1) = 10, a = −3
Solution: 1
10
35) f (1) = 0, f ′
(1) = −2, a = 0
36) [T] The position of a moving hockey puck after t seconds is s(t) = tan −1
t where s is in meters.
a. Find the velocity of the hockey puck at any time t .
b. Find the acceleration of the puck at any time t .
c. Evaluate a. and b. for t = 2, 4 ,and 6 seconds.
d. What conclusion can be drawn from the results in c.?
−2t
Solution: a. v(t) = 1+t
1
2
b. a(t) =
2 2
c. (a)0.2, 0.06, 0.03; (b) − 0.16, −0.028, −0.0088
(1+t )
d. The hockey puck is decelerating/slowing down at 2, 4, and 6 seconds.

37) [T] A building that is 225 feet tall casts a shadow of various lengths x as the day goes by. An angle of elevation θ is formed by
lines from the top and bottom of the building to the tip of the shadow, as seen in the following figure. Find the rate of change of the
angle of elevation when x = 272 feet. dθ
dx
38) [T] A pole stands 75 feet tall. An angle θ is formed when wires of various lengths of x feet are attached from the ground to the
top of the pole, as shown in the following figure. Find the rate of change of the angledθ
dx
when a wire of length 90 feet is attached.
Solution: −0.0168 radians per foot

39) [T] A television camera at ground level is 2000 feet away from the launching pad of a space rocket that is set to take off
vertically, as seen in the following figure. The angle of elevation of the camera can be found by θ = tan ( −1
) , where x is the
x
2000
height of the rocket. Find the rate of change of the angle of elevation after launch when the camera and the rocket are 5000 feet
apart.
40) [T] A local movie theater with a 30-foot-high screen that is 10 feet above a person’s eye level when seated has a viewing angle
θ (in radians) given by θ = cot ,
−1 x −1 x
− cot
40 10
where x is the distance in feet away from the movie screen that the person is sitting, as shown in the following figure.
a. Find dθ
dx
.
b. Evaluate dθ
dx
for x = 5, 10, 15, and 20.
c. Interpret the results in b..
d. Evaluate dθ
dx
for x = 25, 30, 35, and 40
e. Interpret the results in d. At what distance x should the person stand to maximize his or her viewing angle?
Solution: a. = −
dθ
dx
b. , ,
10
100+x
, 0 c. As a person moves farther away from the screen, the viewing angle is
2
40
1600+x
2
18
325
9
340
42
4745
increasing, which implies that as he or she moves farther away, his or her screen vision is widening. d. \(−\frac{54}{12905},−
\frac{3}{500},−\frac{198}{29945},−\frac{9}{1360} e. As the person moves beyond 20 feet from the screen, the viewing angle is
decreasing. The optimal distance the person should stand for maximizing the viewing angle is 20 feet.
For the following exercises, use implicit differentiation to determine . Does the answer agree with the formulas we have
y'
previously determined?
J328) x = siny
J329) x = cosy
Answer:
1
y' = −
√1−x2
J330) x = tany

dy
For the following exercises, use implicit differentiation to find dx
.
1) x 2
−y
2
=4
2) 6x 2
+ 3y
2
= 12
dy
Solution: dx
=
−2x
3) x 2
y = y −7
4) 3x 3
+ 9x y
2
= 5x
3
dy y
Solution: dx
=
x
3y
−
2x
5) xy − cos(xy) = 1
−−−−−
6) y √x + 4 = xy + 8
y
y−
dy 2√x+4
=
dx √x+4 −x
7) −xy − 2 = x
8) ysin(xy) = y 2
+2
2
dy y cos(xy)
Solution: dx
=
2y−sin(xy)−xycosxy
9) (xy ) 2
+ 3x = y
2
10) x 3
y + xy
3
= −8
2 3
dy −3 x y−y
Solution: dx
= 3
x +3xy
2
For the following exercises, find the equation of the tangent line to the graph of the given equation at the indicated point. Use a
calculator or computer software to graph the function and the tangent line.
11) [T ]x 4
y − xy
3
= −2, (−1, −1)
12) [T ]x 2
y
2
+ 5xy = 14, (2, 1)
Solution: y = − 1
2
x +2
13) [T ]tan(xy) = y, ( π
4
, 1)
14) [T ]x y 2
+ sin(πy) − 2 x
2
= 10, (2, −3)
Solution: y = 1
π+12
x−
3π+38
π+12
15) [T ] x
y
+ 5x − 7 = −
3
4
y, (1, 2)
16) [T ]xy + sin(x) = 1, ( π
2
, 0)
Solution: y = 0
17) [T] The graph of a folium of Descartes with equation 2x 3

+ 2y
3
− 9xy = 0 is given in the following graph.
a. Find the equation of the tangent line at the point (2, 1). Graph the tangent line along with the folium.
b. Find the equation of the normal line to the tangent line in a. at the point (2, 1).
+ 2xy − 3 y
2
= 0,
a. Find the equation of the normal to the tangent line at the point (1, 1).
b. At what other point does the normal line in a. intersect the graph of the equation?
Solution: a. y = −x + 2b. (3, −1)
19) Find all points on the graph of y 3
− 27y = x
2
− 90 at which the tangent line is vertical.
For the equation x 2
+ xy + y
2
=7 ,
a. Find the x-intercept(s).
b.Find the slope of the tangent line(s) at the x-intercept(s).
c. What does the value(s) in b. indicate about the tangent line(s)?
Solution: a. (±7√, 0)b. −2 c. They are parallel since the slope is the same at both intercepts.
19) Find the equation of the tangent line to the graph of the equation si n −1x
+ si n
−1
y =
π
6
at the point (0, 1
2
.
)
20) Find the equation of the tangent line to the graph of the equation tan −1
(x + y) = x
2
+
π
4
at the point (0, 1).
Solution: y = −x + 1
21) Find y' and y for x′′ 2
+ 6xy − 2 y
2
=3 .
22) [T] The number of cell phones produced when x dollars is spent on labor and y dollars is spent on capital invested by a
manufacturer can be modeled by the equation 60x y = 3240. 3/4 1/4
dy
a. Find dx
Solution: a. −0.5926 b. When $81 is spent on labor and $16 is spent on capital, the amount spent on capital is decreasing by
$0.5926 per $1 spent on labor.
23) [T] The number of cars produced when x dollars is spent on labor and y dollars is spent on capital invested by a manufacturer
can be modeled by the equation 30x y = 360. 1/3 2/3
(Both xand y are measured in thousands of dollars.)

dy
a. Find dx
24) The volume of a right circular cone of radius x and height y is given by V =
1
3
2
πx y . Suppose that the volume of the cone is
dy
85πcm
3
. Find dx
when x = 4 and y = 16.
Solution: −8
25) For the following exercises, consider a closed rectangular box with a square base with side x and height y .
Find an equation for the surface area of the rectangular box, S(x, y).
dy
26) If the surface area of the rectangular box is 78 square feet, find dx
when x = 3 feet and y = 5 feet.
Solution: −2.67
For the following exercises, use implicit differentiation to determine y' . Does the answer agree with the formulas we have
previously determined?
27) x = siny
28) x = cosy
Solution: y' = − 1
√1−x2
29) x = tany

Exercise:
1) f (x) = x 2
e
x
Solution: 2x e x
+x e
2 x
−x
2) f (x) = e
3) f (x) = e
3
x lnx
Solution: e
3
x 2 2
lnx(3 x lnx + x )
−−− −−−−
4) f (x) = √e 2x
+ 2x
x −x
5) f (x) = e −e
e +e
x −x
Solution: x
4
−x
2
( e +e )
6) f (x) = 10
ln10
7) f (x) = 2 4x
+ 4x
2
Solution: 2 4x+2
⋅ ln2 + 8x
8) f (x) = 3 sin3x
9) f (x) = x π
⋅π
x
Solution: π x π−1
⋅π
x
+x
π x
⋅ π lnπ
10) f (x) = ln(4x 3

+ x)
−−−−−
11) f (x) = ln√5x − 7
Solution: 2(5x−7)
5
12) f (x) = x 2
ln9x
13) f (x) = log(secx)

Solution: tanx
ln10
14) f (x) = log 7 (6 x

4
+ 3)
5
15) f (x) = 2 x
⋅ log3 7
x −4
Solution: 2 x
⋅ ln2 ⋅ log3 7
x −4
+2
x
⋅
2xln7
ln3
dy
For the following exercises, use logarithmic differentiation to find dx
.
16) y = x √x
17) y = (sin2x) 4x
Solution: (sin2x ) 4x
[4 ⋅ ln(sin2x) + 8x ⋅ cot2x]
18) y = (lnx) lnx
19) y = x lo g2 x
Solution: x lo g x
2
⋅
2lnx
xln2
20) y = (x 2
− 1)
lnx
21) y = x cotx
Solution: x cotx 2
⋅ [−csc x ⋅ lnx +
cotx
x
]
x+11
22) y = 3
√x2 −4
23) y = x −1/2
(x
2
+ 3)
2/3
(3x − 4 )
4
Solution: x −1/2
(x2 + 3 )
2/3
(3x − 4 )
4
⋅[
−1
2x
+
4x
3( x2 +3)
+
12
3x−4
]
24) [T] Find an equation of the tangent line to the graph of f (x) = 4xe at the point where
2
( x −1)
x = −1. Graph both the function and the tangent line.

25) [T] Find the equation of the line that is normal to the graph of f (x) = x ⋅ 5 at the point where x = 1 . Graph both the function
x
and the normal line.

−1
Solution: y = 5+5ln5
x + (5 +
1
5+5ln5
)
26) [T] Find the equation of the tangent line to the graph of x
3
− xlny + y
3
= 2x + 5 at the point where x =2 . (Hint: Use
dy
implicit differentiation to find dx
.) Graph both the curve and the tangent line.
27) Consider the function y = x 1/x
for x > 0.
a. Determine the points on the graph where the tangent line is horizontal.
b. Determine the points on the graph where y' > 0 and those where y' < 0 .
Solution: a. x = e 2.718 b. (e, ∞), (0, e)
28) The formula I (t) = sint
e
t
is the formula for a decaying alternating current.
a. Complete the following table with the appropriate values.
sint
t
et
0 (i)
π/2 (ii)
π (iii)
3π/2 (vi)
2π (v)
2π (vi)
3π (vii)
7π/2 (viii)
4π (ix)
b. Using only the values in the table, determine where the tangent line to the graph of (I(t)\) is horizontal.
29) [T] The population of Toledo, Ohio, in 2000 was approximately 500,000. Assume the population is increasing at a rate of 5%
per year.
a. Write the exponential function that relates the total population as a function of t .
b. Use a. to determine the rate at which the population is increasing in t years.
c. Use b. to determine the rate at which the population is increasing in 10 years
Solution: a. P = 500, 000(1.05)
t
individuals b. P '(t) = 24395 ⋅ (1.05) individuals per year c. 39, 737 individuals per year
t
30)[T] An isotope of the element erbium has a half-life of approximately 12 hours. Initially there are 9 grams of the isotope present.
a. Write the exponential function that relates the amount of substance remaining as a function of t , measured in hours.
b. Use a. to determine the rate at which the substance is decaying in t hours.
c. Use b. to determine the rate of decay at t = 4 hours.
31) [T] The number of cases of influenza in New York City from the beginning of 1960 to the beginning of 1961 is modeled by the
function
,
2
0.093 t −0.87t
N (t) = 5.3 e , (0 ≤ t ≤ 4)
where N (t) gives the number of cases (in thousands) and t is measured in years, with t =0 corresponding to the beginning of
1960.
a. Show work that evaluates N (0) and N (4) . Briefly describe what these values indicate about the disease in New York
City.
b. Show work that evaluates N '(0) and N '(3) . Briefly describe what these values indicate about the disease in the United
States.
a. At the beginning of 1960 there were 5.3 thousand cases of the disease in New York City. At the beginning of 1963 there were
approximately 723 cases of the disease in the United States. b. At the beginning of 1960 the number of cases of the disease was
decreasing at rate of −4.611 thousand per year; at the beginning of 1963, the number of cases of the disease was decreasing at a
rate of −0.2808 thousand per year.
100⋅f '(x)
32) [T] The relative rate of change of a differentiable function y = f (x) is given by f (x)
One model for population growth is a
−cx
Gompertz growth function, given by P (x) = ae −b⋅e

where a, b, and c are constants.
a. Find the relative rate of change formula for the generic Gompertz function.
b. Use a. to find the relative rate of change of a population in x = 20 months when a = 204, b = 0.0198, and c = 0.15.
c. Briefly interpret what the result of b. means.
33) For the following exercises, use the population of New York City from 1790 to 1860, given in the following table.
Year since 1790 Population
0 33,131
10 60,515
20 96,373
30 123,706
40 202,300
50 312,710
60 515,547
70 813,669
New York City Population Over TimeSource: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Largest..._United_States

_by_population_by_decade
34) [T] Using a computer program or a calculator, fit a growth curve to the data of the form p = ab . t
Solution: p = 35741(1.045) t
35) [T] Using the exponential best fit for the data, write a table containing the derivatives evaluated at each year.
36) [T] Using the exponential best fit for the data, write a table containing the second derivatives evaluated at each year.
Solution:
Year since 1790 P"
0 69.25
10 107.5
20 167.0
30 259.4
40 402.8
50 625.5
60 971.4
70 1508.5
37) [T] Using the tables of first and second derivatives and the best fit, answer the following questions:
a. Will the model be accurate in predicting the future population of New York City? Why or why not?
b. Estimate the population in 2010. Was the prediction correct from a.?
3.E: Derivatives (ALL Chapter 3 Exercises) is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
We have shown how to use the first and second derivatives of a function to describe the shape of a graph. To graph a function f
defined on an unbounded domain, we also need to know the behavior of f as x → ±∞ . In this section, we define limits at infinity
and show how these limits affect the graph of a function. At the end of this section, we outline a strategy for graphing an arbitrary
function f .
We begin by examining what it means for a function to have a finite limit at infinity. Then we study the idea of a function with an
infinite limit at infinity. Back in Introduction to Functions and Graphs, we looked at vertical asymptotes; in this section we deal
with horizontal and oblique asymptotes.
Limits at Infinity and Horizontal Asymptotes

Recall that lim x→a f (x) = L means f (x) becomes arbitrarily close to L as long as x is sufficiently close to a . We can extend this
idea to limits at infinity. For example, consider the function f (x) = 2 + . As can be seen graphically in Figure and numerically in
1
Table, as the values of x get larger, the values of f (x) approach 2. We say the limit as x approaches ∞ of f (x) is 2 and write
limx→∞ f (x) = 2 . Similarly, for x < 0 , as the values |x| get larger, the values of f (x) approaches 2 . We say the limit as x
approaches −∞ of f (x) is 2 and write lim x→a f (x) = 2 .
Figure 4.6.1 :The function approaches the asymptote y = 2 as x approaches ±∞ .

Table 4.6.1: Values of a function f as x → ±∞
x 10 100 1,000 10,000
1
2 +
x
2.1 2.01 2.001 2.0001
x −10 −100 −1000 −10,000

1
2 +
x
1.9 1.99 1.999 1.9999
More generally, for any function f , we say the limit as x → ∞ of f (x) is L if f (x) becomes arbitrarily close to L as long as x is
sufficiently large. In that case, we write limx→a f (x) = L . Similarly, we say the limit as x → −∞ of f (x) is L if f (x) becomes
arbitrarily close to L as long as x < 0 and |x| is sufficiently large. In that case, we write limx→−∞ f (x) = L . We now look at the
definition of a function having a limit at infinity.

Definition: limit at infinity (Informal)
If the values of f (x) become arbitrarily close to L as x becomes sufficiently large, we say the function f has a limit at infinity
and write
lim f (x) = L. (4.6.1)
x→∞

If the values of f (x) becomes arbitrarily close to L for x < 0 as |x| becomes sufficiently large, we say that the function f has a
limit at negative infinity and write
lim f (x) = L. (4.6.2)
x→∞
If the values f (x) are getting arbitrarily close to some finite value L as x → ∞ or x → −∞ , the graph of f approaches the line
y = L . In that case, the line y = L is a horizontal asymptote of f (Figure). For example, for the function f (x) = , since 1
f (x) = 0 , the line y = 0 is a horizontal asymptote of f (x) = . 1

lim x→∞
x
Definition: horizontal asymptote

If limx→∞ f (x) = L or lim
x→−∞ f (x) = L , we say the line y = L is a horizontal asymptote of f .
Figure 4.6.2 : (a) As x → ∞ , the values of f are getting arbitrarily close to L. The line y = L is a horizontal asymptote of f . (b)
As x → −∞ , the values of f are getting arbitrarily close to M . The line y = M is a horizontal asymptote of f .
A function cannot cross a vertical asymptote because the graph must approach infinity (or −∞ ) from at least one direction as x
approaches the vertical asymptote. However, a function may cross a horizontal asymptote. In fact, a function may cross a horizontal
(cosx)
asymptote an unlimited number of times. For example, the function f (x) = + 1 shown in Figure intersects the horizontal
x
asymptote y = 1 an infinite number of times as it oscillates around the asymptote with ever-decreasing amplitude.
Figure 4.6.3 : The graph of f (x) = (cosx)/x + 1 crosses its horizontal asymptote y = 1 an infinite number of times.
The algebraic limit laws and squeeze theorem we introduced in Introduction to Limits also apply to limits at infinity. We illustrate
how to use these laws to compute several limits at infinity.
Example 4.6.1 : Computing Limits at Infinity

For each of the following functions f , valuate lim x→∞ f (x) and lim x→−∞ f (x) . Determine the horizontal asymptote(s) for f .
a. f (x) = 5 − 2
2
x
b. f (x) = sinx
c. f (x) = tan −1
(x)
Solution
a. Using the algebraic limit laws, we have
2 1 1
lim (5 − ) = lim 5 − 2( lim ). ( lim ) = 5 − 2 ⋅ 0 = 5.
2
x→∞ x x→∞ x→∞ x x→∞ x

Similarly, lim f (x) = 5 . Therefore, f (x) =
x→∞ has a horizontal asymptote of
5−2
x2
y =5 and f approaches this horizontal
asymptote as x → ±∞ as shown in the following graph.
Figure 4.6.4 : This function approaches a horizontal asymptote as x → ±∞.

b. Since 1 ≤ sinx ≤ 1 for all x, we have
−1 sinx 1
≤ ≤
x x x
for all x ≠ 0 . Also, since

−1
limx→∞
x
= 0 = limx→∞
1
x
,
we can apply the squeeze theorem to conclude that
sinx
limx→∞ = 0.
x
Similarly,
sinx
limx→−∞ = 0.
x
Thus, f (x) = sinx
x
has a horizontal asymptote of y =0 and f (x) approaches this horizontal asymptote as x → ±∞ as shown
Figure 4.6.5 : This function crosses its horizontal asymptote multiple times.
c. To evaluate lim tan
x→∞ (x) and lim
−1
x→−∞ tan
−1
(x) , we first consider the graph of y = tan(x) over the interval
(−π/2, π/2)as shown in the following graph.

Figure 4.6.6 : The graph of tanx has vertical asymptotes at x = ± π
Since
limx→(π/2)− tanx = ∞,
it follows that
−1 π
limx→∞ tan (x) = .
2
Similarly, since
lim + tanx = −∞,
x→(π/2)
it follows that
−1 π
limx→−∞ tan (x) = − .
2
As a result, y = π
2
and y = − π
2
are horizontal asymptotes of f (x) = tan −1
(x) as shown in the following graph.
Figure 4.6.7 : This function has two horizontal asymptotes.
Exercise 4.6.1
Evaluate lim x→−∞ (3 +
4
x
) and lim x→∞ (3 +
4
x
) . Determine the horizontal asymptotes of f (x) = 3 + 4
x
, if any.
Hint
limx→±∞ 1/x = 0
Answer
Both limits are 3. The line y = 3 is a horizontal asymptote.
Infinite Limits at Infinity

Sometimes the values of a function f become arbitrarily large as x → ∞ (or as x → −∞ ). In this case, we write
limx→∞ f (x) = ∞ (or lim f (x) = ∞ ). On the other hand, if the values of f are negative but become arbitrarily large in
x→−∞
magnitude as x → ∞ (or as x → −∞ ), we write lim f (x) = −∞ (or lim

x→∞ f (x) = −∞ ). x→−∞

For example, consider the function f (x) = x . As seen in Table and Figure, as x → ∞ the values f (x) become arbitrarily large.
3
Therefore, lim x→∞ x = ∞ . On the other hand, as x → −∞ , the values of f (x) = x3 are negative but become arbitrarily large in
3
magnitude. Consequently, lim x = −∞.

x→−∞
3
x 10 20 50 100 1000
x
3
1000 8000 125,000 1,000,000 1,000,000,000
x −10 −20 −50 −100 −1000
x
3
−1000 −8000 −125,000 −1,000,000 −1,000,000,000
Values of a power function as x → ±∞
Figure 4.6.8 : For this function, the functional values approach infinity as x → ±∞.
Definition: infinite limit at infinity (Informal)
lim f (x) = ∞. (4.6.3)
x→∞
if f (x) becomes arbitrarily large for x sufficiently large. We say a function has a negative infinite limit at infinity and write
lim f (x) = −∞. (4.6.4)
x→∞
if f (x) < 0 and |f (x)| becomes arbitrarily large for x sufficiently large. Similarly, we can define infinite limits as x → −∞.
Formal Definitions
Earlier, we used the terms arbitrarily close, arbitrarily large, and sufficiently large to define limits at infinity informally. Although
these terms provide accurate descriptions of limits at infinity, they are not precise mathematically. Here are more formal definitions
of limits at infinity. We then look at how to use these definitions to prove results involving limits at infinity.
Definition: limit at infinity (Formal)
We say a function f has a limit at infinity, if there exists a real number L such that for all ε > 0 , there exists N >0 such that
|f (x) − L| < ε (4.6.5)
for all x > N . in that case, we write
lim f (x) = L (4.6.6)

x→∞

Figure 4.6.9 : For a function with a limit at infinity, for all x > N , |f (x) − L| < ε.
Earlier in this section, we used graphical evidence in Figure and numerical evidence in Table to conclude that lim x→∞ (
2+1
x
) =2 .
Here we use the formal definition of limit at infinity to prove this result rigorously.
Example 4.6.2 :
2+1
Use the formal definition of limit at infinity to prove that lim x→∞ (
x
) =2 .
Solution
Let ε > 0. Let N =
1
ε
1 1 1 1
|2 + − 2| = | | = < =ε (4.6.7)
x x x N
Exercise 4.6.2
Use the formal definition of limit at infinity to prove that lim x→∞ (
3−1
x2
) =3 .
Hint
Let N =
1
.
√ε
Answer
Let ε > 0. Let N =
1
√ε
∣ 1 1 1
3− − 3 ∣= < =ε
∣ x
2
x
2 2
N
Therefore, lim x→∞ (3 − 1/ x ) = 3.

2
We now turn our attention to a more precise definition for an infinite limit at infinity.
Definition: infinite limit at infinity (Formal)
limx→∞ f (x) = ∞
if for all M > 0, there exists an N >0 such that

f (x) > M
for all x > N (see Figure).

We say a function has a negative infinite limit at infinity and write
limx→∞ f (x) = −∞
if for all M <0 , there exists an N >0 such that

f (x) < M

for all x > N .
Similarly we can define limits as x → −∞.
Figure 4.6.10 : For a function with an infinite limit at infinity, for all x > N , f (x) > M .
Earlier, we used graphical evidence (Figure) and numerical evidence (Table) to conclude that limx→∞ x
3
=∞ . Here we use the
formal definition of infinite limit at infinity to prove that result.
Example 4.6.3 :
Use the formal definition of infinite limit at infinity to prove that lim x→∞ x
3
= ∞.
Solution
3 −−
Let M > 0. Let N = √M . Then, for all x > N , we have
3 3 3
−− 3
x >N = (√M ) = M .
Therefore, lim x→∞ x

3
=∞ .
Exercise 4.6.3
Use the formal definition of infinite limit at infinity to prove that lim x→∞ 3x
2
= ∞.
Hint
−−
Let N =√
M
3
.
Answer
−−
Let M > 0. Let N =√
M
3
) . Then, for all x > N , we have
−−
2 2 M 2 3M
3x > 3N = 3(√ ) 2 = =M
3 3
End Behavior
The behavior of a function as x → ±∞ is called the function’s endbehavior . At each of the function’s ends, the function could
exhibit one of the following types of behavior:
1. The function f (x) approaches a horizontal asymptote y = L .
2. The function f (x) → ∞ or f (x) → −∞.
3. The function does not approach a finite limit, nor does it approach ∞ or −∞ . In this case, the function may have some
oscillatory behavior.
Let’s consider several classes of functions here and look at the different types of end behaviors for these functions.

End Behavior for Polynomial Functions
Consider the power function f (x) = x where n is a positive integer. From Figure and Figure, we see that
n
n
lim x = ∞; n = 1, 2, 3, … (4.6.8)
x→∞
and
n ∞; 7n = 2, 4, 6, …
lim x ={ (4.6.9)
x→−∞ −∞; n = 1, 3, 5, … .
Figure 4.6.11 : For power functions with an even power of n, lim x→∞
n
x = ∞ = limx→−∞ x
n
.
Figure 4.6.12 : For power functions with an odd power of n, lim x→∞
n
x =∞ and
n
limx→−∞ x = −∞.
Using these facts, it is not difficult to evaluate lim cx and lim

x→∞
n
c x , where c is any constant and n is a positive integer.
x→−∞
n
If c > 0 , the graph of y = cx is a vertical stretch or compression of y = x , and therefore

n n
limx→∞ c x
n
= limx→∞ x
n
and lim x→−∞ cx
n
= limx→−∞ x
n
if c > 0 .
If c < 0, the graph of y = cx is a vertical stretch or compression combined with a reflection about the x-axis, and therefore
n
limx→∞ c x
n
= − limx→∞ x
n
and lim x→−∞ cx
n
= − limx→−∞ x
n
if c < 0.
If c = 0, y = cxn
= 0, in which case lim x→∞ cx
n
= 0 = limx→−∞ c x .
n
Example 4.6.4 : Limits at Infinity for Power Functions

For each function f , evaluate lim x→∞ f (x) and lim x→−∞ f (x).
a. f (x) = −5x 3
b. f (x) = 2x 4

Solution:
a. Since the coefficient of x is −5, the graph of f (x) = −5x involves a vertical stretch and reflection of the graph of y = x
3 3 3
about the x-axis. Therefore, lim (−5 x ) = −∞ and lim

x→∞
3
(−5 x ) = ∞ . x→−∞
3
b. Since the coefficient of x is 2, the graph of f (x) = 2x is a vertical stretch of the graph of y = x . Therefore,
4 4 4
2 x = ∞ and lim 2x = ∞ .
4 4
limx→∞ x→−∞
Exercise 4.6.4
Let f (x) = −3x . Find lim
4
x→∞ f (x) .
Hint
The coefficient −3 is negative.
Answer
−∞
We now look at how the limits at infinity for power functions can be used to determine lim x→±∞ f (x) for any polynomial function
f . Consider a polynomial function
n n 1 0
f (x) = an x + an−1 x −1 +… +a x +a (4.6.10)
of degree n ≥ 1 so that a n ≠ 0. Factoring, we see that

an−1 1 a1 1 a0
n
f (x) = an x (1 + +… + + ). (4.6.11)
n
an x an xn−1 a
As x → ±∞, all the terms inside the parentheses approach zero except the first term. We conclude that
n
lim f (x) = lim an x . (4.6.12)
x→±∞ x→±∞
For example, the function f (x) = 5x 3

− 3x
2
+4 behaves like g(x) = 5x as x → ±∞ as shown in Figure and Table.
3
Figure 4.6.13 : The end behavior of a polynomial is determined by the behavior of the term with the largest exponent.
x 10 100 1000
f(x) = 5 x
3
− 3x
2
+4 4704 4,970,004 4,997,000,004
g(x) = 5x
3
5000 5,000,000 5,000,000,000
x −10 −100 −000
f(x) = 5 x
3
− 3x
2
+4 −5296 −5,029,996 −5,002,999,996
g(x) = 5x
3
−5000 −5,000,000 −5,000,000,000
A polynomial’s end behavior is determined by the term with the largest exponent

End Behavior for Algebraic Functions
The end behavior for rational functions and functions involving radicals is a little more complicated than for polynomials. In
p(x)
Example, we show that the limits at infinity of a rational function f (x) =
q(x)
depend on the relationship between the degree of
the numerator and the degree of the denominator. To evaluate the limits at infinity for a rational function, we divide the numerator
and denominator by the highest power of x appearing in the denominator. This determines which term in the overall expression
dominates the behavior of the function at large values of x.
Example 4.6.5 : Determining End Behavior for Rational Functions

For each of the following functions, determine the limits as x → ∞ and x → −∞. Then, use this information to describe the
end behavior of the function.
3x−1
a. f (x) =
2x+5
(Note: The degree of the numerator and the denominator are the same.)
2
b. f (x) = 3 x +2x
3
4 x −5x+7
(Note: The degree of numerator is less than the degree of the denominator.)
2
c. f (x) = in the denominator is x. Therefore, dividing the numerator and denominator by x and applying the algebraic
3 x +4x
x+2
limit laws, we see that

Solution
a. The highest power of x in the denominator is x. Therefore, dividing the numerator and denominator by x and applying the
algebraic limit laws, we see that
3x−1 3−1/x
limx→±∞ = limx→±∞
2x+5 2+5/x
limx→ ±∞ (3−1/x)
=
limx→ ±∞ (2+5/x)
limx→ ±∞ 3−limx→ ±∞ 1/x

=
limx→ ±∞ 2+limx→ ±∞ 5/x
3−0 3
= = .
2+0 2
Since lim x→±∞ f (x) =

3
2
, we know that y = 3
2
is a horizontal asymptote for this function as shown in the following graph.
Figure 4.6.14 : The graph of this rational function approaches a horizontal asymptote as x → ±∞.
b. Since the largest power of x appearing in the denominator is x , divide the numerator and denominator by x . After doing so
3 3
and applying algebraic limit laws, we obtain

2 2
3 x +2x 3/x+2/x 3.0+2.0
limx→±∞ 3
= limx→±∞ 2 3
= = 0.
4 x −5x+7 4−5/ x +7/ x 4−5.0+7.0
Therefore f has a horizontal asymptote of y = 0 as shown in the following graph.

Figure 4.6.15 : The graph of this rational function approaches the horizontal asymptote $y=0$ as x → ±∞.
c. Dividing the numerator and denominator by x, we have
2
limx→±∞
3 x +4x
x+2
= limx→±∞
3x+4
1+2/x
.
As x → ±∞ , the denominator approaches 1. As x → ∞ , the numerator approaches +∞ . As x → −∞ , the numerator

approaches −∞ . Therefore lim f (x) = ∞ , whereas lim
x→∞ f (x) = −∞ as shown in the following figure.
x→−∞
Figure 4.6.16 : As → ∞ , the values f (x) → ∞. As x → −∞ , the values f (x) → −∞.
Exercise 4.6.5
2 2
Evaluate limx→±∞
3 x +2x−1
2
5 x −4x+7
and use these limits to determine the end behavior of f (x) = 3 x +2x−2
2
5 x −4x+7
.
Hint
Divide the numerator and denominator by x . 2
Answer
3

2
(3 x +4x)
Before proceeding, consider the graph of f (x) =
(x+2)
shown in Figure. As x → ∞ and x → −∞ , the graph of f appears
almost linear. Although f is certainly not a linear function, we now investigate why the graph of f seems to be approaching a linear
function. First, using long division of polynomials, we can write
2
3 x +4x
f (x) =
x+2
= 3x − 2 +
x+2
4
.
Since 4
(x+2)
→ 0 as x → ±∞, we conclude that
4
limx→±∞ (f (x) − (3x − 2)) = limx→±∞ = 0.
x+2
Therefore, the graph of f approaches the line \)y=3x−2\) as x → ±∞ . This line is known as an oblique asymptote for f (Figure).
Figure 4.6.17 : The graph of the rational function f (x) = (3x 2

+ 4x)/(x + 2) approaches the oblique asymptote y = 3x − 2 as
x → ±∞.
We can summarize the results of Example to make the following conclusion regarding end behavior for rational functions. Consider
a rational function
n n−1
p(x) an x +an−1 x +…+a1 x+a0
f (x) =
q(x)
=
bm x
m
+bm−1 x
m−1
+…+b1 x+b0
,
where a n ≠0 and b m ≠ 0.
1. If the degree of the numerator is the same as the degree of the denominator (n = m), then f has a horizontal asymptote of
y = a /bn as x → ±∞.
m
2. If the degree of the numerator is less than the degree of the denominator (n < m), then f has a horizontal asymptote of
y = 0 as x → ±∞.
3. If the degree of the numerator is greater than the degree of the denominator (n > m), then f does not have a horizontal
asymptote. The limits at infinity are either positive or negative infinity, depending on the signs of the leading terms. In
addition, using long division, the function can be rewritten as
p(x) r(x)
f (x) =
q(x)
= g(x) +
q(x)
,
where the degree of r(x) is less than the degree of q(x). As a result, lim r(x)/q(x) = 0. Therefore, the values of
x→±∞
[f (x) − g(x)] approach zero as x → ±∞ . If the degree of p(x) is exactly one more than the degree of q(x)(n = m + 1) , the
function g(x) is a linear function. In this case, we call g(x) an oblique asymptote.
Now let’s consider the end behavior for functions involving a radical.
Example 4.6.6 : Determining End Behavior for a Function Involving a Radical

Find the limits as x → ∞ and x → −∞ for f (x) = 3x−2
√4 x2 +5
Solution
Let’s use the same strategy as we did for rational functions: divide the numerator and denominator by a power of x . To
−−−−−−
determine the appropriate power of x, consider the expression √4x + 5 in the denominator. Since
2

− −−−−− −−−
2 2
√ 4 x + 5 ≈ √4x = 2|x| (4.6.13)
for large values of x in effect x appears just to the first power in the denominator. Therefore, we divide the numerator and
−−
denominator by |x|. Then, using the fact that |x| = x for x > 0, |x| = −x for x < 0 , and |x| = √x for all x, we calculate the
2
limits as follows:
3x−2 (1/|x|)(3x−2)
limx→∞ = limx→∞
√4 x2 +5 (1/|x|) √4 x2 +5
(1/x)(3x−2)
= limx→∞
√(1/ x2 )(4x2+5)
3−2/x 3 3
= limx→∞ = =
2 √4 2
√4+5/x
3x−2 (1/|x|)(3x−2)
limx→−∞ = limx→−∞
√4 x2 +5 (1/|x|) √4 x2 +5
(−1/x)(3x−2)
= limx→−∞
2 2
√(1/ x )(4 x +5)
−3+2/x
= limx→−∞ =
−3
=
−3
2
.
2 √4
√4+5/x
Therefore, f (x) approaches the horizontal asymptote y = 3
2
as x → ∞ and the horizontal asymptote y =−
3
2
as x → −∞ as
Figure 4.6.18 :This function has two horizontal asymptotes and it crosses one of the asymptotes.
Exercise 4.6.6
√3 x2 +4
Evaluate limx→∞
x+6
.
Hint
Divide the numerator and denominator by |x|.
Answer
–
±√3
Determining End Behavior for Transcendental Functions

The six basic trigonometric functions are periodic and do not approach a finite limit as x → ±∞. For example, sinx oscillates
between 1and − 1 (Figure). The tangent function x has an infinite number of vertical asymptotes as x → ±∞ ; therefore, it does
not approach a finite limit nor does it approach ±∞ as x → ±∞ as shown in Figure.

