Problems and

prospects of
Rainfed
Agriculture in
India
Most of the cropping in the arid and semi-arid regions
continues to be under rainfed conditions. A majority of the
farmers are small farmers with meager resources. The poor
resource base permits only low input subsistence farming
with low and unstable crop yields.
The low productivity of agriculture in dry farming regions is
due to the cumulative effect of many constraints for crop
production.
The problems can be broadly grouped in to
a) Climatic constraints
b) Soil constraints
c) Lack of suitable varieties
d) Traditional cultivation practices
e) Heavy weed infestation
f) Resource constraints
g) Technological constraints
f) Socio economic constraints
2.1.1 Climatic constraints
A) Rainfall characteristics: Among the different climatic
parameters, rainfall is an important factor influencing the crop
production in dry regions.
(i) Variable rainfall: Rainfall varies both in time and space
dimension. Annual rainfall varies greatly from year to year
and naturally, its coefficient of variation is very high.

Generally, higher the rainfall less is the coefficient of variation.

In other words, crop failures due to uncertain rains are more
frequent in regions with lesser rainfall. The average annual
rainfall of India is 1192 mm where as in Gujarat it is 816 mm.
Based on the average annual rainfall, the India can be
divided into four zones.
(ii) Intensity and distribution: In general, more than 50
per cent of total rainfall is usually received in 3 to 5 rainy
days. Such intensive rainfall results in substantial loss of
water due to surface runoff. This process also accelerates
soil erosion. Distribution of rainfall during the crop growing
season is more important than total rainfall in dryland
agriculture.
iii) Aberrations or variations in monsoon behavior
(a) Late onset of monsoon: If the onset of monsoon is
delayed, crops/varieties recommended to the region cannot be
sown in time. Delayed sowing lead to uneconomical crop yields.
(b) Early withdrawal of monsoon: This situation is equally or
more dangerous than late onset of monsoon. Rainy season
crops will be subjected to terminal stress leading to poor yields.
Similarly, post-rainy season crops fail due to inadequate
available soil moisture, especially during reproductive and
maturity phases.
(c) Prolonged dry spells: Breaks of monsoon for 7-10 days
may not be a serious concern. Break between two consecutive
rainfalls for more than 15 days duration especially at critical
stages for soil moisture stress, leads to reduction in yield.
Drought due to break in monsoon may adversely affect the
crops in shallow soils than in deep soils. It also has ill-effect on
crop yield in tropical and sun-tropical regions.
High atmospheric temperature: Because of high atmospheric
temperature, the atmospheric demand for moisture increases
causing high evapotranspiration losses resulting in moisture
stress.
B) Low relative humidity: Low relative humidity (a measure of
water vapor in the air) results in high ET losses causing moisture
stress whenever moisture is limiting.
C) Hot dry winds: Hot dry winds causes desiccation of leaves
resulting in moisture stress. High turbulent winds especially
during summer months cause soil erosion resulting in dust,
storms and loss of fertile soil.
D) High atmospheric water demand: Due to high atmospheric water demand
the potential evapotranspiration (PET) exceed the precipitation during most part
of the year.
2.1.2 Soil Constraints
The different soil groups encountered in dryland areas are
black soils, red soils and alluvial soils. The constraints for
crop production are different in different soil groups. The
predominant soil group is alluvial where the problems for
crop production are not so acute as in red and black soils.
The different soil constraints for crop production are
a) Inadequate soil moisture availability: The moisture
holding capacity of soils in dry regions is low due to shallow
depth especially in alfisols (red soils), low rainfall and low
organic matter content.
b) Poor organic matter content: The organic matter
content in most of the soils under dryland conditions is very
low (< 1 %) due to high temperature and low addition of
organic manures. Poor organic matter content adversely
affects soil physical properties related to moisture storage.
c) Poor soil fertility: Due to low accumulation of organic
matter and loss of fertile top soil, by soil erosion, the dry land
soils are poor in fertility status. Most of the dry land soils are
deficient in nitrogen and zinc.
d) Soil deterioration due to erosion (wind, water): In India
nearly 175 m.ha of land is subjected to different land
degradations, among them, the soil erosion is very
predominant. The erosion causes loss of top fertile soil leaving
poor sub soil for crop cultivation.
e) Soil crust problem: In case
of red soils, the formation of
hard surface. Soil layer delays
the appearance of seedlings,
which ultimately affect the plant
population. Crusting of soil
surface after rainfall reduces
infiltration and storage of
rainfall, resulting in high run off.
f) Presence of hard layers and deep cracks: Presence of
hard layers (pans) in soil and deep cracks affect the crop
production especially in case of black soils.

