GPB-243 Theory Notes

Dr.R.M.PawarDr.R.M.PawarDr.R.M.
PawarDr
.R.M.PawarDr.R.M.PawarDr.R.M.PawarDr.R.
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M.PawarDr.R.M.PawarDr.R.M.Pawar
BHARATI VIDYAPEETH’S
LMK COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE, KADEGAON
(Affiliated to MPKV, Rahuri)
Dr.R.M.PawarDr.R.M.PawarDr.R.M.PawarDr
M.PawarDr.R.M.PawarDr.R.M.PawarDr.R.M.
PawarDr.R.M.PawarDr.R.M.PawarDr.R.M.Pa
GPB 243 Principles of Seed Technology
warDr.R.M.PawarDr.R.M.PawarDr.R.M.Paw
Theory Notes
arDr.R.M.PawarDr.R.M.PawarDr.R.M.Pawa
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Dr.R.M.PawarDr.R.M.PawarDr.
R.M.PawarDr
Compiled by
Dr.R.M.PawarDr.R.M.PawarDr.R.
Dr. R. M. Pawar
Dr. R. M. Pawar, Asstt. Prof. of Agril. Botany
Department of Agricultural Botany

M.PawarDr.R.M.PawarDr.R.M.
M.PawarDr.R.M.PawarDr.R.M.Pa
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Index
Sr. Lecture Title of the lecture Page
No. No. No.
1 1 Seed and seed technology: Introduction, Definition and Importance. 2-4
2 2 Deterioration causes of crop varieties and their control. Maintenance 5-8
of generic purity during seed production.
3 3 Seed quality: Definition, Characters of good quality seed. 9-10
4 4 Different classes of seed. 11-13
5 5 Foundation and certified seed production of important cereals 14-30
(Wheat, Sorghum, Maize, Rice and Bajara).
6 6 Foundation and certified seed production of important pulses (Pigeon 31-33
pea, Green gram, Black gram and Chickpea).
7 7 Foundation and certified seed production of important oil seeds 34-42
(Soybean, Sunflower, Safflower, Groundnut and Cotton).
8 8 Foundation and certified seed production of important fodder crops 43-44
(Fodder Sorghum, Lucerne and Berseem).
9 9 Foundation and certified seed production of important vegetable 45-52
crops (Tomato, Brinjal, Chilli, Onion and Okra)
10 10 Seed certification, Phases of certification, Procedure of seed 53-56
certification, Field inspection.
11 11 Seed Act and Seed Act enforcement. Duty and powers of seed 57-61
inspector, Offences and penalties, Seeds control order 1983.
12 12 Varietal identification through Grow Out Test and Electrophoresis. 62-66
Molecular and biochemical test. Detection of genetically modified
crops. Transgene contamination in non-GM crops, GM crops and
organic seed production.
13 13 Seed drying, processing and their steps. Seed testing for quality 67-75
assessment.
14 14 Seed treatment, its importance, method of application and seed 76-78
packing.
15 15 Seed storage: general principles, stages and factors affecting seed 79-81
longevity during storage. Measures for pest and disease control
during storage.
16 16 Seed marketing: Structure and organization, Sales generation 82-85
activities, Promotional media. Factors affecting seed marketing. Role
of WTO and OECD in seed marketing.

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L-1. SEED AND SEED TECHNOLOGY
Introduction:
In the early days progress was achieved through the cultivation of indigenous but
useful plants and those taken through introductions. Later scientists made available many
new and better varieties through the well-known techniques of selection, hybridization,
mutation, polyploidization and plant biotechnology. However, to the farmer all this scientific
research would be of little value unless he gets seeds, which are genetically pure, high
germination percentage and vigour, high purity, sound health etc. When the farmers do not
get seeds possessing these qualities the yields they obtain may not be as expected. The pace
of progress in production will largely depend upon the speed with which we are able to
multiply & market good quality seeds of high yielding varieties.
Seed: Any plant part used for raising the crop is seed. Seed includes true seed, seedling,
cutting, rhizome, grafts, roots, etc. used for propagation.
Botanically seed is matured integumented megasporangium. Seed is also defined as
matured ovule consisting of embryonic plant together with store of food surrounded by
protected coat.
Importance of seed in crop production:
Seed is crucial and basic input to increase crop yields per unit area. Human being
knows the importance of seed in crop production since Vedik period.There is a clear mention
in the ancient history literature Yajurveda “May the seed viable, May the rains plentiful and
May the grains ripe days and nights”.
History of agriculture progress from early days is also the history of seed of new
crops and varieties brought under cultivation. The progress was very fast from last three
decades. The green revolution was only possible with production of genetically pure seeds of
high yielding varieties possessing other qualities namely high germination %, high vigour,
high physical purity and sound health. Hence green revolution is in fact seed revolution.
Only seed of assured quality can be expected to respond to fertilizers and other inputs
in expected manner, otherwise seed of hope may turn into seed of frustration.
Among the input used by farmer’s seed is the cheapest and basic input which forms
small part of the total cost of cultivation. The good seed also increases the efficiency of the
factors (fertilizers, water and pesticides) of the crop production.
The seed is important in the following main four ways.
1. Seed bridges the gap between the two generations of plant life.
2. Seed is the medium of transferring characters from one generation to the next.
3. Seed is the vital and most important input for higher crop production.
4. Seed has food, feed, medicinal, industrial and ornamental value.
Concept of seed technology:
Seed is a biological industry. Being seminal importance to agriculture, strictly
speaking, seed is an “embryo”, a living organism embedded in the supporting or the food
storage tissue. The business of seed technology is to protect this biological entity and look
after its welfare.
Good agriculture depends upon good quality seed. The progress in agriculture
depends upon production and marketing of good quality seed of high yielding varieties. The
science of seed technology takes care of all these aspects.The difference between seed and
grain is given below.

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Seed Grain
1. Any plant part used for propagation is 1. It is the final produce of the grain
seed. crops used for consumption.
2. Can be treated with fungicides and 2. Not treated with fungicides and
pesticides. pesticides.
3. Embryo is important. 3. Endosperm is important.
4. Viability is important. 4. Viability never considered.
5. Genetic purity must. 5. Genetic purity not necessary.
6. Comes under preview of seed acts. 6. Comes under preview of food acts.
7. Quality control is exercised and seed 7. There is no quality control.
standards are maintained.
Definitions of Seed Technology:
Cowan (1973) identified seed technology as “that discipline of study having to do with seed
production, maintenance, quality and preservation”.
Feistritzer (1975) defined seed technology as “the science dealing with the methods of
improving genetical and physical characteristics of seeds”.
Seed technology involves activities such as variety development, evaluation and
release, seed production, processing, storage and certification. Thus seed technology is
essentially an inter-disciplinary science which encompasses broad range of subjects/branches
viz., 1) Seed production, 2) Seed processing, 3) Seed certification, 4) Seed testing, 5) Seed
biology, 6) Seed storage, 7) Seed entomology, 8) Seed pathology, and seed marketing.
In broad sense, seed technology includes the development of superior crop plant
varieties, their evaluation and release, seed production, seed processing, seed storage, seed
testing, seed certification, seed quality control, seed marketing and distribution and research
on seed physiology, seed production and seed handling based upon modern botanical and
agricultural sciences”. In a narrow sense “seed technology comprises techniques of seed
production, seed processing, seed storage, seed testing and certification, seed marketing and
distribution and the related research on these aspects”.
Seed Production Technology: A branch of plant breeding which deals with principles and
methods of improved seed production.
Seed Science:Seed science is the study of the structure and development of seeds from the
moment of fertilization of the egg cell on the maternal plant until formation of a new plant
from the seed.
Role of seed technology:Feistritzer (1975) outlined the following roles of improved seed.
1. Improved seed – a carrier of new technologies: The introduction of quality seeds of new
varieties wisely combined with other inputs significantly increase yield levels. In India,
the cultivation of high yielding varieties has helped to increase food production from 52
million tones to nearly 180 million tons over a period of 40 years.
2. Improved seed – a basic tool for secured food supply: The successful implementation
of the high yielding varieties programme in India has led to a remarkable increase in
production and food imports from other counters have been brought down inspite of rapid
increase in population.
3. Improved seed – the principal means to secure crop yields in less favourable areas of
production: The supply of god quality seeds of improved varieties suitable to these areas
is one of the important contributions to secure higher crop yields.
4. Improved seed – a medium for rapid rehabilitation of agriculture in cases of natural
disaster: In case of floods and drought affected areas the Govt. will provide the improved
seeds from national seed stocks to rehabilitate the agricultural production of foods grains
in the country

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Goals of Seed Technology: The major goal of seed technology is to increase agricultural
production through the spread of good quality seeds of high yielding varieties. It aims at the
following:
1. Rapid multiplication: Increase in agricultural production through quickest possible
spread of new varieties developed by the plant breeders. The time taken to make available
the desired quantities of seeds of improved varieties to farmers should be considered as a
measure of efficiency and adequacy in the development of seed technology in the country.
2. Timely supply: The improved seeds of new varieties must be made available well in time,
so that the planting schedule of farmer is not disturbed and they are able to use good seed
for planting purposes.
3. Assured high quality of seeds: This is necessary to obtain the expected dividends from
the use of seeds of improved varieties.
4. Reasonable price: The cost of high quality seed should be within reach of the average
farmer.
Seed formation and development: After fertilization series of changes take place in the
ovule & as a result seed is formed. The egg cell with union of male gamete zygote is formed,
which on development gives rise to embryo (2n). Other male gamete fuses with polar nuclei
forming definitive nucleus (3n) which on development forms food storage tissue i.e.
endosperm is formed. Similarly other changes take place in ovule. The ovules are enclosed
by 2 integuments, which form testa&tegmen, which form the seed coat. During post
development changes drying & hardening take place and finally ovule becomes seed.
Different seed parts & their functions are given below.
Seed part Constitution Develops from Functions
1. Seed Coat: Mechanical protection
a)Testa 2n Outer integuments i) Germination barrier.
b) Tegmen 2n Inner integuments ii)Controls dormancy.
iii) Avoid fungal invasion.
2. Embryo 2n Develops from the fusion Gives rise to new plant.
i) Dicot: of egg cell (n) and male
a) Plumule 2n gamete (n). Develops into shoot.
b) Radical 2n Develops into root.
c) Cotyledon 2n Stored food material.
ii) Monocot: Develops from the fusion
a) Plumule 2n of egg cell (n) and male Develops into shoot.
b) Coleoptile 2n gamete (n). Protect shoot in germination.
c) Radical 2n Develops into root.
d) Coleorhiza 2n Protect root in germination.
e) Epithelium 2n Secrets enzymes.
layer
3. Endosperm 3n Develops from the fusion Store food material.
of polar nuclei (2n) with
another male gamete (n).