Figure 4.6.19 :The function f (x) = sinx oscillates between 1and − 1 as x → ±∞
Figure 4.6.20 : The function f (x) = tanx does not approach a limit and does not approach ±∞ as x → ±∞
Recall that for any base b > 0, b ≠ 1, the function y = b is an exponential function with domain (−∞, ∞) and range (0, ∞). If
x
b > 1, y = b
x
is increasing over `(−∞, ∞). If 0 < b < 1, y = b is decreasing over (−∞, ∞). For the natural exponential
x
function f (x) = e , e ≈ 2.718 > 1 . Therefore, f (x) = e is increasing on `(−∞, ∞) and the range is `(0, ∞). The exponential
x x
function f (x) = e approaches ∞ as x → ∞ and approaches 0 as x → −∞ as shown in Table and Figure.

x
End behavior of the natural exponential function

x −5 −2 0 2 5
e
x
0.00674 0.135 1 7.389 148.413
Figure 4.6.21 : The exponential function approaches zero as x → −∞ and approaches ∞ as x → ∞.

Recall that the natural logarithm function f (x) = ln(x) is the inverse of the natural exponential function y = e . Therefore, the
x
domain of f (x) = ln(x) is (0, ∞) and the range is (−∞, ∞). The graph of f (x) = ln(x) is the reflection of the graph of y = e x
about the line y = x . Therefore, ln(x) → −∞ as x → 0 and ln(x) → ∞ as x → ∞ as shown in Figure and Table.
+
End behavior of the natural logarithm function

x 0.01 0.1 1 10 100
ln(x) −4.605 −2.303 0 2.303 4.605
Figure 4.6.22 : The natural logarithm function approaches ∞ as x → ∞.
Example 4.6.7 : Determining End Behavior for a Transcendental Function

x
(2+3 e )
Find the limits as x → ∞ and x → −∞ for f (x) = (7−5ex
)
Solution
To find the limit as x → ∞, divide the numerator and denominator by e : x
x
2+3e
limx→∞ f (x) = limx→∞ x
7−5e
x
(2/ e )+3
= limx→∞
x
(7/ e )−5.
As shown in Figure, e x
→ ∞ as x → ∞. Therefore,
limx→∞
2
e
x
= 0 = limx→∞
7
e
x
.
We conclude that lim (x) = −
x→∞f , and the graph of f approaches the horizontal asymptote y = − as x → ∞. To find the
3
5
3
limit as x → −∞ , use the fact that e → 0 as x → −∞ to conclude that lim

x
f (x) = , and therefore the graph of x→∞
2
approaches the horizontal asymptote y = as x → −∞ . 2
Exercise 4.6.7
x
(3 e −4)
Find the limits as x → ∞ and x → −∞ for f (x) = x
(5 e +2).
Hint
limx→∞ e
x
=∞ and i m x→∞ e
x
= 0.
Answer
3
limx→∞ f (x) = , limx→−∞ f (x) = −2
5
Guidelines for Drawing the Graph of a Function

We now have enough analytical tools to draw graphs of a wide variety of algebraic and transcendental functions. Before showing
how to graph specific functions, let’s look at a general strategy to use when graphing any function.
Problem-Solving Strategy: Drawing the Graph of a Function
3. Evaluate lim f (x) and lim
x→∞ f (x) to determine the end behavior. If either of these limits is a finite number L, then
x→−∞
y = L is a horizontal asymptote. If either of these limits is ∞ or −∞ , determine whether f has an oblique asymptote. If i s a
p(x)
rational function such that f (x) = q(x)
, where the degree of the numerator is greater than the degree of the denominator,
then f can be written as
p(x) r(x)
f (x) = = g(x) + (4.6.14)
q(x) q(x),
where the degree of r(x) is less than the degree of q(x). The values of f (x) approach the values of g(x) as x → ±∞ . If
g(x) is a linear function, it is known as an oblique asymptote.
4. Determine whether f has any vertical asymptotes.

5. Calculate f '. Find all critical points and determine the intervals where f is increasing and where f is decreasing. Determine
whether f has any local extrema.
6. Calculate f . Determine the intervals where f is concave up and where f is concave down. Use this information to
′′
determine whether f has any inflection points. The second derivative can also be used as an alternate means to determine or
verify that f has a local extremum at a critical point.
Now let’s use this strategy to graph several different functions. We start by graphing a polynomial function.
Example 4.6.8 : Sketching a Graph of a Polynomial

(x + 2).
Solution
Step 1: Since f is a polynomial, the domain is the set of all real numbers.
Step 2: When x = 0, f (x) = 2.Therefore, the y-intercept is (0, 2). To find the x-intercepts, we need to solve the equation
(x + 2) = 0 , gives us the x-intercepts (1, 0) and (−2, 0)
2
(x − 1 )
Step 3: We need to evaluate the end behavior of f .As x → ∞, (x − 1) → ∞ and (x + 2) → ∞ . Therefore, 2
f (x) = ∞ As x → −∞, (x − 1 ) → ∞ and (x + 2) → −∞ . Therefore, lim f (x) = −∞ . To get even more

2
limx→∞ x→∞
information about the end behavior of f , we can multiply the factors of f .When doing so, we see that
2 3
f (x) = (x − 1 ) (x + 2) = x − 3x + 2. (4.6.15)
Since the leading term of f is x , we conclude that f behaves like y = x as x → ±∞.

3 3
Step 4: Since f is a polynomial function, it does not have any vertical asymptotes.
Step 5: The first derivative of f is
2
f '(x) = 3 x − 3. (4.6.16)
Therefore, f has two critical points: x = 1, −1. Divide the interval (−∞, ∞) into the three smaller intervals:
(−∞, −1), (−1, 1) , and (1, ∞). Then, choose test points x = −2, x = 0 , and x = 2 from these intervals and evaluate the sign
of f '(x) at each of these test points, as shown in the following table.
Sign of Derivative
Interval Test point ′ 2
Conclusion
f (x) = 3 x − 3 = 3(x − 1)(x + 1)
(−∞, −1) x = −2 (+)(−)(−) = + f is increasing
(−1, 1) x = 0 (+)(−)(+) = − f decreasing
(1, ∞) (x=2\) (+)(+)(+) = + f is increasing
From the table, we see that f has a local maximum at x = −1 and a local minimum at x = 1 . Evaluating f (x) at those two
points, we find that the local maximum value is f (−1) = 4 and the local minimum value is f (1) = 0.
′′
f (x) = 6x. (4.6.17)
The second derivative is zero at x = 0. Therefore, to determine the concavity of f , divide the interval (−∞, ∞) into the
smaller intervals (−∞, 0) and (0, ∞), and choose test points x = −1 and x = 1 to determine the concavity of f on each of
these smaller intervals as shown in the following table.
Interval Test Point Sign of ′′

(x) = 6x Conclusion
(−∞, 0) x = −1 − f is concave down..
(0, ∞) x = 1 + f is concave up.
We note that the information in the preceding table confirms the fact, found in step 5, that f has a local maximum at x = −1 and
a local minimum at x = 1 . In addition, the information found in step 5—namely, f has a local maximum at x = −1 and a local
minimum at x = 1 , and f '(x) = 0 at those points—combined with the fact that f changes sign only at x = 0 confirms the
′′
results found in step 6 on the concavity of f .

Combining this information, we arrive at the graph of f (x) = (x − 1) 2
(x + 2) shown in the following graph.

Exercise 4.6.8
(x + 2).
Answer
f is a fourth-degree polynomial.
Answer
Example 4.6.9 : Sketching a Rational Function

2
(1−x )
2
.
Solution
Step 1: The function f is defined as long as the denominator is not zero. Therefore, the domain is the set of all real numbers x
except x = ±1.
2
Step 2: Find the intercepts. If x = 0, then f (x) = 0 , so 0 is an intercept. If y =0 , then x
(1−x )
2
= 0, which implies x=0.
Therefore, (0,0) is the only intercept.

Step 3: Evaluate the limits at infinity. Since f is a rational function, divide the numerator and denominator by the highest power
in the denominator: x .We obtain
2
2
x 1
limx→±∞ 2
= limx→±∞ 1
= −1.
1−x −1
x2
Therefore, f has a horizontal asymptote of y = −1 as x → ∞ and x → −∞.

Step 4: To determine whether f has any vertical asymptotes, first check to see whether the denominator has any zeroes. We find
the denominator is zero when x = ±1 . To determine whether the lines x = 1 or x = −1 are vertical asymptotes of f , evaluate
lim f (x) and lim
x→1 f (x). By looking at each one-sided limit as x → 1, we see that
x→−1
2 2
limx→1+
x
1−x
2
= −∞ and lim x→1
−
1−x
x
2
= ∞.
In addition, by looking at each one-sided limit as x → −1, we find that

2 2
limx→−1+
x
1−x
2
=∞ and lim x→−1
−
x
1−x
2
= −∞.

2 2
(1−x )(2x)−x (−2x)
f '(x) =
2
2
=
2x
2
2
.
(1−x ) (1−x )
Critical points occur at points x where f '(x) = 0 or f '(x) is undefined. We see that f '(x) = 0 when x = 0. The derivative f ' is
not undefined at any point in the domain of f . However, x = ±1 are not in the domain of f . Therefore, to determine where f is
increasing and where f is decreasing, divide the interval (−∞, ∞) into four smaller intervals: (−∞, −1), (−1, 0), (0, 1), and
(1, ∞), and choose a test point in each interval to determine the sign of f '(x) in each of these intervals. The values
1
x = −2, x = − , x =
2
, and x = 2 are good choices for test points as shown in the following table.
1
Interval Test point Sign of f'(x) = 2x

2 Conclusion
( 1−x2 )
(−∞, −1) x = −2 −/+ = − f is decreasing.
(−1, 0) x = −/2 −/+ = − f is decreasing.
(0, 1) x = 1/2 +/+ = + f is increasing.
(1, ∞) x = 2 +/+ = + f is increasing.
From this analysis, we conclude that f has a local minimum at x = 0 but no local maximum.
Step 6: Calculate the second derivative:
2 2 2
(1−x ) (2)−2x(2(1−x )(−2x))
′′
f (x) =
4
2
(1−x )
2 2 2
(1−x )[2(1−x )+8 x ]
=
2 4
(1−x )
2 2
2(1−x )+8 x
= 3
2
(1−x )
2
6 x +2
= 3
.
2
(1−x )
f (x) = 0 or f (x) is undefined. Since the numerator 6 x + 2 ≠ 0 for any x, f (x) is never zero. Furthermore, f is not
′′ ′′ 2 ′′ ′′
undefined for any x in the domain of f . However, as discussed earlier, x = ±1 are not in the domain of f . Therefore, to
determine the concavity of f , we divide the interval (−∞, ∞) into the three smaller intervals (−∞, −1), (−1, −1), and
(1, ∞), and choose a test point in each of these intervals to evaluate the sign of f (x). in each of these intervals. The values
′′
x = −2, x = 0 , and x = 2 are possible test points as shown in the following table.
2
6 x +2
(x) =
3
Conclusion
( 1−x2 )
(−∞, −1) x = −2 +/− = − f is concave down.
(−1, −1) x = 0 +/+ = + f is concave up

2
6 x +2
(x) =
3
Conclusion
( 1−x2 )
(1, ∞) x = 2 +/− = − f is concave down.
Combining all this information, we arrive at the graph of f shown below. Note that, although f changes concavity at x = −1
and x = 1 , there are no inflection points at either of these places because f is not continuous at x = −1 or x = 1.
<iframe src="https://www.desmos.com/calculator/rkgoh8veqg?embed" width="500px" height="500px" style="border: 1px solid
#ccc" frameborder=0></iframe>
Exercise 4.6.9
(3x+5)
Sketch a graph of f (x) = (8+4x).

Hint
A line y = L is a horizontal asymptote of f if the limit as x → ∞ or the limit as x → −∞ of f (x) is L. A line x = a is a
vertical asymptote if at least one of the one-sided limits of f as x → a is ∞ or −∞.
Answer
Example 4.6.10 : Sketching a Rational Function with an Oblique Asymptote

2
(x−1)
Solution
Step 1: The domain of f is the set of all real numbers x except x = 1.
Step 2: Find the intercepts. We can see that when x = 0, f (x) = 0, so (0, 0) is the only intercept.
Step 3: Evaluate the limits at infinity. Since the degree of the numerator is one more than the degree of the denominator, f must
have an oblique asymptote. To find the oblique asymptote, use long division of polynomials to write
2
f (x) =
x
x−1
= x +1 +
1
x−1
.
Since 1/(x − 1) → 0 as x → ±∞, f (x) approaches the line y = x +1 as x → ±∞ . The line y = x +1 is an oblique
asymptote for f .
Step 4: To check for vertical asymptotes, look at where the denominator is zero. Here the denominator is zero at x = 1. Looking
at both one-sided limits as x → 1, we find
2 2
limx→1+
x−1
x
=∞ and lim x→1
−
x
x−1
= −∞.
Therefore, x = 1 is a vertical asymptote, and we have determined the behavior of f as x approaches 1 from the right and the
left.
2
2
(x−1)(2x)−x (1) x −2x
f '(x) = = .
2 2
(x−1) (x−1)
We have f '(x) = 0 when x − 2x = x(x − 2) = 0 . Therefore, x = 0 and x = 2 are critical points. Since f is undefined at
2
x = 1 , we need to divide the interval (−∞, ∞) into the smaller intervals (−∞, 0), (0, 1), (1, 2), and (2, ∞), and choose a test
point from each interval to evaluate the sign of f '(x) in each of these smaller intervals. For example, let
x = −1, x =
1
,x =
2
, and x = 3 be the test points as shown in the following table.
3

(x) =
2
3 Conclusion
( x−1)
(−∞, 1) x = 0 +/− = − f is concave down.

(x) =
2
3 Conclusion
( x−1)
(1, ∞) (x=2\) +/+ = + f is concave up
From the information gathered, we arrive at the following graph for f .
Exercise 4.6.10
3
(3 x −2x+1)
Find the oblique asymptote for f (x) = 2
(2 x −4)
.
Hint
Use long division of polynomials.
Answer
3
y = x
2
Example 4.6.11 : Sketching the Graph of a Function with a Cusp

Sketch a graph of (x) = (x − 1) 2/3
Solution
3 −−−−− 2
Step 1: Since the cube-root function is defined for all real numbers x and (x − 1) 2/3
= (√x − 1 ) , the domain of f is all real
numbers.
Step 2: To find the y -intercept, evaluate f (0). Since f (0) = 1, the y -intercept is (0, 1) . To find the x -intercept, solve
= 0 . The solution of this equation is x = 1 , so the x-intercept is (1, 0).
2/3
(x − 1 )
Step 3: Since lim x→±∞

2/3
(x − 1 ) = ∞, the function continues to grow without bound as x → ∞ and x → −∞.
Step 4: The function has no vertical asymptotes.
Step 5: To determine where f is increasing or decreasing, calculate f '. We find
2 −1/3
2
f '(x) = (x − 1 ) = (4.6.18)
1/3
3 3(x − 1)
This function is not zero anywhere, but it is undefined when x = 1. Therefore, the only critical point is x = 1. Divide the
interval (−∞, ∞) into the smaller intervals (−∞, 1) and (1, ∞), and choose test points in each of these intervals to determine
the sign of f '(x) in each of these smaller intervals. Let x = 0 and x = 2 be the test points as shown in the following table.
Interval Test Point Sign of f'(x) = 2

1/3
Conclusion
3( x−1)
(−∞, 1) x = 0 +/− = − f is decreasing
(1, ∞) x = 2 +/+ = + f is increasing

We conclude that h as a local minimum at x = 1 . Evaluating f at x = 1 , we find that the value of f at the local minimum is
zero. Note that f '(1) is undefined, so to determine the behavior of the function at this critical point, we need to examine
limx→1 f '(x). Looking at the one-sided limits, we have
2 2
lim = ∞\)and$ lim = −∞. (4.6.19)
+ 1/3 − 1/3
x→1 3(x − 1) x→1 3(x − 1)
Therefore, f has a cusp at x = 1.

Step 6: To determine concavity, we calculate the second derivative of f :
′′
2 −4/3
−2
f (x) = − (x − 1 ) = . (4.6.20)
9 9(x − 1)4/3
We find that f (x) is defined for all x, but is undefined when x = 1 . Therefore, divide the interval (−∞, ∞) into the smaller
′′
intervals (−∞, 1) and (1, ∞), and choose test points to evaluate the sign of f (x) in each of these intervals. As we did earlier,
′′
let x = 0 and x = 2 be test points as shown in the following table.

(x) =
−2
4/3 Conclusion
3( x−1)
(−∞, 1) x = 0 −/+ = − f is concave down
(1, ∞) x = 2 \−(+/+=−$ f is concave down
From this table, we conclude that is concave down everywhere. Combining all of this information, we arrive at the following
graph for f .
Exercise 4.6.11
Consider the function f (x) = 5 − x 2/3
. Determine the point on the graph where a cusp is located. Determine the end behavior
of f .
Hint
A function has a cusp at a point a if f (a) exists,
f
′
f (a) is undefined, one of the one-sided limits as x → a of
(x)is + ∞ , and the other one-sided limit is −∞.
′
f
Answer
The function f has a cusp at (0, 5) lim x→0
− f '(x) = ∞ , lim x→0
+ f '(x) = −∞ . For end behavior, lim x→±∞ f (x) = −∞.
Key Concepts
sufficiently large.

n
n−1
n−1
+… +a x +a , where a
1 0 n ≠0 , the end behavior is determined
n
n
p(x)
an
n n
bn
Glossary
end behavior
if limx→∞ f (x) = L or lim x→−∞ f (x) = L , then y = L is a horizontal asymptote of f

limit at infinity
oblique asymptote
Contributors
This page titled 4.6: Limits at Infinity and Asymptotes is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by
OpenStax.

4.E: Applications of Derivatives (ALL Chap 4 Exercises)
4.1: Related Rates

dy
1) Find dt
+3 if dx
dt
= 4.
Solution: 8
dy
2) Find dx
dt
at x = −2 and y = 2x 2
+1 if dt
= −1.
dy
3) Find dz
dt
at (x, y) = (1, 3) and z 2
=x
2
+y
2
if dx
dt
=4 and dt
=3 .
Solution: 13
√10
1
R
+ . If R
1
R1
R2
1
1 2
–
Solution: 2√3f t/sec
Solution: The distance is decreasing at 390mi/h.
leave from the same point, with you riding at 16 mph east and your friend riding 12mph north. After you traveled 4mi, at what
Solution: The distance between them shrinks at a rate of 1320
13
≈ 101.5mph.
Using the previous problem, what is the rate at which the tip of the shadow moves away from the person when the person is 10 ft
from the pole?
Solution: 9
2
f t/sec
Solution: It grows at a rate 4
9
ft/sec
sec.
135 √26)
Solution: The distance is increasing at ( 26
ft/sec
14) For the following exercises, draw and label diagrams to help solve the related-rates problems.
The side of a cube increases at a rate of 1
2
cube is 4 m.
The volume of a cube decreases at a rate of 10 m/sec. Find the rate at which the side of the cube changes when the side of the
cube is 2 m.
Slution: − m/sec
5
m.
Solution: 240π m 2
/sec
Solution: 1
2 √π
cm
(3 √3)
Solution: The area is increasing at a rate 8
f t2 /sec.
a radius of 5 ft.
/min?
Solution: The depth of the water decreases at 128
125π
ft/min.
23) Find the rate at which the surface area of the water changes when the water is 10 ft high if the cone leaks water at a rate of 10
f t /min.
3
(25π)
Solution: The volume is decreasing at a rate of 16
3
f t /min.
3

height is 1 m.
(2π)
Solution: The water flows out at rate 5
m3 /min.
3
How fast does the height increase when the water is 2 m deep if water is being pumped in at a rate of m/sec?2
Solution: 3
2
m/sec
3

Solution: 25
19π
f t/min
in.
3
Solution: 45π
2
f t/min
Solution: The angle decreases at 400
1681
rad/sec.
Solution: 100π/min
38) You are walking to a bus stop at a right-angle corner. You move north at a rate of 2 m/sec and are 20 m south of the
intersection. The bus travels west at a rate of 10 m/sec away from the intersection – you have missed the bus! What is the rate at
which the angle between you and the bus is changing when you are 20 m south of the intersection and the bus is 10 m west of
the intersection?
Solution: The angle is changing at a rate of 21
25
rad/sec .
Solution: The distance is increasing at a rate of 62.50 ft/sec.
Solution: The distance is decreasing at a rate of 11.99 ft/sec.

1) What is the linear approximation for any generic linear function y = mx + b ?
2) Determine the necessary conditions such that the linear approximation function is constant. Use a graph to prove your result.
Solution: f '(a) = 0
3) Explain why the linear approximation becomes less accurate as you increase the distance between x and a . Use a graph to prove
your argument.
4) When is the linear approximation exact?
Solution: The linear approximation exact when y = f (x) is linear or constant.
For the following exercises, find the linear approximation L(x) to y = f (x) near x = a for the function.
5) [T] f (x) = x + x 4
,a =0
6) [T] f (x) = 1
x
,a =2
Solution: L(x) = 1
2
−
1
4
(x − 2)
7) [T] f (x) = tanx, a = π
8) [T] f (x) = sinx, a = π
Solution: L(x) = 1
9) [T] f (x) = xsinx, a = 2π
10) [T] f (x) = si n 2
x, a = 0
Solution: L(x) = 0
For the following exercises, compute the values given within 0.01 by deciding on the appropriate f (x) and a , and evaluating
L(x) = f (a) + f '(a)(x − a). Check your answer using a calculator.
11) [T] (2.001) 6
12) [T] sin(0.02)

Solution: 0.02
13) [T] cos(0.03)
14) [T] (15.99) 1/4
Solution: 1.9996875
15) [T] 1
0.98
16) [T] sin(3.14)

Solution: 0.001593
For the following exercises, determine the appropriate f (x) and a , and evaluate L(x) = f (a) + f '(a)(x − a). Calculate the
numerical error in the linear approximations that follow.
17) (1.01) 3
18) cos(0.01)
Solution: 1; error, 0.00005
19) (sin(0.01)) 2
20) (1.01) −3
Solution: 0.97; error, 0.0006
21) (1 + 1
10
10
)
−
− −
−
22) √8.99
Solution: 3 − 600
1
; error, 4.632 × 10
−7
For the following exercises, find the differential of the function.

23) y = 3x 4
+x
2
− 2x + 1
24) y = xcosx
Solution: dy = (cosx − xsinx)dx
−−−−−
25) y = √1 + x
2
x +2
26) y = x−1
Solution: dy = ( x −2x−2
2
)dx
(x−1)
For the following exercises, find the differential and evaluate for the given x and dx.
27) y = 3x 2
− x + 6, x = 2, dx = 0.1
28) y = 1
x+1
, x = 1, dx = 0.25
Solution: dy = − 1
2
dx, −
1
16
(x+1)
29) y = tanx, x = 0, dx = π
10
30) y = 3 x +2
√x+1
, x=0, dx=0.1\)
2
Solution: dy = 9 x +12x−2
3/2
dx, −0.1
2(x+1)
sin(2x)
31) y = x
, x = π, dx = 0.25
32) y = x 3
+ 2x +
1
x
, x = 1, dx = 0.05
Solution: dy = (3x 2
+2 −
1
2
x
)dx, 0.2
For the following exercises, find the change in volume dV or in surface area dA.
33) dV if the sides of a cube change from 10 to 10.1.
34) dA if the sides of a cube change from x to x + dx .
Solution: 12xdx
35) dA if the radius of a sphere changes from r by dr.
36) dV if the radius of a sphere changes from r by dr.
Solution: 4π r 2
dr
37) dV if a circular cylinder with r = 2 changes height from 3 cm to 3.05cm.

38) dV if a circular cylinder of height 3 changes from r = 2 to r = 1.9cm.
Solution: −1.2πcm 3
For the following exercises, use differentials to estimate the maximum and relative error when computing the surface area or
volume.
39) A spherical golf ball is measured to have a radius of 5mm, with a possible measurement error of 0.1mm. What is the possible
change in volume?
40) A pool has a rectangular base of 10 ft by 20 ft and a depth of 6 ft. What is the change in volume if you only fill it up to 5.5 ft?
Solution: −100f t 3
41) An ice cream cone has height 4 in. and radius 1 in. If the cone is 0.1 in. thick, what is the difference between the volume of the
cone, including the shell, and the volume of the ice cream you can fit inside the shell
For the following exercises, confirm the approximations by using the linear approximation at x = 0.
−−−−−
42) √1 − x ≈1−
1
2
x
43) 1
≈1
√1−x2
−− −−−−
44) √c 2
+x
2
≈c

+ bx + c ,
which was m = − b
(2a)
absolute minimum?
2
arguments.
+ bx
2
Solution: No; answers will vary
Solution: Since the absolute maximum is the function (output) value rather than the x value, the answer is no; answers will vary
is not possible.
ax
absolute maximum?
Solution: When a = 0
11)
12)
Solution: Absolute minimum at 3; Absolute maximum at −2.2; local minima at −2, 1; local maxima at −1, 2
13)
14)
Solution: Absolute minima at −2, 2; absolute maxima at −2.5, 2.5; local minimum at 0; local maxima at −1, 1
19) y = 4x 3
− 3x
20) y = 4√−
x −x
2
Solution: x = 1
21) y = 1
x−1
22) y = ln(x − 2)
Solution: None
23) y = tan(x)
−−−−−
24) y = √4 − x 2
Solution: x = 0
25) y = x 3/2
− 3x
5/2
2
x −1
26) y = 2
x +2x−3
Solution: None
27) y = si n 2
(x)
28) y = x + 1
Solution: x = −1, 1
For the following exercises, find the local and/or absolute maxima for the functions over the specified domain.
29) f (x) = x 2 +
3 over [−1, 4]
30) y = x 2
+
2
x
over [1, 4]
Solution: Absolute maximum: x = 4, y = 33
2
; absolute minimum: x = 1, y = 3
31) y = (x − x 2
)
2
over [−1, 1]
32) y = (x−x )
1
2
over [0, 1]
Solution: Absolute minimum: x = 1
2
,y =4
−−−−−
33) y = √9 − x over [1, 9]
34) y = x + sin(x) over [0, 2π]
Solution: Absolute maximum: x = 2π, y = 2π; absolute minimum: x = 0, y = 0
35) y = x
1+x
over [0, 100]
36) y = |x + 1| + |x − 1| over [−3, 2]
Solution: Absolute maximum: x = −3; absolute minimum: −1 ≤ x ≤ 1, y = 2
−−
37) y = √−
x − √x 3
over [0, 4]
– –
Solution: Absolute maximum: x = π
4
, y = √2 ; absolute minimum: x = 5π
4
, y = −√2
For the following exercises, find the local and absolute minima and maxima for the functions over (−∞, ∞).
40) y = x 2
+ 4x + 5
Solution: Absolute minimum: x = −2, y = 1

41) y = x 3
− 12x
42) y = 3x 4
+ 8x
3
− 18 x
2
Solution: Absolute minimum: x = −3, y = −135; local maximum: x = 0, y = 0 ; local minimum: x = 1, y = −7

43) y = x 3
(1 − x )
6
44) y = x +x+6
x−1
– – – –
Solution: Local maximum: x = 1 − 2√2, y = 3 − 4√2 ; local minimum: x = 1 + 2√2, y = 3 + 4√2
2
45) y = x −1
x−1
−−−−−
46) [T] y = 3x √1 − x 2
√2 √2
Solution: Absolute maximum: x = 2
,y =
3
2
,y =−
3
47) [T] y = x + sin(x)

48) [T] y = 12x 5
+ 45 x
4
+ 20 x
3
− 90 x
2
− 120x + 3
Solution: Local maximum: x = −2, y = 59 ; local minimum: x = 1, y = −130

3 2
49) [T] y = x +6 x −x−30
x−2
√4−x2
50) [T] y =
√4+x2
Solution: Absolute maximum: x = 0, y = 1; absolute minimum: x = −2, 2, y = 0

51) A company that produces cell phones has a cost function of C = x − 1200x + 36, 400, where C is cost in dollars and
2
x is
52) A ball is thrown into the air and its position is given by h(t) = −4.9 t
2
Solution: h = 9245
49
m, t =
300
49
s
(25t)
( t +16)
minimum?
Solution: The global minimum was in 1848, when no gold was produced.
55) y = { x 2
− 4x 0 ≤ x ≤ 1// x
2
−4 1 <x ≤2
56) y = { x 2
+1
2
x ≤ 1// x − 4x + 5 x >1
Solution: Absolute minima: x = 0, x = 2, y = 1 ; local maximum at x = 1, y = 2

57) y = ax 2
58) y = (x − 1) , given that a > 1
a
Solution: No maxima/minima if a is odd, minimum at x = 1 if a is even

1)Why do you need continuity to apply the Mean Value Theorem? Construct a counterexample.
2) Why do you need differentiability to apply the Mean Value Theorem? Find a counterexample.
Solution: One example is f (x) = |x| + 3, −2 ≤ x ≤ 2
3) When are Rolle’s theorem and the Mean Value Theorem equivalent?
4) If you have a function with a discontinuity, is it still possible to have f '(c)(b − a) = f (b) − f (a)? Draw such an example or
prove why not.
Solution: Yes, but the Mean Value Theorem still does not apply
For the following exercises, determine over what intervals (if any) the Mean Value Theorem applies. Justify your answer.
5) y = sin(πx)
6) y = 1
3
x
Solution: (−∞, 0), (0, ∞)

−−−−−
7) y = √4 − x 2
−−−−−
8) y = √x 2
−4
Solution: (−∞, −2), (2, ∞)
9) y = ln(3x − 5)
For the following exercises, graph the functions on a calculator and draw the secant line that connects the endpoints. Estimate the
number of points c such that f '(c)(b − a) = f (b) − f (a).
10) [T] y = 3x 3
+ 2x + 1 over [−1, 1]
Solution: 2 points
11) [T] y = tan( π
4
x) over [− 3
2
,
3
2
]
12) [T] y = x 2
cos(πx) over [−2, 2]
Solution: 5 points
13) [T] y = x 6
−
3
4
x
5
−
9
8
4
x +
15
16
x
3
+
3
32
2
x +
3
16
x+
1
32
over [−1, 1]
For the following exercises, use the Mean Value Theorem and find all points 0 < c < 2 such that f (2) − f (0) = f '(c)(2 − 0) .
14) f (x) = x 3
2 √3
Solution: c = 3
15) f (x) = sin(πx)

16) f (x) = cos(2πx)
Solution: c = 1
2
, 1,
3
17) f (x) = 1 + x + x 2
18) f (x) = (x − 1) 10
Solution: c = 1
19) f (x) = (x − 1) 9
For the following exercises, show there is no c such that f (1) − f (−1) = f '(c)(2) . Explain why the Mean Value Theorem does
not apply over the interval [−1, 1].
20) f (x) =∣ x − 1
2
∣
∣
Solution: Not differentiable

21) f (x) = 1
x
2
−−
22) f (x) = √|x|
23) f (x) = [x] (Hint: This is called the floor function and it is defined so that f (x) is the largest integer less than or equal to x.)
For the following exercises, determine whether the Mean Value Theorem applies for the functions over the given interval \(([a,b]\.
Justify your answer.
24) y = e over [0, 1]
x
Solution: Yes
25) y = ln(2x + 3) over [− 3
2
, 0]
26) f (x) = tan(2πx) over [0, 2]

Solution: The Mean Value Theorem does not apply since the function is discontinuous at x = 1
4
,
3
4
,
5
4
,
7
4
.
−−−− −
27) y = √9 − x
2
over [−3, 3]
28) y = 1
|x+1|
over [0, 3]
Solution: Yes
29) y = x 3
+ 2x + 1 over [0, 6]
2
30) y = x +3x+2
x
over [−1, 1]
Solution: The Mean Value Theorem does not apply; discontinuous at x = 0.
31) y = x
sin(πx)+1
over [0, 1]
32) y = ln(x + 1) over [0, e − 1]

Yes
33) y = xsin(πx) over [0, 2]
34) y = 5 + |x| over [−1, 1]
Solution: The Mean Value Theorem does not apply; not differentiable at x = 0 .
For the following exercises, consider the roots of the equation.
35) Show that the equation y = x 3
+ 3x
2
+ 16 has exactly one real root. What is it?
36) Find the conditions for exactly one root (double root) for the equation y = x 2
+ bx + c
Solution: b = ±2√c
37) Find the conditions for y = e x
−b to have one root. Is it possible to have more than one root?
For the following exercises, use a calculator to graph the function over the interval [a, b] and graph the secant line from a to b . Use
the calculator to estimate all values of c as guaranteed by the Mean Value Theorem. Then, find the exact value of c , if possible, or
write the final equation and use a calculator to estimate to four digits.
38) [T] y = tan(πx) over [− 1
4
,
1
4
]
√π
Solution: c = ± 1
π
cos
−1
(
2
), c = ±0.1533
39) [T] y = √x+1

1
over [0, 3]
40) [T] y =∣ x 2
+ 2x − 4 ∣
∣ over [−4, 0]
Solution: The Mean Value Theorem does not apply.
41) [T] y = x + x
1
over [ 1
2
, 4]
−−−−−
42) [T] y = √x + 1 +
1
x2
over [3, 8]
Solution: 1
−
2
c3
=
521
2880
; c = 3.133, 5.867
2 √c+1
43) At 10:17 a.m., you pass a police car at 55 mph that is stopped on the freeway. You pass a second police car at 55 mph at 10:53
a.m., which is located 39 mi from the first police car. If the speed limit is 60 mph, can the police cite you for speeding?
44) Two cars drive from one spotlight to the next, leaving at the same time and arriving at the same time. Is there ever a time when
they are going the same speed? Prove or disprove.
Solution: Yes
45) Show that y = sec 2
x and y = tan 2
x have the same derivative. What can you say about y = sec 2
x − tan x
2
?
46) Show that y = csc 2
x and y = cot 2
x have the same derivative. What can you say about y = csc 2 2
x − cot x ?
Solution: It is constant.