2.1.3 Lack of suitable varieties: Most of the crop varieties

available for cultivation in dry lands are meant for irrigated
agriculture. There are no any special varieties exclusively
meant for dryland areas. Hence still more efforts are required
to develop varieties in different crops exclusively meant for
dryland agriculture.
2.1.4 Traditional Cultivation practices
The existing management practices adopted by the farmers
are evolved based on long term experience by the farmers.
The traditional management practices are still followed by
farmers leading to low yields.
• Ploughing along the slope
• Broadcasting seeds/ sowing behind the country plough
leading to poor as well as
uneven plant stand
• Monsoon sowing
• Choice of crops based on rainfall
• Application FYM in limited quantity
• Un-timely weeding
• Low productive cropping systems
• Inadequate nutrient supply
• Traditional storage system
3.1.5 Heavy weed infestation: This is the most serious
problem in dryland areas. Unfortunately, Weed growth is also
encouraged by an environment that is helpful to crop growth.
Weed seeds germinate earlier than crop seeds and try to
suppress the crop growth. The weed problem is high in
rainfed areas because of continuous rains and acute
shortage of labour. The weed suppression in the early stage
of crop growth is required to reduce the decrease in crop
yields.

a) Less access to inputs, poor organizational structure for

input supply.

b) Non availability of credit in time

c) The risk bearing capacity of dryland farmer is very low

3.1.6 Resource constraints
1. Most of the resource for dry land are run under subsistence level of farming
(form of farming in which nearly all of the crops or livestock raised are used to maintain the farmer and the farmer's
family, leaving little, if any, surplus for sale or trade. )
2. There is less intention to adopt new technologies in dry lands among the
farmers.
3. Occurrence of frequent drought for flood in dry farming areas
4. Crop failure is caused by unpredictable rainfall patterns, mid-
season monsoon breaks, and other factors.
5. Difficulties in adoption of new cropping pattern for cropping systems to suit
the monsoon and its behaviour .
6. Absence of suitable varieties, non-availability of quality seeds,in adequate
nutrient supply and problems of soil salinity and alkalinity aggravate the
situation in dry farming areas.
7. Resource poor dry land farmers are not able to practice soil conservation
practices and other new technology
8. There is a limited recognition of indigenous methods of soil and water
conservation
9. Poor land preparation and untimely ploughing, sowing, lake of labour and
animal power during peak season
10. Lack of adequate linkages between crop and animal components in dry
farming
3.1.7 Technological constraints