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L-2. VARIETAL DETERIORATION AND MAINTAINANCE OF GENETIC PURITY
Production of genetically pure good quality seed is exact task of seed producer, which
require high technical skill and high financial investments. During seed production strict
attention must be given to maintenance of genetic purity and other qualities of seed.
Therefore, seed production must be carried out under standardized and well-organized
conditions. It is achieved by using genetic and agronomic principles during seed production
programme.
Variety: It is a group of plants having clear distinguished characters which when reproduced
either sexually or asexually retains these characters. The main aim of seed production is to
produce genetically pure and good quality seed. The genetic purity of a variety is lost or
deteriorated during seed multiplication due to several factors.
Varietal deterioration: It refers to permanent reduction either in genetic or agronomic value
of a released and notified crop variety.
Genetic principles of seed production: The deterioration of varieties and maintenance of
genetic purity during seed production are the genetic principles of quality seed production
Causes of deterioration of varieties / Factors responsible for deterioration of genetic
purityof varieties:
Genetic purity (trueness to type) of a variety can deteriorate due to several factors
during seed production cycles. These factors/causes of varietal deterioration can be divided
into two groups, viz., genetic causes and non-genetic causes. The important factors
responsible for genetic deterioration or loss of genetic purity during seed production are
given below (Kadam, 1942):
A) Genetic causes:
1. Developmental variations
2. Natural out-crossing
3. Spontaneous mutations
4. Minor genetic variations
5. Genetic drift
6. Breakdown of male sterility
7. Other heritable variations
B) Non-genetic causes:
1. Mechanical mixtures
2. Selected influence of pest and diseases
3. The technique of the plant breeder
Out of these causes, mechanical mixtures, natural crossing and selective influence of
diseases are perhaps the most important reasons for genetic deterioration of varieties
during seed production followed by developmental variation and genetic shift in varieties.
1. Developmental Variation:
When varieties are multiplied outside the area of normal cultivation, there is a
danger of developmental variation and genetic change or shift may appear in varieties.
Sometimes it becomes necessary to raise the seed crop outside their area of adaptation to
maintain steady supply of good quality seed.
For example, during seed production of flowers, there should not be rains during
harvesting period hence seed production needs to be taken outside the normal area of
cultivation, where there are no rains in post flowering period.Similarly, seed production of
rainfed cotton varieties can be taken under irrigated conditions, which reduces land
requirement significantly as productivity of irrigated crop is high. Disease free potato seed

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production is always taken at hilly region of Shimla though potato is extensively cultivated
in plain regions. The extent of developmental variation increases with…
a) Number of generation’s multiplied outside the area of adaptation.
b) Condition of adaptation: The varieties bred for extreme condition i.e. disease
resistance, drought resistance, resistance against cold shows greater deterioration.
c) Mode of pollination: The crosspollinated varieties deteriorates faster than self-
pollinated.
d) Stability of genotype: Unstable genotype deteriorates fast.
2. Natural out-crossing: It is an important source of contamination. It depends upon natural
cross fertilization. It may be due to natural crossing with undesirable types, diseased plants
or off types.
Once the natural cross fertilization occur the deterioration take place at cellular level
and such deterioration cannot be rectified. In self-pollinated crops the natural crossing is
not serious factor or source of contamination and deterioration but it is serious in cross-
pollinated crops. The extent of cross-pollination depends on various factors. ..
a) Breeding system of species: i) Autogamous–Low deterioration and
ii) Allogamous – High deterioration.
b) Isolation distance: It is inversely proportional to the distance between contaminant
and seed field.
c) Varietal mass: More number of varieties results into higher deterioration.
d) Pollinating agents and their activity: High activity results into higher deterioration.
To avoid deterioration due to natural crossing 1) maintain sufficient isolation
distance and 2) rouge out the contaminants at proper stage are the efficient remedies.
3. Spontaneous mutations: Spontaneous mutations continuously arise in crop varieties due
to cosmic radiations. Such mutations after crossing with true genotype of a variety leads to
deterioration of that variety. But it is not a serious factor for varietal deterioration. Minor
mutations are difficult to identify. To avoid deterioration due to mutation minute
observations and timely roughing is essential.
4. Minor Genetic variations (residual variability): Minor genetic variation still may exist
in the varieties appearing phenotypically uniform and homogenous at the time of release.
Such variation leads to deterioration during later cycles of seed multiplication. Hence,
sufficient yield trials must be conducted before release and proper attention must be given
during the maintenance of nucleus and breeder seed of cross pollinated crops.
5.Genetic drift: When seed is multiplied in large areas only small quantities of seed is taken
and preserved for the next years sowing. Because of such sub-sampling all the genotypes
will not be represented in the next generation and leads to change in genetic composition.
This is called as genetic drift.
6.Breakdown of male sterility: Generally in hybrid seed production if there is any
breakdown of male sterility it may lead to a mixture of F1 hybrids and selfers.
7. Other heritable variation: Recombination and polyploidization take place during seed
production programme. To avoid this periodical selection during maintenance of basic
stock is necessary.
8. Mechanical Mixtures: This is a danger source of variety deterioration. Mechanical
mixtures may take place right from sowing to harvesting and processing. It occurs
commonly when…
a) More than one variety is sown in same piece of land.
b) When same drill is used for sowing number of varieties.
c) It occurs when number of varieties is threshed on same yard.
d) It also occurs when same threshing machine is used for threshing number of varieties.
e) It also occurs when gunny bags and storage bins are reused for storage of seed.

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f) It may occur through volunteer plants.

It happens when proper care is not taken during different operations. To avoid
mechanical mixture, keeping sufficient isolation is always desirable.
9. Selective influence of pest and diseases: New crop varieties often become susceptible to
new races of diseases and biotypes of insects which are constantly occurring. In clonal
crops deterioration is very fast if propagule is affected by fungal, bacterial and viral
diseases. Hence, seed production must be carried out in disease free conditions as far as
possible.
10.The techniques of the Breeder: Premature release of varieties still segregating for
resistance and susceptibility deteriorate fast, if the varieties are not properly tested before
release can deteriorate immediately.
Maintenance of genetic purity during seed production:
Horne (1953) had suggested the following methods for maintenance of genetic purity;
1. Use of approved seed in seed multiplication.
2. Inspection of seed fields prior to planting.
3. Field inspection and approval of the Crop at critical stages for verification of genetic
purity, detection of mixtures, weeds and seed borne diseases.
4. Sampling and sealing of cleaned lots.
5. Growing of samples with authentic stocks or Grow -out test
Various steps suggested by Hartman and Kestar (1968) for maintaining genetic purity are as
follows;
1. Providing isolation to prevent cross fertilization or mechanical mixtures.
2. Rouging of seed fields prior to planting.
3. Periodic testing of varieties for genetic purity.
4. Grow in adapted areas only to avoid genetic shifts in the variety.
5. Certification of seed crops to maintain genetic purity and quality.
6. Adopting generation system.
Further, the maintenance of genetic purity can be strengthened by producing the seeds
in four generation system. These for generations are breeders’ seed, foundation seed,
registered seed and certified seed.
Important safeguards for maintenance of genetic purity during seed production:
The following precautions should be taken to safeguard genetic purity of varieties
during seed production.
1.Control of seed source: Appropriate class of seed purchased from approved source should
be used for raising the seed crop. Breeder seed used for raising foundation seed plot and
foundation seed used for raising certified seed plot. Seed must be purchased from
approved sources like Agricultural University, Agricultural Research Farm or Maharashtra
State Seed Corporation (MSSC).
2.Preceding crop requirement: There should not be the same crop in the previous season to
avoid genetic contamination from volunteer plants. Volunteer plants are the unwanted
plants of the same crop growing in the seed field from the seeds that remain in the field
from previous crop. Therefore, inspection and approval of seed plots prior to planting is
essential to avoid contamination from volunteers and other varieties.
3.Isolation: It helps to avoid natural crossing with undesirable plants, as well as to avoid
mechanical mixture during sowing and harvesting. There are two types of isolations
a) Space isolation: Space between seed field and contaminant
b) Time isolation: The flowering of contaminant and seed field should not coincide with
each other. In certified seed production programme time isolation is not permitted and
space isolation must be followed as per crop standards.

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4.Rouging of seed fields: Removal of undesirable plants from seed production field is called
roughing. It includes removal of a) Volunteer plants b) Off type plants c) Diseased plants
d) Other crop plants e) Objectionable weed plants.
Roguing is the responsibility of seed grower. The rouge plants are removed before
they caused contamination in cross-pollinated crops every day during flowering period. In
self-pollinated crops last roguing may be done before harvest. Roguing help to avoid
contamination caused due to mechanical mixture and natural cross-fertilization. The
representative of seed certification agency observes the roguing operation carried out by
seed producer during field inspection. Rouging in most of the field crops may be done at
vegetative, pre-flowering, flowering and maturity stages.
5.Seed certification: Genetic purity is officially maintained through a system of seed
certification. Principle objective of seed certification is to maintain and make available
true to type seed to farmers. The seed certification agencies carry out field inspections at
critical growth stages of crop production. Draw seed samples from harvested seed lots for
seed testing and see that the lots have been duly inspected and meet the requirement of
good quality as per standards.
6.Grow-out test (GOT): Grow out test is conducted by seed certification agency. It is done
by actual growing seed samples of harvested seed lots in comparison with authentic seed
samples. Seed samples observed from germination to flowering in standing field for
various morphological differentiating characters to judge the genetic purity of the seed lot.
This test also helps to check correctness in labeling, compare field and laboratory test and
check freedom from seed borne diseases. This test is conducted for all crops at Golegaon,
Dist. Akola before certification by Maharashtra State Seed Certification Agency
(MSSCA).
7. Multiplication in adapted area: The seed production should only be carried out in areas
of adaptation of a variety to avoid genetic shifts.
Agronomic Principles of seed production: The agronomic principles are necessary to produce
high seed yield with good quality. The important agronomic principles are given below.
1. Selection of suitable agro-climatic zone: Moderate rainfall and humidity are much more suited.
Dry sunny period and moderate temperature suited for flowering and pollination.
2. Plot selection: It should be fertile, leveled, irrigated, free from previous seeds and soil borne diseases.
3. Isolation: Adequate.
4. Preparation of land: Good land improves germination, destruct weeds, uniform irrigation and
drainage.
5. Selection of variety: Adapted, high seed yield, resistant, early and no problem of nicking.
6. Seed: Appropriate class, tagged, sealed, Valid and same variety in all bags.
7. Seed treatment: treated with chemicals, bacterial inoculum and for breaking seed dormancy.
8. Planting/sowing time: Normal planting time with enough moisture and staggering if necessary.
9. Seed rate: Lower seed rate facilitates roughing and inspection and improves seed size.
10. Method of sowing: Seed drill. It facilitates inter culturing, irrigation, plant protection, inspection, etc.
11. Depth of sowing: Small seed – Shallow, Large seed – Deep.
12. Roguing: It is done at a) Vegetative/pre-flowering, b) Flowering and c) Maturity stages.
13. Supplementary pollination: To increase seed setting e.g. Honey bees, Operate empty dusters,
tapping ear head in sorghum, rotating hand on sunflower ear head, etc.
14. Weed control: To avoid weed seed contamination and to remove hosts of diseases and pests.
15. Disease and pest control: To obtain quality seeds with high yield.
16. Nutrition: For good yield and quality and for better expression to facilitate rouging.
17. Irrigation: To ensure good uniform crop stand.
18. Harvesting: When seed is fully matured.
19. Threshing: Done on cemented floor with cleaned threshing machine without mechanical injury.
20. Drying: Dry up to safe moisture level.
21. Storageof raw seeds: Clean, neat and treated bags. Label bags and keep on wooden pallets.