3
Solution: It is not a local maximum/minimum because f ' does not change sign
3
Solution: No
Solution: False; for example, y = √−
x.

9)
Solution: Increasing for −2 < x < −1 and x > 2 ; decreasing for x < −2 and −1 < x < 2
10)
11)
Solution: Decreasing for x < 1 , increasing for x > 1
12)
13)
Solution: Decreasing for −2 < x < −1 and 1 < x < 2 ; increasing for −1 < x < 1 and x < −2 and x > 2
14)
15)
Solution: a. Increasing over −2 < x < −1, 0 < x < 1, x > 2 , decreasing over x < −2, −1 < x < 0, 1 < x < 2; b. maxima at
x = −1 and x = 1 , minima at x = −2 and x = 0 and x = 2
16)
17)
Solution: a. Increasing over x > 0 , decreasing over x < 0; b. Minimum at x = 0

18)
down.
19)
Solution: Concave up on all x, no inflection points

20)
21)
22)
23)
Solution: Concave up for x < 0 and x > 1 , concave down for 0 < x < 1 , inflection points at x = 0 and x = 1
(x) < 0 for all x
Solution: Answer will vary
26) f ′′
(x) < 0 over −1 < x < 1, f ′′
29) f (x) = sinx + si n 3
x over −π<x<π
Solution:
2
<x <
π
2
2
,x >
π

π
2
π
28) f (x) = x 2
+ cosx
For the following exercises, determine a. intervals where f is concave up or concave down, and b. the inflection points of f .
29) f (x) = x 3
− 4x
2
+x +2
Solution:
3

30) f (x) = x 2
− 6x
31) f (x) = x 3
− 6x
2
Solution: a. Increasing over x < 0 and x > 4, decreasing over 0 < x < 4 b. Maximum at x = 0 , minimum at x = 4 c. Concave up
for x > 2 , concave down for x < 2 d. Infection point at x = 2
32) f (x) = x 4
− 6x
3
33) f (x) = x 11
− 6x
10
Solution: a. Increasing over x < 0 and x > , decreasing over 0 < x <
60
11
60
11
11
11
,
54
11
54
11
34) f (x) = x + x 2
−x
3
35) f (x) = x 2
+x +1
Solution: a. Increasing over x >−

1
2
, decreasing over x <−
1
2
b. Minimum at x =−
1
2
c. Concave up for all x d. No inflection
points
36) f (x) = x 3
+x
4

Solution: a. Increases over −
1
4
<x <
3
4
decreases over x > and x < − b. Minimum at x = − , maximum at
,
3
4
1
4
1
4
x =
3
4
c.
Concave up for − < x < 3
4
1
4
, concave down for x < − and x > d. Inflection points at x = − , x =
3
4
1
4
3
4
1
38) [T] f (x) = x + sin(2x) over x = [− π
2
,
π
2
]
39) [T] f (x) = sinx + tanx over (− π
2
,
π
2
)
Solution: a. Increasing for all x b. No local minimum or maximum c. Concave up for x > 0 , concave down for x < 0 d. Inflection
point at x = 0
40) [T] f (x) = (x − 2) 2
(x − 4 )
2
41) [T] f (x) = 1−x

1
,x ≠1
Solution: a. Increasing for all x where defined b. No local minima or maxima c. Concave up for x < 1 ; concave down for x > 1 d.
No inflection points in domain
42) [T] f (x) = sinx
x
over x = [−2π, 2π][2π, 0) ∪ (0, 2π]
43) f (x) = sin(x)e over x = [−π, π]
x
Solution: a. Increasing over − < x < , decreasing over x > , x < − b. Minimum at
π
4
3π
4
3π
4
π
4
x =−
π
4
, maximum at x =
3π
4
c.
Concave up for − < x < , concave down for x < − , x > d. Infection points at x = ±
π
2
π
2
π
2
π
2
π
−
44) f (x) = lnx √x , x > 0
−
45) f (x) = 1
4
√x +
1
x
,x >0
3 –
Solution: a. Increasing over x > 4, decreasing over 0 <x <4 b. Minimum at x =4 c. Concave up for 0 < x < 8 √2 , concave
– –
down for x > 8√2 d. Inflection point at x = 8√2
3 3
46) f (x) = e
x
,x ≠0
.

Solution: f > 0, f ' > 0, f
′′
<0
Solution: f > 0, f ' < 0, f
′′
<0
′′
>0
52) f (x) = 0 for some 1 ≤ x ≤ 3
53) f ′′
(x) = 0 for some 1 ≤ x ≤ 3
Soltuion: True, by the Mean Value Theorem
Solution: True, examine derivative

For the following exercises, examine the graphs. Identify where the vertical asymptotes are located.
1)
Solution: x = 1
2)
3)
Solution: x = −1, x = 2
4)
5)
Solution: x = 0
For the following functions f (x), determine whether there is an asymptote at x =a . Justify your answer without graphing on a
calculator.
x+1
6) f (x) = 2
x +5x+4
, a = −1
7) f (x) = x
x−2
,a =2
Solution: Yes, there is a vertical asymptote

8) f (x) = (x + 2) 3/2
, a = −2
9) f (x) = (x − 1) −1/3
,a =1
Solution: Yes, there is vertical asymptote

10) f (x) = 1 + x −2/5
,a =1

11) lim x→∞
1
3x+6
Solution: 0
12) lim x→∞
2x−5
4x
13) lim x→∞

x −2x+5
x+2
Solution: ∞
3
14) lim x→−∞

3 x −2x
x2 +2x+8
4 3
15) lim x→−∞

x −4 x +1
2−2 x −7 x
2 4
Solution: − 1
16) lim x→∞

3x
√x2 +1
√4x2−1
17) lim x→−∞
x+2
Solution: −2
18) lim x→∞
√x2−1
4x
19) lim x→−∞

√x2−1
4x
Solution: −4
2 √x
20) lim x→∞
x−√x+1
For the following exercises, find the horizontal and vertical asymptotes.
21) f (x) = x − 9
Solution: Horizontal: none, vertical: x = 0

22) f (x) = 1−x
1
2
23) f (x) = 4−x

x
2
Solution: Horizontal: none, vertical: x = ±2

2
24) f (x) = x +
3 x +1
2
25) f (x) = sin(x)sin(2x)

Solution: Horizontal: none, vertical: none
26) f (x) = cosx + cos(3x) + cos(5x)
xsin(x)
27) f (x) = x2 −1
Solution: Horizontal: y = 0, vertical: x = ±1

28) f (x) = sin(x)
x
29) f (x) = ( x +x
3
1
2
Solution: Horizontal: y = 0, vertical: x = 0 and x = −1

30) f (x) = x−1
1
− 2x
31) f (x) = x +1
x −1
3
Solution: Horizontal: y = 1, vertical: x = 1

sinx+cosx
32) f (x) = sinx−cosx
33) f (x) = x − sinx

Solution: Horizontal: none, vertical: none
−
34) f (x) = 1
x
− √x
For the following exercises, construct a function f (x) that has the given asymptotes.
35) x = 1 and y = 2
Solution: Answers will vary, for example: y = 2x
x−1
36) x = 1 and y = 0
37) y = 4, x = −1
Solution: Answers will vary, for example: y = 4x
x+1
38) x = 0
For the following exercises, graph the function on a graphing calculator on the window x = [−5, 5] and estimate the horizontal
asymptote or limit. Then, calculate the actual horizontal asymptote or limit.
39) [T] f (x) = x+10
1
Solution: y = 0
x+1
40) [T] f (x) = 2
x +7x+6
41) [T] li m x→−∞ x

2
+ 10x + 25
Solution: ∞
42) [T] lim x→−∞
x2 +7x+6
x+2
43) [T] lim_{x→∞}\frac(3x+2}{x+5}

Solution: y = 3
For the following exercises, draw a graph of the functions without using a calculator. Be sure to notice all important features of the
graph: local maxima and minima, inflection points, and asymptotic behavior.
44) y = 3x 2
+ 2x + 4
45) y = x 3
− 3x
2
+4
Solution:
46) y = 2
2x+1
x +6x+5
3 2
47) y = x +4 x +3x
3x+9
Solution:
2
x +x−2
48) y = 2
x −3x−4
−−−−−−−− −
49) y = √x 2
− 5x + 4
Solution:
−−−−−−
50) y = 2x √16 − x 2
51) y = cosx
x
, on x = [−2π, 2π]
Solution:
52) y = e x
−x
3
\)
53) y = xtanx, x = [−π, π]
Solution:
54) y = xln(x), x > 0
55) y = x 2
sin(x), x = [−2π, 2π]
Solution:
P (x)
56) For f (x) = Q(x)
to have an asymptote at y = 2 then the polynomials P (x) and Q(x) must have what relation?
P (x)
57) For f (x) = Q(x)
to have an asymptote at x = 0 , then the polynomials P (x) and Q(x). must have what relation?
Solution: Q(x). must have have x k+1

as a factor, where P (x) has x as a factor.
k
58) If f '(x) has asymptotes at y = 3 and x = 1 , then f (x) has what asymptotes?
59) Both f (x) =
(x−1)
1
and g(x) =
1
2
have asymptotes at x =1 and y = 0. What is the most obvious difference between
(x−1)
these two functions?

Solution: \(lim_{x→1^−f(x)andlimx→1−g(x)
True or false: Every ratio of polynomials has vertical asymptotes.
4.7: Applied Optimization Problems

For the following exercises, answer by proof, counterexample, or explanation.
1) When you find the maximum for an optimization problem, why do you need to check the sign of the derivative around the
critical points?
Solution: The critical points can be the minima, maxima, or neither.
2) Why do you need to check the endpoints for optimization problems?
3) True or False. For every continuous nonlinear function, you can find the value x that maximizes the function.
Solution: False; y = −x has a minimum only
2
4) True or False. For every continuous nonconstant function on a closed, finite domain, there exists at least one x that minimizes or
maximizes the function.
For the following exercises, set up and evaluate each optimization problem.
5) To carry a suitcase on an airplane, the length +width+ height of the box must be less than or equal to 62in. Assuming the
height is fixed, show that the maximum volume is V = h(31 − ( )h) . What height allows you to have the largest volume?
1
2
2
Solution: h = 62
3
in.
6) You are constructing a cardboard box with the dimensions 2mby4m. You then cut equal-size squares from each corner so you
may fold the edges. What are the dimensions of the box with the largest volume?
7) Find the positive integer that minimizes the sum of the number and its reciprocal.
Solution: 1
8) Find two positive integers such that their sum is 10, and minimize and maximize the sum of their squares.
For the following exercises, consider the construction of a pen to enclose an area.
9) You have 400f t of fencing to construct a rectangular pen for cattle. What are the dimensions of the pen that maximize the area?
Solution: 100f tby100f t
10) You have 800f t of fencing to make a pen for hogs. If you have a river on one side of your property, what is the dimension of
the rectangular pen that maximizes the area?
11) You need to construct a fence around an area of 1600f t. What are the dimensions of the rectangular pen to minimize the
amount of material needed?
Solution: 40f tby40f t
12) Two poles are connected by a wire that is also connected to the ground. The first pole is 20f t tall and the second pole is 10f t
tall. There is a distance of 30f t between the two poles. Where should the wire be anchored to the ground to minimize the amount
of wire needed?
13) [T] You are moving into a new apartment and notice there is a corner where the hallway narrows from 8f tto6f t. What is the
length of the longest item that can be carried horizontally around the corner?
Solution: 19.73 ft
14) A patient’s pulse measures 70bpm, 80bpm, then 120bpm. To determine an accurate measurement of pulse, the doctor wants to
know what value minimizes the expression (x − 70) + (x − 80) + (x − 120) ? What value minimizes it?
2 2 2
15) In the previous problem, assume the patient was nervous during the third measurement, so we only weight that value half as
much as the others. What is the value that minimizes (x − 70) + (x − 80) + (x − 120) ?
2 2 1
2
2
Solution: 84bpm
16) You can run at a speed of 6 mph and swim at a speed of 3 mph and are located on the shore, 4 miles east of an island that is 1
mile north of the shoreline. How far should you run west to minimize the time needed to reach the island?
For the following problems, consider a lifeguard at a circular pool with diameter 40m. He must reach someone who is drowning on
the exact opposite side of the pool, at position C . The lifeguard swims with a speed v and runs around the pool at speed w = 3v.
17) Find a function that measures the total amount of time it takes to reach the drowning person as a function of the swim angle, θ .
Solution: T (θ) = 40θ
3v
+
40cosθ
18) Find at what angle θ the lifeguard should swim to reach the drowning person in the least amount of time.
19) A truck uses gas as g(v) = av + , where v represents the speed of the truck and g represents the gallons of fuel per mile. At
b
what speed is fuel consumption minimized?

−
−
Solution: v = √ b
(120−2v)
For the following exercises, consider a limousine that gets m(v) = 5
mi/gal at speed v , the chauffeur costs $15/h, and gas
is $3.5/gal.
20) Find the cost per mile at speed v.
21) Find the cheapest driving speed.
Solution: approximately 34.02mph
For the following exercises, consider a pizzeria that sell pizzas for a revenue of R(x) = ax and costs C (x) = b + cx + dx
2
,
where x represents the number of pizzas.
22) Find the profit function for the number of pizzas. How many pizzas gives the largest profit per pizza?
23) Assume that R(x) = 10x and C (x) = 2x + x .How many pizzas sold maximizes the profit?
2
Solution: 4
24) Assume that R(x) = 15x, and C (x) = 60 + 3x + 1
2
2
x . How many pizzas sold maximizes the profit?
For the following exercises, consider a wire 4f t long cut into two pieces. One piece forms a circle with radius r and the other forms
a square of side x.
25) Choose x to maximize the sum of their areas.
Solution: 0
26) Choose x to minimize the sum of their areas.
For the following exercises, consider two nonnegative numbers x and y such that x + y = 10 . Maximize and minimize the
quantities.
27) xy
Solution: Maximal: x = 5, y = 5; minimal: x = 0, y = 10 and y = 0, x = 10
28 x2
y
2
29) y − 1
Solution: Maximal: x = 1, y = 9; minimal: none

30) x 2
−y
For the following exercises, draw the given optimization problem and solve.
31) Find the volume of the largest right circular cylinder that fits in a sphere of radius 1.
Solution: 4π
3 √3
32) Find the volume of the largest right cone that fits in a sphere of radius 1.
y
33) Find the area of the largest rectangle that fits into the triangle with sides x = 0, y = 0 and x
4
+
6
= 1.
Solution: 6
34) Find the largest volume of a cylinder that fits into a cone that has base radius R and height h .
35) Find the dimensions of the closed cylinder volume V = 16π that has the least amount of surface area.
Solution: r = 2, h = 4
36) Find the dimensions of a right cone with surface area S = 4π that has the largest volume.
For the following exercises, consider the points on the given graphs. Use a calculator to graph the functions.
37) [T] Where is the line y = 5 − 2x closest to the origin?
Solution: (2, 1)
38) [T] Where is the line y = 5 − 2x closest to point (1, 1)?
2
Solution: (0.8351, 0.6974)

2
For the following exercises, set up, but do not evaluate, each optimization problem.
41) A window is composed of a semicircle placed on top of a rectangle. If you have 20f t of window-framing materials for the
outer frame, what is the maximum size of the window you can create? Use r to represent the radius of the semicircle.
Solution: A = 20r − 2r 2
−
1
2
2
πr
42) You have a garden row of 20 watermelon plants that produce an average of 30 watermelons apiece. For any additional
watermelon plants planted, the output per watermelon plant drops by one watermelon. How many extra watermelon plants should
you plant?
43) You are constructing a box for your cat to sleep in. The plush material for the square bottom of the box costs $5/f t and the
2
material for the sides costs $2/f t . You need a box with volume 4f t . Find the dimensions of the box that minimize cost. Use x to
2 2
represent the length of the side of the box.

Solution: C (x) = 5x 2
+
32
44) You are building five identical pens adjacent to each other with a total area of 1000m , as shown in the following figure. What
2
dimensions should you use to minimize the amount of fencing?

Glossary
optimization problems
problems that are solved by finding the maximum or minimum value of a function
45) You are the manager of an apartment complex with 50 units. When you set rent at $800/month, all apartments are rented. As
you increase rent by $25/month, one fewer apartment is rented. Maintenance costs run $50/month for each occupied unit. What
is the rent that maximizes the total amount of profit?
Solution: P (x) = (50 − x)(800 + 25x − 50)
4.8: L’Hôpital’s Rule

x
1) Evaluate the limit lim x→∞

e
x
.
x

e
xk
.
Solution: ∞
lnx
x
k
.
x−a
4) Evaluate the limit lim x→a 2
x −a
2
.
Solution: 2a
1
5. Evaluate the limit lim x→a

x−a
3
x −a
3
.
6. Evaluate the limit lim x→a

x−a
n
x −a
n
.
Solution: na
1
n−1
For the following exercises, determine whether you can apply L’Hôpital’s rule directly. Explain why or why not. Then, indicate if
there is some way you can alter the limit so you can apply L’Hôpital’s rule.
7) li m x→0
+
2
x lnx
8) lim x→∞ x
1/x
Solution: Cannot apply directly; use logarithms

9) lim x→0 x
2/x
10) lim x→0

x
1/x
Solution: Cannot apply directly; rewrite as lim x→0

3
x
11) lim x→∞

e
For the following exercises, evaluate the limits with either L’Hôpital’s rule or previously learned methods.
2
21) lim x→3

x −9
x−3
Solution: 6
2
22) lim x→3

x −9
x+3
−2
(1+x) −1
23) lim x→0 x
Solution: −2
24) lim x→π/2
cosx
π
−x
2
25) lim x→π

x−π
sinx
Solution: −1
26) lim x→1
x−1
sinx
n
(1+x) −1
27) lim x→0
x
Solution: n
n
(1+x) −1−nx
28) lim x→0
x2
29) lim x→0

sinx−tanx
x
3
Solution: − 1
√1+x−√1−x
30) lim x→0 x
x
e −x−1
31) lim x→0
x
2
Solution: 1
32) lim x→0

tanx
√x
33) lim x→1

x→1
lnx
Solution: 1
34) li m x→0 (x + 1 )
1/x
3
√x−√x
35) lim x→1
x−1
Solution: 1
36) lim x→0

+ x
2x
37) li m x→∞ xsin(

1
x
)
Solution: 1
38) lim x→0
sinx−x
x
2
39) li m x→0
+ xln(x )
4
Solution: 0
40) li m x→∞ (x − e )
x
41) lim x→∞ x e

2 −x
Solution: 0
x x
3 −2
42) lim x→0 x
1+1/x
43) lim x→0
1−1/x
Solution: −1
44) li m x→π/4 (1 − tanx)cotx
45) li m x→∞ xe
1/
x
Solution: ∞
46) lim x→0 x
1/cosx
47) lim x→0 x

1/x
Solution: 1
48) li m x→0 (1 −
1
x
)
x
49) li m x→∞ (1 −
1
x
)
x
Solution: 1
For the following exercises, use a calculator to graph the function and estimate the value of the limit, then use L’Hôpital’s rule to
find the limit directly.
x
50) [T] lim x→0

e −1
51) [T] li m x→0 xsin(

1
x
)
Solution: 0
52) [T] lim x→1
1−cos(πx)
x−1
( x−1)
e −1
53) [T] lim x→1
x−1
Solution: 1
2
(x−1)
54) [T] lim x→1
lnx
55) [T] lim x→π

1+cosx
sinx
Solution: 0
56) [T] li m x→0 (cscx −
1
x
)
57) [T] li m x→0

+ tan(x )
x
Solution: tan(1)
58) [T] lim x→0
+
sinx
lnx
x −x
59) [T] lim x→0

e −e
Solution: 2
4.9: Newton’s Method

For the following exercises, write Newton’s formula as x n+1 = F (xn ) for solving f (x) = 0 .
1) f (x) = x 2
+1
2) f (x) = x 3
+ 2x + 1
3
xn +2 xn +1
Solution: F (x n) = xn − 2
3 xn +2
3) f (x) = sinx
4) f (x) = e x
xn
Solution: F (x n) = xn −
e
e
xn
5) f (x) = x 3
+ 3x e
x
For the following exercises, solve f (x) = 0 using the iteration x =x f (x n+1 n−c n) , which differs slightly from Newton’s method.
Find a c that works and a c that fails to converge, with the exception of c = 0.
6) f (x) = x 2
− 4, with x 0 =0
Solution: |c| > 0.5 fails, |c| ≤ 0.5 works

7) f (x) = x 2
− 4x + 3, with x 0 =2
8) What is the value of “c” for Newton’s method?

Solution: c = 1
f '( xn )
For the following exercises, start at

a. x0 = 0.6 and
b. x 0 = 2.
Compute x and x using the specified iterative method.

1 2
9) x n+1 = xn −
2 1
10) x n+1 = 2 xn (1 − xn )
Solution: a. x 1 =
12
25
, x2 =
312
625
; b. x1 = −4, x2 = −40
11) x n+1
−−
= √xn
12) x n+1 =
1
√xn
Solution: a. x 1 = 1.291, x2 = 0.8801; b. x1 = 0.7071, x2 = 1.189
13) x n+1 = 3 xn (1 − xn )
14) x n+1
2
= xn + xn−2
Solution: a. x 1 =−
26
25
, x2 = −
1224
625
; b. x1 = 4, x2 = 18
15) x n+1 =
1
2
xn − 1
16) x n+1 = | xn |
Solution: a. x 1 =
6
10
, x2 =
6
10
; b. x1 = 2, x2 = 2
For the following exercises, solve to four decimal places using Newton’s method and a computer or calculator. Choose any initial
guess x that is not the exact root.
0
17) x 2
− 10 = 0
18) x 4
− 100 = 0
Solution: 3.1623or − 3.1623

19) x 2
−x = 0
20) x 3
−x = 0
Solution: 0, −1or1
21) x + 5cos(x) = 0
22) x + tan(x) = 0, choose x 0 ∈ (−
π
2
,
π
2
)
Solution: 0
23) 1
1−x
=2
24) 1 + x + x 2
+x
3
+x
4
=2
Solution: 0.5188 or −1.2906

25) x 3
+ (x + 1 )
3
= 10
3
26) x = sin2 (
x)
Solution: 0
For the following exercises, use Newton’s method to find the fixed points of the function where f (x) = x; round to three decimals.
27) sinx
28) tan(x) on x = ( π
2
,
3π
2
)
Solution: 4.493
29) e x
−2
30) ln(x) + 2
Solution: 0.159, 3.146
31) Newton’s method can be used to find maxima and minima of functions in addition to the roots. In this case apply Newton’s
method to the derivative function f '(x) to find its roots, instead of the original function. For the following exercises, consider the
formulation of the method.
To find candidates for maxima and minima, we need to find the critical points f '(x) = 0. Show that to solve for the critical
f '( xn )
points of a function f (x), Newton’s method is given by x n+1 = xn − ′′
.
f ( xn )
What additional restrictions are necessary on the function f ?

Solution: We need f to be twice continuously differentiable.
For the following exercises, use Newton’s method to find the location of the local minima and/or maxima of the following
functions; round to three decimals.
32) Minimum of f (x) = x 2
+ 2x + 4
33) Minimum of f (x) = 3x 3

+ 2x
2
− 16
Solution: x = 0
e
x
35) Maximum of f (x) = x + 1
Solution: x = −1
36) Maximum of f (x) = x 3
+ 10 x
2
+ 15x − 2
3
√x−√x
37) Maximum of f (x) = x
Solution: x = 5.619
sinx, closest non-zero minimum to x = 0
+x
3
+ 3x
2
+ 12x + 6
Solution: x = −1.326
For the following exercises, use the specified method to solve the equation. If it does not work, explain why it does not work.
40) Newton’s method, x 2
+2 = 0
41) Newton’s method, 0 = e x
Solution: There is no solution to the equation.

42) Newton’s method, 0 = 1 + x starting at x 2
0 =0
43) Solving x n+1 =

3
−xn starting at x 0 = −1
Solution: It enters a cycle.

For the following exercises, use the secant method, an alternative iterative method to Newton’s method. The formula is given by
xn−1 −xn−2
xn = xn−1 − f (xn−1 ) .
f ( xn−1 )−f ( xn−2 )
44) a root to 0 = x 2
−x −3 accurate to three decimal places.
45) Find a root to 0 = sinx + 3x accurate to four decimal places.
Solution: 0
46) Find a root to 0 = e x
−2 accurate to four decimal places.
47) Find a root to ln(x + 2) = 1
2
accurate to four decimal places.
Solution: −0.3513
48) Why would you use the secant method over Newton’s method? What are the necessary restrictions on f ?
For the following exercises, use both Newton’s method and the secant method to calculate a root for the following equations. Use a
calculator or computer to calculate how many iterations of each are needed to reach within three decimal places of the exact
answer. For the secant method, use the first guess from Newton’s method.
49) f (x) = x 2
+ 2x + 1, x0 = 1
Solution: Newton: 11 iterations, secant: 16 iterations

50) f (x) = x 2
, x0 = 1
51) f (x) = sinx, x 0 =1
Solution: Newton: three iterations, secant: six iterations

52) f (x) = e x
− 1, x0 = 2
53) f (x) = x 3
+ 2x + 4, x0 = 0
Solution: Newton: five iterations, secant: eight iterations
In the following exercises, consider Kepler’s equation regarding planetary orbits, M = E − εsin(E) , where M is the mean
anomaly, E is eccentric anomaly, and ε measures eccentricity.
54) Use Newton’s method to solve for the eccentric anomaly E when the mean anomaly M =
π
3
and the eccentricity of the orbit
ε = 0.25; round to three decimals.
55) Use Newton’s method to solve for the eccentric anomaly E when the mean anomaly M =
3π
2
and the eccentricity of the orbit
ε = 0.8; round to three decimals.
Solution: E = 4.071
The following two exercises consider a bank investment. The initial investment is $10, 000 . After 25 years, the investment has
tripled to $30, 000.
56) Use Newton’s method to determine the interest rate if the interest was compounded annually.
57) Use Newton’s method to determine the interest rate if the interest was compounded continuously.
Solution: 4.394
58) The cost for printing a book can be given by the equation C (x) = 1000 + 12x + (
1
2
2/3
)x . Use Newton’s method to find the
break-even point if the printer sells each book for $20.
For the following exercises, show that F (x) are antiderivatives of f (x).
1) F (x) = 5x 3
+ 2x
2
+ 3x + 1, f (x) = 15 x
2
+ 4x + 3
Solution: F '(x) = 15x 2

+ 4x + 3
2) F (x) = x 2
+ 4x + 1, f (x) = 2x + 4
3) F (x) = x 2 x
e , f (x) = e (x
x 2
+ 2x)
Solution: F '(x) = 2x e x
+x e
2 x
4) F (x) = cosx, f (x) = −sinx

5) F (x) = e x
, f (x) = e
x
Solution: F '(x) = e x
For the following exercises, find the antiderivative of the function.

6) f (x) = x
1
2
+x
7) f (x) = e x
− 3x
2
+ sinx
Solution: F (x) = e x
−x
3
− cos(x) + C
8) f (x) = e x
+ 3x − x
2
9) f (x) = x − 1 + 4sin(2x)
2
Solution: F (x) = x
2
− x − 2cos(2x) + C
For the following exercises, find the antiderivative F (x) of each function f (x).
10) f (x) = 5x 4
+ 4x
5
11) f (x) = x + 12x 2
Solution: F (x) = 1
2
x
2
+ 4x
3
+C
12) f (x) = √x
1
13) f (x) = (√−

x)
3
− 5
Solution: F (x) = 2
5
(√x ) + C
14) f (x) = x 1/3

+ (2x )
1/3
1/3
15) f (x) = x
x2/3
Solution: (F (x) = 3
2
x
2/3
+C
16) f (x) = 2sin(x) + sin(2x)

17) f (x) = sec 2
(x) + 1
Solution: (F(x)=x+tan(x)+C\)
18) f (x) = sinxcosx
19) f (x) = si n 2
(x)cos(x)
Solution: F (x) = 1
3
si n (x) + C
3
20) f (x) = 0
21) f (x) = 1
2
csc (x) +
2 1
x
2
Solution: F (x) = − 1
2
cot(x) −
1
x
+C
22) f (x) = cscxcotx + 3x

23) f (x) = 4cscxcotx − secxtanx
Solution: F (x) = −secx − 4cscx + C
24) f (x) = 8secx(secx − 4tanx)
25) f (x) = 1
2
e
−4x
+ sinx
Solution: F (x) = − 1
8
e
−4x
− cosx + C
For the following exercises, evaluate the integral.

26) ∫ (−1)dx
27) ∫ sinxdx
Solution: −cosx + C
28) ∫ (4x + √−
x )dx
29) ∫ 3 x +2
x
2
dx
Solution: 3x − 2
x
+C
30) ∫ (secxtanx + 4x)dx

31) ∫ (4√− −
x + √x )dx
4
Solution: 8
3
x
3/2
+
4
5
x
5/4
+C
32) ∫ (x −1/3
−x
2/3
)dx
33) ∫ 14 x +2x+1
x
3
dx
Solution: 14x − 2
x
−
1
2x
2
+C
34) ∫ (e x
+e
−x
)dx
For the following exercises, solve the initial value problem.

35) f '(x) = x −3
, f (1) = 1
Solution: f (x) = − 2x
1
2
+
3
36) f '(x) = √−
x +x
2
, f (0) = 2
√2
37) f '(x) = cosx + sec 2
(x), f (
π
4
) =2+
2
Solution: f (x) = sinx + tanx + 1
38) f '(x) = x 3
− 8x
2
+ 16x + 1, f (0) = 0
39 )f '(x) = x
2
2
−
x
2
, f (1) = 0
Solution: f (x) = − 1
6
x
3
−
2
x
+
13
For the following exercises, find two possible functions f given the second- or third-order derivatives
40) f ′′
(x) = x
2
+2
41) f ′′
(x) = e
−x
Solution: Answers may vary; one possible answer is f (x) = e −x
42) f ′′
(x) = 1 + x
43) f ′′′
(x) = cosx
Solution: Answers may vary; one possible answer is f (x) = −sinx

44) f ′′′
(x) = 8 e
−2x
− sinx
45) A car is being driven at a rate of 40 mph when the brakes are applied. The car decelerates at a constant rate of 10 ft/sec2. How
long before the car stops?
Solution: 5.867 sec
46) In the preceding problem, calculate how far the car travels in the time it takes to stop.
47) You are merging onto the freeway, accelerating at a constant rate of 12 ft/sec2. How long does it take you to reach merging
speed at 60 mph?
Solution: 7.333 sec
48) Based on the previous problem, how far does the car travel to reach merging speed?
49) A car company wants to ensure its newest model can stop in 8 sec when traveling at 75 mph. If we assume constant
Solution: 13.75f t/sec 2
50) A car company wants to ensure its newest model can stop in less than 450 ft when traveling at 60 mph. If we assume constant
For the following exercises, find the antiderivative of the function, assuming F (0) = 0.
51) [T] f (x) = x 2
+2
Solution: F (x) = 1
3
x
3
+ 2x
52) [T] f (x) = 4x − √−

x
53) [T] f (x) = sinx + 2x

Solution: F (x) = x 2
− cosx + 1
54) [T ]f (x) = e x
55) [T ]f (x) = 1
2
(x+1)
Solution: F (x) = − (x+1)

1
+1
56) [T] f (x) = e −2x

+ 3x
2
For the following exercises, determine whether the statement is true or false. Either prove it is true or find a counterexample if it is
false.
57) If f (x) is the antiderivative of v(x), then 2f (x) is the antiderivative of 2v(x).
Solution: True
58) If f (x) is the antiderivative of v(x), then f (2x) is the antiderivative of v(2x).
59) If f (x) is the antiderivative of v(x), then f (x) + 1 is the antiderivative of v(x) + 1.
Solution: False
60) If f (x) is the antiderivative of v(x), then (f (x)) is the antiderivative of (v(x))
2 2
.

True or False? Justify your answer with a proof or a counterexample. Assume that f (x) is continuous and differentiable unless
stated otherwise.
1) If f (−1) = −6 and f (1) = 2 , then there exists at least one point x ∈ [−1, 1] such that f '(x) = 4.
Solution: True, by Mean Value Theorem
2) If f '(c) = 0, there is a maximum or minimum at x = c.
3) There is a function such that f (x) < 0, f '(x) > 0, and f ′′
(x) < 0. (A graphical “proof” is acceptable for this answer.)
Solution: True
4) There is a function such that there is both an inflection point and a critical point for some value x = a.
5) Given the graph of f ', determine where f is increasing or decreasing.
Solution: Increasing: (−2, 0) ∪ (4, ∞), decreasing: (−∞, −2) ∪ (0, 4)

6) The graph of f is given below. Draw f '.
7) Find the linear approximation L(x) to y = x 2

+ tan(πx) near x = 1
4
.
Solution: L(x) = 17
16
+
1
2
(1 + 4π)(x −
1
4
)
8) Find the differential of y = x 2

− 5x − 6 and evaluate for x = 2 with dx = 0.1.
Find the critical points and the local and absolute extrema of the following functions on the given interval.
9) f (x) = x + si n 2
(x) over [0, π]
Solution: Critical point: x = 3π
4
, absolute minimum: x = 0, absolute maximum: x = π
10) f (x) = 3x 4
− 4x
3
− 12 x
2
+6 over [−3, 3]
Determine over which intervals the following functions are increasing, decreasing, concave up, and concave down.
11) x(t) = 3t 4
− 8t
3
− 18 t
2
−− −−
Solution: Increasing: (−1, 0) ∪ (3, ∞), decreasing: (−∞, −1) ∪ (0, 3), concave up: (−∞,
1
3
(2 − √13)) ∪ (
1
3
(2 + √13), ∞) ,
−− −−
concave down: ( (2 − √13), (2 + √13))
1
3
1
12) y = x + sin(πx)
13) g(x) = x − √−
x
Solution: Increasing: ( 1
4
, ∞), decreasing: (0, 1
4
, concave up: (0, ∞), concave down: nowhere
)
14) f (θ) = sin(3θ)

Evaluate the following limits.
3x√x2 +1
15) lim x→∞
√x4−1
Solution: 3
16) li m x→∞ cos(
1
x
)
x−1
17) lim x→1
sin(πx)
Solution: − 1
18) li m x→∞ (3x )

1/x
Use Newton’s method to find the first two iterations, given the starting point.
19) y = x 3
+ 1, x0 = 0.5
Solution: x 1 = −1, x2 = −1
20) 1
x+1
=
1
2
, x0 = 0
Find the antiderivatives F (x) of the following functions.