1. Lack of suitable Technologies for lesser rainfall areas

2. Lack of varieties capable of yielding higher in adverse condition.
Improved varieties for high yielding varieties are found more vulnerable to
moisture stress as compared to traditional variety.
3. Non-availability of seeds of improved varieties and the demand supply
is found to be 80% with groundnut, 50% with Sorghum, 25% with pearl
millet and 90% with forest species.
4. Problems with prediction of sowing rain.
5. Laser utilization of improved machineries/ implement under dry lands
leading to poor timeliness in feel operation and crop failure/ reduced yield.
6. Poor pest and disease management practices, lack of resources for the
purchase, ultimately untimely or delay control measures and lack of water
for good quality water for spray in dryland.
7. Lesser adoption of alternate land use system agroforestry, alley
cropping and dry land horticulture in dry farming region.
8. Inadequate extension activities reading to poor Technologies spreading.
3.1.8 Social economic constraints
1. Lack of capital, support prices for the produce, marketing
facilities and credited proper time make the farmers hesitant
to adopt the technology.
2. Most of the dry land farmers are resource poor which
tends them to avoid risk.
3. Many dry land farmers engage only limited labor , mostly
family labor for most of the farm activities.
4. Prevailing social system in dry regions prevent the
farmers in adopting the improved technology.
5. Non-promotion of stakeholders concept in development
of dry farming.
FUTURE PROSPRECTS FOR RAINFED FARMING

A. Research:

1. Proper agro-meteorological analysis of climate- soil- crop

relationship for efficient crop planning and management.

2. As water harvesting systems for crop production is uneconomic

including cost of runoff and cost of storage; however, this
technique is helpful to stabilize crop production in dry land areas.
Therefore, there is a great deal of scope for stabilizing production
in dry land areas by adopting water harvesting techniques on
community basis.

3. Review of contingent crop planning for Major three current

weather conditions and improvement in the contingent crop
planning for different zone mainly to mitigate drought effects.
4. Importance the development and release of dual conditions high yielding
varieties of food and vegetable crops for normal monsoon season and for
dryland conditions. Availability of seeds of these varieties along with the
suitable agronomic practices will certainly improve and stabilize the
production and productivity of rainfed areas.

5. Identification of improved soil and moisture conservation practices and

turn off management suited to the conditions of individual farm holding as
well as the watershed as a whole.

6. Emphasis to increase intensity of cropping by developing appropriate inter

cropping and double cropping systems with importance on pulses and
oilseeds.
7. Agro-techniques on socially acceptable cropping systems (viz; laser
leveling, application of organic manures, modified method of sowing i.e.
Aqua-fertilizer drill and FIRB (Furrow Irrigated Raised Bed) system of seed bed
preparation) bases are to be developed with a view to increase the
FUE/WUE, (fertilizer use efficiency/water use efficiency) efficient weed
management, tillage system and crop residue management including INM.
8. Emphasis on site-specific research mainly to optimize the use of
resources available for conservation and utilization of moisture
under rainfed conditions.

9. Proper adoption of alternate land use system including Agro-

forestry, Agri-horticulture and fodder based cropping system in
terms of diversification in cropping system is required for saving
water and for efficient water management.

10.Finalization of unfinished major and minor projects surrounding

approximately 69 million hectares of cultivated land with micro
irrigation systems by 2030 is the target.
B. Policy:
1. Undertake significant shift in investment from irrigated to
rainfed areas, with a major emphasis on Afforestation and soil
conservation project organized on a watershed basis.
2. Investment in soil conservation practices including creation
of infrastructure as well as water harvesting system such as
farm ponds has to be undertaken on a village-by-village basis.
3. Weather aberrations continue to plague dry land farmers.
Since seed is the primary input in the adoption of improved
farm technologies, seed bank must be established with
Government support in order to help farmers adopt contingent
strategies.
4. Draft power (digital adoption platform, DAP) is a serious
constraint in dry land farming. Individual farmer cannot afford to
purchase mechanical implements. In this case, a system of
custom hiring in the villages would help farmer to complete
their operation timely at an affordable cost.
5. High risk is involved in rainfed farming which does not
allow farmers to adopt improved crop production
technologies. Therefore, availability of crop insurance for
drought protection involving selected dry land crops should
be implemented.

6. Since farm holdings are small and excessively fragmented,

further division of land should be prevented. This can be done
by encouraging the development of small scale, agro-based
industries and services in the rainfed region.

7. In addition to low productivity in rainfed areas there is also

an acute scarcity of fodder. Silvi -pastoral systems on
marginal land should be encouraged through liberal financing,
and should be established to cope with scarcity during
drought years.