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L-3.SEED QUALITY
Seed Quality:The seeds that possess high genetic purity, high germination percentage, good
health (free from diseases)and physiological purity (viability and vigour), high physical
purity (minimum of inert matter, weed and other crop seeds) and other attributes are referred
to as quality seed.
Characters of good quality seed:

A good seed should have the following quality characters.
1. Improved variety: Seed should be of released and notified varieties and the duration
should be suitable for the agro-climatic conditions and cropping system of locality.Variety
should be superior to the existing variety i.e. the yield should be higher by 20-25% than
the existing variety or it should have some desirable attributes like disease resistance,
drought resistance, salt tolerance, etc.with good yield potential.
2. Genetic Purity: The seed should be genetically pure (true to type). The seed should
possess all the genetic qualities/characters, which the breeder has placed in the variety.
Genetic purity has direct effect on the yield. If there is any deterioration, there would be
proportionate decrease in the yield or performance.
3. Physical Purity: Physical purity of a seed lot refers to the physical composition of the
seed lots. A seed lot is composed of pure seed, inert mater (dirt, trash, soil particles,
stones, etc.), broken seeds, undersized seeds, weed seeds, other crop seeds, etc. Higher the
content of pure seed better would be the seed quality. Pure seed together with germination
gives the planting value of the seed lot.
4. Seed germination and vigour: Seed germination refers to the ability of a seed when
planted under normal sowing conditions to give rise to a normal seedling. Seed vigour
refers to the sum total of all seed attributes that give effective plant stand in the field.
Higher germination percentage and vigour gives adequate plant population and uniform
growth, which have profound effect on yield and determine the planting value of the seed.
5. Planting value: It is the real worth of a seed lot for raising the crop. It is determined by
calculating pure live seed percentage as follows:
Pure seed% Germination%
Pure live seed (P.L.S.) = x x 100
100 100
6. Freedom from weeds and other crop seeds: This is an extension of physical purity
described earlier. There are certain weeds species which are very harmful to the crop and
once established they are difficult to eradicate. An absolute freedom from seed of such
species is highly desirable and is one of the important criteria for determining the planting
quality of seeds.
7. Seed health: Seed health refers to the presence or absence of disease organisms or insect
pests on the seed. The quality of a seed lot depends on its health; hence the seed should be
free from seed borne disease and insect pests.
8. Seed moisture: The seed moisture is the most important factor in determining the seed
germination and viability during storage. At high seed moisture content there is high
incidence of pest attack and at moisture content above 16% seed get heated and the
viability is lost. Hence the seed should be storedat safe moisture levels of 11-13%.
9. Seed size, weight and specific gravity: The seed should be bold, plump, uniform in size,
shape, colour, texture and proper test weight.Seed size, weight and specific gravity have
been found to have positive correlation with seed germination and vigour in many crops.
Therefore, the seed should be bold with high specific gravity.

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10. Seed Colour: The colour of the seed often reflects the condition during seed maturation.
The farmers from ancient times have regarded good normal shine as invariable quality
guides. The colour and shine deteriorates only when the weather conditions are adverse
during maturation or when insects infest the crop or when it is handled badly. The seed
lots having high genetic purity, high germination and with a minimum amount of inert
matter, weed seeds and other crop seeds and are free from diseases is said to be of high
quality and if it is lacking of these it is said to be of low quality.
11. Fresh seeds: The seed should be as fresh as possible or of the proper age. It should not be
too old.
Benefits of quality seeds:

The advantages of quality seeds are briefly discussed as follows.
1. Higher yield: Quality seeds are genetically pure (true to type). They are free from
admixture, weed seeds and other crop seeds and insects. Hence we get higher yield from
quality seeds. Moreover, the prediction of yield of good quality seeds is possible.
2. High quality: We get high quality produce from crop planted with good quality seed.
Moreover, the finished product of such seed is also of high quality.
3. Good germination: Quality seeds are vigorous and have high germination due to good
seed viability. This results in fast and uniform emergence of seedlings and good crop
stand. They are physiologically good in terms of germination, vigour, viability and sound
health.
4. Crop uniformity: The crop planted with quality seed is uniform in plant population and
maturity. They are free from objectionable weeds, admixture, other crop seeds and insects.
5. Responsive to fertilizers: Quality seeds respond well to the application of fertilizers and
nutrients.
6. Adaptability: Quality seeds can adopt themselves to extreme climatic condition and
cropping system of the location.
7. Prolong life of variety: Good quality seeds prolong life of a variety. In other words,
deterioration of the variety will be slow.
8. Aesthetic value: Crops raised with quality seed are aesthetically pleasing.
9. High price: The produce from quality seed has better marketability and gives good
returns.

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L-4. CLASSES OF SEED OR STAGES OF SEED MULTIPLICATION
The crop improvement is done by use of various crop improvement methods. Once
desirable plant is obtained it is multiplied on large scale and it becomes the assemblage of the
cultivated individuals which is distinguished by any character for the purpose of agriculture
called variety. The improved variety released for commercial cultivation and seed is
multiplied for large scale. For the purpose of quality seed production and smooth
implementation of seed act, varieties are notified. So release and notification of varieties is
continuous process. The spread of improved variety depends upon the quantity of pure seed
produced and supplied to the farmers every year. If the area under crop is greater, it is not
possible to crop breeder or research station, who develops the variety to produce and supply
entire quantity of seed required due to limited resources. So seed production is organized
through different stages, ensuring that seed multiplied at each stage meet all seed certification
standards for that crop variety or hybrid. This generation system of seed multiplication
includes following stages.
Nucleus seed → Breeder stock seed → Breeder seed → Foundation seed → Certified seed
1. Nucleus seed: It is the initial handful of seeds obtained from selected individual plants of
a particular variety or the small quantity of seeds obtained from individual plants, selected
from variety for the purpose of purifying that variety. It is also known as basic seed or
primordial seed.
Production: Nucleus seed is produced at the research farms of originating research
institute or agricultural university. Only small quantity is produced under the direct
supervision of original plant breeder or sponsored plant breeder.
Purity:It is 100% genetically and physically pure seed.
Certification: Certification not required for the production of nucleus seed.
Use: Nucleus seed is used as a source for the production of breeder seed.
Breeder stock: A stock of highly pure seed of variety in custody of the plant breeder.
Breeder stock seed: Bulk of seed harvested from nucleus or breeder stock is breeder stock
seed.
2. Breeder seed: It is the progeny of either nucleus or breeder seed.
Production: Nucleus seed is produced at the research farms of originating research
institute or agricultural university. It is produced under the direct supervision of original
plant breeder or sponsored plant breeder.
Purity:Genetic purity of breeder seed is > 99.9%.
Certification: Certification not required for the production of breeder seed. The BSP
plot is inspected by monitoring team which consists of a nominee from the Nodal
Officer for breeder seed production, Deputy Director of Seed Certification, Area
Manager of National Seed Corporation and the Producing Breeder. The team inspects
the crop during flowering and maturity stages to assure about genetic purity, isolation
distance and general crop condition. After passing the field and seed standards, breeder
seed should be bagged with breeder seed tag containing all the details about crop,
variety, lot number, date of test, physical and genetic purity, germination percentage.
Grow out test should be conducted to determine the genetic purity.
Use: Breeder seed is used as a source for the production of foundation seed.
Tag colour: The seed bags of breeder seed are labelled with yellow colour tag.
3. Foundation seed: It is the progeny of breeder seed or foundation seed stage I. It should be
produced in the area of adaptation of the concerned variety. This class of seed is handled
to maintain specific genetic purity and identity of the variety and the production must be
accepted to seed certification agency. It is primary source of seeds of genetically identified
varieties from which all further increases are made.

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Production: Foundation seed is produced by the National Seeds Corporation under the
strict supervision of research scientists and expert from NSC. The seed production is
carried out at the research farms of ICAR institutes, Agricultural University,
Government farms and also on cultivators’ field. Proper isolation distance is adopted
for the production of foundation seed which varies from crop to crop.
Types: The foundation seed is of two types, viz., foundation seed stage I and stage
II.The former is produced from breeder seed and later from the foundation seed stage I.
Purity:Genetic purity of foundation seed is >99.5% and its physical purity is 98%.
Certification: Seed certification is required for the production of foundation seed
which is undertaken by State Seed Certification Agency.
Use: Foundation seed is used as a source to produce registered or certified seed.
Tag colour: The seed bags of foundation seed are labelled with white colour tag.
4. Registered seed: It is the progeny of either foundation seed or registered seed. In India,
registered seed is generally omitted and certified seed is produced directly from
foundation seed.
Production: It is produced at the farms of registered seed growers according to
technical advice and supervision of National Seeds Corporation. Proper isolation
distance is adopted for the production of registered seed which varies from crop to crop.
Types: The foundation seed is of two types, viz., foundation seed stage I and stage
II.The former is produced from breeder seed and later from the foundation seed stage I.
Purity:It is generally genetically pure and permissible physical purity is 98%. .
Certification: Seed certification is required for the production of registered seed which
is undertaken by State Seed Certification Agency.
Use: Registered seed is used as a source to produce certified seed.
Tag colour: The seed bags of registered seed are labelled with purple colour tag.
5. Certified seed: It is the progeny of either foundation seed or certified seed. Certified seed
may be the progeny of certified seed provided that this reproduction does not exceed three
generations beyond foundation stage I. This class of seed should be so handled as to
maintain satisfactory genetic purity and identity and the production must be accepted to
seed certification agency.
Production: Anybody willing to come forward to produce certified seed can produce
certified seed. At present State Seed Corporations,National Seed Corporation, State
Departments of Agriculture, Private Seed Companies, Cooperatives and individual
farmers are producing certified seed. Proper isolation distance is adopted for the
production of certified seed which varies from crop to crop.
Types: The certified seed is of two types, viz., certified seed stage I and stage II.The
former is produced from foundation seed and later from the certified seed stage I.
Purity:It has genetic purity of >99%and physical purity of 98%. Other crop seeds and
weed seeds should not be more than prescribed standards which vary from crop to crop.
Certification: Seed certification is required for the production of certified seed which
is undertaken by State Seed Certification Agency.
Use: Certified seed is available to the farmers for commercial production. If the
quantity of certified seed stage I is not sufficient for general distribution,certified seed
stage II is produced from certified seed stage I used as a source to produce certified
seed.
Tag colour: The seed bags of certified seed are labelled with blue colour tag.
6. Truthful seed: It is the category of seed produced by cultivator, private seed companies
and sold under the truthful label. This is not offered for certification to SCA. The demand
for ‘Certified seed’ is much more than actually available seed. The Seed Act has
provision for the production of ‘Truthful seed’ in large quantities. Truthful labelled seed
confirms to the limit of minimum standards prescribed for the variety. Under the Act, the