21) g(x) = √−
x−
1
2
x
Solution: ](F(x)=\frac{2x^{3/2}}{3}+\frac{1}{x}+C\)
22) f (x) = 2x + 6cosx, F (π) = π 2
+2
Graph the following functions by hand. Make sure to label the inflection points, critical points, zeros, and asymptotes.
23) y = 1
2
x(x+1)
Solution:
Inflection points: none; critical points: x = − ; zeros: none; vertical asymptotes: x = −1, x = 0 ; horizontal asymptote: y = 0
1
−−−− −
24) y = x − √4 − x
2
25) A car is being compacted into a rectangular solid. The volume is decreasing at a rate of 2m /sec . The length and width of the
3
compactor are square, but the height is not the same length as the length and width. If the length and width walls move toward each
other at a rate of 0.25 m/sec, find the rate at which the height is changing when the length and width are 2 m and the height is 1.5
m.
Solution: The height is decreasing at a rate of 0.125 m/sec
26) A rocket is launched into space; its kinetic energy is given by K(t) = ( )m(t)v(t) , where K is the kinetic energy in joules,
1
2
2
m is the mass of the rocket in kilograms, and v is the velocity of the rocket in meters/second. Assume the velocity is increasing at a
rate of 15m/sec and the mass is decreasing at a rate of 10 kg/sec because the fuel is being burned. At what rate is the rocket’s
2
kinetic energy changing when the mass is 2000 kg and the velocity is 5000 m/sec? Give your answer in mega-Joules (MJ), which
is equivalent to 10 J.
6
27) The famous Regiomontanus’ problem for angle maximization was proposed during the 15 th century. A painting hangs on a
wall with the bottom of the painting a distance a feet above eye level, and the top b feet above eye level. What distance x (in feet)
from the wall should the viewer stand to maximize the angle subtended by the painting, θ ?
−
−
Solution: x = √ab feet
28) An airline sells tickets from Tokyo to Detroit for $1200. There are 500 seats available and a typical flight books 350 seats. For
every $10 decrease in price, the airline observes an additional five seats sold. What should the fare be to maximize profit? How
many passengers would be onboard?
4.E: Applications of Derivatives (ALL Chap 4 Exercises) is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by
LibreTexts.
4.E: Open Stax 4.1 - 4.5 Exercises
4.1: Related Rates

dy
1) Find dt
+3 if dx
dt
= 4.
Solution: 8
dy
2) Find dx
dt
at x = −2 and y = 2x 2
+1 if dt
= −1.
dy
3) Find dz
dt
at (x, y) = (1, 3) and z 2
=x
2
+y
2
if dx
dt
=4 and dt
=3 .
Solution: 13
√10
1
R
+ . If R
1
R1
R2
1
1 2
–
Solution: 2√3f t/sec
Solution: The distance is decreasing at 390mi/h.
leave from the same point, with you riding at 16 mph east and your friend riding 12mph north. After you traveled 4mi, at what
Solution: The distance between them shrinks at a rate of 1320
13
≈ 101.5mph.
Using the previous problem, what is the rate at which the tip of the shadow moves away from the person when the person is 10 ft
from the pole?
Solution: 9
2
f t/sec
Solution: It grows at a rate 4
9
ft/sec
sec.
135 √26)
Solution: The distance is increasing at ( 26
ft/sec
14) For the following exercises, draw and label diagrams to help solve the related-rates problems.
The side of a cube increases at a rate of 1
2
cube is 4 m.
The volume of a cube decreases at a rate of 10 m/sec. Find the rate at which the side of the cube changes when the side of the
cube is 2 m.
Slution: − m/sec
5
m.
Solution: 240π m 2
/sec
Solution: 1
2 √π
cm
(3 √3)
Solution: The area is increasing at a rate 8
f t2 /sec.
a radius of 5 ft.
/min?
Solution: The depth of the water decreases at 128
125π
ft/min.
23) Find the rate at which the surface area of the water changes when the water is 10 ft high if the cone leaks water at a rate of 10
f t /min.
3
(25π)
Solution: The volume is decreasing at a rate of 16
3
f t /min.
3

height is 1 m.
(2π)
Solution: The water flows out at rate 5
m3 /min.
3
How fast does the height increase when the water is 2 m deep if water is being pumped in at a rate of m/sec?2
Solution: 3
2
m/sec
3

Solution: 25
19π
f t/min
in.
3
Solution: 45π
2
f t/min
Solution: The angle decreases at 400
1681
rad/sec.
Solution: 100π/min
38) You are walking to a bus stop at a right-angle corner. You move north at a rate of 2 m/sec and are 20 m south of the
intersection. The bus travels west at a rate of 10 m/sec away from the intersection – you have missed the bus! What is the rate at
which the angle between you and the bus is changing when you are 20 m south of the intersection and the bus is 10 m west of
the intersection?
Solution: The angle is changing at a rate of 21
25
rad/sec .
Solution: The distance is increasing at a rate of 62.50 ft/sec.
Solution: The distance is decreasing at a rate of 11.99 ft/sec.

1) What is the linear approximation for any generic linear function y = mx + b ?
2) Determine the necessary conditions such that the linear approximation function is constant. Use a graph to prove your result.
Solution: f '(a) = 0
3) Explain why the linear approximation becomes less accurate as you increase the distance between x and a . Use a graph to prove
your argument.
4) When is the linear approximation exact?
Solution: The linear approximation exact when y = f (x) is linear or constant.
For the following exercises, find the linear approximation L(x) to y = f (x) near x = a for the function.
5) [T] f (x) = x + x 4
,a =0
6) [T] f (x) = 1
x
,a =2
Solution: L(x) = 1
2
−
1
4
(x − 2)
7) [T] f (x) = tanx, a = π
8) [T] f (x) = sinx, a = π
Solution: L(x) = 1
9) [T] f (x) = xsinx, a = 2π
10) [T] f (x) = si n 2
x, a = 0
Solution: L(x) = 0
For the following exercises, compute the values given within 0.01 by deciding on the appropriate f (x) and a , and evaluating
L(x) = f (a) + f '(a)(x − a). Check your answer using a calculator.
11) [T] (2.001) 6
12) [T] sin(0.02)

Solution: 0.02
13) [T] cos(0.03)
14) [T] (15.99) 1/4
Solution: 1.9996875
15) [T] 1
0.98
16) [T] sin(3.14)

Solution: 0.001593
For the following exercises, determine the appropriate f (x) and a , and evaluate L(x) = f (a) + f '(a)(x − a). Calculate the
numerical error in the linear approximations that follow.
17) (1.01) 3
18) cos(0.01)
Solution: 1; error, 0.00005
19) (sin(0.01)) 2
20) (1.01) −3
Solution: 0.97; error, 0.0006
21) (1 + 1
10
10
)
−
− −
−
22) √8.99
Solution: 3 − 600
1
; error, 4.632 × 10
−7
For the following exercises, find the differential of the function.

23) y = 3x 4
+x
2
− 2x + 1
24) y = xcosx
Solution: dy = (cosx − xsinx)dx
−−−−−
25) y = √1 + x
2
x +2
26) y = x−1
Solution: dy = ( x −2x−2
2
)dx
(x−1)
For the following exercises, find the differential and evaluate for the given x and dx.
27) y = 3x 2
− x + 6, x = 2, dx = 0.1
28) y = 1
x+1
, x = 1, dx = 0.25
Solution: dy = − 1
2
dx, −
1
16
(x+1)
29) y = tanx, x = 0, dx = π
10
30) y = 3 x +2
√x+1
, x=0, dx=0.1\)
2
Solution: dy = 9 x +12x−2
3/2
dx, −0.1
2(x+1)
sin(2x)
31) y = x
, x = π, dx = 0.25
32) y = x 3
+ 2x +
1
x
, x = 1, dx = 0.05
Solution: dy = (3x 2
+2 −
1
2
x
)dx, 0.2
For the following exercises, find the change in volume dV or in surface area dA.
33) dV if the sides of a cube change from 10 to 10.1.
34) dA if the sides of a cube change from x to x + dx .
Solution: 12xdx
35) dA if the radius of a sphere changes from r by dr.
36) dV if the radius of a sphere changes from r by dr.
Solution: 4π r 2
dr
37) dV if a circular cylinder with r = 2 changes height from 3 cm to 3.05cm.

38) dV if a circular cylinder of height 3 changes from r = 2 to r = 1.9cm.
Solution: −1.2πcm 3
For the following exercises, use differentials to estimate the maximum and relative error when computing the surface area or
volume.
39) A spherical golf ball is measured to have a radius of 5mm, with a possible measurement error of 0.1mm. What is the possible
change in volume?
40) A pool has a rectangular base of 10 ft by 20 ft and a depth of 6 ft. What is the change in volume if you only fill it up to 5.5 ft?
Solution: −100f t 3
41) An ice cream cone has height 4 in. and radius 1 in. If the cone is 0.1 in. thick, what is the difference between the volume of the
cone, including the shell, and the volume of the ice cream you can fit inside the shell
For the following exercises, confirm the approximations by using the linear approximation at x = 0.
−−−−−
42) √1 − x ≈1−
1
2
x
43) 1
≈1
√1−x2
−− −−−−
44) √c 2
+x
2
≈c

+ bx + c ,
which was m = − b
(2a)
absolute minimum?
2
arguments.
+ bx
2
Solution: No; answers will vary
Solution: Since the absolute maximum is the function (output) value rather than the x value, the answer is no; answers will vary
is not possible.
ax
absolute maximum?
Solution: When a = 0
11)
12)
Solution: Absolute minimum at 3; Absolute maximum at −2.2; local minima at −2, 1; local maxima at −1, 2
13)
14)
Solution: Absolute minima at −2, 2; absolute maxima at −2.5, 2.5; local minimum at 0; local maxima at −1, 1
19) y = 4x 3
− 3x
20) y = 4√−
x −x
2
Solution: x = 1
21) y = 1
x−1
22) y = ln(x − 2)
Solution: None
23) y = tan(x)
−−−−−
24) y = √4 − x 2
Solution: x = 0
25) y = x 3/2
− 3x
5/2
2
x −1
26) y = 2
x +2x−3
Solution: None
27) y = si n 2
(x)
28) y = x + 1
Solution: x = −1, 1
For the following exercises, find the local and/or absolute maxima for the functions over the specified domain.
29) f (x) = x 2 +
3 over [−1, 4]
30) y = x 2
+
2
x
over [1, 4]
Solution: Absolute maximum: x = 4, y = 33
2
; absolute minimum: x = 1, y = 3
31) y = (x − x 2
)
2
over [−1, 1]
32) y = (x−x )
1
2
over [0, 1]
Solution: Absolute minimum: x = 1
2
,y =4
−−−−−
33) y = √9 − x over [1, 9]
34) y = x + sin(x) over [0, 2π]
Solution: Absolute maximum: x = 2π, y = 2π; absolute minimum: x = 0, y = 0
35) y = x
1+x
over [0, 100]
36) y = |x + 1| + |x − 1| over [−3, 2]
Solution: Absolute maximum: x = −3; absolute minimum: −1 ≤ x ≤ 1, y = 2
−−
37) y = √−
x − √x 3
over [0, 4]
– –
Solution: Absolute maximum: x = π
4
, y = √2 ; absolute minimum: x = 5π
4
, y = −√2
For the following exercises, find the local and absolute minima and maxima for the functions over (−∞, ∞).
40) y = x 2
+ 4x + 5
Solution: Absolute minimum: x = −2, y = 1

41) y = x 3
− 12x
42) y = 3x 4
+ 8x
3
− 18 x
2
Solution: Absolute minimum: x = −3, y = −135; local maximum: x = 0, y = 0 ; local minimum: x = 1, y = −7

43) y = x 3
(1 − x )
6
44) y = x +x+6
x−1
– – – –
Solution: Local maximum: x = 1 − 2√2, y = 3 − 4√2 ; local minimum: x = 1 + 2√2, y = 3 + 4√2
2
45) y = x −1
x−1
−−−−−
46) [T] y = 3x √1 − x 2
√2 √2
Solution: Absolute maximum: x = 2
,y =
3
2
,y =−
3
47) [T] y = x + sin(x)

48) [T] y = 12x 5
+ 45 x
4
+ 20 x
3
− 90 x
2
− 120x + 3
Solution: Local maximum: x = −2, y = 59 ; local minimum: x = 1, y = −130

3 2
49) [T] y = x +6 x −x−30
x−2
√4−x2
50) [T] y =
√4+x2
Solution: Absolute maximum: x = 0, y = 1; absolute minimum: x = −2, 2, y = 0

51) A company that produces cell phones has a cost function of C = x − 1200x + 36, 400, where C is cost in dollars and
2
x is
52) A ball is thrown into the air and its position is given by h(t) = −4.9 t
2
Solution: h = 9245
49
m, t =
300
49
s
(25t)
( t +16)
minimum?
Solution: The global minimum was in 1848, when no gold was produced.
55) y = { x 2
− 4x 0 ≤ x ≤ 1// x
2
−4 1 <x ≤2
56) y = { x 2
+1
2
x ≤ 1// x − 4x + 5 x >1
Solution: Absolute minima: x = 0, x = 2, y = 1 ; local maximum at x = 1, y = 2

57) y = ax 2
58) y = (x − 1) , given that a > 1
a
Solution: No maxima/minima if a is odd, minimum at x = 1 if a is even

1)Why do you need continuity to apply the Mean Value Theorem? Construct a counterexample.
2) Why do you need differentiability to apply the Mean Value Theorem? Find a counterexample.
Solution: One example is f (x) = |x| + 3, −2 ≤ x ≤ 2
3) When are Rolle’s theorem and the Mean Value Theorem equivalent?
4) If you have a function with a discontinuity, is it still possible to have f '(c)(b − a) = f (b) − f (a)? Draw such an example or
prove why not.
Solution: Yes, but the Mean Value Theorem still does not apply
For the following exercises, determine over what intervals (if any) the Mean Value Theorem applies. Justify your answer.
5) y = sin(πx)
6) y = 1
3
x
Solution: (−∞, 0), (0, ∞)

−−−−−
7) y = √4 − x 2
−−−−−
8) y = √x 2
−4
Solution: (−∞, −2), (2, ∞)
9) y = ln(3x − 5)
For the following exercises, graph the functions on a calculator and draw the secant line that connects the endpoints. Estimate the
number of points c such that f '(c)(b − a) = f (b) − f (a).
10) [T] y = 3x 3
+ 2x + 1 over [−1, 1]
Solution: 2 points
11) [T] y = tan( π
4
x) over [− 3
2
,
3
2
]
12) [T] y = x 2
cos(πx) over [−2, 2]
Solution: 5 points
13) [T] y = x 6
−
3
4
x
5
−
9
8
4
x +
15
16
x
3
+
3
32
2
x +
3
16
x+
1
32
over [−1, 1]
For the following exercises, use the Mean Value Theorem and find all points 0 < c < 2 such that f (2) − f (0) = f '(c)(2 − 0) .
14) f (x) = x 3
2 √3
Solution: c = 3
15) f (x) = sin(πx)

16) f (x) = cos(2πx)
Solution: c = 1
2
, 1,
3
17) f (x) = 1 + x + x 2
18) f (x) = (x − 1) 10
Solution: c = 1
19) f (x) = (x − 1) 9
For the following exercises, show there is no c such that f (1) − f (−1) = f '(c)(2) . Explain why the Mean Value Theorem does
not apply over the interval [−1, 1].
20) f (x) =∣ x − 1
2
∣
∣

21) f (x) = 1
x
2
−−
22) f (x) = √|x|
23) f (x) = [x] (Hint: This is called the floor function and it is defined so that f (x) is the largest integer less than or equal to x.)
For the following exercises, determine whether the Mean Value Theorem applies for the functions over the given interval \(([a,b]\.
Justify your answer.
24) y = e over [0, 1]
x
Solution: Yes
25) y = ln(2x + 3) over [− 3
2
, 0]
26) f (x) = tan(2πx) over [0, 2]

Solution: The Mean Value Theorem does not apply since the function is discontinuous at x = 1
4
,
3
4
,
5
4
,
7
4
.
−−−− −
27) y = √9 − x
2
over [−3, 3]
28) y = 1
|x+1|
over [0, 3]
Solution: Yes
29) y = x 3
+ 2x + 1 over [0, 6]
2
30) y = x +3x+2
x
over [−1, 1]
Solution: The Mean Value Theorem does not apply; discontinuous at x = 0.
31) y = x
sin(πx)+1
over [0, 1]
32) y = ln(x + 1) over [0, e − 1]

Yes
33) y = xsin(πx) over [0, 2]
34) y = 5 + |x| over [−1, 1]
Solution: The Mean Value Theorem does not apply; not differentiable at x = 0 .
For the following exercises, consider the roots of the equation.
35) Show that the equation y = x 3
+ 3x
2
+ 16 has exactly one real root. What is it?
36) Find the conditions for exactly one root (double root) for the equation y = x 2
+ bx + c
Solution: b = ±2√c
37) Find the conditions for y = e x
−b to have one root. Is it possible to have more than one root?
For the following exercises, use a calculator to graph the function over the interval [a, b] and graph the secant line from a to b . Use
the calculator to estimate all values of c as guaranteed by the Mean Value Theorem. Then, find the exact value of c , if possible, or
write the final equation and use a calculator to estimate to four digits.
38) [T] y = tan(πx) over [− 1
4
,
1
4
]
√π
Solution: c = ± 1
π
cos
−1
(
2
), c = ±0.1533
39) [T] y = √x+1

1
over [0, 3]
40) [T] y =∣ x 2
+ 2x − 4 ∣
∣ over [−4, 0]
Solution: The Mean Value Theorem does not apply.
41) [T] y = x + x
1
over [ 1
2
, 4]
−−−−−
42) [T] y = √x + 1 +
1
x2
over [3, 8]
Solution: 1
−
2
c3
=
521
2880
; c = 3.133, 5.867
2 √c+1
43) At 10:17 a.m., you pass a police car at 55 mph that is stopped on the freeway. You pass a second police car at 55 mph at 10:53
a.m., which is located 39 mi from the first police car. If the speed limit is 60 mph, can the police cite you for speeding?
44) Two cars drive from one spotlight to the next, leaving at the same time and arriving at the same time. Is there ever a time when
they are going the same speed? Prove or disprove.
Solution: Yes
45) Show that y = sec 2
x and y = tan 2
x have the same derivative. What can you say about y = sec 2
x − tan x
2
?
46) Show that y = csc 2
x and y = cot 2
x have the same derivative. What can you say about y = csc 2 2
x − cot x ?
Solution: It is constant.

3
Solution: It is not a local maximum/minimum because f ' does not change sign
3
Solution: No
Solution: False; for example, y = √−
x.

9)
Solution: Increasing for −2 < x < −1 and x > 2 ; decreasing for x < −2 and −1 < x < 2
10)
11)
Solution: Decreasing for x < 1 , increasing for x > 1
12)
13)
Solution: Decreasing for −2 < x < −1 and 1 < x < 2 ; increasing for −1 < x < 1 and x < −2 and x > 2
14)
15)
Solution: a. Increasing over −2 < x < −1, 0 < x < 1, x > 2 , decreasing over x < −2, −1 < x < 0, 1 < x < 2; b. maxima at
x = −1 and x = 1 , minima at x = −2 and x = 0 and x = 2
16)
17)
Solution: a. Increasing over x > 0 , decreasing over x < 0; b. Minimum at x = 0

18)
down.
19)

20)
21)
22)
23)
Solution: Concave up for x < 0 and x > 1 , concave down for 0 < x < 1 , inflection points at x = 0 and x = 1
(x) < 0 for all x
Solution: Answer will vary
26) f ′′
(x) < 0 over −1 < x < 1, f ′′
29) f (x) = sinx + si n 3
x over −π<x<π
Solution:
2
<x <
π
2
2
,x >
π

π
2
π
28) f (x) = x 2
+ cosx
For the following exercises, determine a. intervals where f is concave up or concave down, and b. the inflection points of f .
29) f (x) = x 3
− 4x
2
+x +2
Solution:
3

30) f (x) = x 2
− 6x
31) f (x) = x 3
− 6x
2
Solution: a. Increasing over x < 0 and x > 4, decreasing over 0 < x < 4 b. Maximum at x = 0 , minimum at x = 4 c. Concave up
for x > 2 , concave down for x < 2 d. Infection point at x = 2
32) f (x) = x 4
− 6x
3
33) f (x) = x 11
− 6x
10
Solution: a. Increasing over x < 0 and x > , decreasing over 0 < x <
60
11
60
11
11
11
,
54
11
54
11
34) f (x) = x + x 2
−x
3
35) f (x) = x 2
+x +1
Solution: a. Increasing over x >−

1
2
, decreasing over x <−
1
2
b. Minimum at x =−
1
2
c. Concave up for all x d. No inflection
points
36) f (x) = x 3
+x
4

Solution: a. Increases over −
1
4
<x <
3
4
decreases over x > and x < − b. Minimum at x = − , maximum at
,
3
4
1
4
1
4
x =
3
4
c.
Concave up for − < x < 3
4
1
4
, concave down for x < − and x > d. Inflection points at x = − , x =
3
4
1
4
3
4
1
38) [T] f (x) = x + sin(2x) over x = [− π
2
,
π
2
]
39) [T] f (x) = sinx + tanx over (− π
2
,
π
2
)
Solution: a. Increasing for all x b. No local minimum or maximum c. Concave up for x > 0 , concave down for x < 0 d. Inflection
point at x = 0
40) [T] f (x) = (x − 2) 2
(x − 4 )
2
41) [T] f (x) = 1−x

1
,x ≠1
Solution: a. Increasing for all x where defined b. No local minima or maxima c. Concave up for x < 1 ; concave down for x > 1 d.
No inflection points in domain
42) [T] f (x) = sinx
x
over x = [−2π, 2π][2π, 0) ∪ (0, 2π]
43) f (x) = sin(x)e over x = [−π, π]
x
Solution: a. Increasing over − < x < , decreasing over x > , x < − b. Minimum at
π
4
3π
4
3π
4
π
4
x =−
π
4
, maximum at x =
3π
4
c.
Concave up for − < x < , concave down for x < − , x > d. Infection points at x = ±
π
2
π
2
π
2
π
2
π
−
44) f (x) = lnx √x , x > 0
−
45) f (x) = 1
4
√x +
1
x
,x >0
3 –
Solution: a. Increasing over x > 4, decreasing over 0 <x <4 b. Minimum at x =4 c. Concave up for 0 < x < 8 √2 , concave
– –
down for x > 8√2 d. Inflection point at x = 8√2
3 3
46) f (x) = e
x
,x ≠0
.

′′
<0
Solution: f > 0, f ' < 0, f
′′
<0
′′
>0
52) f (x) = 0 for some 1 ≤ x ≤ 3
53) f ′′
(x) = 0 for some 1 ≤ x ≤ 3
Soltuion: True, by the Mean Value Theorem
Solution: True, examine derivative
4.E: Open Stax 4.1 - 4.5 Exercises is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
In the preceding section we defined the area under a curve in terms of Riemann sums:
n
∗
A = lim ∑ f (x )Δx. (5.2.2)
i
n→∞
i=1
However, this definition came with restrictions. We required f (x) to be continuous and nonnegative. Unfortunately, real-world
problems don’t always meet these restrictions. In this section, we look at how to apply the concept of the area under the curve to a
broader set of functions through the use of the definite integral.
Definition and Notation

The definite integral generalizes the concept of the area under a curve. We lift the requirements that f (x) be continuous and
nonnegative, and define the definite integral as follows. Definition
Definition: definite integral
If f (x) is a function defined on an interval [a, b], the definite integral of f from a to b is given by
b n
∗
∫ f (x)dx = lim ∑ f (x )Δx, (5.2.3)
i
n→∞
a i=1
provided the limit exists. If this limit exists, the function f (x) is said to be integrable on [a,b], or is an integrable function.
The integral symbol in the previous definition should look familiar. We have seen similar notation in the chapter on Applications of
Derivatives, where we used the indefinite integral symbol (without the a and b above and below) to represent an antiderivative.
Although the notation for indefinite integrals may look similar to the notation for a definite integral, they are not the same. A
definite integral is a number. An indefinite integral is a family of functions. Later in this chapter we examine how these concepts
are related. However, close attention should always be paid to notation so we know whether we’re working with a definite integral
or an indefinite integral.
Integral notation goes back to the late seventeenth century and is one of the contributions of Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, who is
often considered to be the codiscoverer of calculus, along with Isaac Newton. The integration symbol ∫ is an elongated S,
suggesting sigma or summation. On a definite integral, above and below the summation symbol are the boundaries of the interval,
[a, b]. The numbers a and b are x-values and are called the limits of integration; specifically, a is the lower limit and b is the upper
limit. To clarify, we are using the word limit in two different ways in the context of the definite integral. First, we talk about the
limit of a sum as n → ∞. Second, the boundaries of the region are called the limits of integration.
We call the function f (x) the integrand, and the dx indicates that f (x) is a function with respect to x, called the variable of
integration. Note that, like the index in a sum, the variable of integration is a dummy variable, and has no impact on the
computation of the integral. We could use any variable we like as the variable of integration:
b b b
∫ f (x)dx = ∫ f (t)dt = ∫ f (u)du (5.2.4)

a a a
Previously, we discussed the fact that if f (x) is continuous on [a, b], then the limit n
limn→∞ ∑
i=1
∗
f (x )Δx
i
exists and is unique.
This leads to the following theorem, which we state without proof.
Continuous Functions Are Integrable
If f (x) is continuous on [a, b], then f is integrable on [a, b].
Functions that are not continuous on [a, b] may still be integrable, depending on the nature of the discontinuities. For example,
functions with a finite number of jump discontinuities on a closed interval are integrable.
It is also worth noting here that we have retained the use of a regular partition in the Riemann sums. This restriction is not strictly
necessary. Any partition can be used to form a Riemann sum. However, if a nonregular partition is used to define the definite
integral, it is not sufficient to take the limit as the number of subintervals goes to infinity. Instead, we must take the limit as the

width of the largest subinterval goes to zero. This introduces a little more complex notation in our limits and makes the calculations
more difficult without really gaining much additional insight, so we stick with regular partitions for the Riemann sums.
Example 5.2.1 : Evaluating an Integral Using the Definition

2
Use the definition of the definite integral to evaluate ∫
0
2
x dx. Use a right-endpoint approximation to generate the Riemann
sum.
Solution
We first want to set up a Riemann sum. Based on the limits of integration, we have a = 0 and b = 2 . For i = 0, 1, 2, … , n, let
P = x be a regular partition of [0, 2]. Then
i
b −a 2
Δx = = . (5.2.5)
n n
Since we are using a right-endpoint approximation to generate Riemann sums, for each i, we need to calculate the function value
at the right endpoint of the interval [x , x ]. The right endpoint of the interval is x , and since P is a regular partition,
i−1 i i
2 2i
xi = x0 + iΔx = 0 + i[ ] = . (5.2.6)
n n
Thus, the function value at the right endpoint of the interval is

2
2i 2
4i
2
f (xi ) = x =( ) = . (5.2.7)
i
n n2
Then the Riemann sum takes the form

2 2
4i 2 8i 8
∑
n
i=1
f (xi )Δx = ∑
n
i=1
(
2
) =∑
n
i=1 3
=
3
n
∑
i=1
i
2
.
n n n n
Using the summation formula for ∑ n
i=1
i
2
, we have
n
8 n 2
∑ f (xi )Δx = ∑ i
i=1 3 i=1
n
8 n(n + 1)(2n + 1)
= [ ]
3
n 6
3 2
8 2n + 3n +n
= [ ]
3
n 6
3 2
16 n + 24 n +n
=
3
6n
8 4 1
= + +
2
.
3 n 6n
Now, to calculate the definite integral, we need to take the limit as n → ∞ . We get
2 n 8 4 1
2
∫ x dx = limn→∞ ∑i=1 f (xi )Δx = limn→∞ ( + + )
0
3 n 6n2
8 4 1 8 8
= limn→∞ ( ) + limn→∞ ( ) + limn→∞ (
2
) = +0 +0 = .
3 n 6n 3 3
Exercise 5.2.1
3
Use the definition of the definite integral to evaluate ∫ 0
(2x − 1)dx .
Use a right-endpoint approximation to generate the Riemann sum.
Hint
Use the solving strategy from Example.
Answer

6
Evaluating Definite Integrals

Evaluating definite integrals this way can be quite tedious because of the complexity of the calculations. Later in this chapter we
develop techniques for evaluating definite integrals without taking limits of Riemann sums. However, for now, we can rely on the
fact that definite integrals represent the area under the curve, and we can evaluate definite integrals by using geometric formulas to
calculate that area. We do this to confirm that definite integrals do, indeed, represent areas, so we can then discuss what to do in the
case of a curve of a function dropping below the x-axis.
Example 5.2.2 : Using Geometric Formulas to Calculate Definite Integrals

6 −−−− −−−− −−
Use the formula for the area of a circle to evaluate ∫ 3
√9 − (x − 3)
2
dx .
Solution
The function describes a semicircle with radius 3. To find
6
−−−−−−−−−−
2
∫ √ 9 − (x − 3) dx (5.2.8)
3
we want to find the area under the curve over the interval [3, 6]. The formula for the area of a circle is A = πr . The area of a 2
1
semicircle is just one-half the area of a circle, or A = ( )π r
2
. The shaded area in Figure covers one-half of the semicircle, or
2
1
A =(
2
)π r . Thus,
4
6 −−−−−−−−−−
2
1 2
9
∫ √ 9 − (x − 3) = π(3 ) = π ≈ 7.069. (5.2.9)
3
4 4
Figure 5.2.1 : The value of the integral of the function f (x) over the interval [3, 6] is the area of the shaded region.
Exercise 5.2.2
4
Use the formula for the area of a trapezoid to evaluate ∫ 2
(2x + 3)dx .
Hint
Graph the function f (x) and calculate the area under the function on the interval [2, 4].
Answer
18 square units
Area and the Definite Integral

When we defined the definite integral, we lifted the requirement that f (x) be nonnegative. But how do we interpret “the area under
the curve” when f (x) is negative?
Net Signed Area

Let us return to the Riemann sum. Consider, for example, the function f (x) = 2 − 2x (shown in Figure) on the interval [0, 2].
2
Use n = 8 and choose {x } as the left endpoint of each interval. Construct a rectangle on each subinterval of height f (x ) and
∗
i
∗
i

width Δx. When f (x ) is positive, the product f (x )Δx represents the area of the rectangle, as before. When f (x
∗
i
∗
i
∗
i
) is negative,
however, the product f (x )Δx represents the negative of the area of the rectangle. The Riemann sum then becomes
∗
i
∗
∑ f (x )Δx = (5.2.10)
i
i=1
(Area of rectangles above thex-axis)−(Area of rectangles below thex-axis)
Figure 5.2.2 : For a function that is partly negative, the Riemann sum is the area of the rectangles above the x-axis less the area of
the rectangles below the x-axis.
Taking the limit as n → ∞, the Riemann sum approaches the area between the curve above the x-axis and the x-axis, less the area
between the curve below the x-axis and the x-axis, as shown in Figure. Then,
2 n
∫ f (x)dx = lim ∑ f (ci )Δx = A1 − A2 . (5.2.11)

n→∞
0 i=1
The quantity A 1 − A2 is called the net signed area.
Figure 5.2.3 : In the limit, the definite integral equals area A1 less area A2, or the net signed area.
Notice that net signed area can be positive, negative, or zero. If the area above the x-axis is larger, the net signed area is positive. If
the area below the x-axis is larger, the net signed area is negative. If the areas above and below the x-axis are equal, the net signed
area is zero.
Example 5.2.3 : Finding the Net Signed Area

Find the net signed area between the curve of the function f (x) = 2x and the x-axis over the interval [−3, 3].
Solution

The function produces a straight line that forms two triangles: one from x = −3 to x =0 and the other from x =0 to x =3
1
(Figure). Using the geometric formula for the area of a triangle, A = bh , the area of triangle A1, above the axis, is
2
1
A1 = 3(6) = 9 ,
2
where 3 is the base and 2(3) = 6 is the height. The area of triangle A2, below the axis, is
1
A2 = (3)(6) = 9,
2
where 3 is the base and 6 is the height. Thus, the net area is
3
∫ 2xdx = A1 − A2 = 9 − 9 = 0.
−3
Figure 5.2.4 : The area above the curve and below the x-axis equals the area below the curve and above the x-axis.
Analysis
If A1 is the area above the x-axis and A2 is the area below the x-axis, then the net area is A 1 − A2 . Since the areas of the two
triangles are equal, the net area is zero.
Exercise 5.2.3
Find the net signed area of f (x) = x − 2 over the interval [0, 6], illustrated in the following image.
Hint
Use the solving method described in Example.
Answer
6
Total Area
One application of the definite integral is finding displacement when given a velocity function. If v(t) represents the velocity of an
object as a function of time, then the area under the curve tells us how far the object is from its original position. This is a very
important application of the definite integral, and we examine it in more detail later in the chapter. For now, we’re just going to
look at some basics to get a feel for how this works by studying constant velocities.

When velocity is a constant, the area under the curve is just velocity times time. This idea is already very familiar. If a car travels
away from its starting position in a straight line at a speed of 75 mph for 2 hours, then it is 150 mi away from its original position
(Figure). Using integral notation, we have
2
∫
0
75dt = 150 .
Figure 5.2.5 : The area under the curve v(t) = 75 tells us how far the car is from its starting point at a given time.
In the context of displacement, net signed area allows us to take direction into account. If a car travels straight north at a speed of
60 mph for 2 hours, it is 120 mi north of its starting position. If the car then turns around and travels south at a speed of 40 mph for
3 hours, it will be back at it starting position (Figure). Again, using integral notation, we have
2 5
∫ 60 dt + ∫ −40 dt = 120 − 120 = 0. (5.2.12)

0 2
In this case the displacement is zero.
Figure 5.2.6 : The area above the axis and the area below the axis are equal, so the net signed area is zero.
Suppose we want to know how far the car travels overall, regardless of direction. In this case, we want to know the area between
the curve and the x-axis, regardless of whether that area is above or below the axis. This is called the total area.
Graphically, it is easiest to think of calculating total area by adding the areas above the axis and the areas below the axis (rather
than subtracting the areas below the axis, as we did with net signed area). To accomplish this mathematically, we use the absolute
value function. Thus, the total distance traveled by the car is

2 5 2 5
∫ |60|dt + ∫ | − 40|dt = ∫ 60dt + ∫ 40dt = 120 + 120 = 240. (5.2.13)

0 2 0 2
Bringing these ideas together formally, we state the following definitions.