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seller is responsible for the seeds he sells, certified or not certified. If the seeds are not
certified, seeds which are above the minimum limits of germination and purity are
Truthfully Labelled.
Nucleus Seed Stage I Nucleus Seed Stage II
Breeder Seed Stage I Breeder Seed Stage II
Foundation Seed Stage I Foundation Seed Stage II
Certified Seed Stage I Certified Seed Stage II
Farmers Field
Fig. 4.1 Classes of improved seed
Stages of seed multiplication:

Class of seed Produced by/at Genetic purity Inspection team Tag colour
Nucleus seed/ Original breeder, At 100% (Mass selection --- ---
Breeder stock Uni. farm or at ARS in isolation)
Breeder seed Original breeder or >99.9% (Mass Crop breeder, Div. SCO, Buff or Golden
Stage I and II sponsored breeder selection in isolation) DISCO, MSSC Repre., Yellow
NSC Repre., AICRP (12 x 6cm)
Foundation seed Agril. Uni., TSF, >99.5% (Rouging in Crop breeder, Div. SCO, White
Stage I and II Govt. Farms, MSSC, isolated field) DISCO. (15 x 7.5cm)
NSC.
Registered seed Progressive farmer, Genetically pure DISCO Representative. Purple
Registered seed
grower
Certified seed Individual, Govt. >99% (Rouging in Seed certification Blue
Stage I and II Farms, MSSC, NSC, isolated field) (15 x 7.5cm)
Private seed Co.
Truthful seed Cultivators, Private As per certified stage --- Opel green
seed Co. (15 x 7.5cm)

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L-5.FOUNDATION AND CERTIFIED SEED PRODUCTION OF CEREALS
1. WHEAT
Wheat is the world’s second most important staple food of family Gramineae. It
requires cool and moist weather followed by dry and warm weather. Among different wheat
species, Triticumaestivum (hexaploid) and bread wheat has major share of its cultivation.
Important steps involved in seed production:
Land requirement:Land to be used forseed production should be free of volunteer plant.
There should not be wheat crop in the previous year.
Isolation distance:Seed production plot should be isolated from other wheat fields by a
minimum of 3m distance. In case of loose smut infected field, seed production plot should be
isolatedby 150 meters, if the infection is in excess of 0.1% (foundation seed production) and
0.5% (certified seedproduction).
Brief cultural practices:
1. Preparation of land: One ploughing followed by one harrowing before the pre-sowing
irrigation. Pre-sowing is must for uniform good germination. Give light shallow ploughing
or discing after pre-sowing irrigation. Broadcast 10% BHC dust @ 25 kg/ha before last
harrowing or ploughing to prevent white ant and Gujhia attack.
2. Time of sowing: Long duration varieties should be sown during first fortnight of
November. Short and medium duration varieties should be sown during second fortnight of
November.
3. Source of seed: Obtain breeder/foundation seed from a source approved by seed
certification agency.
4. Method of sowing: Seed crop is sown in rows with clean seed drill at 5 cm depth.
5. Spacing: Row to row distance for seed crop should be 20 to 22.5 cm.
6. Seed rate:85-100 kg/ha.
7. Fertilizers:NPK : 120:60:40 kg/ha and Zinc sulphate 15-20 kg/ha in case of Zinc
deficiency.
Basal : Half N and whole P and K during sowing.
Top dressing : Half N at 30-35 DAS.
8. Irrigation:The first irrigation should be given at crown root initiation stage (30-35 DAS).
Other irrigations should be given at tillering, late jointing, flowering, boot leaf and grain
filling stage.
9. Interculture: Timely weeding and interculture operations are essential.
10. Plant protection: Control measures as per schedule should be adopted in seed field.
 Termites:10% BHC @ 25kg/ha at last ploughing.
 Termites in standing crop:Chlorpyriphos 20 EC @ 2-3 lit/ha with irrigation water.
 Stem borer: Linden 6G or Carbofuran 3G @ 25kg/ha two weeks after germination or
spray crop with endosulphan 35 EC @1.5 lit/ha.
 Loose smut: Seed treatment with systemic fungicide such as vitavex.
 Rust, Alternaria and Helminthosporium: Spray Zinc manganese carbamet @ 2 kg/ha
or Zineb 75% wp @ 2.5 kg or Ziram 80% wp @2.0 kg/ha or Ziram 27% liquid @ 2.0-
2.5 lit/ha at the interval of 10-15 days.
Roguing:Timely removal of off-types is essential to maintain the purity of the seed. Two to
three roguing may be necessary to bring the seed plot to seed certification standards. The first
roguing may be done just ahead of flowering or during flowering to remove obvious off-type
plants such as plants of different colour, susceptible plants to various diseases, plants with
different height, head variations, smutted plants and early heading plants.
A second roguing should be done just after completion of flowering and before the
crop starts to turn colour. Rogues during this roguing include those mentioned in first roguing

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plus tall and late plants as well as plants differing in ear characteristics. The third roguing
should be done after the ear heads turn colour and starts to mature to remove plants differing
in head colour, awn colour and ear head type. In addition to off-types, the objectionable weed
plants such as HiranKhuri, Phalaris minor and weeds such as Chatrimatri, as well as other
crop plants such as barley, oats, gram must be removed prior to harvest.
Harvesting and Threshing:Harvesting should be done soon after the maturity with sickle
and then threshing is done. Extra care is needed to avoid mechanical mixing that is likely to
occur during harvesting and threshing. If combiner is used, it should be properly cleaned.
Cleaning, Drying, Bagging and Storage:After harvesting and threshing, seed should be
properly cleaned and dried. The moisture content of the seed should not be more than 12 per
cent. The cleaned, dried and treated seeds are filled in appropriate bags and bagged seed
should be stored in a dry, insect and rodent proof warehouse.
Seed yield: Average seed yield varies from 30 to 40 qtls/ha.
2. SORGHUM
Sorghum is an often cross-pollinated crop. The extent of out crossing is 6-45% and
depends on nature of ear-head.
Methods of seed production: In sorghum, open pollinated varieties, synthetics, composites
and hybrids are available.
1. Varieties: By open pollination under isolation.
2. Hybrids: Hybrids are produced using cytoplasm genic male sterility. The first hybrid
(CSH 1) was released in 1964. In 1969, the Coordinated Sorghum Improvement Project
was established. Now there are more than 30 hybrids e.g. CSH 1(CK 60 A x IS 84), CSH
5 (MS 20 77 A x CS 35 41), CSH 9 (MS 296 A x CS 3541), CSH 13 R (296 A x RS 29),
CSH 15 R (104 A x R 585).
OPEN POLLINATED VARIETIES SEED PRODUCTION

Land requirement:Land to be used forseed production should be free of volunteer plant and
well drained. The soil should be well aerated and suitable for sowing. In addition, there
should be no Johanson grass in the seed field or within isolation distance.
Isolation:
Particulars Foundation Certified seed
Stage (m) Stage (m)
From other variety fields 200 100
From Johnson and Sudan grass 400 400
From forage sorghum with high tillering 400 400
1. Preparation of land: One to two ploughing followed by 2-3 harrowing and leveling is
sufficient to prepare the field to the desired tilth.
2. Time of sowing: Kharif 4th week of June to 1st week of July and for Rabi mid-September
3. Source of seed: Obtainbreeder/foundation seed from a source approved by seed
4. Method of sowing: Seed crop is sown in rows.
5. Spacing: Row to row 45 cm and plant to plant 15 cm.
6. Seed rate: 12-15 kg /ha
7. Fertilizers: NPK: 100:50:50 kg/ha
Basal : 50:50:50 kg/ha
Top dressing : 25 kg N (25 DAS) and 25 kg N (45 DAS)
8. Irrigation: Irrigate crop when needed. Do not allow the leaves to wilt at any stage.

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9. Interculture: Timely weeding and interculture operations are essential.

 Stem borer:Monocrotophos @1 lit/ha.
 Shootfly: Quinalphos 25 EC @ 2 lit/ha.
 Midge: Endosulphan @ 1.5 lit/ha.
 Sugary diseases: Ziram 0.2 %
 Leafspot: Spray Z-78 0.2 %
 Grainmould: Captan 0.2% at the time of grain setting.
Roguing:Roguing should be done periodically to remove off types, volunteer plants based on
leaforientation, leaf margin, size of leaf blade, type of ear head and seed colour. Rogue out
related plants such as Johanson grass, Sudan grass, forage plants and diseased plants affected
by kernel smut or grain smut and heat smut form time to time.
Harvesting:Harvesting should be done at appropriate stage. Sorghum crop should be
harvested from 40-45 days after 50% flowering. At this stage, moisture content will be
around 20-22 per cent, seeds will have black layer at the basal portion. Seed weight,
germination and vigour would also be high. The seeds harvested before harvestable maturity
are immature and will shrink upon drying. Delayed harvest results in lowering of seed yield
and quality due to shattering loss, damage due to insects and birds and seed blackening
caused by pathogenic infections.
Drying:Harvested seeds have to be dried immediately, otherwise, because of internal
heating; germination will be reduced when moisture content is high. Seeds are to be dried to a
moisture content of 10-12 per cent.
Threshing: Threshing can be done by beating the ear heads with bamboo sticks. While using
the mechanical threshers, care should be taken to avoid mechanical damage.
Seed Processing:Seed processing is an operation by which all immature, wrinkled, broken
and small seeds as well as all physical impurities such as sand, stones, dust, other crop sees
and week seeds are removed. Processing machine should be thoroughly cleaned before
processing in order to avoid physical contamination.
Seed yield:Average seed yield is 40 qtl/ha.
HYBRID SEED PRODUCTION

Production of hybrid seed involves the following steps:
I. Maintenance of parental lines viz., Male sterile line carrying cytoplasmic-genetic
male sterility (Line A); Maintainer line i.e. sister line of Line A, male fertile, non-pollen
restoring (Line B); and Restore line as male parent for the production of hybrid seed
male fertile pollen restoring (Line R).
II. Production of hybrid seeds: This involves crossing of male sterile and restorer lines.
First stage of increase i.e. maintenance of parental line is referred as foundation seed
production and the production of hybrid seed is referred to as certified seed production.
FOUNDATION SEED PRODUCTION IN JOWAR:
A. Maintenance of malesterileline (Line A):
Land requirement: As per OP varieties.
Isolation:
Particulars Minimum isolation
distance (m)
1. From other variety fields 300
2. From Johnson grass (S. halepense) 400
3. From forage sorghum with high tillering 400
Differential blooming dates for modifying the isolation distance are not permitted.

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1. Preparation of land: As per OP varieties.
2. Time of sowing: As per OP varieties.
3. Source of seed: As per OP varieties.
4. Method of sowing:
Maintenance of male sterile line involves sowing of two parents namely female
parent (Line A, male sterile) and pollinator parent (Line B, male fertile). The sowing is
done in 4:2 ratio. After sowing 4-6 birder rows of pollinator parent are also sown al around
the field. Border rows should be distinctly separated from the crossing block by 1 meter.
5. Spacing: Row to row 75 cm and plant to plant 7.5 cm.
6. Seed rate: Female parent 8 kg/ha and male parent 4 kg/ha.
7. Fertilizers:As per OP varieties.
8. Irrigation:As per OP varieties.
9. Interculture: As per OP varieties.
10. Plant protection:As per OP varieties.
Roguing:
 Roguing of a seed field is very important for quality seed production.
 Before flowering, remove all off types from both seed parent and pollinator rows.
 Out cross can be identified because their greater height and should be removed as
soon as noticed.
 At the time of flowering the roguing should be done every day to remove pollen
shedding types in the seed rows.
 All plants out of place i.e. plants in between the lines, male plants in female rows and
vice a versa are also being removed.
 In addition rogue out related plants such as Johanson grass, Sudan grass, forage plants
and diseased plants affected by kernel smut or grain smut and heat smut form time to
time.
Harvesting:
Harvesting should be done at appropriate stage. Harvest male rows first and keep their
heads separate and then harvest female rows to avoid mixture. Sorghum crop should be
harvested from 40-45 days after 50% flowering. At this stage, moisture content will be
around 20-22%, seeds will have black layer at the basal portion. Seed weight, germination
and vigour would also be high. The seeds harvested before harvestable maturity are immature
and will shrink upon drying. Delayed harvest results in lowering of seed yield and quality due
to shattering loss, damage due to insects and birds and seed blackening caused by pathogenic
infections.
Drying: As per OP varieties.
Threshing:As per OP varieties.
Seed Processing:As per OP varieties.
Seed yield: Average seed yield varies from 4-6 qtls/ha.
B. Maintenance of male fertile Line (Line B) and Restorer line (Line R): The seeds of
maintainer line (Line B) and Restorer line (Line R) are produced in isolated fields in the
manner of open pollinated varieties.

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CERTIFIED SEED PRODUCTION IN JOWAR:

This is the hybrid seed production by crossing male sterile line with specified restorer line
in an isolated field. The salient features of hybrid seed production are mentioned below:
Land requirement:As per OP varieties.
Isolation:
distance (m)
1. From other variety fields 200
2. From other variety fields having same and known parent 5
3. From Johnson grass (S. healepense) 400
4. From forage sorghum with high tillering 400
Differential blooming dates for modifying the isolation distance are not permitted.
1. Preparation of land: As per OP varieties.
2. Time of sowing: As per OP varieties.
3. Source of seed: As per OP varieties.
4. Method of sowing: Maintenance of male sterile line involves sowing of two parents
namely female parent (Line A, male sterile) and pollinator parent (Line B, male fertile).
The sowing is done in 4:2 ratio. After sowing 4-6 birder rows of pollinator parent are also
sown al around the field. Border rows should be distinctly separated from the crossing
block by 1 meter. Perfect synchronization in flowering of the parental lines is most
important for good seed setting. The stigma receptivity remains for 6-10 days in kharif and
5-9 days in Rabi in most of CGMS lines. This is recommended to achieve effective nick
(when they produce high yields of seed of highly productive and desirable hybrid)
5. Spacing: Row to row 75-90 cm and plant to plant 7.5 cm.
6. Seed rate: Female parent 8 kg/ha and male parent 4 kg/ha.
7. Fertilizers:As per OP varieties.
8. Irrigation: Irrigate crop when needed. Do not allow the leaves to wilt at any stage.
9. Interculture: As per OP varieties.
10. Plant protection:As per OP varieties.
Roguing:
 Roguing of a seed field is very important for quality seed production.
 Before flowering, remove all off type plants from both seed parent & pollinator rows.
 Out cross can be identified because their greater height and should be removed as
soon as noticed.
 At the time of flowering the roguing should be done every day to remove pollen
shedding types in the seed rows.
 All plants out of place i.e. plants in between the lines, male plants in female rows and
vice a versa are also being removed.
 Also rogue out related plants such as Johanson grass, Sudan grass, forage plants and
diseased plants affected by kernel smut or grain smut and heat smut form time to time.
Harvesting: As per foundation seed production.
Drying:As per OP varieties.
Threshing: As per OP varieties.
Seed Processing: As per OP varieties.

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3. MAIZE
Maize is highly cross pollinated crop due to monoecious nature which makes it easy
for production of hybrid seeds. It is used as food, feed and for industrial purpose. It can be
grown under rainfed and irrigated conditions.
Methods of seed production: In maize, open pollinated varieties, synthetics, composites and
hybrids are available.
1. Open pollinated varieties: Raise the varieties under isolation and allow the plants to
openly pollinate among themselves and set seed.
2. Synthetics: In cross pollinated species, a variety obtained by mating in all possible
combinations, a number of lines (>5) that combine well with each other. COBC 1 (Baby
corn).
3. Composite varieties: These are produced by open pollination among a number of
outstanding strains usually not selected for combining ability with each other e.g. K1,
Jawahar, Vikram, Sona, Amber, CO 1 and Kisan.
4. Hybrids:
i) Single cross hybrid(A x B): It is a cross between 2 inbreds.
e.g. COH 1 - UMI 29 x UMI 51
COH 2 - UMI 810 x UMI 90
CoH (M) 5 -UMI 285 x UMI 61
ii) Double cross[(A x B) x (C x D)]: It is a cross between two single crosses.
e.g.Deccan double- (CM 104 x CM 105) x (CM 202 x CM 201)
Deccan 101 - (CM 202 x CM 206) x (CM 115 x CM 114)
Deccan 103 - (CM 120 x CM 118) x (CM 208 x CM 119)
iii)Three way cross[(A x B) x C]: It is a cross between a single cross and an inbred.
e.g. Ganga 5 - (CM 202 x CM 111)x CM 500
COH (M) 4 - (UMI 90 x UMI 285)x UMI 112
iv) Top cross (A x OPV):It is a cross between an inbred and an open pollinated variety.
v) Double top cross[(A x B) x OPV]: It is a cross between a single cross and an open
pollinated variety e.g. Ganga safed, Histarch, Ganga 4.
vi) Multiple cross: It is a combination of more than four inbred lines.
Inbreds: It is relatively true breeding strain resulting from repeated selfing (5 times.)

Land requirement:There is no specific land requirement for maize seed production but
selected field should be free of volunteer maize plants and well drained. The well aerated,
loamy soil with high organic matter and neutral pH is best for maize growing.
Isolation: Since maize is a cross pollinated crop, it is necessary to isolate seed field from
maize crops of any other variety. The seed field must be isolated at least by 400 m for
foundation class and 200m for certifiedclass seed from seed of other varieties of maize and
fields of the same variety not confirming to varietal purity requirement for certification.
1. Preparation of land: One to twoploughing followed by 2-3 harrowing and leveling is
2. Time of sowing: The best time for sowing maize is two weeks prior to onset of monsoon.
Maize is usually sown form the second week of June to mid-July.
4. Method of sowing: It is sown with the help of a maize planter or is dibbled by hand in
furrows.
5. Spacing: Row to row 60-75 cm and plant to plant 20-22.5 cm.

20
6. Seed rate: 16-18 kg/ha

7. Fertilizers: 120-150: 50-60: 40-50 kg NPK /ha and 25 kg Zn/ha if soil is deficient in zinc.
40-50 kg N and entire P and K at the time of sowing, 50 kg N as side dressing when plant
attend 1-2 feet height, and last one at the time of flowering.
8. Irrigation: Maize is sensitive to the irrigation so maintain adequate moisture in the field.
9. Interculture: Timely weeding and intercultural operations are essential.
• Stem borer, Pink Borer: Carbaryl 50 WP@1.5 kg/ha or Endosulphan 35 EC@1.5
lit/ha.
• HairyCaterpillars, armyworm, hoppers: Endosulphan 35 EC @ 1.5 lit/ha.
• Shootfly: Quinalphos 25 EC @ 2 lit/ha.
• Downymildew: Dithane M-45 1.5 kg in 500 lit. water/ha.
• Leafspot: Spray Mancozeb or Captan 1 kg/ha when the disease intensity is high.
Roguing:Not much roguing is required in open pollinated varieties. These varieties has broad
genetic base and are phenotypically uniform for important economic characters. Roguing for
off type plants as described for varieties should be done before flowering. Malformed and
diseased plants should be rogued from the field.
Harvesting: Maize ears can be harvested at relatively high moisture content (30-35%) if the
facilities of the artificial drying are available, otherwise reduce the moisture up to 15%.
Shelling:Shelling should be undertaken after the approval of seed certification agency. The
cobs are shelled either mechanically or manually at 15-18% moisture content.
Processing:After shelling the seeds are processed at processing plant.

Production of hybrid maize seed involves the following three steps
1. Maintenance of parental lines (Inbred).
2. Production of single cross (single cross).
3. Production of commercial hybrids (Three way cross, Double cross, Double top cross
hybrids.).
First two steps i.e. inbred line and single cross are referred as foundation seed and latter
i.e. three way cross, double cross, double top cross as certified seed.
FOUNDATION SEED PRODUCTION IN MAIZE:
The foundation seed production in maize includes maintenance of inbred lines and
single cross production.
A. Maintenance of inbred lines which is followed in the following manner
Land requirement: As per OP varieties seed production.
Isolation:
distance (m)
1. From any maize with same kernel colour and texture 400
2. If kernel colour and texture is different from that of seed parent 600
3. From the field of same variety not confirming to varietal purity
400
requirement for certification.
Differential blooming dates are permitted for modifying the isolation distance provided
5% or more plants do not have receptive silk.
1. Preparation of land: As per OP varieties seed production.
2. Time of sowing: As per OP varieties seed production.

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3. Source of seed: As per OP varieties seed production.

4. Method of sowing: It is sown with the help of a maize planter or is dibbled by hand in
furrows.
5. Spacing:As per OP varieties seed production.
6. Seed rate: 15 kg/ha
7. Fertilizers: As per OP varieties seed production.
8. Irrigation:As per OP varieties seed production.
9. Interculture: As per OP varieties seed production.
10. Plant protection:As per OP varieties seed production.
Roguing:Inbred line is relatively true breeding strain. So rigorous roguing for off type
plants before pollen shedding is very essential.
 Start removing distinctly tall and vigorous plants from the knee-height stage
 Rogue out off type plants at pre flowering stage, which are easily distinguishable on
the basis of characters such as plant height, leaf shape, size, etc.
 Rogue out different silk or tassel character plants during flowering stage.
 Final roguing of rot affected plants should also be done.
Harvesting: As per OP varieties seed production.
Shelling: As per OP varieties seed production.
Processing: As per OP varieties seed production.
Seed yield:Average seed yield varies from 6-8 qtl/ha.
B. Single Cross Production: The single cross seed is produced from inbred lines. It is the
result of crossing between two specified inbred lines. The seed is produced in the
following manner.
selected field should be free of volunteer maize plants and well drained. The well aerated,
loamy soil with high organic matter and neutral pH is best for maize growing.
Isolation: As per maintenance of inbred lines.
4. Method of sowing: For single cross seed production the sowing of two specified
inbreds are required. The precautions to be taken during sowing are as follows.
i) One inbred used as female parent and other as male parent.
ii) Planting ratio between male and female parent is 2:4.
iii) Mark male row at both ends for easy roguing and detasseling.
iv) Check the bags before putting them into planter.
6. Seed rate: Female parent inbred 10 kg/ha and male parent 5 kg/ha.
Roguing: As per maintenance of inbred lines.
Detasseling: Seed parent has to be detasseled, so that its silk will only be fertilized by the
pollen from the male parent. The detasseled parent is considered as female or seed parent and
other parent who furnishes the pollen is called pollen parent or male parent. The detasseling
should be done very carefully in following manner