Definition: net signed area
Let f (x) be an integrable function defined on an interval [a, b]. Let A represent the area between f (x) and the x-axis that lies
1
above the axis and let A represent the area between f (x) and the x-axis that lies below the axis. Then, the net signed area
2
between f (x) and the x-axis is given by

b
∫ f (x)dx = A1 − A2 . (5.2.14)
a
The total area between f (x) and the x-axis is given by

b
∫ |f (x)|dx = A1 + A2 . (5.2.15)
a
Example 5.2.4 : Finding the Total Area

Find the total area between f (x) = x − 2 and the x-axis over the interval [0, 6].
Solution
Calculate the x-intercept as (2, 0) (set y = 0, solve for x). To find the total area, take the area below the x-axis over the
subinterval [0, 2] and add it to the area above the x-axis on the subinterval [2, 6] (Figure).
Figure 5.2.7 : The total area between the line and the x-axis over [0, 6] is A plus A . 2 1
We have
6
∫ |(x − 2)|dx = A2 + A1 .
0
Then, using the formula for the area of a triangle, we obtain

1 1
A2 = bh = ⋅2⋅2 =2
2 2
1 1
A1 = bh = ⋅4⋅4 =8 .
2 2
The total area, then, is

A1 + A2 = 8 + 2 = 10 .
Exercise 5.2.4
Find the total area between the function f (x) = 2x and the x-axis over the interval [−3, 3].
Hint
Review the solving strategy in Example.
Answer
18

The properties of indefinite integrals apply to definite integrals as well. Definite integrals also have properties that relate to the
limits of integration. These properties, along with the rules of integration that we examine later in this chapter, help us manipulate
expressions to evaluate definite integrals.
Rule: Properties of the Definite Integral
1.
a
∫ f (x) dx = 0 (5.2.16)
a
If the limits of integration are the same, the integral is just a line and contains no area.
2.
a b
∫ f (x) dx = − ∫ f (x)dx (5.2.17)

b a
If the limits are reversed, then place a negative sign in front of the integral.
3.
b b b
∫ [f (x) + g(x)] dx = ∫ f (x)dx + ∫ g(x)dx (5.2.18)

a a a
The integral of a sum is the sum of the integrals.

4.
b b b
∫ [f (x) − g(x)] dx = ∫ f (x)dx − ∫ g(x)dx (5.2.19)

a a a
The integral of a difference is the difference of the integrals

5.
b b
∫ cf (x) dx = c ∫ f (x) (5.2.20)

a a
for constant c. The integral of the product of a constant and a function is equal to the constant multiplied by the integral of the
function.
6.
b c b
∫ f (x) dx = ∫ f (x) dx + ∫ f (x) dx (5.2.21)

a a c
Although this formula normally applies when c is between a and b, the formula holds for all values of a , b , and c , provided f (x)
is integrable on the largest interval.

Use the properties of the definite integral to express the definite integral of f (x) = −3x 3
+ 2x + 2 over the interval [−2, 1] as
the sum of three definite integrals.
Solution
1
Using integral notation, we have ∫ −2
(−3 x
3
+ 2x + 2)dx. We apply properties 3. and 5. to get
1 3 1 3 1 1
∫ (−3 x + 2x + 2)dx = ∫ −3 x dx + ∫ 2xdx + ∫ 2dx
−2 −2 −2 −2
1 3 1 1
= −3 ∫ x dx + 2 ∫ xdx + ∫ 2dx.
−2 −2 −2

Exercise 5.2.5
Use the properties of the definite integral to express the definite integral of f (x) = 6x 3 2
− 4x + 2x − 3 over the interval [1, 3]
as the sum of four definite integrals.
Hint
Use the solving strategy from Example and the properties of definite integrals.
Answer
3 3 3 3
3 2
6∫ x dx − 4 ∫ x dx + 2 ∫ xdx − ∫ 3dx (5.2.22)
1 1 1 1

8 5
If it is known that ∫
0
f (x)dx = 10 and ∫
0
f (x)dx = 5 , find the value of (∫^8_5f(x)dx\).
Solution
By property 6.,
b c b
∫ f (x)dx = ∫ f (x)dx + ∫ f (x)dx.
a a c
Thus,
8 5 8
∫ f (x)dx = ∫ f (x)dx + ∫ f (x)dx
0 0 5
8
10 = 5 + ∫ f (x)dx
5
8
5 =∫
5
f (x)dx .
Exercise 5.2.6
5 5 2
If it is known that ∫
1
f (x)dx = −3 and ∫ 2
f (x)dx.
Hint
Use the solving strategy from Example and the rule on properties of definite integrals.
Answer
−7
Comparison Properties of Integrals

A picture can sometimes tell us more about a function than the results of computations. Comparing functions by their graphs as
well as by their algebraic expressions can often give new insight into the process of integration. Intuitively, we might say that if a
function f (x) is above another function g(x), then the area between f (x) and the x-axis is greater than the area between g(x) and
the x-axis. This is true depending on the interval over which the comparison is made. The properties of definite integrals are valid
whether a < b, a = b , or a > b . The following properties, however, concern only the case a ≤ b , and are used when we want to
compare the sizes of integrals.
Comparison Theorem
i. If f (x) ≥ 0 for a ≤ x ≤ b , then
b
∫ f (x)dx ≥ 0. (5.2.23)
a
ii. If f (x) ≥ g(x) for a ≤ x ≤ b , then

b b
∫ f (x)dx ≥ ∫ g(x)dx. (5.2.24)

a a

iii. If m and M are constants such that m ≤ f (x) ≤ M for a ≤ x ≤ b , then
b
m(b − a) ≤ ∫ f (x)dx ≤ M (b − a). (5.2.25)

a
Example 5.2.7 : Comparing Two Functions over a Given Interval

−−−−− −−−−−
Compare f (x) = √1 + x and g(x) = √1 + x over the interval [0, 1].
2
Solution
Graphing these functions is necessary to understand how they compare over the interval [0, 1]. Initially, when graphed on a
graphing calculator, f (x) appears to be above g(x) everywhere. However, on the interval [0, 1], the graphs appear to be on top
of each other. We need to zoom in to see that, on the interval [0, 1], g(x) is above f (x). The two functions intersect at x = 0 and
x = 1 (Figure).
Figure 5.2.8 : (a) The function f (x) appears above the function g(x) except over the interval [0, 1] (b) Viewing the same graph
with a greater zoom shows this more clearly.
We can see from the graph that over the interval [0, 1], g(x) ≥ f (x). Comparing the integrals over the specified interval [0, 1],
1 1
we also see that ∫ g(x)dx ≥ ∫ f (x)dx (Figure). The thin, red-shaded area shows just how much difference there is between
0 0
these two integrals over the interval [0, 1].
Figure 5.2.9 : (a) The graph shows that over the interval [0, 1], g(x) ≥ f (x), where equality holds only at the endpoints of the
interval. (b) Viewing the same graph with a greater zoom shows this more clearly.
Average Value of a Function

We often need to find the average of a set of numbers, such as an average test grade. Suppose you received the following test scores
in your algebra class: 89, 90, 56, 78, 100, and 69. Your semester grade is your average of test scores and you want to know what
grade to expect. We can find the average by adding all the scores and dividing by the number of scores. In this case, there are six
test scores. Thus,
89 + 90 + 56 + 78 + 100 + 69 482
= ≈ 80.33. (5.2.26)
6 6
Therefore, your average test grade is approximately 80.33, which translates to a B− at most schools.
Suppose, however, that we have a function v(t) that gives us the speed of an object at any time t, and we want to find the object’s
average speed. The function v(t) takes on an infinite number of values, so we can’t use the process just described. Fortunately, we

can use a definite integral to find the average value of a function such as this.
Let f (x) be continuous over the interval [a, b] and let [a, b] be divided into n subintervals of width Δx = (b − a)/n . Choose a
representative x in each subinterval and calculate f (x ) for i = 1, 2, … , n. In other words, consider each f (x ) as a sampling of
∗
i
∗
i
∗
i
the function over each subinterval. The average value of the function may then be approximated as
∗ ∗ ∗
f (x ) + f (x ) + ⋯ + f (xn )
1 2
, (5.2.27)
n
which is basically the same expression used to calculate the average of discrete values.
b −a b −a
But we know Δx = , so n = , and we get
n Δx
∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗
f (x ) + f (x ) + ⋯ + f (xn ) f (x ) + f (x ) + ⋯ + f (xn )
1 2 1 2
= . (5.2.28)
n (b − a)
Δx
n
Following through with the algebra, the numerator is a sum that is represented as ∑ f (x ∗ i), and we are dividing by a fraction.
i=1
To divide by a fraction, invert the denominator and multiply. Thus, an approximate value for the average value of the function is
given by
n ∗
∑ f (x ) Δx 1
i=1 i n n
∗ ∗
=( )∑ f (x ) = ( )∑ f (x )Δx.
i=1 i i=1 i
(b − a) b −a b −a
Δx
This is a Riemann sum. Then, to get the exact average value, take the limit as n goes to infinity. Thus, the average value of a
function is given by
1 n 1 b
limn→∞ ∑i=1 f (xi )Δx = ∫ f (x)dx.
a
b −a b −a
Definition: average value of the function

Let f (x) be continuous over the interval [a, b]. Then, the average value of the function f (x) (or f ave ) on [a, b] is given by
b
1
fave = ∫ f (x)dx. (5.2.29)
b −a a
Example 5.2.8 : Finding the Average Value of a Linear Function

Find the average value of f (x) = x + 1 over the interval [0, 5].
Solution
First, graph the function on the stated interval, as shown in Figure.
Figure 5.2.10 :The graph shows the area under the function (x) = x + 1 over [0, 5].
1
The region is a trapezoid lying on its side, so we can use the area formula for a trapezoid A = h(a + b), where h represents
2
height, and a and b represent the two parallel sides. Then,

5 1 1 35
∫
0
x + 1dx = h(a + b) = ⋅ 5 ⋅ (1 + 6) = .
2 2 2
Thus the average value of the function is

1 5 1 35 7
∫
0
x + 1dx = ⋅ = .
5 −0 5 2 2
Exercise 5.2.7
Find the average value of f (x) = 6 − 2x over the interval [0, 3].
Hint
Use the average value formula, and use geometry to evaluate the integral.
Answer
3
Key Concepts
The component parts of the definite integral are the integrand, the variable of integration, and the limits of integration.
Continuous functions on a closed interval are integrable. Functions that are not continuous may still be integrable,
depending on the nature of the discontinuities.
The properties of definite integrals can be used to evaluate integrals.
The area under the curve of many functions can be calculated using geometric formulas.
The average value of a function can be calculated using definite integrals.
Key Equations
Definite Integral
b n
∗
i
n→∞
a i=1

a
∫ f (x)dx = 0
a
a b
∫ f (x)dx = − ∫ f (x)dx
b a
b b b
∫ [f (x) + g(x)]dx = ∫ f (x)dx + ∫ g(x)dx

a a a
b b b
∫ [f (x) − g(x)]dx = ∫ f (x)dx − ∫ g(x)dx

a a a
b b
∫ cf (x)dx = c ∫ f (x) for constant c

a a
b c b
∫ f (x)dx = ∫ f (x)dx + ∫ f (x)dx

a a c
Glossary
average value of a function
(or f ) the average value of a function on an interval can be found by calculating the definite integral of the function and
ave
dividing that value by the length of the interval

definite integral
a primary operation of calculus; the area between the curve and the x-axis over a given interval is a definite integral
integrable function
a function is integrable if the limit defining the integral exists; in other words, if the limit of the Riemann sums as n goes to
infinity exists
integrand
the function to the right of the integration symbol; the integrand includes the function being integrated
limits of integration
these values appear near the top and bottom of the integral sign and define the interval over which the function should be
integrated
net signed area

the area between a function and the x-axis such that the area below the x-axis is subtracted from the area above the x-axis; the
result is the same as the definite integral of the function
total area
total area between a function and the x-axis is calculated by adding the area above the x-axis and the area below the x-axis; the
result is the same as the definite integral of the absolute value of the function
Contributors
This page titled 5.2: originalThe Definite Integral is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by
OpenStax.

5.3: original The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus
Before we get to this crucial theorem, however, let’s examine another important theorem, the Mean Value Theorem for Integrals,
which is needed to prove the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus.
The Mean Value Theorem for Integrals

The Mean Value Theorem for Integrals states that a continuous function on a closed interval takes on its average value at the same
point in that interval. The theorem guarantees that if f (x) is continuous, a point c exists in an interval [a, b] such that the value of
the function at c is equal to the average value of f (x) over [a, b]. We state this theorem mathematically with the help of the formula
for the average value of a function that we presented at the end of the preceding section.
The Mean Value Theorem for Integrals, Part 1
If f (x) is continuous over an interval [a, b], then there is at least one point c ∈ [a, b] such that
b
1
f (c) = ∫ f (x)dx. (5.3.1)
b −a a
This formula can also be stated as

b
∫ f (x)dx = f (c)(b − a). (5.3.2)

a
Proof
Since f (x) is continuous on [a, b], by the extreme value theorem (see Maxima and Minima), it assumes minimum and
maximum values—m and M, respectively—on [a,b]. Then, for all x in [a, b], we have m ≤ f (x) ≤ M . Therefore, by the
comparison theorem (see The Definite Integral), we have
b
m(b − a) ≤ ∫ f (x)dx ≤ M (b − a). (5.3.3)

a
Dividing by b − a gives us
b
1
m ≤ ∫ f (x)dx ≤ M . (5.3.4)
b −a a
b
1
Since ∫ f (x)dx is a number between m and M, and since f(x) is continuous and assumes the values m and M over
b −a a
[a, b], by the Intermediate Value Theorem (see Continuity), there is a number c over [a, b] such that
1
f (c) = ∫ ba f (x)dx, (5.3.5)
b −a

□

Example 5.3.1 : Finding the Average Value of a Function
Find the average value of the function f (x) = 8 − 2x over the interval [0, 4] and find c such that f (c) equals the average value
of the function over [0, 4].
Solution
The formula states the mean value of f (x) is given by
4
1
∫ (8 − 2x)dx. (5.3.6)
4 −0 0
We can see in Figure that the function represents a straight line and forms a right triangle bounded by the x- and y-axes. The
area of the triangle is A = (base)(height). We have
1
1
A = (4)(8) = 16. (5.3.7)
2
The average value is found by multiplying the area by 1/(4 − 0). Thus, the average value of the function is
1
(16) = 4 (5.3.8)
4
Set the average value equal to f (c) and solve for c .
8 − 2c = 4 (5.3.9)
c =2 (5.3.10)
At c = 2, f (2) = 4.
Figure 5.3.1 : By the Mean Value Theorem, the continuous function f (x) takes on its average value at c at least once over a
closed interval.
Exercise 5.3.1
x
Find the average value of the function f (x) = over the interval [0, 6] and find c such that f (c) equals the average value of
2
the function over [0, 6].
Hint
Answer
Average value= 1.5; c = 3

Example 5.3.2 : Finding the Point Where a Function Takes on Its Average Value
3
Given ∫ 2
x dx = 9 , find c such that f (c) equals the average value of f (x) = x over [0, 3].
2
Solution
We are looking for the value of c such that
3
1 1
f (c) = ∫ x2dx = (9) = 3. (5.3.11)
3 −0 0
3
Replacing f (c) with c , we have

2
2
c =3 (5.3.12)
–
c = ±√3. (5.3.13)
– –
Since −√3 is outside the interval, take only the positive value. Thus, c = √3 (Figure).
–
Figure 5.3.2 :Over the interval [0, 3], the function f (x) = x takes on its average value at c = √3 .
2
Exercise 5.3.2
3
Given ∫ (2 x
2
− 1)dx = 15 , find c such that f (c) equals the average value of f (x) = 2x 2
−1 over [0, 3].
0
Hint
Use the procedures from Example to solve the problem.
Answer
–
c = √3

As mentioned earlier, the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus is an extremely powerful theorem that establishes the relationship
between differentiation and integration, and gives us a way to evaluate definite integrals without using Riemann sums or
calculating areas. The theorem is comprised of two parts, the first of which, the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, Part 1, is
stated here. Part 1 establishes the relationship between differentiation and integration.

x
F (x) = ∫ f (t)dt, (5.3.14)

a
Before we delve into the proof, a couple of subtleties are worth mentioning here. First, a comment on the notation. Note that we
have defined a function, F (x), as the definite integral of another function, f (t), from the point a to the point x. At first glance, this
is confusing, because we have said several times that a definite integral is a number, and here it looks like it’s a function. The key
here is to notice that for any particular value of x, the definite integral is a number. So the function F (x) returns a number (the
value of the definite integral) for each value of x.
Proof
Applying the definition of the derivative, we have
F (x + h) − F (x)
F '(x) = lim
h→0 h
x+h x
1
= lim [∫ f (t)dt − ∫ f (t)dt]
h→0 h a a
x+h a
1
= lim [∫ f (t)dt + ∫ f (t)dt]
h→0 h a x
x+h
1
= lim ∫ f (t)dt.
h→0 h x
x+h
1
Looking carefully at this last expression, we see ∫ f (t)dt is just the average value of the function f (x) over the interval
h x
[x, x + h] . Therefore, by Note, there is some number c in [x, x + h] such that

x+h
1
∫ f (x)dx = f (c) .
h x
In addition, since c is between x and h, c approaches x as h approaches zero. Also, since f (x) is continuous, we have
lim f (c) = lim f (c) = f (x) .
h→0 c→x
Putting all these pieces together, we have

x+h
1
F '(x) = lim ∫ f (x)dx = lim f (c) = f (x) ,
h→0 h x
h→0

□
Example 5.3.3 : Finding a Derivative with the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus

x
1
g(x) = ∫ dt.
3
1 t +1

1
g'(x) = .
3
x +1
Exercise 5.3.3

r
−−−−−
√x + 4 dx .
0
Hint
Answer
−− −−−
2
g'(r) = √r + 4
Example 5.3.4 : Using the Fundamental Theorem and the Chain Rule to Calculate Derivatives
√x

1
Solution
u(x)
1
−
du 1 sin√x
−1/2
F '(x) = sin(u(x)) = sin(u(x)) ⋅ ( x ) = − . (5.3.15)
dx 2 2 √x
Exercise 5.3.4
3
x

1
Hint
Answer
2 3
F '(x) = 3 x cosx
Example 5.3.5 : Using the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus with Two Variable Limits of
Integration
2x

x
2x
x
2x 0 2x x 2x
3 3 3 3
x x 0 0 0

x
d
[− ∫
3
t dt] = −x
3
.
dx 0

2x u(x)
d 3
d 3 3 3 3
[∫ t dt] = [∫ t dt] = (u(x)) dudx = (2x ) ⋅ 2 = 16 x .
dx 0
dx 0
Thus,
x 2x
d 3
d 3 3 3 3
F '(x) = [− ∫ t dt] + [∫ t dt] = −x + 16 x = 15 x
dx 0
dx 0

Exercise 5.3.5
x2

x
Hint
Answer
2

b
∫ f (x)dx = F (b) − F (a). (5.3.16)

a
b
a
Proof
F (b) − F (a) = F (xn ) − F (x0 )

n
= ∑[F (xi ) − F (xi−1 )].
i=1

i i−1 i
F (xi ) − F (xi−1 ) = F '(ci )(xi − xi−1 ) = f (ci )Δx. (5.3.17)

n
F (b) − F (a) = ∑ f (ci )Δx. (5.3.18)
i=1

\[\displaystyle F(b)−F(a)=\lim_{n→∞}\sum_{i=1}^nf(c_i)Δx=∫^b_af(x)dx.\\]
□
Example 5.3.6 : Evaluating an Integral with the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus

2
2
∫ (t − 4)dt. (5.3.19)
−2
Solution
If
n+1
n n
x
y =x ,∫ x dx = + C. (5.3.20)
n+1
2 3
2
t 2
∫ (t − 4)dt = − 4t| −2
−2
3
3 3
(2) (−2)
=[ − 4(2)] − [ − 4(−2)]
3 3
8 8
=( − 8) − (− + 8)
3 3
8 8 16 32
= −8 + −8 = − 16 = − .
3 3 3 3
Analysis

Figure 5.3.3 : The evaluation of a definite integral can produce a negative value, even though area is always positive.
Example 5.3.7 : Evaluating a Definite Integral Using the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, Part
2

9
x −1
∫ .
−
1 √x dx
9 9
x −1 x 1
∫ dx = ∫ ( − )dx.
1/2 1/2 1/2
1 x 1 x x

9 9
x 1
1/2 −1/2
∫ ( − )dx = ∫ (x −x )dx.
1/2 1/2
1 x x 1

9
9 3/2 1/2 ∣
x x
1/2 −1/2 ∣
∫ (x −x )dx = ( − )
3 1 ∣
1
2 2
∣
1
3/2 1/2 3/2 1/2

(9) (9) (1) (1)
=[ − ] −[ − ]
3 1 3 1
2 2 2 2
2 2 2 40
=[ (27) − 2(3)] − [ (1) − 2(1)] = 18 − 6 − +2 = .
3 3 3 3
See Figure.
.
Figure 5.3.4 : The area under the curve from x = 1 to x = 9 can be calculated by evaluating a definite integral.
Exercise 5.3.6
2

x dx.
1
Hint
Use the power rule.
Answer
7
24
Example 5.3.8 : A Roller-Skating Race


Solution
We need to integrate both functions over the interval [0, 5] and see which value is bigger. For James, we want to calculate

5
∫ (5 + 2t)dt. (5.3.21)
0

5
2 5
∫ (5 + 2t)dt = (5t + t ) ∣ = (25 + 25) = 50. (5.3.22)
0
0
5
π
∫ 10 + cos( t)dt. (5.3.23)
0
2
π

5 5
π 2 π ∣
∫ 10 + cos( t)dt = (10t + sin( t))∣ (5.3.24)
0
2 π 2 ∣
0
2 2
= (50 + ) − (0 − sin0) ≈ 50.6. (5.3.25)
π π
Exercise 5.3.7
outcome?
Hint
Answer


Figure 5.3.5 : Skydivers can adjust the velocity of their dive by changing the position of their body during the free fall. (credit:
Jeremy T. Lock)

Figure 5.3.6 : The fabric panels on the arms and legs of a wingsuit work to reduce the vertical velocity of a skydiver’s fall.
(credit: Richard Schneider)
Key Concepts
Key Equations
b
1
b −a a

x
a

b
a
Glossary
integration



Contributors
This page titled 5.3: original The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed,

5.4: Original Integration Formulas and the Net Change Theorem
In this section, we use some basic integration formulas studied previously to solve some key applied problems. It is important to
note that these formulas are presented in terms of indefinite integrals. Although definite and indefinite integrals are closely related,
there are some key differences to keep in mind. A definite integral is either a number (when the limits of integration are constants)
or a single function (when one or both of the limits of integration are variables). An indefinite integral represents a family of
functions, all of which differ by a constant. As you become more familiar with integration, you will get a feel for when to use
definite integrals and when to use indefinite integrals. You will naturally select the correct approach for a given problem without
thinking too much about it. However, until these concepts are cemented in your mind, think carefully about whether you need a
definite integral or an indefinite integral and make sure you are using the proper notation based on your choice.
Basic Integration Formulas

Recall the integration formulas given in [link] and the rule on properties of definite integrals. Let’s look at a few examples of how
to apply these rules.
Example 5.4.1 : Integrating a Function Using the Power Rule

4
Use the power rule to integrate the function ∫ 1
√t(1 + t)dt .
Solution
The first step is to rewrite the function and simplify it so we can apply the power rule:
4 4 4
1/2 1/2 3/2
∫ √t(1 + t)dt = ∫ t (1 + t)dt = ∫ (t +t )dt. (5.4.1)
1 1 1
Now apply the power rule:

4
4
2 2 ∣
1/2 3/2 3/2 5/2
∫ (t +t )dt = ( t + t )∣ (5.4.2)
1 3 5 ∣
1
2 3/2
2 5/2
2 3/2
2 5/2
256
=[ (4 ) + (4 ) ] −[ (1 ) + (1 ) ] = . (5.4.3)
3 5 3 5 15
Exercise 5.4.1
Find the definite integral of f (x) = x 2
− 3x over the interval [1, 3].
Hint
Follow the process from Example to solve the problem.
Answer
10
− (5.4.4)
3
The Net Change Theorem

The net change theorem considers the integral of a rate of change. It says that when a quantity changes, the new value equals the
initial value plus the integral of the rate of change of that quantity. The formula can be expressed in two ways. The second is more
familiar; it is simply the definite integral.
Net Change Theorem
The new value of a changing quantity equals the initial value plus the integral of the rate of change:
b
′
F (b) = F (a) + ∫ F (x)dx (5.4.5)
a
or

b
′
∫ F (x)dx = F (b) − F (a). (5.4.6)
a
Subtracting F (a) from both sides of the first equation yields the second equation. Since they are equivalent formulas, which one
we use depends on the application.
The significance of the net change theorem lies in the results. Net change can be applied to area, distance, and volume, to name
only a few applications. Net change accounts for negative quantities automatically without having to write more than one integral.
To illustrate, let’s apply the net change theorem to a velocity function in which the result is displacement.
We looked at a simple example of this in The Definite Integral. Suppose a car is moving due north (the positive direction) at 40
mph between 2 p.m. and 4 p.m., then the car moves south at 30 mph between 4 p.m. and 5 p.m. We can graph this motion as shown
in Figure.
Figure 5.4.1 : The graph shows speed versus time for the given motion of a car.
Just as we did before, we can use definite integrals to calculate the net displacement as well as the total distance traveled. The net
displacement is given by
5 4 5
∫ v(t)dt = ∫ 40dt + ∫ −30dt = 80 − 30 = 50. (5.4.7)

2 2 4
Thus, at 5 p.m. the car is 50 mi north of its starting position. The total distance traveled is given by
5 4 5
∫ |v(t)|dt = ∫ 40dt + ∫ 30dt = 80 + 30 = 110. (5.4.8)

2 2 4
Therefore, between 2 p.m. and 5 p.m., the car traveled a total of 110 mi.
To summarize, net displacement may include both positive and negative values. In other words, the velocity function accounts for
both forward distance and backward distance. To find net displacement, integrate the velocity function over the interval. Total
distance traveled, on the other hand, is always positive. To find the total distance traveled by an object, regardless of direction, we
need to integrate the absolute value of the velocity function.
Example 5.4.2 : Finding Net Displacement

Given a velocity function v(t) = 3t − 5 (in meters per second) for a particle in motion from time t = 0 to time t = 3, find the
net displacement of the particle.
Solution
Applying the net change theorem, we have
3 2 2
3t 3(3) 27 27 30 3
3
∫ (3t − 5)dt = − 5t ∣ = [ − 5(3)] − 0 = − 15 = − =− . (5.4.9)
0
0
2 2 2 2 2 2
The net displacement is − m (Figure).

3

Figure 5.4.2 : The graph shows velocity versus time for a particle moving with a linear velocity function.
Example 5.4.3 : Finding the Total Distance Traveled

Use Example to find the total distance traveled by a particle according to the velocity function v(t) = 3t − 5 m/sec over a time
interval [0, 3].
Solution
The total distance traveled includes both the positive and the negative values. Therefore, we must integrate the absolute value of
the velocity function to find the total distance traveled.
To continue with the example, use two integrals to find the total distance. First, find the t-intercept of the function, since that is
where the division of the interval occurs. Set the equation equal to zero and solve for t. Thus,
3t − 5 = 0
3t = 5
5
t = .
3
The two subintervals are [0, ] and [ , 3]. To find the total distance traveled, integrate the absolute value of the function. Since
5
3
5
the function is negative over the interval [0, ], we have |v(t)| = −v(t) over that interval. Over [ , 3], the function is positive,
5
3
5
so |v(t)| = v(t) . Thus, we have

3 5/3 3
∫ |v(t)|dt = ∫ −v(t)dt + ∫ v(t)dt
0 0 5/3
5/3 3
=∫ 5 − 3tdt + ∫ 3t − 5dt
0 5/3
2 2
3
3t 5/3 3t ∣
= (5t − ) ∣ +( − 5t)
2 0 2 ∣
5/3
2 2
5 3(5/3) 27 3(5/3) 25
= [5( )− ] −0 +[ − 15] − [ − ]
3 2 2 2 3
=
25
3
−
25
6
+
27
2
− 15 −
25
6
+
25
3
=
41
6
.
So, the total distance traveled is 14
6
m.
Exercise 5.4.2
Find the net displacement and total distance traveled in meters given the velocity function f (t) =
1
2
t
e −2 over the interval
[0, 2].
Hint
Follow the procedures from Example and Example. Note that f (t) ≤ 0 for t ≤ ln4 and f (t) ≥ 0 for t ≥ ln4 .

Answer
2 2
e −9
Net displacement: 2
≈ −0.8055m; total distance traveled: 4ln4 − 7.5 + e
2
≈ 1.740m
Applying the Net Change Theorem

The net change theorem can be applied to the flow and consumption of fluids, as shown in Example.
Example 5.4.4 : How Many Gallons of Gasoline Are Consumed?

If the motor on a motorboat is started at t = 0 and the boat consumes gasoline at the rate of 5 − t gal/hr, how much gasoline is 3
used in the first 2 hours?

Solution
Express the problem as a definite integral, integrate, and evaluate using the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus. The limits of
integration are the endpoints of the interval [0,2]. We have
2 4 4
t (2) 16
3 2
∫ (5 − t )dt = (5t − ) ∣ = [5(2) − ] − 0 = 10 − = 6. (5.4.10)
0
0
4 4 4
Thus, the motorboat uses 6 gal of gas in 2 hours.
Example 5.4.5 : Chapter Opener: Iceboats

As we saw at the beginning of the chapter, top iceboat racers can attain speeds of up to five times the wind speed. Andrew is an
intermediate iceboater, though, so he attains speeds equal to only twice the wind speed.
Figure 5.4.3 : (credit: modification of work by Carter Brown, Flickr)

Suppose Andrew takes his iceboat out one morning when a light 5-mph breeze has been blowing all morning. As Andrew gets
his iceboat set up, though, the wind begins to pick up. During his first half hour of iceboating, the wind speed increases
according to the function v(t) = 20t + 5. For the second half hour of Andrew’s outing, the wind remains steady at 15 mph. In
other words, the wind speed is given by
1
20t + 5 f or0 ≤ t ≤
2
v(t) = { . (5.4.11)
1
15 f or ≤t ≤1
2
Recalling that Andrew’s iceboat travels at twice the wind speed, and assuming he moves in a straight line away from his starting
point, how far is Andrew from his starting point after 1 hour?
Solution
To figure out how far Andrew has traveled, we need to integrate his velocity, which is twice the wind speed. Then
1
Distance =∫ 0
2v(t)dt.

Substituting the expressions we were given for v(t) , we get
1 1/2 1
∫ 2v(t)dt = ∫ 2v(t)dt + ∫ 2v(t)dt
0 0 1/2
1/2 1
=∫ 2(20t + 5)dt + ∫ 2(15)dt
0 1/3
1/2 1
=∫ (40t + 10)dt + ∫ 30dt
0 1/2
2 1/2 1
= [20 t + 10t] | + [30t] |
0 1/2
20
=( + 5) − 0 + (30 − 15)
4
= 25.
Andrew is 25 mi from his starting point after 1 hour.
Exercise 5.4.3
Suppose that, instead of remaining steady during the second half hour of Andrew’s outing, the wind starts to die down according
to the function v(t) = −10t + 15. In other words, the wind speed is given by
1
20t + 5 f or0 ≤ t ≤
v(t) = {
1
2
.
−10t + 15 f or ≤t ≤1
2
Under these conditions, how far from his starting point is Andrew after 1 hour?
Hint
Don’t forget that Andrew’s iceboat moves twice as fast as the wind.
Answer
17.5mi
Integrating Even and Odd Functions

We saw in Functions and Graphs that an even function is a function in which f (−x) = f (x) for all x in the domain—that is, the
graph of the curve is unchanged when x is replaced with −x. The graphs of even functions are symmetric about the y-axis. An odd
function is one in which f (−x) = −f (x) for all x in the domain, and the graph of the function is symmetric about the origin.
Integrals of even functions, when the limits of integration are from −a to a, involve two equal areas, because they are symmetric
about the y-axis. Integrals of odd functions, when the limits of integration are similarly [−a, a], evaluate to zero because the areas
above and below the x-axis are equal.
Rule: Integrals of Even and Odd Functions
For continuous even functions such that f (−x) = f (x),
a a
∫ f (x)dx = 2 ∫ f (x)dx. (5.4.12)

−a 0
For continuous odd functions such that f (−x) = −f (x),

a
∫ f (x)dx = 0. (5.4.13)
−a
Example 5.4.6 : Integrating an Even Function

2
Integrate the even function ∫ −2
(3 x
8
− 2)dx and verify that the integration formula for even functions holds.
Solution
The symmetry appears in the graphs in Figure. Graph (a) shows the region below the curve and above the x-axis. We have to
zoom in to this graph by a huge amount to see the region. Graph (b) shows the region above the curve and below the x-axis. The

signed area of this region is negative. Both views illustrate the symmetry about the y-axis of an even function. We have
9 2
2 8 x
∫ (3 x − 2)dx = ( − 2x)∣
−2 3 ∣−2
9 9
(2) (−2)
=[ − 2(2)] − [ − 2(−2)]
3 3
512 512
=( − 4) − (− + 4)
3 3
=
1000
3
.
To verify the integration formula for even functions, we can calculate the integral from 0 to 2 and double it, then check to make
sure we get the same answer.
2 9
8
x 512 500
2
∫ (3 x − 2)dx = ( − 2x) ∣ = −4 = (5.4.14)
0
0
3 3 3
Since 2 ⋅ 500
3
=
1000
3
, we have verified the formula for even functions in this particular example.
Figure 5.4.4 : Graph (a) shows the positive area between the curve and the x-axis, whereas graph (b) shows the negative area
between the curve and the x-axis. Both views show the symmetry about the y-axis.
Example 5.4.7 : Integrating an Odd Function

Evaluate the definite integral of the odd function −5sinx over the interval [−π, π].
Solution
The graph is shown in Figure. We can see the symmetry about the origin by the positive area above the x-axis over [−π, 0], and
the negative area below the x-axis over [0, π]. we have
π
π π
∫ −5sinxdx = −5(−cosx)| = 5cosx | = [5cosπ] − [5cos(−π)] = −5 − (−5) = 0. (5.4.15)
−π −π
−π

Figure 5.4.5 :The graph shows areas between a curve and the x-axis for an odd function.
Exercise 5.4.4
2
Integrate the function ∫ −2
4
x dx.
Hint
Integrate an even function.
Answer
64
Key Concepts
The net change theorem states that when a quantity changes, the final value equals the initial value plus the integral of the rate
of change. Net change can be a positive number, a negative number, or zero.
The area under an even function over a symmetric interval can be calculated by doubling the area over the positive x-axis. For
an odd function, the integral over a symmetric interval equals zero, because half the area is negative.
Key Equations
Net Change Theorem
b b
F (b) = F (a) + ∫
a
′
F (x)dx or ∫a
′
F (x)dx = F (b) − F (a)
Glossary
net change theorem
if we know the rate of change of a quantity, the net change theorem says the future quantity is equal to the initial quantity plus
the integral of the rate of change of the quantity
Contributors
This page titled 5.4: Original Integration Formulas and the Net Change Theorem is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license and was authored,
remixed, and/or curated by OpenStax.