22
 When to detassel? Tassel should be well out of the leaf sheath but before anther have
shed pollen. Every seed field should be carefully detasseled at uniform frequency
interval and should be in complete manner.
 Hold the stalk with the left hand and take a firm hold to the tassel in your right hand
and remove it by steady upward pull and throw on ground as you walk on.
 Grasp the entire tassel so that all pollen bearing parts are fully removed.
 Immature detasseling should be avoided.
 Do not hold the tassel too low on the stalk.
 Once detasseling starts in the field it must be repeated daily in all weather.
 In case of large field, start detasseling from the same side every day.
 Look out the tillers on female plants.
 A gentle shaking of the plant will reveal the tassel and enable the detasseler to grasp
the tassel.
Shelling:As per OP varieties seed production.
Seed yield:Average seed yield of single cross varies from 4-6 qtl/ha.
CERTIFIED SEED PRODUCTION IN MAIZE:
This is also called as commercial hybrid seed production. This is to be done by three
way cross, double cross, and double top cross.
selected field should be free of volunteer maize plant and well drained. The soil should be
well aerated and suitable for maize growing.
Isolation:
distance (m)
1. If kernel colour and texture is same as that of the seed parent. 200
2. If kernel colour is and texture is different from that of seed 300
parent.
3. From the maize of the same variety not confirming to varietal 200
purity requirement for certification.
4. From the field of other hybrids having common male parent 05
and confirming to varietal purity requirement for certification.
Differential blooming dates are permitted for modifying the isolation distance provided
5% or more plants do not have receptive silk.
4. Method of sowing: For single cross seed production the sowing of two specified inbreds
are required. The precautions to be taken during sowing are as follows.
i) One inbred used as female parent and other as male parent
ii) Planting ratio between male and female parent is 2:6
iii) Mark male row at both ends for easy roguing and detasseling.
iv) Check the bags before putting them into planter.
6. Seed rate: Female parent inbred 12-14 kg/ha and male parent 4-5 kg/ha.

23

Roguing: As per maintenance of inbred lines.
Detasselling:As per single cross seed production.
Shelling: As per OP varieties seed production.
Seed yield:Average seed yield of single cross varies from 10-25 qtl/ha.
4. RICE
VARIETAL SEED PRODUCTION
Land requirement:Land to be used forseed production should be free from volunteer plants
and well drained. The soil should be well aerated and suitable for sowing preferably clay
loam with pH of 6.5.
Isolation: Paddy is a self-pollinated crop with cross-pollination up to 0-4%. For pure seed
production the seed field must be isolated at least by 3m from other fields of paddy.
Brief cultural practices: Paddy can be grown directly or by transplanting. For seed
production, it is desirable to grow paddy under puddle and transplanting system, which is
described as follows.
Nursery:
1. Selection of land: Select the land where paddy crop was not grown in previous season to
avoid varietal admixture.
2. Time of sowing: For late maturing varieties 25th May to 10th June and that of early
duration varieties 10th to 25thJune.
3. Preparation of nursery bed:
 Pulverize the soil by repeated ploughing. Then flood the plot, puddle and leave for two
days with a thin layer of water.
 Prepare the bed of 6 x 1.50 m and allow 3-5cm of water to stand in the bed.
 About 50-60 beds are sufficient for raising the seedlings to transplant one hectare.
 Apply 450gm super phosphate, 5kg zinc sulphate + 2.5kg lime/ha dissolved in 1000 lit
water where Khaira disease is dominant.
5. Seed rate: 500-600 gm/bed (30-35 kg/ha) for coarse varieties and 400-500 gm/bed (25-30
kg/ha) for fine varieties.
6. Method of sowing: The seeds may be broadcasted as such or after sprouting in puddled
beds. Seeds may be sprouted by loosely packing in gunny bags and soaking them in water
for 16-20 hours. Seeds so soaked sprout in 16-20 hours after soaking.
7. After care: After care of nursery for 3-4 days to prevent birds damage is necessary. Drain
off excess water, if any, due to heavy rains.
8. Uprooting of seedlings: Seedlings are ready for transplanting after 3-4 weeks of sowing
depending upon the variety. Discard the weak, diseased or those seedlings differing in any
way from the usual characteristic seedling of the variety.
Transplanting and management of crop:
1. Preparation of land: Land is ploughed repeatedly (2-3 times) to obtain a fine tilth. A
ploughed field should be kept flooded for a week before transplanting.
2. Fertilization: 100-120 kg, 50-60kg and 50-60kg NPK, respectively. Apply whole P and K
and half N as basal dose and half N at just before final puddling and remaining half N at
mid tillering, panicle initiation stage.

24
3. Method of transplanting: Transplant 2-3 seedlings per hill.

4. Spacing: Shy tillering varieties: 10 x 10 cm; Other varieties: 20 x 10 cm and long duration
varieties: 20 x 15cm or 15 x 15cm.
5. Watermanagement: Allow 2.5-5 cm of water within a day of transplanting and maintain
water level till hard dough stage/harvesting. Irrigation should be given whenever
necessary.
• Stem borer:Carbofuran 3% granules @ 20 kg/ha or Phorate 10% granules @ 10kg/ha.
• Brown plant hopper, leaf hopper, leaf roller: Endosulphan 35 EC @ 1 lit/ha.
• Gundhi bug: Dust 25kg/ha, 10 % dust at the time of flowering.
• Blast: @ 0.5% Bordeaux mixture or @ 0.1 % Bavistin or M 45 -@ 0.25%.
• Bacterial leaf blight: Streptocycline @ 250ppm.
• Brown spot: Copper Oxychloride @ 0.25%
• Seedling blight: @ 0.1 % Bavistin
• Khaira: Soil application of Zinc sulphate @10kg/ha. or Spray 0.5% Zinc sulphate.
Roguing: Rogue out wild rice plants, plants infested by stem borer and diseased plants e.g.
plants affected by tungro virus and false smut from time to time as required. Rouge out
periodically off types, volunteer plants once prior to flowering and then at flowering and
maturity. The major roguing should be done just after flowering and the final when fields are
near maturity.
Harvesting: Harvesting of seed crop at correct stage is essential. Otherwise, seed yield will
be greatly reduced. If the seeds are harvested at premature stage, the seeds get shrunk (during
drying), thereby reducing the germination capacity. Delayed harvest results in discoloration
of seeds besides inviting pest and disease incidence. During maturity stage, 90 per cent of
seeds would have acquired straw colour and seed moisture content will be 17-20 per cent.
Seed yield:Average seed yield varies from 50-60 qtl/ha.

In India, work on hybrid rice started in 1989 by ICAR. This work was further
strengthened with the assistance from UNDP / FAO since 1991. In India, the first hybrid was
released in 1994 at TNAU, Coimbatore CORH 1 (MGR) and so far 16 hybrids have been
released including 3 from private sector. In Tamil Nadu, 3 hybrids were released (CORH 1,
CORH 2 and ADTRH 1). In India 2 million hectares are targeted to be covered with hybrid
rice during 2000 AD.
Methods of production of hybrid seed: Hybrid rice can be produced in the following ways
1. Three line system: Where three lines A, B and R lines are involved. The tool involves
cytoplasmic genic male sterility. In hybrid seed production programme, particularly in
breeder seed and foundation seed stages, “A” line is multiplied with the use of “B” line
and “R” line is multiplied as that of a variety in isolation. In certified seed production,
“A” line and “R” line are crossed to produce actual hybrid.
2. Two line system: The hybrid a seed production involves the use of photoperiod sensitive
genic male steriles (PGMS) and temperature-sensitive genic male steriles (TGMS). Any
normal line can serve as a restorer.
3. By using chemical emasculators:Chemical emasculators such as male gametocide 1
(MF1) and male gametocide 2 (MF2) were developed in China. These chemicals can
sterilize the stamen with little or no effect on the normal function of the pistil and hence
can be used to emasculate female parent for hybrid rice production. In hybrid seed
production two varieties are planted in alternate strips and one is chemically sterilized and

25
pollinated by the other. The advantage of this method is no special development of male
sterile or restorer line is required and extensive varietal resources are available.
HYBRID RICE SEED PRODUCTION TECHNOLOGY (THREE LINE SYSTEM)
Good crop management is necessary for raising a hybrid rice seed production crop
with following guidelines.
1. Choice of area and growing season: The most suitable condition is 24-280C day
average temperature and good sunshine, 70-80% relative humidity. An average day
temperature more than 300C or less than 230C, continuous rain, strong wind are generally
harmful to the flowering, pollination and cross fertilization. As a rule, in high
temperature with low humidity or in low temperature with high humidity some glumes
will not open. Hence, the growing of hybrid seed crop should be so adjusted that
flowering take place after the end of high temperature period but before the start of low
temperature period.
2. Selection of field: Field to be used forseed production shall be free of volunteer plants,
well leveled, fertile with good physical and chemical characteristics and well drained.
3. Isolation: Seed production field must be isolated 200 m and 100 m for foundation seed
class and certified seed class, respectively from other paddy field, including commercial
hybrids of same variety and variety not confirming to varietal purity requirements of
seed certification.
 Time isolation: Generally a time isolation of over 25 days is practiced. In other
words, the heading stage of varieties grown within 100 m around the seed production
field should be over by 25 days earlier or later than that of the CMS line.
 Barrier isolation: Topographic features like hills, wood lot, and vegetative barrier
like maize, sesbania, sugarcane etc. to a distance over 30 m and artificial obstacles
(plastic sheets above 2 m in height) will provide better isolation.
4. Brief cultural practices:
a. Source of seed: As per varietal seed production.
b. Method of sowing: Seedlings with healthy tillers are the basis for increased panicle
size. Seedlings of both parents should be standardized. The transplanting is done in
10:2 ratios. Two seedlings are panted per hill. Direction of the rows of both parents
are so adjusted that they both receive good aeration and equal amount of sunshine.
c. Layout for transplanting: To facilitate out-crossing, the rows of male and female in
the seed production plot should be perpendicular to the prevailing wind direction
expected at flowering time of the parents.
d. Spacing: 10 x 10 cm for male and 10 x 15 cm for female parent.
e. Seed rate: A line: 20 kg/ha; B and R lines: 10 kg/ha.
f. Fertilizers:200:50:150 kg/ha NPK; 90% as basal dose and 10% after panicle
differentiation.
g. Irrigation: Good water management is very important for regulating water, fertilizer,
air and temperature of the soil. Give shallow irrigation at the transplanting and
tillering stage.
h. Interculture: As per varietal seed production.
i. Plant protection:As per varietal seed production.
5. Roguing: As per varietal seed production.
6. Harvesting: As per varietal seed production.
7. Seed yield: Average seed yield varies from 4-6 qtl/ha.
Synchronization of flowering: Synchronized flowering of both parents is the key to increase
the yields. As the seed set on CMS line depends on cross pollination, it is most important to

26
synchronize the heading date of the male and female parents, especially for the hybrid
combinations having parents with quite different growth duration. In addition, in order to
extend the pollen supply time, the male parent is usually seeded twice or thrice at an interval
of 4-5 days.
The following 3 methods can be used to determine the differences in seedlings date for
synchronization between male and female parents.
1. Growth Duration Difference (GDD) method.
2. Leaf Number Difference (LND) method.
3. Effective Accumulated Temperature (EAT) method.
Among these 3 methods though the LND method is more reliable one, the GDD
method is mostly followed since it is rather simple and easy to adopt. In GDD method, by
checking the previous data on the difference in duration from seedling to heading between
male and female parents, the proper seeding date of both parents in current season can be
determined. This method is suitable in seasons or regions where the temperature fluctuation is
small.
Transplanting of the 'R' line:Transplant the seedlings of ' R' line in paired rows of 30 cm
apart. In case of 2 staggered seedlings of R line, the first and second sown R line seedlings
may be planted in two separate rows at 15 cm spacing or the 1st sown seedlings may be
planted in both the rows with 30 cm spacing and 2nd sown seedlings may be planted in the
middle of two seedlings in both rows. Whereas in three staggered seedlings of R line all the
seedlings may be pulled out separately, mixed together thoroughly by spreading one over the
other and planted in the two paired rows @ 2-3 seedlings/hill with 15 cm spacing within the
rows. It is more convenient, easy and labour saving method incase of large scale seed
production. By proper synchronization, higher seed set and yield have been recorded in 3
staggered seedlings of R line. Leave a 145 cm or 110 cm wide block between paired rows of
R line seedlings for transplanting 8 rows of “A” line seedlings.
Row ratio, row direction, spacing and planting pattern for hybrid rice seed production.
R R A A A A A A A A R R
  x x x x x x x x  
  x x x x x x x x  
  x x x x x x x x  
  x x x x x x x x  
  x x x x x x x x  
  x x x x x x x x  
  x x x x x x x x  
  x x x x x x x x  
  x x x x x x x x  
  x x x x x x x x  
R R A A A A A A A A R R
30 cm 20 cm 15 cm 30 cm
Wind direction Male: Female ratio: 2:8
Transplanting of the 'A' line:
Transplant the ' A' line seedlings in blocks of 8 rows in between the paired rows of ' R'
line seedlings. Transplant with one or two seedlings/hill with inter and intra row spacing of
15 x 15 cm in 145 cm wide block or 10 x 15 cm in 110 cm wide block according to the
fertility of field. Leave a 20 cm spacing between the ' A' line rows and the nearest ' R' line
rows.

27
5. BAJARA
Methods of seed production: It is a highly cross-pollinated crop. The pollinating agent is
wind. The flowers are protogynous. In bajara, open pollinated varieties, synthetics,
composites and hybrids are available.
1. Varieties: The seed of OP varieties is produced by open pollination under isolation.
2. Hybrids: Hybrids are produced using cytoplasm genic male sterility. The first hybrid HB
1 was released in 1965 by CGMS technique. Other released hybrids are KM1, KM2, NHB 3,
HB1, HB3, HB5, etc.
3. Synthetics: Synthetic varieties are produced by combining more than 5 parental lines
having good general combining ability e.g. CO7, ICMS 7703
4. Composite: Composite varieties are produced by mixing and multiplying 3-5 inbreds with
no general combining ability tested e.g. WCC 75 (ICRISAT), K3.

Land requirement:Land to be used forseed production should be free from volunteer plants
and well drained. The soil should be well aerated and suitable for sowing. Seed field offered
for certification should not have been grown with bajara in the previous season.
Isolation: Seed production field must be isolated 400 m and 200 m for foundation seed class
and certified seed class, respectively from other varieties and the same variety not
confirming to varietal purity requirements of seed certification.
1. Preparation of land: One to two ploughing followed by 2-3 harrowing and leveling is
2. Time of sowing: Kharif : Second fortnight of July
Rabi : Mid-October to mid-December (Southern state).
4. Method of sowing:a) Direct sowing: It is advisable to sow the crops in lines 50 cm apart
with the help of desi plough at the moisture zone. b) Transplanting: This method is most
ideal in areas where there is late onset of monsoon and timely sowing becomes difficult.
The seed is sown in raised nursery and healthy, disease free seedlings are transplanted
after 15 to 21 days on any rainy day.
5. Seed rate: a) Direct sowing: 3.5-5 kg/ha and b) Transplanting: 1.5 kg/ha.
6. Thinning: After about fortnight preferably on any rainy day the plants should be adjusted
at 10 cm apart in rows and gaps filled through transplanting.
7. Fertilizers:
Compost : 12.5ton/ha
NPK : 100 : 50 : 50 kg/ha
Basal : 50 : 50 : 50 N P K kg/ha
Top : 50 kg N/ha (30-35 days-tillering phase)
Foliar spray : DAP 1% solution is sprayed at peak flowering stage to enhance
uniformflowering and increased seed set.
8. Irrigation: Irrigate crop when needed. Adequate moisture must be ensured at tillering
and flowering, both being critical stage.
10. Plant protection: Protection against pest and disease is very important for seed crop.
Hence, to control the pests and diseases, follow the recommended control measures as
and when necessary.
Pest control:

28
• White grub and Shootfly: Phorate granules 10% and 5% disulphoton at 25-50 kg/ha
respectively at the time of sowing.
• Red hairy caterpillar: 10% BHC dust @ 15-20 kg/haduring growth period.
• Midge and Blister beetle: Carbaryl 50% W.P. @ 3 kg/ha in 600 lit of water with 2 %
Malathion using 15kg dust/ha during flowering and grain formation period.
Diseases control:
 Ergot: This is most important objectionable disease of bajara. Recommended practices
to prevent spread of ergot is as follows
o Deep ploughing after the harvest of previous season bajara crop.
o Spray eras with Zirum 0.15% or mixture of copper oxychloride and Zineb (dithane Z
78) in 1:2 ratio.
o Remove the first ear observed with honey dew.
o Burn all the heaps of eras especially from the infected fields.
o Adjust the sowing time to avoid flowering coinciding with continued cloudy or wet
weather.
 Smut: Seed treatment of thiram.
 Greenear: Zineb 1200 gm/ha.
Roguing: Roguing should be done periodically to remove off types, volunteer plants based
on the following guidelines
Crop Stage Rogues to be removed
1. Before flowering stage Plants differing in height, leaf size and colour and stem colour
2. Flowering stage Early flowering and late flowering plants
3. Before harvesting stage Ergot disease infected plants and plants with deviant
morphological features
4. After harvesting stage Based on size, colour and shape, remove the off-type panicles.
Harvesting: Harvest the crop at appropriate stage. Otherwise, the whole of efforts made for
raising the seed will go in vain. Seeds harvested before full maturity will shrivel and become
small during drying that affects the germination capacity. If the harvest is delayed, seeds may
be damaged by pests and diseases leading to discolouration and seeds may also shed.
Threshing: During threshing, the moisture content of the seed must be around 15 to 18%. At
this moisture content, there will be less mechanical damage and seed injury. If the moisture
content is more or less than 15 to 18% during threshing, seed injury will occur. At high
moisture, the seed injury leads to fast deterioration of seed quality favouring fungal infection.
Drying: Threshed seeds should be dried immediately; otherwise it leads to decline in
germination capacity. Reduce the moisture content up to 10%. The seeds should be dried
under the sun between 8 a.m. to 12 noon and then 3 to 5 p.m.
Seed Processing: Seed processing is an operation by which all immature, wrinkled, broken
and small seeds as well as all physical impurities such as sand, stones, dust, other crop sees
and week seeds are removed. Processing machine should be thoroughly cleaned before
processing in order to avoid physical contamination.
Seed yield: Average seed yield varies from 15-20 qtl/ha.
Production of hybrid bajara seed involves the following steps:
a. Maintenance of parental lines viz., Male sterile line carrying cytoplasmic-genetic male
sterility (Line A); Maintainer line i.e. sister line of Line A, male fertile, non-pollen
restoring (Line B); and Restore line as male parent for the production of hybrid seed male
fertile pollen restoring (Line R).
b. Production of hybrid seeds: This involves crossing of male sterile line with restorer line.
First stage of increase i.e. maintenance of parental line is referred as foundation seed
production and the production of hybrid seed is referred to as certified seed production.

29
FOUNDATION SEED PRODUCTION OF BAJARA:

A. Maintenance of male sterile line (Line A):
Isolation: The male sterile line plot of bajara should be isolated from other bajara field or
fields of the same line not confirming the varietal purity requirements of certification at
least by 1000m.Differential blooming dates for modifying the isolation distance are not
permitted.
4. Method of sowing:
a. Planting ratio: The recommended planting ratio of male and female rows is 2:4
with 8 border rows of male parent on all sides of the field.
b. Direct method of sowing: Plants are sown by 75 x 20-22.5 cm distance.
c. Dibbling: Dibble 3-4 seeds by maintaining 75 x 20-22.5 cm distance. Later thin to
1-2 seedlings per hill.
d. Transplanting:The following points should be considered during nursery management
• Sow the seeds on the flat bed.
• The medium should be partially coarse and contain 4 part fine sand, 2 parts
pulverized loam, 450 gm ammonium sulphate, 450 gm super phosphate, 50 gm
thimet if required per 7.5 -10 sq. m.
• Soil temperature above 250C is desirable.
• Windbreaks should be present if the beds are taken outside area.
• Transplanting is done 10-25 days after sowing at 50-75 x 20-22.5 cm distance.
5. Seed rate: Female parent Male parent
a) Direct sowing 1.5 kg/ha 0.75 kg/ha
b) Transplanting 400-625 gm/ha. 200-300 gm/ha
6.Fertilizers: As per OP varieties seed production.
Roguing: As per OP varieties seed production.
Threshing: As per OP varieties seed production.
Drying: As per OP varieties seed production.
Seed Processing: As per OP varieties seed production.
B. Maintenance of male fertile Line (Line B) and Restorer line (Line R): The seeds of
maintainer line (Line B) and Restorer line (Line R) are produced in isolated fields in the
manner of open pollinate varieties.
CERTIFIED SEED PRODUCTION IN BAJARA:

This is the hybrid seed production by crossing male sterile line with specified restorer
line in an isolated field. The salient features of hybrid seed production are mentioned below:
Isolation: The seed plot of bajara should be isolated from other bajara field or fields of the
same variety not confirming the varietal purity requirements of certification at least by 200m
and by 5m from the fields having common male parent and confirming to varietal purity

30
requirement of certification. Differential blooming dates for modifying the isolation distance
are not permitted.
3. Synchronization: A moderate variation of blooming period, however, may not cause
serious difficulties as the pollinator parent generally has a tendency to develop secondary
nodal tillers which shed pollen for a long period. Further, flowering and maturity (i.e.
flowering in the early parent) can be delayed by a week or so by jerking the ear heads in
the first stage. This may be continued till the other parent starts reaching the boot stage.
5. Method of sowing: As per foundation seed production.
6. Seed rate: As per foundation seed production.
Roguing: As per OP varieties seed production.
Threshing: As per OP varieties seed production.
Drying: As per OP varieties seed production.
Seed Processing: As per OP varieties seed production.
Seed yield: As per foundation seed production.