5.E: Integration (Exercises)

1.) State whether the given sums are equal or unequal.
10 10
a. ∑i and ∑ k
i=1 k=1
10 15
b. ∑ i and ∑(i − 5)
i=1 i=6
10 9
c. ∑ i(i − 1) and ∑(j + 1)j

i=1 j=0
10 10
d. ∑ i(i − 1) and ∑(k 2

− k)
i=1 k=1
Solution: a. They are equal; both represent the sum of the first 10 whole numbers. b. They are equal; both represent the sum of the
first 10 whole numbers. c. They are equal by substituting j = i − 1. d. They are equal; the first sum factors the terms of the second.
In the following exercises, use the rules for sums of powers of integers to compute the sums.
10
2) ∑ i
i=5
10
3) ∑ i 2
i=5
Solution: 385 − 30 = 355

100 100
Suppose that ∑ a i = 15 and ∑ b i = −12. In the following exercises, compute the sums.
i=1 i=1
100
4) ∑(a i + bi )
i=1
100
5) ∑(a i − bi )
i=1
Solution: 15 − (−12) = 27
100
6) ∑(3a i − 4 bi )
i=1
100
7) ∑(5a i + 4 bi )
i=1
Solution: 5(15) + 4(−12) = 27

In the following exercises, use summation properties and formulas to rewrite and evaluate the sums.
20
8) ∑ 100(k 2
− 5k + 1)
k=1
50
9) ∑(j 2
− 2j)
j=1
50
Solution: ∑ j
j=1
20
10) ∑ (j
2
− 10j)
j=11
25
11) ∑[(2k) 2
− 100k]
k=1
25 25
4(25)(26)(51)
Solution: 4 ∑ k 2
− 100 ∑ k = − 50(25)(26) = −10, 400
9
k=1 k=1
Let L denote the left-endpoint sum using n subintervals and let R denote the corresponding right-endpoint sum. In the following
n n
exercises, compute the indicated left and right sums for the given functions on the indicated interval.
1
12) L for f (x) =
4 on [2, 3]
x −1
13) R for g(x) = cos(πx) on [0, 1]

4
Solution: R 4 = 0.25
1
14) L for f (x) =
6 on [2, 5]
x(x − 1)
1
15) R for f (x) =
6 on [2, 5]
x(x − 1)
Solution: R 6 = 0.372
1
16) R for
4
2
on [−2, 2]
x +1
1
17) L for
4
2
on [−2, 2]
x +1
L4 = 2.20
18) R for x
4
2
− 2x + 1 on [0, 2]
19) L for x
8
2
− 2x + 1 on [0, 2]
Solution: L 8 = 0.6875
20) Compute the left and right Riemann sums— L and R , respectively—for f (x) = (2 − |x|) on [−2, 2]. Compute their average
4 4
value and compare it with the area under the graph of f.

21) Compute the left and right Riemann sums— L and R , respectively—for 6 6 f (x) = (3 − |3 − x|) on [0, 6]. Compute their
average value and compare it with the area under the graph of f.
Solution: L 6 = 9.000 = R6 . The graph of f is a triangle with area 9.
−−−− −
22) Compute the left and right Riemann sums— L4 and R4 , respectively—for f (x) = √4 − x
2
on [−2, 2] and compare their
values.
−−−−−−−−−−
23) Compute the left and right Riemann sums— L and R , respectively—for f (x) = √9 − (x − 3)
6 6
2
on [0, 6] and compare their
values.
Solution: L 6 = 13.12899 = R6 . They are equal.
Express the following endpoint sums in sigma notation but do not evaluate them.
24) L 30 for f (x) = x on [1, 2] 2
−−−−−
25) L 10 for f (x) = √4 − x on [−2, 2] 2
−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−
10
4 (i − 1)
Solution: L 10 = ∑ √4 − (−2 + 4 )
10 10
i=1
26) R20 for f (x) = sinx on [0, π]

27) R100 for lnx on [1, e]
100
e−1 i
Solution: R 100 = ∑ ln(1 + (e − 1) )
100 100
i=1
In the following exercises, graph the function then use a calculator or a computer program to evaluate the following left and right
endpoint sums. Is the area under the curve between the left and right endpoint sums?
28) [T] L 100 and R 100 for y = x 2
− 3x + 1 on the interval [−1, 1]
29) [T] L 100 and R 100 for y = x on the interval [0, 1]
2
R100 = 0.33835, L100 = 0.32835. The plot shows that the left Riemann sum is an underestimate because the function is
increasing. Similarly, the right Riemann sum is an overestimate. The area lies between the left and right Riemann sums. Ten
x +1
30) [T] L 50 and R 50 for y = 2
on the interval [2, 4]
x −1
31) [T] L 100 and R 100 for y = x on the interval [−1, 1]

3
L100 = −0.02, R100 = 0.02 . The left endpoint sum is an underestimate because the function is increasing. Similarly, a right
endpoint approximation is an overestimate. The area lies between the left and right endpoint estimates.
π
32) [T] L 50 and R 50 for y = tan(x) on the interval [0, ]
4
33) [T] L 100 and R 100 for y = e 2x

on the interval [−1, 1]
L100 = 3.555, R100 = 3.670 . The plot shows that the left Riemann sum is an underestimate because the function is increasing. Ten
34) Let t denote the time that it took Tejay van Garteren to ride the jth stage of the Tour de France in 2014. If there were a total of
j
21
21 stages, interpret ∑ t .j
j=1
31
35) Let r denote the total rainfall in Portland on the jth day of the year in 2009. Interpret ∑ r .
j j
j=1
Solution: The sum represents the cumulative rainfall in January 2009.

36) Let d denote the hours of daylight and δ denote the increase in the hours of daylight from day j − 1 to day j in Fargo, North
j j
365
Dakota, on thejth day of the year. Interpret d1 + ∑ δ . j
j=2
1
37) To help get in shape, Joe gets a new pair of running shoes. If Joe runs 1 mi each day in week 1 and adds mi to his daily
10
routine each week, what is the total mileage on Joe’s shoes after 25 weeks?
25
(i − 1) 7
Solution: The total mileage is 7 × ∑(1 + ) = 7 × 25 + × 12 × 25 = 385mi .
10 10
i=1
38) The following table gives approximate values of the average annual atmospheric rate of increase in carbon dioxide (CO2) each
decade since 1960, in parts per million (ppm). Estimate the total increase in atmospheric CO2 between 1964 and 2013.
Decade Ppm/y
1964-1973 1.07
1976-1983 1.34
1984-1993 1.40
1994-2003 1.87
2004-2013 2.07
Average Annual Atmospheric CO2 Increase, 1964–2013 Source: http://www.esrl.noaa.gov/gmd/ccgg/trends/.

39) The following table gives the approximate increase in sea level in inches over 20 years starting in the given year. Estimate the
net change in mean sea level from 1870 to 2010.
1870 0.3
1890 1.5
1910 0.2
1930 2.8
1950 0.7
1970 1.1
1990 1.5
Approximate 20-Year Sea Level Increases, 1870–1990

Source: http://link.springer.com/article/10....712-011-9119-1
Solution: Add the numbers to get 8.1-in. net increase.
40) The following table gives the approximate increase in dollars in the average price of a gallon of gas per decade since 1950. If
the average price of a gallon of gas in 2010 was $2.60, what was the average price of a gallon of gas in 1950?
1950 0.03
1960 0.05
1970 0.86
1980 −0.03
1990 0.29
2000 1.12
Approximate 10-Year Gas Price Increases, 1950–2000

Source: http://epb.lbl.gov/homepages/Rick_Di...011-trends.pdf.
41) The following table gives the percent growth of the U.S. population beginning in July of the year indicated. If the U.S.
population was 281,421,906 in July 2000, estimate the U.S. population in July 2010.
Year % Change/Year
2000 1.12
2001 0.99
2002 0.93
2003 0.86
2004 0.93
2005 0.93
2006 0.97
2007 0.96
2008 0.95
2009 0.88
Annual Percentage Growth of U.S. Population, 2000–2009

Source: http://www.census.gov/popest/data.
(Hint: To obtain the population in July 2001, multiply the population in July 2000 by 1.0112 to get 284,573,831.)
Solution: 309,389,957
In the following exercises, estimate the areas under the curves by computing the left Riemann sums, L 8.
42)
43)
Solution: L
8 = 3 + 2 + 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + 4 = 24
44)
45)
Solution: L 8 = 3 + 5 + 7 + 6 + 8 + 6 + 5 + 4 = 44
−−−−−
46) [T] Use a computer algebra system to compute the Riemann sum, L , for N N = 10, 30, 50 for f (x) = √1 − x on [−1, 1].
2
1
47) [T] Use a computer algebra system to compute the Riemann sum, L , for N N = 10, 30, 50 for f (x) = −−−− −
on [−1, 1].
√1 + x2
Solution: L 10 ≈ 1.7604, L30 ≈ 1.7625, L50 ≈ 1.76265
48) [T] Use a computer algebra system to compute the Riemann sum, LN , for N = 10, 30, 50 for f (x) = si n x
2
on [0, 2π] .
Compare these estimates with π.
In the following exercises, use a calculator or a computer program to evaluate the endpoint sums R N and L N for N = 1, 10, 100 .
How do these estimates compare with the exact answers, which you can find via geometry?
49) [T] y = cos(πx) on the interval [0, 1]
Solution: R 1 = −1, L1 = 1, R10 = −0.1, L10 = 0.1, L100 = 0.01, and R 100 = −0.1. By symmetry of the graph, the exact area is
zero.
50) [T] y = 3x + 2 on the interval [3, 5]
In the following exercises, use a calculator or a computer program to evaluate the endpoint sums R and L for N N N = 1, 10, 100.
32
51) [T] y = x 4 2
− 5x +4 on the interval [−2, 2], which has an exact area of
15
Solution: R 1 = 0, L1 = 0, R10 = 2.4499, L10 = 2.4499, R100 = 2.1365, L100 = 2.1365
52) [T] y = lnx on the interval [1, 2], which has an exact area of 2ln(2) − 1
53) Explain why, if f (a) ≥ 0 and f is increasing on [a, b], that the left endpoint estimate is a lower bound for the area below the
Solution: If [c, d]is a subinterval of [a, b] under one of the left-endpoint sum rectangles, then the area of the rectangle contributing
to the left-endpoint estimate is f (c)(d − c) . But, f (c) ≤ f (x) for c ≤ x ≤ d , so the area under the graph of f between c and d is
f (c)(d − c) plus the area below the graph of f but above the horizontal line segment at height f (c), which is positive. As this is
true for each left-endpoint sum interval, it follows that the left Riemann sum is less than or equal to the area below the graph of f
on [a, b].
54) Explain why, if f (b) ≥ 0 and f is decreasing on [a, b], that the left endpoint estimate is an upper bound for the area below the
f (b) − f (a)
55) Show that, in general, R N − LN = (b − a) × .
N
N N −1 N
b −a i −1 b −a i b −a i
Solution: L N = ∑ f (a + (b − a) ) = ∑ f (a + (b − a) ) and RN = ∑ f (a + (b − a) ) . The
N N N N N N
i=1 i=0 i=1
left sum has a term corresponding to i = 0 and the right sum has a term corresponding to i = N . In R − L , any term N N
corresponding to i = 1, 2, … , N − 1 occurs once with a plus sign and once with a minus sign, so each such term cancels and one
b −a N 0 b −a
is left with R N − LN = (f (a + (b − a)) ) − (f (a) + (b − a) ) = (f (b) − f (a)).
N N N N
56) Explain why, if f is increasing on [ a, b], the error between either LN or R N and the area A below the graph of f is at most \
(\displaystyle (b−a)\frac{f(b)−f(a)}{N]|).
57) For each of the three graphs:
a. Obtain a lower bound L(A) for the area enclosed by the curve by adding the areas of the squares enclosed completely by
the curve.
b. Obtain an upper bound U (A) for the area by adding to L(A) the areas B(A) of the squares enclosed partially by the
curve.
Solution: Graph 1: a. L(A) = 0, B(A) = 20; b. U (A) = 20. Graph 2: a. L(A) = 9; b. B(A) = 11, U (A) = 20. Graph 3: a.
L(A) = 11.0; b. B(A) = 4.5, U (A) = 15.5.
58) In the previous exercise, explain why L(A) gets no smaller while U (A) gets no larger as the squares are subdivided into four
boxes of equal area.
59) A unit circle is made up of n wedges equivalent to the inner wedge in the figure. The base of the inner triangle is 1 unit and its
π π π π 2π
height is sin( ). The base of the outer triangle is B = cos( ) + sin( )tan( ) and the height is H = Bsin( ) . Use this
n n n n n
information to argue that the area of a unit circle is equal to π.\)
2π
sin( ) n 2π
Let A be the area of the unit circle. The circle encloses n congruent triangles each of area n
, so sin( ) ≤ A. Similarly,
2 2 n
BH 1 π π π 2π
the circle is contained inside n congruent triangles each of area = (cos( ) + sin( )tan( ))sin( ) , so
2 2 n n n n
2π
n 2π π π π n 2π πsin( )
n
A ≤ sin( )(cos( )) + sin( )tan( ) . As n → ∞, sin( ) =
2π
→ π , so we conclude π ≤A . Also, as
2 n n n n 2 n ( )
n
π π π
n → ∞, cos( ) + sin( )tan( ) → 1 , so we also have A ≤ π . By the squeeze theorem for limits, we conclude that A = π.
n n n

In the following exercises, express the limits as integrals.
n
1) lim ∑(x )Δx

∗
i
over [1, 3]
n→∞
i=1
2) lim ∑(5(x )
∗
i
2
− 3(x ) )Δx
∗
i
3
over [0, 2]
n→∞
i=1
Solution: ∫ (5 x
2
− 3 x )dx
3
3) lim ∑ si n (2π x )Δx

2 ∗
i
over [0, 1]
n→∞
i=1
4) lim ∑ cos (2π x )Δx

2 ∗
i
over [0, 1]
n→∞
i=1
Solution: ∫ 2
cos (2πx)dx
0
In the following exercises, given L or R as indicated, express their limits as n → ∞ as definite integrals, identifying the correct
n n
intervals.
n
1 i −1
5) L n = ∑
n n
i=1
n
1 i
6) R n = ∑
n n
i=1
Solution: ∫ xdx
0
n
2 i −1
7) Ln = ∑(1 + 2 )
n n
i=1
n
3 i
8) R n = ∑(3 + 3 )
n n
i=1
Solution: ∫ xdx
3
n
2π i −1 i −1
9) L n = ∑ 2π cos(2π )
n n n
i=1
n
1 i i
10 R n = ∑(1 + )log((1 +
2
) )
n n n
i=1
Solution: ∫ 2
xlog(x )dx
1
In the following exercises, evaluate the integrals of the functions graphed using the formulas for areas of triangles and circles, and
subtracting the areas below the x-axis.
11)
12)
Solution: 1 + 2 ⋅ 2 + 3 ⋅ 3 = 14
13)
14)
Solution: 1 − 4 + 9 = 6
15)
16)
Solution: 1 − 2π + 9 = 10 − 2π
In the following exercises, evaluate the integral using area formulas.
3
17) ∫ (3 − x)dx
0
18) ∫ (3 − x)dx
2
1
Solution: The integral is the area of the triangle,
2
3
19) ∫ (3 − |x|)dx
−3
20) ∫ (3 − |x − 3|)dx
0
Solution: The integral is the area of the triangle, 9.

2
−−−− −
21) ∫ 2
√4 − x dx
−2
5 −−−−−−−−−−
22) ∫ √4 − (x − 3)
2
dx
1
1
Soluti0n: The integral is the area πr
2
= 2π.
2
12 −−−−−−−−−−−
23) ∫ √36 − (x − 6)
2
dx
0
24) ∫ (3 − |x|)dx
−2
1
Solution: The integral is the area of the “big” triangle less the “missing” triangle, 9 − .
2
In the following exercises, use averages of values at the left (L) and right (R) endpoints to compute the integrals of the piecewise
linear functions with graphs that pass through the given list of points over the indicated intervals.
25) (0, 0), (2, 1), (4, 3), (5, 0), (6, 0), (8, 3)over [0, 8]
26) (0, 2), (1, 0), (3, 5), (5, 5), (6, 2), (8, 0)over [0, 8]
L+R
Solution: L = 2 + 0 + 10 + 5 + 4 = 21, R = 0 + 10 + 10 + 2 + 0 = 22, = 21.5
2
27) (−4, −4), (−2, 0), (0, −2), (3, 3), (4, 3)over [−4, 4]
28) (−4, 0), (−2, 2), (0, 0), (1, 2), (3, 2), (4, 0)over [−4, 4]
L+R
Solution: L = 0 + 4 + 0 + 4 + 2 = 10, R = 4 + 0 + 2 + 4 + 0 = 10, = 10
2
4 2 4 2
Suppose that ∫ f (x)dx = 5 and ∫ f (x)dx = −3 , and ∫ g(x)dx = −1 and ∫ g(x)dx = 2 . In the following exercises,
0 0 0 0
compute the integrals.

4
29) ∫ (f (x) + g(x))dx

0
30) ∫ (f (x) + g(x))dx

2
4 4
Solution: ∫ f (x)dx + ∫ g(x)dx = 8 − 3 = 5

2 2
31) ∫ (f (x) − g(x))dx

0
32) ∫ (f (x) − g(x))dx

2
4 4
Solution: ∫ f (x)dx − ∫ g(x)dx = 8 + 3 = 11

2 2
33) ∫ (3f (x) − 4g(x))dx

0
4
34) ∫ (4f (x) − 3g(x))dx

2
4 4
Solution: 4 ∫ f (x)dx − 3 ∫ g(x)dx = 32 + 9 = 41

2 2
A 0 A
In the following exercises, use the identity ∫ f (x)dx = ∫ f (x)dx + ∫ f (x)dx to compute the integrals.
−A −A 0
π
sint
35) ∫ 2
dt (Hint: sin(−t) = −sin(t))
−π 1 +t
√π
t
36) ∫ dt
√−π
1 + cost
Solution: The integrand is odd; the integral is zero.

3
37) ∫ (2 − x)dx (Hint: Look at the graph of f.)

1
38) ∫ (x − 3 ) dx
3
(Hint: Look at the graph of f.)
2
Solution: The integrand is antisymmetric with respect to x = 3. The integral is zero.

1 1 1
1 1 1
In the following exercises, given that ∫ xdx = ,∫
2
x dx = , and ∫ 3
x dx = , compute the integrals.
0
2 0
3 0
4
39) ∫ (1 + x + x
2
+ x )dx
3
40) ∫ (1 − x + x
2
− x )dx
3
1 1 1 7
Solution: 1 − + − =
2 3 4 12
41) ∫ (1 − x ) dx
2
42) ∫ (1 − 2x ) dx
3
1
4 2
Solution: ∫ (1 − 2x + 4 x
2 3
− 8 x )dx = 1 − 1 + −2 = −
0
3 3
1
4
43) ∫ (6x −
2
x )dx
0 3
44) ∫ (7 − 5 x )dx
3
5 23
Solution: 7 − =
4 4
In the following exercises, use the comparison theorem.

3
45) Show that ∫ (x

2
− 6x + 9)dx ≥ 0.
0
46) Show that ∫ (x − 3)(x + 2)dx ≤ 0.

−2
Solution: The integrand is negative over [−2, 3].

1 1
−−−− − −−−− −
47) Show that ∫ 3
√1 + x dx ≤ ∫
2
√1 + x dx .
0 0
2 2
−−−−− −−−− −
48) Show that ∫ √1 + x dx ≤ ∫
2
√1 + x dx.
1 1
−−−−− −−−− −
Solution: x ≤ x over [1, 2], so
2
√1 + x ≤ √1 + x
2
over [1, 2].
π/2
π 2t π
49) Show that ∫ sintdt ≥ ) (Hint: sint ≥ over [0, ])
0
4 π 2
π/4
–
50) Show that ∫ costdt ≥ π √2/4 .
−π/4
–
√2
Solution: cos(t) ≥ . Multiply by the length of the interval to get the inequality.
2
In the following exercises, find the average value f ave of f between a and b, and find a point c, where f (c) = f ave
51) f (x) = x 2
, a = −1, b = 1
52) f (x) = x 5
, a = −1, b = 1
Solution: f ave = 0; c = 0
−−−− −
53) 2
f (x) = √4 − x , a = 0, b = 2
54) f (x) = (3 − |x|), a = −3, b = 3

3 3
Solution: when c = ±
2 2
55) f (x) = sinx, a = 0, b = 2π

56) f (x) = cosx, a = 0, b = 2π
π 3π
Solution: f ave = 0; c = ,
2 2
5n the following exercises, approximate the average value using Riemann sums L100 and R100 . How does your answer compare
with the exact given answer?
ln(256)
57) [T] y = ln(x) over the interval [1, 4]; the exact solution is − 1.
3
58) [T] y = e x/2

over the interval [0, 1]; the exact solution is 2(√e − 1).
5olution: L 100 = 1.294, R100 = 1.301; the exact average is between these values.
π 2ln(2)
59) [T] y = tanx over the interval [0, ]; the exact solution is .
4 π
x +1 π
60) [T] y = −−−− − over the interval [−1, 1]; the exact solution is .
√4 − x2 6
1 1
Solution: L 100 ×( ) = 0.5178, R100 × ( ) = 0.5294
2 2
In the following exercises, compute the average value using the left Riemann sums L for N N = 1, 10, 100 . How does the accuracy
compare with the given exact value?
8
61) [T] y = x 2
−4 over the interval [0, 2]; the exact solution is − .
3
2 1
62) [T] y = xe x
over the interval [0, 2]; the exact solution is (e
4
− 1).
4
1 1
Solution: L 1 = 0, L10 × ( ) = 8.743493, L100 × ( ) = 12.861728. The exact answer ≈ 26.799, so L 100 is not accurate.
2 2
1 15
63) [T] y = ( )
x
over the interval [0, 4]; the exact solution is .
2 64ln(2)
2
cos(π ) − 1
64) [T] y = xsin(x 2
) over the interval [−π, 0]; the exact solution is
2π.
1 1
Solution: L1 × ( ) = 1.352, L10 × ( ) = −0.1837, L100 × (1π) = −0.2956. The exact answer ≈ −0.303, so L100 is not
π π
accurate to first decimal.
2π 2π
65) Suppose that A = ∫ si n tdt

2
and B = ∫ 2
cos tdt. Show that A + B = 2π and A = B.
0 0
π/4 π/4
π
sec tdt = π and B = ∫ 4tan tdt.
2
Show that A − B = .
−π/4 −π/
2
π/4
π
Solution: Use tan 2
θ + 1 = sec θ.
2
Then, B − A = ∫ 1dx = .
−π/4 2
67) Show that the average value of si n t over [0, 2π] is equal to 2
1/2 Without further calculation, determine whether the average
value of si n t over [0, π] is also equal to 1/2.
2
68) Show that the average value of cos t over [0, 2π] is equal to 2
1/2 . Without further calculation, determine whether the average
value of cos (t) over [0, π] is also equal to 1/2.
2
2π
Solution: ∫ 2
cos tdt = π, so divide by the length 2π of the interval. cos 2
t has period π, so yes, it is true.
0
69) Explain why the graphs of a quadratic function (parabola) p(x) and a linear function ℓ(x) can intersect in at most two points.
b b d d
Suppose that p(a) = ℓ(a) and p(b) = ℓ(b) , and that ∫ p(t)dt > ∫ ℓ(t)dt . Explain why ∫ p(t) > ∫ ℓ(t)dt whenever
a a c c
a ≤ c < d ≤ b.
−b
70) Suppose that parabola p(x) = ax
2
+ bx + c opens downward (a < 0) and has a vertex of y = >0 . For which interval
2a
B
[A, B] is ∫ (ax
2
+ bx + c)dx as large as possible?
A
−− −−−−−
2
−b − √b − 4ac
Solution: The integral is maximized when one uses the largest interval on which p is nonnegative. Thus, A =
2a
−− −−−−−
2
−b + √b − 4ac
and B = .
2a
71) Suppose [a, b] can be subdivided into subintervals a = a0 < a1 < a2 < ⋯ < aN = b such that either f ≥0 over [ ai−1 , ai ]
ai
or f ≤0 over [a i−1 , ai ] . Set A i =∫ f (t)dt.

ai−1
a. Explain why ∫ f (t)dt = A1 + A2 + ⋯ + AN .

a
b b
b. Then, explain why ∫ f (t)dt ∣∣∣≤ ∫ |f (t)|dt.

a a
d d
72) Suppose f and g are continuous functions such that ∫ f (t)dt ≤ ∫ g(t)dt for every subinterval [c, d] of [a, b] . Explain
c c
why f (x) ≤ g(x) for all values of x.

Solution: If f (t0 ) > g(t0 ) for some t0 ∈ [a, b] , then since f −g is continuous, there is an interval containing t0 such that
d d
f (t) > g(t) over the interval [c, d], and then ∫ f (t)dt > ∫ g(t)d over this interval.
d c
73) Suppose the average value of f over [a, b] is 1 and the average value of f over [b,c] is 1 where a <c <b . Show that the
average value of f over [a, c] is also 1.
74) Suppose that [a, b] can be partitioned. taking a = a < a < ⋯ < a = b such that the average value of f over each 0 1 N
subinterval [a , a ] = 1 is equal to 1 for each i = 1, … , N . Explain why the average value of f over [a, b] is also equal to 1.
i−1 i
Solution: The integral of f over an interval is the same as the integral of the average of f over that interval. Thus,
b a1 a2 aN a1 a2 aN
∫ f (t)dt = ∫ f (t)dt + ∫ 1f (t)dt + ⋯ + ∫ f (t)dt = ∫ 1dt + ∫ 1dt + ⋯ + ∫ 1dt

a a0 a aN+1 a0 a1 aN+1
= (a1 − a0 ) + (a2 − a1 ) + ⋯ + (aN − aN −1 ) = aN − a0 = b − a .

Dividing through by b − a gives the desired identity.
i N
N (N + 1)
75) Suppose that for each i such that 1 ≤ i ≤ N one has ∫ f (t)dt = i . Show that ∫ f (t)dt = .
i−1 0
2
i N
N (N + 1)(2N + 1)
76) Suppose that for each i such that 1 ≤ i ≤ N one has ∫ f (t)dt = i
2
. Show that ∫ f (t)dt = .
i−1 0
6
N N i N
N (N + 1)(2N + 1)
Solution: ∫ f (t)dt = ∑ ∫ f (t)dt = ∑ i
2
=
0 i−1
6
i=1 i=1
L10 + R10
77) [T] Compute the left and right Riemann sums L 10 and R 10 and their average for f (t) = t over [0, 1]. Given that
2
2
1
L10 + R10
∫
2
t dt = 1/3 , to how many decimal places is accurate?
0 2
L10 + R10
78) [T] Compute the left and right Riemann sums, L1 0 and R10 , and their average for f (t) = (4 − t )
2
over [1, 2] .
2
2
L10 + R10
Given that ∫ 2
(4 − t )dt = 1.66 , to how many decimal places is accurate?
1
2
L10 + R10
Solution: L 10 = 1.815, R10 = 1.515, = 1.665, so the estimate is accurate to two decimal places.
2
5 5
−−−− − −−−− −
79) If ∫ √1 + t4 dt = 41.7133..., what is ∫ √1 + u4 du?
1 1
80) Estimate ∫ tdt using the left and right endpoint sums, each with a single rectangle. How does the average of these left and
0
1
right endpoint sums compare with the actual value ∫ tdt?

0
Solution: The average is 1/2, which is equal to the integral in this case.
1
1
81) Estimate ∫ tdt by comparison with the area of a single rectangle with height equal to the value of t at the midpoint t = .
0
2
1
How does this midpoint estimate compare with the actual value ∫ tdt?
0
82) From the graph of sin(2πx) shown:

1
a. Explain why ∫ sin(2πt)dt = 0.

0
a+1
b. Explain why, in general, ∫ sin(2πt)dt = 0 for any value of a.

a
Solution:
1
a. The graph is antisymmetric with respect to t = over [0, 1] , so the average value is zero. b. For any value of a, the graph
2
between [a, a + 1] is a shift of the graph over [0, 1] , so the net areas above and below the axis do not change and the average
remains zero.
1
83) If f is 1-periodic (f (t + 1) = f (t)) , odd, and integrable over [0, 1], is it always true that ∫ f (t)dt = 0?
0
1+a
84) If f is 1-periodic and ∫ 10f (t)dt = A, is it necessarily true that ∫ f (t)dt = A for all A?
a
Solution: Yes, the integral over any interval of length 1 is the same.
5.3: The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus

1) Consider two athletes running at variable speeds v (t) and v (t). The runners start and finish a race at exactly the same time.
1 2
Explain why the two runners must be going the same speed at some point.
2) Two mountain climbers start their climb at base camp, taking two different routes, one steeper than the other, and arrive at the
peak at exactly the same time. Is it necessarily true that, at some point, both climbers increased in altitude at the same rate?
Solution: Yes. It is implied by the Mean Value Theorem for Integrals.
3) To get on a certain toll road a driver has to take a card that lists the mile entrance point. The card also has a timestamp. When
going to pay the toll at the exit, the driver is surprised to receive a speeding ticket along with the toll. Explain how this can happen.
x
4) Set F (x) = ∫ −1(1 − t)dt. Find F '(2) and the average value of F over [1, 2]. ′
Solution: F '(2) = −1; average value of F over [1, 2] is −1/2.

′
In the following exercises, use the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, Part 1, to find each derivative.
x
d 2
5) ∫ e
−t
dt
dx 1
x
d
6) ∫ e
cost
dt
dx 1
Solution: e cost
x −−−−−
d
7) ∫ √9 − y
2
dy
dx 3
x
d ds
8) ∫ −−−−− −
dx 4 √16 − s2
1
Solution: −−−−− −
√16 − x2
2x
d
9) ∫ xt dt
dx
√x
d
10) ∫ tdt
dx 0
d 1
Solution: √−
x
−
√x =
dx 2
sinx
d −−−− −
11) ∫
2
√1 − t dt
dx 0
1
d −−−− −
12) ∫
2
√1 − t dt
dx cosx
−−−−−−− − d
Solution: −√1 − cos 2
x cosx = |sinx|sinx
dx
√x 2
d t
13) ∫
4
dt
dx 1 1 +t
2
x
d √t
14) ∫ dt
dx 1
1 +t
|x|
Solution: 2x
1 + x2
lnx
d
15) ∫
t
e dt
dx 0
2
e
d
16) ∫ lnu du
2
dx 1
d
Solution: ln(e 2x
) e
x
= 2x e
x
dx
x
0
x
0
Solution: a. f is positive over [1, 2] and [5, 6], negative over [0, 1] and [3, 4], and zero over [2, 3] and [4, 5]. b. The maximum value
is 2 and the minimum is −3. c. The average value is 0.
x
0
b. Over which intervals is ℓ increasing? Over which is it decreasing? Over which, if any, is it constant?
x
0
b. Over which intervals is ℓ increasing? Over which is it decreasing? Over which intervals, if any, is it constant?
Solution: a. ℓ is positive over [0, 1] and [3, 6], and negative over . b. It is increasing over
[1, 3] [0, 1] and , and it is constant
[3, 5]
1
over [1, 3] and [5, 6]. c. Its average value is .
3
In the following exercises, use a calculator to estimate the area under the curve by computing T , the average of the left- and right-
10
endpoint Riemann sums using N = 10 rectangles. Then, using the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, Part 2, determine the exact
area.
21) [T] y = x over [0, 4]
2
22) [T] y = x 3
+ 6x
2
+x −5 over [−4, 2]
3
Solution: T 10 = 49.08, ∫
3
x + 6x
2
+ x − 5dx = 48
−2
−−
23) [T] y = √x over [0, 6]
3
24) [T] y = √−
x +x over [1, 9]
2
9
Solution: T 10 = 260.836, ∫
− 2
(√x + x )dx = 260
1
25) [T] ∫ (cosx − sinx)dx over [0, π]
4
26) [T] ∫ 2
dx over [1, 4]
x
4
4
Solution: T 10 = 3.058, ∫
2
dx = 3
1 x
In the following exercises, evaluate each definite integral using the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, Part 2.
2
27) ∫ (x
2
− 3x)dx
−1
28) ∫ (x
2
+ 3x − 5)dx
−2
3 2
x 3x 35
Solution: F (x) = + − 5x, F (3) − F (−2) = −
3 2 6
29) ∫ (t + 2)(t − 3)dt

−2
30) ∫ (t
2
− 9)(4 − t )dt
2
5 3
t 13t 62
Solution: F (x) = − + − 36t, F (3) − F (2) =
5 3 15
31) ∫ 9
x dx
1
32) ∫ x
99
dx
0
100
x 1
Solution: F (x) = , F (1) − F (0) =
100 100
33) ∫ (4 t
5/2
− 3t
3/2
)dt
4
4
1
34) ∫ (x
2
−
2
)dx
1/4 x
3
x x 1 1125
Solution: F (x) = +1 F (4) − F ( ) =
3 , 4 64
2
2
35) ∫ dx
1
x3
4
1
36) ∫ −
dx
1 2 √x
Solution: F (x) = √−
x , F (4) − F (1) = 1
4
2 − √t
37) ∫ 2
dt
1 t
16
dt
38) ∫
1/4
1 t
4 28
Solution: F (x) = t
3/4
, F (16) − F (1) =
3 3
2π
39) ∫ cosθdθ
0
π/2
40) ∫ sinθdθ
0
π
Solution: F (x) = −cosx, F ( ) − F (0) = 1
2
π/4
41) ∫ sec θdθ

2
π/4
42) ∫ secθtanθ
0
π –
Solution: F (x) = secx, F ( ) − F (0) = √2 − 1
4
π/4
43) ∫ cscθcotθdθ
π/3
π/2
44) (∫ csc θdθ

2
π/4
π π
Solution: F (x) = −cot(x), F ( )−F( ) =1
2 4
2
1 1
45) ∫ (
2
−
3
)dt
1 t t
−1
1 1
46) ∫ (
2
−
3
)dt
−2 t t
1 1 7
Solution: F (x) = − +
2
, F (−1) − F (−2) =
x 2x 8
In the following exercises, use the evaluation theorem to express the integral as a function F (x).
x
47) ∫ t dt
2
48) ∫ e dt
t
Solution: F (x) = e x
−e
49) ∫ costdt
0
50) ∫ sintdt
−x
Solution: F (x) = 0
In the following exercises, identify the roots of the integrand to remove absolute values, then evaluate using the Fundamental
Theorem of Calculus, Part 2.
3
51) ∫ |x|dx
−2
52) ∫ ∣ t
2
− 2t − 3 ∣ dt
−2
−1 3 4
46
Solution: ∫ (t
2
− 2t − 3)dt − ∫
2
(t − 2t − 3)dt + ∫
2
(t − 2t − 3)dt =
−2 −1 3
3
53) ∫ |cost|dt
0
π/2
54) ∫ |sint|dt
−π/2
0 π/2
Solutionn: − ∫ sintdt + ∫ sintdt = 2

−π/2 0
πt
55) Suppose that the number of hours of daylight on a given day in Seattle is modeled by the function −3.75cos( ) + 12.25 ,
6
with t given in months and t = 0 corresponding to the winter solstice.
a. What is the average number of daylight hours in a year?
b. At which times t and t , where 0 ≤ t
1 2 1 < t2 < 12, do the number of daylight hours equal the average number?
c. Write an integral that expresses the total number of daylight hours in Seattle between t and t 1 2
d. Compute the mean hours of daylight in Seattle between t and t , where 0 ≤ t 1 2 1 < t2 < 12 , and then between t2 and t1 ,
and show that the average of the two is equal to the average day length.
56) Suppose the rate of gasoline consumption in the United States can be modeled by a sinusoidal function of the form
πt
(11.21 − cos( )) × 10
9
gal/mo.
6
a. What is the average monthly consumption, and for which values of t is the rate at time t equal to the average rate?
b. What is the number of gallons of gasoline consumed in the United States in a year?
c. Write an integral that expresses the average monthly U.S. gas consumption during the part of the year between the
beginning of April (t = 3) and the end of September (t = 9).
πt
Solution: a. The average is 11.21 × 10 since cos( 9
) has period 12 and integral 0 over any period. Consumption is equal to the
6
πt
average when cos( ) =0 , when t =3 , and when t =9 . b. Total consumption is the average rate times duration:
6
9
1 πt
11.21 × 12 × 10
9
= 1.35 × 10
11
c. 109
(11.21 − ∫ cos(
9
)dt) = 10 (11.21 + 2π) = 11.84x 10
9
6 3
6
b
1
57) Explain why, if f is continuous over [a, b], there is at least one point c ∈ [a, b] such that f (c) = ∫ f (t)dt.
b −a a
58) Explain why, if f is continuous over [a, b] and is not equal to a constant, there is at least one point M ∈ [a, b] such that
b b
1 1
f (M ) = ∫ f (t)dt and at least one point m ∈ [a, b] such that f (m) < ∫ f (t)dt .
b −a a
b −a a
Solution: If f is not constant, then its average is strictly smaller than the maximum and larger than the minimum, which are attained
over [a, b] by the extreme value theorem.
59) Kepler’s first law states that the planets move in elliptical orbits with the Sun at one focus. The closest point of a planetary orbit
to the Sun is called the perihelion (for Earth, it currently occurs around January 3) and the farthest point is called the aphelion (for
Earth, it currently occurs around July 4). Kepler’s second law states that planets sweep out equal areas of their elliptical orbits in
equal times. Thus, the two arcs indicated in the following figure are swept out in equal times. At what time of year is Earth moving
fastest in its orbit? When is it moving slowest?Kepler’s first law states that the planets move in elliptical orbits with the Sun at one
focus. The closest point of a planetary orbit to the Sun is called the perihelion (for Earth, it currently occurs around January 3) and
the farthest point is called the aphelion (for Earth, it currently occurs around July 4). Kepler’s second law states that planets sweep
out equal areas of their elliptical orbits in equal times. Thus, the two arcs indicated in the following figure are swept out in equal
times. At what time of year is Earth moving fastest in its orbit? When is it moving slowest?
60) A point on an ellipse with major axis length 2a and minor axis length 2b has the coordinates (acosθ, bsinθ), 0 ≤ θ ≤ 2π.
−−−−−−
a. Show that the distance from this point to the focus at (−c, 0) is d(θ) = a + ccosθ , where c = √a 2 2
−b .
Use these coordinates to show that the average distance d¯ from a point on the ellipse to the focus at (−c, 0), with respect to
angle θ, is a.
Solution: a. d 2
θ = (acosθ + c )
2 2 2
+ b si n θ = a
2 2 2
+ c cos θ + 2accosθ = (a + ccosθ) ;
2
2π
1
¯ =
b. d ∫ (a + 2ccosθ)dθ = a
2π 0
61) As implied earlier, according to Kepler’s laws, Earth’s orbit is an ellipse with the Sun at one focus. The perihelion for Earth’s
orbit around the Sun is 147,098,290 km and the aphelion is 152,098,232 km.
a. By placing the major axis along the x-axis, find the average distance from Earth to the Sun.
b. The classic definition of an astronomical unit (AU) is the distance from Earth to the Sun, and its value was computed as
the average of the perihelion and aphelion distances. Is this definition justified?
GmM
62) The force of gravitational attraction between the Sun and a planet is F (θ) = 2
, where m is the mass of the planet, M is
r (θ)
the mass of the Sun, G is a universal constant, and r(θ) is the distance between the Sun and the planet when the planet is at an
angle θ with the major axis of its orbit. Assuming that M, m, and the ellipse parameters a and b (half-lengths of the major and
minor axes) are given, set up—but do not evaluate—an integral that expresses in terms of G, m, M , a, b the average gravitational
force between the Sun and the planet.
2π
GmM 1
Solution: Mean gravitational force = ∫ −−− −−− dθ .
2 0 (a + 2 √ 2 2
a − b cosθ)
2
The displacement from rest of a mass attached to a spring satisfies the simple harmonic motion equation x(t) = Acos(ωt − ϕ),
where ϕ is a phase constant, ω is the angular frequency, and A is the amplitude. Find the average velocity, the average speed
(magnitude of velocity), the average displacement, and the average distance from rest (magnitude of displacement) of the mass.
5.4: Integration Formulas and the Net Change Theorem

Use basic integration formulas to compute the following antiderivatives.
− 1
1) ∫ (√x − − )dx
√x
− 1 2 2
Solution: ∫ (√x − − )dx = ∫ x
1/2
dx − ∫ x
−1/2
dx =
3/2
x
1/2+
+ C1 − 2 x C2 =
3/2
x
1/2
− 2x +C
√x 3 3
1
2) ∫ (e
2x
− e
x/2
)dx
2
dx
3) ∫
2x
dx 1
Solution: ∫ = ln|x| + C
2x 2
x −1
4) ∫ dx
x2
π
5) ∫ (sinx − cosx)dx
0
π π
π π
Solution: ∫ sinxdx − ∫ cosxdx = −cosx |
0
− (sinx)|
0
= (−(−1) + 1) − (0 − 0) = 2
0 0
π/2
6) ∫ (x − sinx)dx
0
7) Write an integral that expresses the increase in the perimeter P (s) of a square when its side length s increases from 2 units to 4
units and evaluate the integral.
4
dP
Solution: P (s) = 4s, so =4 and ∫ 4ds = 8.
ds 2
8) Write an integral that quantifies the change in the area A(s) = s

2
of a square when the side length doubles from S units to 2S
9) A regular N-gon (an N-sided polygon with sides that have equal length s, such as a pentagon or hexagon) has perimeter Ns.
Write an integral that expresses the increase in perimeter of a regular N-gon when the length of each side increases from 1 unit to 2
2
Solution: ∫ N ds = N
1
−−−−−−−−− −−−
1 −−−− −−−
–
10) The area of a regular pentagon with side length a > 0 is pa with p = 2
√5 + √5 + 2 √5 . The Pentagon in Washington, DC,
4
has inner sides of length 360 ft and outer sides of length 920 ft. Write an integral to express the area of the roof of the Pentagon
according to these dimensions and evaluate this area.
11) A dodecahedron is a Platonic solid with a surface that consists of 12 pentagons, each of equal area. By how much does the
surface area of a dodecahedron increase as the side length of each pentagon doubles from 1 unit to 2 units?
Solution: With p as in the previous exercise, each of the 12 pentagons increases in area from 2p to 4p units so the net increase in the
area of the dodecahedron is 36punits.
12) An icosahedron is a Platonic solid with a surface that consists of 20 equilateral triangles. By how much does the surface area of
an icosahedron increase as the side length of each triangle doubles from a unit to 2a units?
13) Write an integral that quantifies the change in the area of the surface of a cube when its side length doubles from s unit to 2s
2s
Solution: 18s 2
=6∫ 2xdx
s
14) Write an integral that quantifies the increase in the volume of a cube when the side length doubles from s unit to 2s units and
evaluate the integral.
15) Write an integral that quantifies the increase in the surface area of a sphere as its radius doubles from R unit to 2R units and
evaluate the integral.
2R
Solution: 12π R 2
= 8π ∫ rdr
R
16) Write an integral that quantifies the increase in the volume of a sphere as its radius doubles from R unit to 2R units and evaluate
the integral.
17) Suppose that a particle moves along a straight line with velocity v(t) = 4 − 2t, where 0 ≤ t ≤ 2 (in meters per second). Find
the displacement at time t and the total distance traveled up to t = 2.
t
Solution: d(t) = ∫ v(s)ds = 4t − t

2
. The total distance is d(2) = 4m.
0
18) Suppose that a particle moves along a straight line with velocity defined by v(t) = t 2
− 3t − 18, where 0 ≤ t ≤ 6 (in meters
per second). Find the displacement at time t and the total distance traveled up to t = 6.
19) Suppose that a particle moves along a straight line with velocity defined by v(t) = |2t − 6|, where 0 ≤ t ≤ 6 (in meters per
second). Find the displacement at time t and the total distance traveled up to t = 6.
t t
Solution: d(t) = ∫ v(s)ds. For t < 3, d(t) = ∫ (6 − 2t)dt = 6t − t

2
. For
0 0
t
t > 3, d(t) = d(3) + ∫ (2t − 6)dt = 9 + (t

2
− 6t) . The total distance is d(6) = 9m.
3
20) Suppose that a particle moves along a straight line with acceleration defined by a(t) = t − 3, where 0 ≤ t ≤ 6 (in meters per
second). Find the velocity and displacement at time t and the total distance traveled up to t = 6 if v(0) = 3 and d(0) = 0.
21) A ball is thrown upward from a height of 1.5 m at an initial speed of 40 m/sec. Acceleration resulting from gravity is −9.8
m/sec2. Neglecting air resistance, solve for the velocity v(t) and the height h(t) of the ball t seconds after it is thrown and before it
returns to the ground.
Solution: v(t) = 40 − 9.8t; h(t) = 1.5 + 40t − 4.9t m/s 2
22) A ball is thrown upward from a height of 3 m at an initial speed of 60 m/sec. Acceleration resulting from gravity is
−9.8m/sec . Neglecting air resistance, solve for the velocity v(t) and the height h(t) of the ball t seconds after it is thrown and
2
before it returns to the ground.

23) The area A(t) of a circular shape is growing at a constant rate. If the area increases from 4π units to 9π units between times
t = 2 and t = 3, find the net change in the radius during that time.
Solution: The net increase is 1 unit.

24) A spherical balloon is being inflated at a constant rate. If the volume of the balloon changes from 36πin. to 288πin. between 3 3
time t = 30 and t = 60 seconds, find the net change in the radius of the balloon during that time.
3
πx
25) Water flows into a conical tank with cross-sectional area πx at height x and volume 2
up to height x. If water flows into the
3
tank at a rate of 1 m 3
/min , find the height of water in the tank after 5 min. Find the change in height between 5 min and 10 min.
15
Solution: At t =5 , the height of water is x =(
1/3
) m. . The net change in height from t =5 to t = 10 is
π
(30 15
1/3 1/3
( ) −( ) m.
π π
26) A horizontal cylindrical tank has cross-sectional area A(x) = 4(6x − x 2

)m
2
at height x meters above the bottom when x ≤ 3.
b
a. The volume V between heights a and b is ∫ A(x)dx. Find the volume at heights between 2 m and 3 m.
a
dx dx dV
b. Suppose that oil is being pumped into the tank at a rate of 50 L/min. Using the chain rule, = , at how many
dt dV dt
meters per minute is the height of oil in the tank changing, expressed in terms of x, when the height is at x meters?
c. How long does it take to fill the tank to 3 m starting from a fill level of 2 m?
27) The following table lists the electrical power in gigawatts—the rate at which energy is consumed—used in a certain city for
different hours of the day, in a typical 24-hour period, with hour 1 corresponding to midnight to 1 a.m.
Hour Power Hour Power
1 28 13 48
2 25 14 49
3 24 15 49
4 23 16 50
5 24 17 50
6 27 18 50
7 29 19 46
8 32 20 43
9 34 21 42
10 39 22 40
11 42 23 37
12 46 24 34
Find the total amount of power in gigawatt-hours (gW-h) consumed by the city in a typical 24-hour period.
Solution: The total daily power consumption is estimated as the sum of the hourly power rates, or 911 gW-h.
28) The average residential electrical power use (in hundreds of watts) per hour is given in the following table.
Hour Power Hour Power
1 8 13 12
2 6 14 13
3 5 15 14
4 4 16 15
5 5 17 17
6 6 18 19
7 7 19 18
8 8 20 17
9 9 21 16
10 10 22 16
11 10 23 13
12 11 24 11
a. Compute the average total energy used in a day in kilowatt-hours (kWh).

b. If a ton of coal generates 1842 kWh, how long does it take for an average residence to burn a ton of coal?
πt
c. Explain why the data might fit a plot of the form p(t) = 11.5 − 7.5sin( ).
12
29) The data in the following table are used to estimate the average power output produced by Peter Sagan for each of the last 18
sec of Stage 1 of the 2012 Tour de France.
Second Watts Second Watts
1 600 10 1200
2 500 11 1170
3 575 12 1125
4 1050 13 1100
5 925 14 1075
6 950 15 1000
7 1050 16 950
8 950 17 900
9 1100 18 780
Average Power OutputSource: sportsexercisengineering.com
Estimate the net energy used in kilojoules (kJ), noting that 1W = 1 J/s, and the average power output by Sagan during this time
interval.
Solution: 17 kJ
30) The data in the following table are used to estimate the average power output produced by Peter Sagan for each 15-min interval
of Stage 1 of the 2012 Tour de France.
Minutes Watts Minutes Watts
15 200 165 170
30 180 180 220
45 190 195 140
60 230 210 225
75 240 225 170
90 210 240 10
105 210 255 200
1120 220 270 220
135 210 285 250
150 150 300 400
Average Power OutputSource: sportsexercisengineering.com

Estimate the net energy used in kilojoules, noting that 1W = 1 J/s.
31) The distribution of incomes as of 2012 in the United States in $5000 increments is given in the following table. The kth row
denotes the percentage of households with incomes between $5000xk and 5000xk + 4999. The row k = 40 contains all
households with income between $200,000 and $250,000 and k = 41 accounts for all households with income exceeding
$250,000.
0 3.5 21 1.5
1 4.1 22 1.4
2 5.9 23 1.3
3 5.7 24 1.3
4 5.9 25 1.1
5 5.4 26 1.0
6 5.5 27 0.75
7 5.1 28 0.8
8 4.8 29 1.0
9 4.1 30 0.6
10 4.3 31 0.6
11 3.5 32 .5
12 3.7 33 0.5
13 3.2 34 0.4
14 3.0 35 0.3
15 2.8 36 0.3
16 2.5 37 0.3
17 2.2 38 0.2
18 2.2 39 1.8
19 1.8 40 2.3
20 2.1 41
Income DistributionsSource: http://www.census.gov/prod/2013pubs/p60-245.pdf

a. Estimate the percentage of U.S. households in 2012 with incomes less than $55,000.
b. What percentage of households had incomes exceeding $85,000?
c. Plot the data and try to fit its shape to that of a graph of the form a(x + c)e −b(x+e)
for suitable a, b, c.
Solution: a. 54.3The curve in the following plot is 2.35(t + 3)e −0.15(t+3)
.
32) Newton’s law of gravity states that the gravitational force exerted by an object of mass M and one of mass m with centers that
mM
are separated by a distance r is F =G
2
, with G an empirical constant G = 6.67x 10
−11 3
m /(kg ⋅ s )
2
. The work done by a
r
b
variable force over an interval [a, b] is defined as W =∫ F (x)dx . If Earth has mass 5.97219 × 10
24
and radius 6371 km,
a
compute the amount of work to elevate a polar weather satellite of mass 1400 kg to its orbiting altitude of 850 km above Earth.
33) For a given motor vehicle, the maximum achievable deceleration from braking is approximately 7 m/sec2 on dry concrete. On
wet asphalt, it is approximately 2.5 m/sec2. Given that 1 mph corresponds to 0.447 m/sec, find the total distance that a car travels in
meters on dry concrete after the brakes are applied until it comes to a complete stop if the initial velocity is 67 mph (30 m/sec) or if
the initial braking velocity is 56 mph (25 m/sec). Find the corresponding distances if the surface is slippery wet asphalt.
Solution: In dry conditions, with initial velocity v0 = 30 m/s, D = 64.3 and, if v0 = 25, D = 44.64 . In wet conditions, if
v = 30 , and D = 180 and if v = 25, D = 125.
0 0
34) John is a 25-year old man who weighs 160 lb. He burns 500 − 50t calories/hr while riding his bike for t hours. If an oatmeal
cookie has 55 cal and John eats 4t cookies during the tth hour, how many net calories has he lost after 3 hours riding his bike?
35) Sandra is a 25-year old woman who weighs 120 lb. She burns 300 − 50t cal/hr while walking on her treadmill. Her caloric
intake from drinking Gatorade is 100t calories during the tth hour. What is her net decrease in calories after walking for 3 hours?
Solution: 225 cal
36) A motor vehicle has a maximum efficiency of 33 mpg at a cruising speed of 40 mph. The efficiency drops at a rate of 0.1
mpg/mph between 40 mph and 50 mph, and at a rate of 0.4 mpg/mph between 50 mph and 80 mph. What is the efficiency in miles
per gallon if the car is cruising at 50 mph? What is the efficiency in miles per gallon if the car is cruising at 80 mph? If gasoline
costs $3.50/gal, what is the cost of fuel to drive 50 mi at 40 mph, at 50 mph, and at 80 mph?
37) Although some engines are more efficient at given a horsepower than others, on average, fuel efficiency decreases with
horsepower at a rate of 1/25 mpg/horsepower. If a typical 50-horsepower engine has an average fuel efficiency of 32 mpg, what is
the average fuel efficiency of an engine with the following horsepower: 150, 300, 450?
Solution: E(150) = 28, E(300) = 22, E(450) = 16
38) [T] The following table lists the 2013 schedule of federal income tax versus taxable income.
Taxable Income Range The Tax Is ... ... Of the Amount Over
$0–$8925 10% $0
$8925–$36,250 $892.50 + 15% $8925
$36,250–$87,850 $4,991.25 + 25% $36,250
$87,850–$183,250 $17,891.25 + 28% $87,850
$183,250–$398,350 $44,603.25 + 33% $183,250
$398,350–$400,000 $115,586.25 + 35% $398,350
> $400,000 $116,163.75 + 39.6% $400,000
Federal Income Tax Versus Taxable IncomeSource: http://www.irs.gov/pub/irs-prior/i1040tt--2013.pdf.

Suppose that Steve just received a $10,000 raise. How much of this raise is left after federal taxes if Steve’s salary before receiving
the raise was $40,000? If it was $90,000? If it was $385,000?
39) [T] The following table provides hypothetical data regarding the level of service for a certain highway.
Highway Speed Range (mph) Vehicles per Hour per Lane Density Range (vehicles/mi)
>60 <600 <10
60-57 300-1000 10-20
57-54 1000-1500 20-30
57-54 1500-1900 30-45
46-30 1900-2100 48-70
<30 Unstable 70-200
a. Plot vehicles per hour per lane on the x-axis and highway speed on the y-axis.
b. Compute the average decrease in speed (in miles per hour) per unit increase in congestion (vehicles per hour per lane) as
the latter increases from 600 to 1000, from 1000 to 1500, and from 1500 to 2100. Does the decrease in miles per hour depend
linearly on the increase in vehicles per hour per lane?
c. Plot minutes per mile (60 times the reciprocal of miles per hour) as a function of vehicles per hour per lane. Is this function
linear?
Solution:
a.
b. Between 600 and 1000 the average decrease in vehicles per hour per lane is −0.0075. Between 1000 and 1500 it is −0.006 per
vehicles per hour per lane, and between 1500 and 2100 it is −0.04 vehicles per hour per lane. c.
The graph is nonlinear, with minutes per mile increasing dramatically as vehicles per hour per lane reach 2000.
40) For the next two exercises use the data in the following table, which displays bald eagle populations from 1963 to 2000 in the
continental United States.
Year Population of Breeding Pairs of Bald Eagles
1963 487
1974 791
1981 1188
1986 1875
1992 3749
1996 5094
2000 6471
Population of Breeding Bald Eagle PairsSource: http://www.fws.gov/Midwest/eagle/pop.../chtofprs.html.

41) [T] The graph below plots the quadratic p(t) = 6.48t − 80.31t + 585.69 against the data in preceding table, normalized so
2
that t = 0 corresponds to 1963. Estimate the average number of bald eagles per year present for the 37 years by computing the
average value of p over [0, 37].
42) [T] The graph below plots the cubic p(t) = 0.07t + 2.42t − 25.63t + 521.23 against the data in the preceding table,
3 2
normalized so that t = 0 corresponds to 1963. Estimate the average number of bald eagles per year present for the 37 years by
computing the average value of p over [0, 37].
37 3 2
1 0.07(37) 2.42(37) 25.63(37)
Solution: ∫ p(t)dt = + − + 521.23 ≈ 2037
37 0
4 3 2
43) [T] Suppose you go on a road trip and record your speed at every half hour, as compiled in the following table. The best
quadratic fit to the data is q(t) = 5x − 11x + 49 , shown in the accompanying graph. Integrate q to estimate the total distance
2
driven over the 3 hours.
Time (hr) Speed (m[h)
0 (start) 50
1 40
2 50
3 60
As a car accelerates, it does not accelerate at a constant rate; rather, the acceleration is variable. For the following exercises, use the
following table, which contains the acceleration measured at every second as a driver merges onto a freeway.
Time (sec) Acceleration (mph/sex)
1 11.2
2 10.6
3 8.1
4 5.4
5 0
45) [T] The accompanying graph plots the best quadratic fit, a(t) = −0.70t + 1.44t + 10.44 , to the data from the preceding
2
table. Compute the average value of a(t) to estimate the average acceleration between t = 0 and t = 5.
5 2
1 0.7(5 ) 1.44(5)
Solution: Average acceleration is A = ∫ a(t)dt = − + + 10.44 ≈ 8.2 mph/s
5 0 3 2
46) [T] Using your acceleration equation from the previous exercise, find the corresponding velocity equation. Assuming the final
velocity is 0 mph, find the velocity at time t = 0.
47) [T] Using your velocity equation from the previous exercise, find the corresponding distance equation, assuming your initial
distance is 0 mi. How far did you travel while you accelerated your car? (Hint: You will need to convert time units.)
1 t
7 7
Solution: d(t) = ∫ |v(t)|dt = ∫ (
3
t
2
− 0.72 t − 10.44t + 41.033)dt =
4
t
3
− 0.24 t − 5.22 t
3
+ 41.033t. Then,
0 0
30 120
d(5) ≈ 81.12mph × sec ≈ 119 feet.

48) [T] The number of hamburgers sold at a restaurant throughout the day is given in the following table, with the accompanying
graph plotting the best cubic fit to the data, b(t) = 0.12t − 2.13t + 12.13t + 3.91, with t = 0 corresponding to 9 a.m. and
3 3
t = 12 corresponding to 9 p.m. Compute the average value of b(t) to estimate the average number of hamburgers sold per hour.
Hours Past Midnight No. of Burgers Sold
9 3
12 28
15 20
18 30
21 45
49) [T] An athlete runs by a motion detector, which records her speed, as displayed in the following table. The best linear fit to this
data, ℓ(t) = −0.068t + 5.14 , is shown in the accompanying graph. Use the average value of ℓ(t) between t = 0 and t = 40 to
estimate the runner’s average speed.
Minutes Speed (m/sec)
0 5
10 4.8
20 3.6
30 3.0
40 2.5
40
1 0.068(40)
Solution: ∫ (−0.068t + 5.14)dt = − + 5.14 = 3.78
40 0
2
5.5: Substitution
1) Why is u-substitution referred to as change of variable?
d
2) 2. If \displaystylef = g ∘ h , when reversing the chain rule, x(g ∘ h)(x) = g'(h(x))h'(x) , should you take
d
\displaystyleu = g(x) or u= \displaystyleh(x)?
Solution: \displaystyleu = h(x)
In the following exercises, verify each identity using differentiation. Then, using the indicated u-substitution, identify f such that
the integral takes the form ∫ f (u)du.
−−−−− 2
3) ∫ x √x + 1 x = (x + 1 )
3/2
(3x − 2) + C ; u = x + 1
15
2
x 2 −−−−−
4) ∫ −−−−− dx(x > 1) =
2
√x − 1 (3 x + 4x + 8) + C ; u = x − 1
√x − 1 15
2
(u+1)
Solution: \displaystylef(u) =
√u
−−−−−− 1
5) ∫ x √4 x
2
+ 9 dx = (4 x
2
+ 9)
3/2
+ C ; u = 4x
2
+9
12
x 1 −−−−− −
6) ∫ −−−−− − dx =
√4 x2 + 9 + C ; u = 4 x2 + 9
√4 x2 + 9 4
Solution: \displaystyledu = 8xdx; f (u) = 1
8 √u
x 1
7) ∫ 2 2
dx = −
2
2
; u = 4x +9
(4 x + 9) 8(4 x + 9)
In the following exercises, find the antiderivative using the indicated substitution.
8) ∫ 4
(x + 1 ) dx; u = x + 1
1
Solutio: (x + 1 )
5
+C
5
9) ∫ 5
(x − 1 ) dx; u = x − 1
10) ∫ (2x − 3 )
−7
dx; u = 2x − 3
1
Solution: − 6
+C
12(3 − 2x)
11) ∫ (3x − 2 )
−11
dx; u = 3x − 2
x
12) ∫ −−−−
2
− dx; u = x + 1
√x2 + 1
−−−−−
Solution: √x 2
+1 +C
x
13) ∫ −−−− − dx; u = 1 − x
2
√1 − x2
14) ∫ (x − 1)(x
2 3
− 2x ) dx; u = x
2
− 2x
1
Solution: (x
2
− 2x )
4
+C
8
15) ∫ (x
2
− 2x)(x
3 2 2
− 3 x ) dx; u = x
3 2
= 3x
16) ∫ 3
cos θdθ; u = sinθ(H int : cos θ = 1 − si n θ)
2 2
Solution: sin θ − sin θ
3
+C
17) ∫ 3
si n θdθ; u = cosθ(H int : si n θ = 1 − cos θ)
2 2
In the following exercises, use a suitable change of variables to determine the indefinite integral.
18) ∫ x(1 − x )
99
dx
101 100
(1 − x) (1 − x)
Solution: − +C
101 100
19) ∫ t(1 − t )
2 10
dt
20) ∫ (11x − 7 )
−3
dx
1
Solution: − 2
+C
22(7 − 11 x )
21) ∫ (7x − 11 ) dx
4
22) ∫ 3
cos θsinθdθ
4
cos θ
Solution: − +C
4
23) ∫ 7
si n θcosθdθ
24) ∫ 2
cos (πt)sin(πt)dt
3
cos (πt)
Solution: − +C
3π
25) ∫ 2 3
si n xcos xdx(H int : si n x + cos x = 1)
2 2
26) ∫ tsin(t )cos(t )dt

2 2
1
Solution: − cos (t ) + C
2 2
27) ∫ 2 2
t cos (t )sin(t )dt
3 3
2
x
28) ∫ 3 2
dx
(x − 3)
1
Solution: − 3
+C
3(x − 3)
3
x
29) ∫ −−−− −
dx
√1 − x2
5
y
30) ∫ dy
3 3/2
(1 − y )
3
2(y − 2)
Solution: − −−−− −
3
3 √1 − y
31) ∫ cosθ(1 − cosθ)

99
sinθdθ
32) ∫ (1 − cos θ)
3 10 2
cos θsinθdθ
1
Solution: (1 − cos θ)
3 11
+C
33
33) ∫ (cosθ − 1)(cos θ − 2cosθ) sinθdθ

2 3
34) ∫ 2
(si n θ − 2sinθ)(si n θ − 3si n θ 3cosθdθ
3 2 )
1
Solution: 3
(si n θ − 3si n θ)
2 4
+C
12
In the following exercises, use a calculator to estimate the area under the curve using left Riemann sums with 50 terms, then use
substitution to solve for the exact answer.
35) [T] \displaystyley = 3(1 − x) over [0, 2] 2
36) [T] \displaystyley = x(1 − x 2

)
3
over [−1, 2]
−81
Solution: \displaystyleL 50
= −8.5779. The exact area is
8
37) [T] \displaystyley = sinx(1 − cosx) over [0, π] 2
38) [T] \displaystyley = x

+ 2
over [−1, 1]
(x2 1)
Solution: \displaystyleL 50
= −0.006399 … The exact area is 0.
In the following exercises, use a change of variables to evaluate the definite integral.
1
−−−− −
39) ∫ 2
x √1 − x dx
0
1
x
40) ∫ −−−− −
dx
0 √1 + x2
2 –
Solution: \displaystyleu = 1 + x 2
, du = 2xdx,
1
2
∫
1
−1/2
u du = √2 − 1
2
t
41) ∫ −−−− −
dt
0 √5 + t2
1
t
42) ∫ −− −−− dt
0 √1 + t3
2 –
Solution: \displaystyleu = 1 + t 3 2
, du = 3 t ,
1
3
∫
1
u
−1/2
du =
2
3
(√2 − 1)
π/4
43) ∫ 2
sec θtanθdθ
0
π/4
sinθ
44) ∫ 4
dθ
0 cos θ
1 –
Solution: \displaystyleu = cosθ, du = −sinθdθ, ∫ 1/ √2
−4
u du =
1
3
(2 √2 − 1)
In the following exercises, evaluate the indefinite integral ∫ f (x)dx with constant \displaystyleC = 0 using u-substitution. Then,
graph the function and the antiderivative over the indicated interval. If possible, estimate a value of C that would need to be added
x
to the antiderivative to make it equal to the definite integral \displaystyleF(x) = ∫ f (t)dt , with a the left endpoint of the given
a
interval.
2
45) [T] ∫ (2x + 1)e

x +x−6
dx over [−3, 2]
cos(ln(2x))
46) [T] ∫ dx on [0, 2]
x
Solution:
The antiderivative is \displaystyley = sin(ln(2x)). Since the antiderivative is not continuous at \displaystylex = 0 , one
cannot find a value of C that would make \displaystyley = sin(ln(2x)) − C work as a definite integral.
2
3x + 2x + 1
47) [T] ∫ −−−−−−−−−−− −
dx over [−1, 2]
√x3 + x2 + x + 4
sinx π π
48) [T] ∫ 3
dx over [− , ]
cos x 3 3
The antiderivative is \displaystyley = 1
2
2
sec x . You should take \displaystyleC = −2 so that \displaystyleF(− π
3
) = 0.
49) [T] ∫ (x + 2)e

−x −4x+3
dx over [−5, 1]
−−−−−−
50) [T] ∫ 2 3
3 x √2 x + 1 dx over [0, 1]
The antiderivative is \displaystyley = 1
3
(2 x
3
+ 1)
3/2
. One should take \displaystyleC = − . 1
51) If \displaystyleh(a) = h(b) in ∫ ′

g (h(x))h(x)dx, what can you say about the value of the integral?
a
2
x
52) Is the substitution \displaystyleu = 1 − x in the definite integral ∫ 2
2
dx okay? If not, why not?
0 1 −x
Solution: No, because the integrand is discontinuous at \displaystylex = 1 .

In the following exercises, use a change of variables to show that each definite integral is equal to zero.
π
53) ∫ 2
cos (2θ)sin(2θ)dθ
0
√π
54) ∫ 2
tcos(t )sin(t )dt
2
0
1
Solution: \displaystyleu = sin(t 2
); the integral becomes ∫ udu.
2 0
55) ∫ (1 − 2t)dt
0
1
1 − 2t
56) ∫ 1
dt
0 (1 + (t − )2 )
2
5/4
1
Solution: \displaystyleu = (1 + (t − 1
2
) );
2
the integral becomes − ∫ du .
5/4
u
π
π π
57) ∫ sin((t −
3
) )cos(t − )dt
0 2 2
58) ∫ (1 − t)cos(πt)dt
0
Solution: \displaystyleu = 1 − t; the integral becomes

−1 −1 −1 1−
∫ ucos(π(1 − u))du = ∫ u[cosπcosu − sinπsinu]du = − ∫ ucosudu = ∫ ucosudu = 0

1 1 1 1
since the integrand is odd.

3π/4
59) ∫ 2
si n tcostdt
π/4
60) Show that the average value of \displaystylef(x) over an interval [a, b] is the same as the average value of
a b
\displaystylef(cx) over the interval [ , ] for \displaystylec > 0.
c c
Solution: Setting \displaystyleu = cx and \displaystyledu = cdx gets you

b/c u=b b
1 c du 1
∫ f (cx)dx = ∫ f (u) = ∫ f (u)du.
b a
− a/c
b −a u=a
c b −a a
c c
61) Find the area under the graph of \displaystylef(t) =

t
2 a
between \displaystylet = 0 and \displaystylet = x where
(1+t )
\displaystylea > 0 and \displaystylea ≠ 1 is fixed, and evaluate the limit as \displaystylex → ∞ .
62) Find the area under the graph of \displaystyleg(t) =
t
2 a
between \displaystylet = 0 and \displaystylet = x , where
(1−t )
0 <x <1 and \displaystylea > 0 is fixed. Evaluate the limit as \displaystylex → 1 .
x 1
1 du 1 1
Solution: ∫ g(t)dt = ∫
a
= u
1−a
∣ 1u = (1 − (1 − x )
2 1−a
) As \displaystylex → 1 the limit
0
2 u=1−x
2 u 2(1 − a) 2(1 − a)
1
is if \displaystylea < 1, and the limit diverges to +∞ if \displaystylea > 1.
2(1 − a)
1
−−−− −
63) The area of a semicircle of radius 1 can be expressed as ∫
2
√1 − x dx . Use the substitution \displaystylex = cost to
−1
express the area of a semicircle as the integral of a trigonometric function. You do not need to compute the integral.
64) The area of the top half of an ellipse with a major axis that is the x-axis from \displaystylex = −1 to a and with a minor axis
−−−−−−
a
x2
that is the y-axis from \displaystyley = −b to b can be written as ∫ b √1 −
2
dx . Use the substitution
−a a
\displaystylex = acost to express this area in terms of an integral of a trigonometric function. You do not need to compute the
integral.
0 π
−−−−−−−
Solution: ∫ 2
b √1 − cos t × (−asint)dt = ∫
2
= 0absi n tdt
t=π t
65) [T] The following graph is of a function of the form \displaystylef(t) = asin(nt) + bsin(mt) . Estimate the coefficients a
π
and b, and the frequency parameters n and m. Use these estimates to approximate ∫ f (t)dt .
0
66) [T] The following graph is of a function of the form \displaystylef(x) = acos(nt) + bcos(mt) . Estimate the coefficients a
π
and b and the frequency parameters n and m. Use these estimates to approximate ∫ f (t)dt.
0
π/2
Solution: \displaystylef(t) = 2cos(3t) − cos(2t); ∫ 0
(2cos(3t) − cos(2t)) = −
2
5.6: Integrals Involving Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

In the following exercises, compute each indefinite integral.
1) ∫ e
2x
dx
2) ∫ e
−3x
dx
−1
Solution: e
−3x
+C
3
3) ∫ 2 dx
x
4) ∫ 3
−x
dx
−x
3
Solution: − +C
ln3
1
5) ∫ dx
2x
2
6) ∫ dx
x
Solution: ln(x 2
)+C
1
7) ∫ dx
x2
1
8) ∫ − dx
√x
Soltuion: 2√−
x +C
In the following exercises, find each indefinite integral by using appropriate substitutions.
lnx
9) ∫ dx
x
dx
10) ∫ 2
x(lnx)
1
Solution: − +C
lnx
dx
11) ∫ (x > 1)
xlnx
dx
12) ∫
xlnxln(lnx)
Solution: ln(ln(lnx)) + C
13) ∫ tanθdθ
cosx − xsinx
14) ∫ dx
xcosx
Solution: ln(xcosx) + C
ln(sinx)
15) ∫ dx
tanx
16) ∫ ln(cosx)tanxdx
1
Solution: − (ln(cos(x)))
2
+C
2
17) ∫ xe
−x
dx
18) ∫
3
2 −x
x e dx
3
−x
−e
Solution: +C
3
19) ∫ e
sinx
cosxdx
20) ∫ e
tanx
sec xdx
2
Solution: e tanx
+C
dx
21) ∫ e
lnx
ln(1−t)
e
22) ∫ dt
1 −t
Solution: t + C
In the following exercises, verify by differentiation that ∫ lnxdx = x(lnx − 1) + C , then use appropriate changes of variables to
compute the integral.
1
23) ∫ lnxdx(H int : ∫ lnxdx = ∫
2
xln(x )dx)
2
24) ∫ 2
x ln xdx
2
1
Solution: 3
x (ln(x ) − 1) + C
3
lnx 1
25) ∫ 2
dx (Hint:Set u = .)
x x
lnx
26) ∫ − dx (Hint:Set u = √−
x. )
√x
Solution: 2√−
x (lnx − 2) + C
1
27) Write an integral to express the area under the graph of y = from t = 1 to e and evaluate the integral.
x
28) Write an integral to express the area under the graph of y = e between t = 0 and t = lnx , and evaluate the integral.
t
lnx
Solution: ∫ t
e dt = e
t
∣
lnx
0
=e
lnx
−e
0
= x −1
0
In the following exercises, use appropriate substitutions to express the trigonometric integrals in terms of compositions with
logarithms.
29) ∫ tan(2x)dx
sin(3x) − cos(3x)
30) ∫ dx
sin(3x) + cos(3x)
1
Solution: − ln(sin(3x) + cos(3x))
3
2
xsin(x )
31) ∫ 2
dx
cos(x )
32) ∫ xcsc(x )dx

2
1
Solution: − 2
ln ∣ csc(x ) + cot(x ) ∣ +C
2
33) ∫ ln(cosx)tanxdx
34) ∫ ln(cscx)cotxdx
1
Solution: − (ln(cscx))
2
+C
2
x −x
e −e
35) ∫ dx
ex + e−x
2 2
1 + 2x + x
36) ∫ 2 3
dx
1 3x + 3 x +x
1 26
Solution: ln( )
3 7
π/4
37) ∫ tanxdx
0
π/3
sinx − cosx
38) ∫ dx
0 sinx + cosx
–
Solutnio: ln(√3 − 1)
π/2
39) ∫ cscxdx
π/6
π/3
40) ∫ cotxdx
π/4
1 3
Solution: ln
2 2
In the following exercises, integrate using the indicated substitution.

x
41) ∫ dx; u = x − 100
x − 100
y −1
42) ∫ dy; u = y + 1
y +1
Solution: y − 2ln|y + 1| + C
2
1 −x
43) ∫ 3
dx; u = 3x − x
3
3x − x
sinx + cosx
44) ∫ dx; u = sinx − cosx
sinx − cosx
Solution: ln|sinx − cosx| + C

−−−− − −
45) ∫ e
2x
√1 − e
2x
dx; u = e
2x
−−−−−−− −
2
√1 − (lnx)
46) ∫ ln(x) dx; u = lnx
x
1
Solution: − (1 − (lnx ))
2 3/2
+C
3
In the following exercises, does the right-endpoint approximation overestimate or underestimate the exact area? Calculate the right
endpoint estimate R50 and solve for the exact area.
47) [T] y = e over [0, 1]
x
48) [T] y = e −x
over [0, 1]
e−1
Solution: Exact solution: . Since f is decreasing, the right endpoint estimate underestimates the area.
, R50 = 0.6258
e
49) [T] y = ln(x) over [1, 2]

x +1
50) [T] y = 2
over [0, 1]
x + 2x + 6
2ln(3) − ln(6)
Solution: Exact solution: , R50 = 0.2033. Since f is increasing, the right endpoint estimate overestimates the area.
2
51) [T] y = 2 over [−1, 0]x
52) [T] y = −2 −x
over [0, 1]
1
Solution: Exact solution: − , R50 = −0.7164. Since f is increasing, the right endpoint estimate overestimates the area (the
ln(4)
actual area is a larger negative number).

In the following exercises, f (x) ≥ 0 for a ≤x ≤b . Find the area under the graph of f (x) between the given values a and b by
integrating.
log10 (x)
53) f (x) = ; a = 10, b = 100
x
log2 (x)
54) f (x) = ; a = 32, b = 64
x
11
Solution: ln2
2
55) f (x) = 2 −x
; a = 1, b = 2
56) f (x) = 2 −x
; a = 3, b = 4
1
Solution:
ln(65, 536)
57) Find the area under the graph of the function f (x) = xe −x
2 2
58) Compute the integral of f (x) = xe and find the smallest value of N such that the area under the graph
−x
f (x) = xe
−x
between x = N and x = N + 10 is, at most, 0.01.

N +1
2 1 2 2
Solution: ∫ xe
−x
dx = (e
−N
−e
−(N +1)
). The quantity is less than 0.01 when N =2 .
N
2
59) Find the limit, as N tends to infinity, of the area under the graph of f (x) = xe −x
b 1/a
dt dt
60) Show that ∫ =∫ when 0 < a ≤ b .
a
t 1/b
t
b 1/a
dx 1 1 dx
Solution: ∫ = ln(b) − ln(a) = ln( ) − ln( ) =∫
a
x a b 1/b
x
61) Suppose that f (x) > 0 for all x and that f and g are differentiable. Use the identity f
g
=e
glnf
and the chain rule to find the
derivative of f . g
62) Use the previous exercise to find the antiderivative of h(x) = x x

(1 + lnx) and evaluate ∫ x
x (1 + lnx)dx .
2
Solution: 23
63) Show that if c > 0 , then the integral of 1/x from ac to bc (0 < a < b) is the same as the integral of 1/x from a to b.
The following exercises are intended to derive the fundamental properties of the natural log starting from the definition
x
dt
ln(x) = ∫ , using properties of the definite integral and making no further assumptions.
1
t
x
dt 1
64) Use the identity ln(x) = ∫ to derive the identity ln( ) = −lnx .
1
t x
1/x
1 dt 1 dt
Solution: We may assume that x >1 ,so < 1. Then, ∫ . Now make the substitution u = , so du = −
2
and
x 1
t t t
1/x x
du dt dt du
=− , and change endpoints: ∫ = −∫ = −lnx.
u t 1
t 1
u
xy
1
65) Use a change of variable in the integral ∫ dt to show that lnxy = lnx + lny for x, y > 0.
1
t
x
dt
66) Use the identity lnx = ∫ to show that ln(x) is an increasing function of x on [0, ∞), and use the previous exercises to
1
x
show that the range of ln(x) is (−∞, ∞). Without any further assumptions, conclude that ln(x) has an inverse function defined on
(−∞, ∞).
67) Pretend, for the moment, that we do not know that e is the inverse function of ln(x), but keep in mind that ln(x) has an
x
inverse function defined on (−∞, ∞). Call it E. Use the identity lnxy = lnx + lny to deduce that E(a + b) = E(a)E(b) for any
real numbers a, b.
68) Pretend, for the moment, that we do not know that e is the inverse function of x
lnx , but keep in mind that lnx has an inverse
function defined on (−∞, ∞). Call it E. Show that E (t) = E(t). ′
′
E (lnx)
Solution: x = E(ln(x)). Then, 1 = or x = E (lnx)
′
. Since any number t can be written t = lnx for some x, and for
x
such t we have x = E(t) , it follows that for any t, E ′
(t) = E(t).
x
sint
69) The sine integral, defined as S(x) = ∫ dt is an important quantity in engineering. Although it does not have a simple
0 t
1
closed formula, it is possible to estimate its behavior for large x. Show that for k ≥ 1, |S(2πk) − S(2π(k + 1))| ≤ .
k(2k + 1)π
(Hint: sin(t + π) = −sint )

1 2 2
70) [T] The normal distribution in probability is given by p(x) = −−e

−(x−μ ) /2 σ
, where σ is the standard deviation and μ is
σ √2π
the average. The standard normal distribution in probability, ps , corresponds to μ =0 and σ =1 . Compute the left endpoint
1
1 2/2
estimates R 10 and R 100 of ∫ −−e

−x
dx.
−1 √2π
Solution: R 10 = 0.6811, R100 = 0.6827
5
1 2
71) [T] Compute the right endpoint estimates R 50 and R 100 of ∫ −−e
−(x−1 ) /8
.
−3 2 √2π
5.7: Integrals Resulting in Inverse Trigonometric Functions

In the following exercises, evaluate each integral in terms of an inverse trigonometric function.
√3/2
dx
1) ∫ −−−− −
0 √1 − x2
√3/2 π
Solution: si n −1
x ∣
0
=
3
1/2
dx
2) ∫ −−−− −
−1/2 √1 − x2
1
dx
3) ∫ −−−− −
√3 √1 + x2
π
Solution: tan −1
x ∣
1
√3
=−
12
√3
dx
4) ∫ 2
1
1 +x
√3
√2
dx
5) ∫ −−−−−
2
1 |x| √x − 1
√2
π
Solution: sec −1
x ∣
1
=
4
2
√3 dx
6) ∫ −−−−−
2
1 |x| √x − 1
In the following exercises, find each indefinite integral, using appropriate substitutions.
dx
7) ∫ −−−− −
√9 − x2
x
Solution: si n −1
( )+C
3
dx
8) ∫ −−−− −−−
√1 − 16x2
dx
9) ∫ 2
9 +x
1 x
Solution: tan
−1
( )+C
3 3
dx
10) ∫ 2
25 + 16x
dx
11) ∫ −−−−−
2
|x| √x − 9
1 x
Solution: sec
−1
( )+C
3 3
dx
12) ∫ −− −−− −−
|x| √4 x2 − 16
dt
13) Explain the relationship −cos −
1t + C = ∫ −−− −− = si n
−1
t + C. Is it true, in general, that cos −1
t = −si n
−1
t ?
√1 − t2
π π
Solution: cos( − θ) = sinθ. So, si n −1
t =
−1
− cos t. They differ by a constant.
2 2
dt
14) Explain the relationship sec −1
t +C = ∫
2
= −csc
−1
t + C. Is it true, in general, that sec −1
t = −csc
−1
t ?
|t|sqrtt −1
2
dt
15) Explain what is wrong with the following integral: ∫ −−−− − .
1 √1 − t2
−−−−−
Soution: √1 − t is not defined as a real number when t > 1 .
2
1
dt
16) Explain what is wrong with the following integral: ∫ −− −−− .
2
−1 |t| √t − 1
In the following exercises, solve for the antiderivative ∫ f of f with C =0 , then use a calculator to graph f and the antiderivative
over the given interval . Identify a value of C such that adding C to the antiderivative recovers the definite integral
[a, b]
x
F (x) = ∫ f (t)dt .
a
1
17) [T] ∫ −−−− − dx over [−3, 3]
√9 − x2
Solution:
x π
The antiderivative is si n −1
( )+C . Taking C = recovers the definite integral.
3 2
9
18) [T] ∫ 2
dx over [−6, 6]
9 +x
cosx
19) [T] ∫ dx over [−6, 6]
4 + si n2 x
Solution:
1 sinx 1 sin(6)
The antiderivative is tan
−1
( )+C . Taking C = tan
−1
( ) recovers the definite integral.
2 2 2 2
x
e
20) [T] ∫ 2x
dx over [−6, 6]
1 +e
In the following exercises, compute the antiderivative using appropriate substitutions.
−1
si n tdt
21) ∫ −−−− −
√1 − t2
1
Solution: (si n
−1
t)
2
+C
2
dt
22) ∫ −−−−−
−1 √ 1 2
sin t −t
−1
tan (2t)1
23) ∫ 4 t dt
2
Soluion: \frac{1}{4}(tan^{−1}(2t))^2\)
24\) ∫\frac{ttan^{−1}{t^2}1+t4dt
( −−−−−
25) ∫ sec
−1
2)|t| √t
2
− 4 dt
t
1 t
Solution:L (sec
−1
( )2)+
4 2
−1 2
tsec (t )
26) ∫ −− −−−
dt
2 4
t √t − 1
In the following exercises, use a calculator to graph the antiderivative ∫ f with C =0 over the given interval [a, b]. Approximate
x
a value of C, if possible, such that adding C to the antiderivative gives the same value as the definite integral F (x) = ∫ f (t)dt.
a
1
27) [T] ∫ −−−−− dx over [2, 6]
2
x √x − 4
Solution:
1 x
The antiderivative is −1
sec ( )+C . Taking C =0 recovers the definite integral over [2, 6].
2 2
1
28) [T] ∫ − dx over [0, 6]
(2x + 2)√x
(sinx + xcosx)
29) [T] ∫ 2 2
over [−6, 6]
1 + x si n xdx
Solution:
The general antiderivative is tan −1
(xsinx) + C . Taking C = −tan
−1
(6sin(6)) recovers the definite integral.
−2x
2e
30) [T] ∫ −−−− −−− dx over [0, 2]
√1 − e−4x
1
31) [T] ∫ over [0, 2]
x + xln2x
π
The general antiderivative is tan −1
(lnx) + C . Taking C = = tan
−1
∞ recovers the definite integral.
2
−1
si n x
32) [T] ∫ −−−− −
over [−1, 1]
√1 − x2
In the following exercises, compute each integral using appropriate substitutions.

x
e
33) ∫ −−−−−− dt
√1 − e2t
Solutnio: si n −1
(e ) + C
t
t
e
34) ∫ 2t
dt
1 +e
dt
35) ∫ −−−−− −
2
t√1 − ln t
Solution: si n −1
(lnt) + C
dt
36) ∫ 2
t(1 + ln t)
−1
cos (2t)
37) ∫ −−−− −− dt
√1 − 4t2
1
Solution: − (cos
−1
(2t))
2
+C
2
t −1 t
e cos (e )
38) ∫ −−−−−−
dt
√1 − e2t
In the following exercises, compute each definite integral.
1/2 −1
tan(si n t)
39) ∫ |
0 −−−− −
dt
√1 − t2
1 4
Solution: ln( )
2 3
1/2 −1
tan(cos t)
40) ∫ −−−− − dt
1/4 √1 − t2
1/2 −1
sin(tan t)
41) ∫ 2
dt
0 1 +t
2
Solution: 1 − –
√5
42) \(\displaystyle ∫^{1/2}_0\frac{cos(tan^{−1}t)}{1+t^2}dt\0

A
dt 1
43) For A > 0 , compute I (A) = ∫ 2
and evaluate lim I (A) , the area under the graph of 2
on [−∞, ∞].
1 +t a→∞ 1 +t
−A
Solution: 2tan −1
(A) → π as A → ∞
B
dt 1
44) For 1 <B <∞ , compute I (B) = ∫ −− −−− and evaluate lim I (B) , the area under the graph of −− −−− over
2 B→∞ 2
1 t√t − 1 t√t − 1
[1, ∞) .
– dx
45) Use the substitution u = √2cotx and the identity 1 2
+cot x = csc x
2
to evaluate ∫
2
. (Hint: Multiply the top and
1 + cos x
bottom of the integrand by csc 2

x .)
2 2
csc x csc x – –
Solution: Using the hint, one has ∫
2 2
dx = ∫
2
dx. Set u = √2cotx. Then, 2
du = −√2csc x and the
csc x + cot x 1 + 2cot x
1 du 1 1 –
integral is − – ∫ 2
=− – tan
−1
u +C = – tan
−1
(√2cotx) + C . If one uses the identity
√2 1 +u √2 √2
1 π 1 tanx
tan
−1
s + tan
−1
( ) = , then this can also be written –
tan
−1
(
–
) + C.
s 2 √2 √2
46) [T] Approximate the points at which the graphs of f (x) = 2x 2

−1 and g(x) = (1 + 4x 2 −3/2
) intersect, and approximate the
area between their graphs accurate to three decimal places.
47) [T] Approximate the points at which the graphs of f (x) = x
2
−1 and f (x) = x
2
−1 intersect, and approximate the area
between their graphs accurate to three decimal places.
Solution: x ≈ ±1.13525. The left endpoint estimate with N = 100 is 2.796 and these decimals persist for N = 500 .
x
−−−− − 1 −−−− − 1
48) Use the following graph to prove that ∫ 2
√1 − t dt =
2
x √1 − x + si n
−1
x.
0
2 2
Chapter Review Exercises:

True or False. Justify your answer with a proof or a counterexample. Assume all functions f and g are continuous over their
domains.
b
1) If f (x) > 0, f '(x) > 0 for all x, then the right-hand rule underestimates the integral ∫ f (x). Use a graph to justify your
a
answer.
Solution: False
b b b
2) ∫ 2
f (x ) dx = ∫ f (x)dx ∫ f (x)dx
a a a
b b
3) If f (x) ≤ g(x) for all x ∈ [a, b], then ∫ f (x) ≤ ∫ g(x).

a a
Solution: True
4) All continuous functions have an antiderivative.
Evaluate the Riemann sums L and R for the following functions over the specified interval. Compare your answer with the exact
4 4
answer, when possible, or use a calculator to determine the answer.

5) y = 3x 2
− 2x + 1) over [−1, 1]
Solution: L 4 = 5.25, R4 = 3.25, exact answer: 4
6) y = ln(x 2
+ 1) over [0, e]
7) y = x 2
sinx over [0, π]
Solution: L 4 = 5.364, R4 = 5.364, exact answer: 5.870
1
8) y = √−
x+ over [1, 4]
x
Evaluate the following integrals.

1
9) ∫ (x
3
− 2x
2
+ 4x)dx
−1
4
Solution: −
3
4
3t
10) ∫ −−−− −− dt
0 √1 + 6t2
π/2
11) ∫ 2sec(2θ)tan(2θ)dθ
π/3
Solution: 1
π/4
2
12) ∫ e
co s x
sinxcosdx
0
Find the antiderivative.

dx
13) ∫ 3
(x + 4)
1
Solution: − 2
+C
2(x + 4)
14) ∫ xln(x )dx

2
2
4x
15) ∫ −−−− − dx
√1 − x6
4
Solution: si n
−1 3
(x ) + C
3
2x
e
16) ∫ 4x
dx
1 +e
Find the derivative.

t
d sinx
17) ∫ −−−− − dx
dt 0 √1 + x2
sint
Solution: −−−− −
√1 + t2
3
x
d −−−− −
18) ∫ √4 − t2 dt
dx 1
ln(x)
d
19) ∫ (4t + e )dt
t
dx 1
lnx
Solution: 4 +1
x
cosx
d 2
20) ∫ e
t
dt
dx 0
The following problems consider the historic average cost per gigabyte of RAM on a computer.
Year 5-Year Change ($)
1980 0
1985 −5,468,750
1990 −755,495
1995 −73,005
2000 −29,768
2005 −918
2010 −177
21) If the average cost per gigabyte of RAM in 2010 is $12, find the average cost per gigabyte of RAM in 1980.
Solution: $6,328,113
22) The average cost per gigabyte of RAM can be approximated by the function C (t) = 8, 500, 000(0.65) , where t is measured
t
in years since 1980, and C is cost in US$. Find the average cost per gigabyte of RAM for 1980 to 2010.
23) Find the average cost of 1GB RAM for 2005 to 2010.
Solution: $73.36
24) The velocity of a bullet from a rifle can be approximated by v(t) = 6400t − 6505t + 2686, where t is seconds after the shot
2
and v is the velocity measured in feet per second. This equation only models the velocity for the first half-second after the shot:
0 ≤ t ≤ 0.5. What is the total distance the bullet travels in 0.5 sec?
25) What is the average velocity of the bullet for the first half-second?
19117
Solution: f t/sec, or1593f t/sec
12
5.E: Integration (Exercises) is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
Index
A continuity over an interval Derivative of the general logarithmic
absolute extremum 2.6: Continuity function
4.2: Maxima and Minima critical point 3.9: Derivatives of Ln, General Exponential & Log
absolute maximum 4.2: Maxima and Minima Functions; and Logarithmic Differentiation
cubic function 3.9: Derivatives of Exponential and Logarithmic
4.2: Maxima and Minima Functions
absolute minimum 1.2: Basic Classes of Functions
Derivative of the natural exponential
D function
Absolute Value Function
3.9: Derivatives of Ln, General Exponential & Log
1.1: Review of Functions decreasing on the interval I Functions; and Logarithmic Differentiation
acceleration 1.1: Review of Functions 3.9: Derivatives of Exponential and Logarithmic
3.6: Derivatives as Rates of Change definite integral Functions
algebraic function 5.2: The Definite Integral Derivative of the natural logarithmic
function
amount of change degree 3.9: Derivatives of Ln, General Exponential & Log
3.6: Derivatives as Rates of Change Functions; and Logarithmic Differentiation
1.2: Basic Classes of Functions 3.9: Derivatives of Exponential and Logarithmic
antiderivative dependent variable Functions
1.1: Review of Functions difference law for limits
average rate of change derivative 2.3: Limit Laws & Techniques for Computing Limits
3.6: Derivatives as Rates of Change 0.0 Special Symbols
average value of a function derivative function difference quotient
5.2: The Definite Integral 3.1: Definition of the Derivative
3.2: The Derivative as a Function Difference Rule
average velocity Derivative of cosecant function 3.3: (and 3.4) Differentiation Rules
3.5: Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions 3.3: Differentiation Rules
2.1: The Idea of Limits 3.4: Product & Quotient Rules
Derivative of cosine function
Differentiable function
C 3.5: Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions
Derivative of cotangent function
chain rule 3.2: The Derivative as a Function
3.7: The Chain Rule differentiable on S
Derivative of exponential functions
change of variables 3.2: The Derivative as a Function
3.9: Derivatives of Ln, General Exponential & Log 3.2: The Derivative as a Function
5.5: U-Substitution Functions; and Logarithmic Differentiation
Closeness 3.9: Derivatives of Exponential and Logarithmic
differential
Functions 4.6: Linear Approximations and Differentials
composite function Derivative of inverse cosecant function differential calculus
3. 10: Derivatives of Inverse Trig Functions 2.1: The Idea of Limits
concave down Derivative of inverse cosine function differential form
3. 10: Derivatives of Inverse Trig Functions 4.6: Linear Approximations and Differentials
concave up Derivative of inverse cotangent function discontinuity at a point
3. 10: Derivatives of Inverse Trig Functions 2.6: Continuity
Concavity Derivative of inverse secant function domain
3. 10: Derivatives of Inverse Trig Functions 1.1: Review of Functions
concavity test Derivative of inverse tangent function
4.3: Derivatives and the Shape of a Graph 3. 10: Derivatives of Inverse Trig Functions E
constant multiple law for limits Derivative of logarithmic functions end behavior
2.3: Limit Laws & Techniques for Computing Limits 3.9: Derivatives of Ln, General Exponential & Log 2.5: Limits at Infinity
0.0 Special Symbols Functions; and Logarithmic Differentiation 4.4: Graphing
3.9: Derivatives of Exponential and Logarithmic 4.6: Limits at Infinity and Asymptotes
Functions even function
Derivative of secant function 1.1: Review of Functions
3.4: Product & Quotient Rules 3.5: Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions exponent
Constant Rule Derivative of sine function 1.5: Exponential and Logarithmic Functions
3.3: (and 3.4) Differentiation Rules 3.5: Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions Extreme Value Theorem
3.3: Differentiation Rules Derivative of tangent function 4.2: Maxima and Minima
3.4: Product & Quotient Rules 3.5: Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions
continuity Derivative of the general exponential F
2.6: Continuity
function Fermat’s theorem
continuity at a point
3.9: Derivatives of Ln, General Exponential & Log 4.2: Maxima and Minima
2.6: Continuity Functions; and Logarithmic Differentiation
continuity from the left First Derivative Test
3.9: Derivatives of Exponential and Logarithmic
Functions 4.3: Derivatives and the Shape of a Graph
2.6: Continuity
continuity from the right function
2.6: Continuity
fundamental theorem of calculus integrand Mean Value Theorem for Integrals
5.3: The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus Basics 5.2: The Definite Integral 5.3: The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus Basics
5.6 Notes 5.4: Average Value of a Function 5.6 Notes
Xtra full 5.3: includes Proof of The Fundamental 5.2: originalThe Definite Integral Xtra full 5.3: includes Proof of The Fundamental
Theorem of Calculus integration by substitution Theorem of Calculus
5.3: original The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus 5.3: original The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus
5.5: U-Substitution
fundamental theorem of calculus, part 1 Integration Formulas Involving method of exhaustion
5.3: The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus Basics 5.1: Approximating Areas
5.6 Notes Logarithmic Functions multivariable calculus
Xtra full 5.3: includes Proof of The Fundamental 5.6: More U-Substitution - Exponential and
Theorem of Calculus Logarithmic Functions
5.3: original The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus Intermediate Value Theorem
fundamental theorem of calculus, part 2 2.6: Continuity
N
5.3: The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus Basics inverse function natural exponential function
5.6 Notes 1.5: Exponential and Logarithmic Functions
Xtra full 5.3: includes Proof of The Fundamental 1.4: Inverse Functions
Theorem of Calculus Inverse function theorem natural logarithm
5.3: original The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus 3. 10: Derivatives of Inverse Trig Functions 1.5: Exponential and Logarithmic Functions
inverse hyperbolic functions net change theorem
G 1.5: Exponential and Logarithmic Functions 5.7: Net Change
5.4: Original Integration Formulas and the Net
graph of a function Inverse Trigonometric Functions Change Theorem
1.1: Review of Functions 1.4: Inverse Functions net signed area
H J 5.4: Average Value of a Function
horizontal asymptote jump discontinuity 5.2: originalThe Definite Integral
2.5: Limits at Infinity 2.6: Continuity number e
4.4: Graphing 1.5: Exponential and Logarithmic Functions
L
horizontal line test
limit O
1.4: Inverse Functions oblique asymptote
hyperbolic functions 2.5: Limits at Infinity
limit at infinity
4.4: Graphing
2.5: Limits at Infinity 4.6: Limits at Infinity and Asymptotes
4.4: Graphing
I 4.6: Limits at Infinity and Asymptotes odd function
implicit differentiation limit laws 1.1: Review of Functions
3.8: Implicit Differentiation 2.3: Limit Laws & Techniques for Computing Limits optimization problems
increasing on the interval I 0.0 Special Symbols 4.5: Optimization Problems
1.1: Review of Functions linear approximation
indefinite integral 4.6: Linear Approximations and Differentials P
4.8: Antiderivatives linear function partition
independent variable 1.2: Basic Classes of Functions 5.1: Approximating Areas
1.1: Review of Functions linearization percentage error
infinite discontinuity 4.6: Linear Approximations and Differentials 4.6: Linear Approximations and Differentials
2.6: Continuity local extremum periodic function
infinite limit at infinity 4.2: Maxima and Minima 1.3: Trigonometric Functions
2.5: Limits at Infinity local maximum points of inflection
4.4: Graphing 4.2: Maxima and Minima 4.3: Derivatives and the Shape of a Graph
4.6: Limits at Infinity and Asymptotes local minimum polynomial function
inflection point 4.2: Maxima and Minima 1.2: Basic Classes of Functions
4.3: Derivatives and the Shape of a Graph Logarithmic Function population growth rate
initial value problem 1.2: Basic Classes of Functions 3.6: Derivatives as Rates of Change
4.8: Antiderivatives lower sum power function
instantaneous rate of change 5.1: Approximating Areas 1.2: Basic Classes of Functions
3.1: Definition of the Derivative power rule
instantaneous velocity M 3.3: (and 3.4) Differentiation Rules
2.1: The Idea of Limits 3.3: Differentiation Rules
marginal cost
integrable function 3.6: Derivatives as Rates of Change
5.2: The Definite Integral Power rule with rational exponents
marginal profit
5.2: originalThe Definite Integral 3.6: Derivatives as Rates of Change
product law for limits
integral calculus marginal revenue
2.1: The Idea of Limits 3.6: Derivatives as Rates of Change 0.0 Special Symbols
Integrals of Exponential Functions mathematical model product rule
5.6: More U-Substitution - Exponential and 1.2: Basic Classes of Functions 3.3: (and 3.4) Differentiation Rules
Logarithmic Functions mean value theorem 3.3: Differentiation Rules
4.7: The Mean Value Theorem 3.4: Product & Quotient Rules
propagated error root function tangent
4.6: Linear Approximations and Differentials 1.2: Basic Classes of Functions 2.1: The Idea of Limits
root law for limits tangent line approximation
Q 2.3: Limit Laws & Techniques for Computing Limits 4.6: Linear Approximations and Differentials
0.0 Special Symbols The power rule for functions
quadratic function
1.2: Basic Classes of Functions 3.7: The Chain Rule
quotient law for limits S total area
2.3: Limit Laws & Techniques for Computing Limits secant 5.2: The Definite Integral
0.0 Special Symbols 2.1: The Idea of Limits 5.4: Average Value of a Function
quotient rule second derivative test
3.3: (and 3.4) Differentiation Rules 4.3: Derivatives and the Shape of a Graph
transcendental function
3.3: Differentiation Rules 1.2: Basic Classes of Functions
Sigma Notation
transformation of a function
slope
R 1.2: Basic Classes of Functions
trigonometric functions
Radians speed 1.3: Trigonometric Functions
1.3: Trigonometric Functions 3.6: Derivatives as Rates of Change
trigonometric identity
range squeeze theorem 1.3: Trigonometric Functions
1.1: Review of Functions 2.3: Limit Laws & Techniques for Computing Limits
rational function 0.0 Special Symbols U
1.2: Basic Classes of Functions sum law for limits upper sum
regular partition 2.3: Limit Laws & Techniques for Computing Limits 5.1: Approximating Areas
5.1: Approximating Areas 0.0 Special Symbols
related rates Sum Rule V
4.1: Related Rates 3.3: (and 3.4) Differentiation Rules
relative error 3.4: Product & Quotient Rules 5.2: The Definite Integral
4.6: Linear Approximations and Differentials 5.4: Average Value of a Function
Summation Notation 5.2: originalThe Definite Integral
removable discontinuity 5.1: Approximating Areas
2.6: Continuity vertical line test
symmetry about the origin 1.1: Review of Functions
restricted domain 1.1: Review of Functions
Riemann sum Z
T zeros of a function
Rolle’s Theorem table of values 1.1: Review of Functions
Glossary
Sample Word 1 | Sample Definition 1
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MTH 220

Monroe Community College

Monroe Community College

1: Review: Functions and Graphs

Chapter 4: Applications of Derivatives

1: Review: Functions and Graphs

Thumbnail: The graph of f (x) = e has a tangent line with slope 1 at x = 0 .

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Figure 1.1.1 : A function can be visualized as an input/output device

The concept of a function can be visualized using Figures 1.1.1 - 1.1.3.

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Set-Builder Notation and Interval Notation

{x|x has some property}. (1.1.1)

{x|1 < x < 5}. (1.1.2)

(1, 5) = {x|1 < x < 5}. (1.1.3)

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refers to the set of all real numbers.

Example 1.1.1 : Evaluating Functions

c. f (a + h) = 3(a + h) + 2(a + h) − 1 = 3(a + 2ah + h ) + 2a + 2h − 1

Example 1.1.2 : Finding Domain and Range

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Solving this equation for x, we find that

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Vertical Line Test

Example 1.1.3: Finding Zeros and y -Intercepts of a Function

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Example 1.1.4 : Using Zeros and y-Intercepts to Sketch a Graph

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Example 1.1.5 : Finding the Height of a Free-Falling Object

t 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5

Definition: Increasing and Decreasing on an Interval

f (x1 ) ≤ f (x2 ) when x 1 < x2 .

We say f is strictly increasing on the interval I if for all x 1, x2 ∈ I ,

f (x1 ) < f (x2 ) when x 1 < x2 .

We say that a function f is decreasing on the interval I if for all x 1, x2 ∈ I ,

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We say that a function f is strictly decreasing on the interval I if for all x 1, x2 ∈ I ,

on the interval (−∞, ∞).

functions, we created a new function.

The composite function g∘f is defined such that

(f + g)(x) = f (x) + g(x) Sum

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(f ⋅ g)(x) = f (x)g(x) Product

Example 1.1.6 : Combining Functions Using Mathematical Operations

The domain of this function is the interval (−∞, ∞).

The domain of this function is the interval (−∞, ∞).

The domain of this function is the interval (−∞, ∞).

The domain of this function is {x ∣∣ x ≠ ±1 }.

(g ∘ f )(x) = g(f (x)) (1.1.12)

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Example 1.1.7 : Compositions of Functions Defined by Formulas

Alternatively, we could write

we see that x + 1 = 1/y , which implies that

2. (g ∘ f )(4) = g(f (4)) = g(4 2

Alternatively, we could write

Solving this equation for x, we see that we need x to satisfy

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Example 1.1.8 : Composition of Functions Defined by Tables