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L-6.FOUNDATION AND CERTIFIED SEED PRODUCTION OF PULSES
1. PIGEON PEA
Land requirement:Land to be used forseed production should be free from volunteer plants.
Soil should be light, well drained with neutral pH.
Isolation: Pigeon pea is often cross pollinated crop. Seed production field must be isolated
200 m and 100 m for foundation seed class and certified seed class, respectively from fields
other varieties and the same variety not confirming to varietal purity requirements of seed
certification.
1. Preparation of land: Medium tillage followed by two harrowing is recommended.
2. Time of sowing: First week of June.
4. Method of sowing:Sowing is done either with seed drill or by plough in furrows. The
depth of seeding is 5 cm.
5. Spacing: Row to row - 60 to 75 cm and plant to plant – 20 to 30 cm.
6. Seed rate: 12-15 kg/ha.
7. Interculture: One to two weeding in early stages of crop growth are necessary to keep
seed field clean of weeds.
8. Plant protection:
• Cut worms: Apply 25 kg 10% BHC dust in the soil.
• Semilooper and pod borer: Spray the crop with endosulphan 35 EC at 1.25 lit/ha or
monocrotophos 36 EC/Quinalphos 25 EC @ 1 lit/ha at pod initiation at 15 days interval.
Roguing: The off typeplants and diseased plants affected by blight and wilt should be
removed from the seed field from time to time as required.
Harvesting and Threshing: Harvesting should be done when the seeds are fully matured. At
this stage, plants may be pulled by hand or cut with sickles and stacked in small heaps in the
field to dry for one to two weeks. Threshing is done with sticks on threshing floors. The seed
is winnowed and cleaned after threshing and dried to 8-10% moisture content. Every effort
should be made to avoid mechanical admixtures during these operations.
Seed yield: Average seed yield varies from 15-20 qtl/ha depending upon variety, soil and
crop management.
2. GREEN GRAM AND BLACK GRAM

Land requirement:Land to be used forseed production shall be free of volunteer plants.
Isolation: Green gram and black gram are self-pollinated crops. Therefore, an isolation of 10
m for foundation seed and 5 m for certified seed class from fields other varieties and the
same variety not confirming to varietal purity requirements of seed certification.
1. Preparation of land: One to two harrowing followed by leveling is sufficient.If crop is
taken after wheat or paddy, no preparation is necessary and seeding can be done after
giving one pre-sowing irrigation.
2. Time of sowing: Crop can be sown either in kharif, second week of February, soon after
wheat harvest in April or in rice fallow after paddy.

32
4. Method of sowing:The seed should be planted in rows.

5. Spacing:Kharif and Rabi crop: Row to row - 30 to 45 cm and plant to plant – 7 to 10 cm.
Spring and summer crop: Row to row - 20 to 25 cm and plant to plant – 7 to 10 cm.
6. Seed rate: Kharif and Rabi crop : 15 to 20 kg/ha.
Spring and summer crop : 25 to 30 kg/ha.
7. Fertilization: A basal application of 25 carts of FYM, 20 kg N and 35-40 kg P per hectare
is recommended for kharif season crop.
8. Irrigation: Frequent irrigation for the spring and summer crop is especially necessary.
The kharif crop normally does not require any irrigation. One to two irrigation may be
required if there is prolonged dry period.
9. Interculture: One to two weeding and hoeing may be done. Spraying of 1 kg treflan in
1000 lit of water/ha on the soil at the time of final preparation is recommended.
• Aphids and white fly: Spray625 ml metasystox in 625 lit of water/ha at the interval of
15-20 days.
• Caterpillars and pod borers:Dust 10% sevin or folidol @ 25 kg/ha.
• Anthracnose and Cercospora:Spray copper oxychloride 1.25 kg to 2.50 kg in 625 lit of
water.
• Dry rot: Drench the soil with copper oxychloride @ 5 kg/ha in 250 lit of water.
• Powdery mildew: Dust 25 kg fine sulphur/ha or spray 2.5 kg wettable sulphur or benlate
150g/ha.
• Rust: Spray 2.5 kg wettable sulphur/ha or dust 2.5 kg fine Sulphur at 15 days interval.
Roguing: The off typeplants and severely diseased plants should be removed from the seed
field from time to time as required.
Harvesting and Threshing: For summer and spring crop, start picking when pods turn
black.In kharif crop, start harvesting when most of the pods have turned black. The threshing
can be done by hand to avoid injury toseeds. After threshing and cleaning, the seeds should
be dried to 9% moisture before storage.
Seed yield: Green gram : 8 to 10 qtl/ha.
Black gram : 10 to 15 qtl/ha.
3. CHICK PEA OR GRAM

Land should be light and well drained.
Isolation: Gram is a self-pollinated crop. An isolation of 10 m for foundation seed and 5 m
for certified seed class from fields other varieties and the same variety not confirming to
varietal purity requirements of seed certification.
1. Preparation of land: Land should not be ploughed to fine tilth. The soil should be opened
and be allowed some time for aeration.
2. Time of sowing: The best time of sowing is the third and fourth week of October.
4. Method of sowing:The seed should be sown in rows by drilling. The depth of seeding
should be 7 to 10 cm.
5. Spacing: Kabuli varieties: Row to row - 45 to 60 cm.
Desi varieties : Row to row - 30 to 40 cm.
6. Seed rate: 55 to 100 kg/ha depending upon the seed size.

33
7. Fertilization: A basal application of 10 carts of FYM, 15-20 kg N and 50 kg P per

hectare. Seed treatment with rhizobium culture is recommended. Foliar application of 0.2
to 0.3% diammoniumphosphate once after 30 days of sowing and again at the flowering
stage has been found very useful.
8. Irrigation: One presowing irrigation and subsequent one to two light irrigations at 45 to
75 days of crop growth should be given.
9. Interculture: One to two weedings in early stages of crop growth are necessary to keep
seed field clean of weeds.
10.Plant protection:
• Cut worms: Apply 25 kg 10% BHC dust in the soil.
• Semilooper and pod borer: Spray the crop with endosulphan 35 EC at 1.25 lit/ha or
monocrotophos 36 EC/Quinalphos 25 EC at 1 lit/ha at pod initiation at the interval of 15
days.
Roguing: The off typeplants and diseased plants affected by blight and wilt should be
removed from the seed field from time to time as required.
Harvesting and Threshing: Harvesting should be done when the seeds are fully matured. At
this stage, plants may be pulled by hand or cut with sickles and stacked in small heaps in the
field to dry for one to two weeks. Threshing is done with sticks on threshing floors. The seed
is winnowed and cleaned after threshing and dried to 8-10% moisture content. Every effort
should be made to avoid mechanical admixtures during these operations.
Seed yield: Average seed yield varies from 15-20 qtl/ha depending upon variety, soil and
crop management.

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L-7.FOUNDATION AND CERTIFIED SEED PRODUCTION OF OIL SEED
1. SOYBEAN
The field should be well drained.
Isolation: Soybean is a self-pollinated crop. An isolation of 3 m from other fields of soybean
is sufficient to maintain genetic purity for foundation and certified seed production.
1. Preparation of land: Seed field should be prepared to the fine tilth by deep ploughing and
two to three harrowings followed by levelling.
2. Time of sowing: The best time of sowing is the first fortnight of July.
4. Inoculation of seed:Inoculation of seeds with soybean culture (peat culture or soil
culture) is important when crop is grown on new soil.
• Inoculation with peat culture: Dissolve 100 gm sugar in 1 lit of water and boil it for 15
min. Cool and sprinkle this solution over soybean seeds, dust with the peat culture and
mix thoroughly. Half kg of peat culture is sufficient for one hectare.
• Inoculation with soil culture: Prepare sugar solution as mentioned above. Prepare
slurry by mixing soil culture with sugar solution and mix it well with the seed.
5. Method of sowing:The seed should be sown in rows with a seed drill. The depth of
seeding should be 2 to 3 cm in field having optimum soil moisture. Seeding up to 4 cm
depth can be done on light soils.
6. Spacing: Row to row - 45 to 60 cm and plant to plant – 4 to 5 cm.
7. Seed rate: 65 to 70 kg/ha.
8. Fertilization: Apply 20-25 kg N, 80-100 kg P and 30-40 kg K per hectare at the time of
sowing. Spray zinc sulphate and lime mixture on the crop in case of zinc deficiency.
9. Irrigation:Irrigate the crop as and when required. There should be adequate moisture in
the soil, particularly during flowering, seed development and the maturation stage to
obtain high yields. Therefore, one to two irrigations in the month of September may be
necessary.
10. Interculture: Two to three hand weedings or the use of weedicide lasso @ 4 kg/ha helps
to obtain good seed yield.
• Yellow mosaic: Spray a mixture of 0.1% malathion and 0.1% metasystox on 20th, 30th,
40th, and 50th day after sowing. Replace malathion by thiodan if hairy caterpillar is a
problem
• Rust: Spray 2.5 kg dithane Z-78/ha once on the 60th day and repeat the spray once
more 10 days later.
Roguing: Remove plants affected by yellow mosaic virus and soybeanmosaic virus as soon
as they appear, so as to check the further spread up to first two to three weeks. Continue
removal of plants affected by soybeanmosaic up to last. At flowering stage remove off-type
plants on the basis of plant characters and flower colour. At maturity, rogue out off-types on
the basis of pod characters.
Harvesting and Threshing: Harvesting should be promptly done when the pods have lost
their green colour and seed has become hard in order to avoid seed shattering and field
deterioration. After few days of drying when the seed moisture reaches 13-15% the crop
should be threshed either by tractor treading or by multi-crop thresher.
Seed yield: Average seed yield varies from 20-25qtls/ha.

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2. SUNFLOWER
Land requirement: Seed field should not have sunflower crop in the previous year, unless it
is the same variety and certified by the seed certification agency for its purity. The seed field
should have good drainage and the soil should be deep, fertile and with neutral pH.
Isolation requirement: Sunflower is a cross pollinated crop. The extent of natural cross
pollination varies from 17-62% according to insect activity. The seed fields must be isolated
by at least 400 m for foundation seed class and 200 m for certified seed class from fields of
other varieties, same varieties not confirming to varietal requirement and wild sunflower.
1. Preparation of land: One deep ploughing, two to three harrowings followed by levelling
are adequate to prepare the field to the desired tilth.
2. Time of sowing: Sunflower is not a season bound crop. Its sowing should be so adjusted
that the maturity of the crop does not coincide with the rains. Rains at maturity period
adversely affect the seed quality.
4. Method of sowing:The crop should be sown in rows with a seed drill. The depth of
seeding should be 2 to 4 cm.
5. Spacing: Row to row - 60 cm and plant to plant – 20 cm.
6. Seed rate: 8 to 10 kg/ha.
7. Fertilization: 80:40:40 kg NPK/ha. At the time of planting apply50 kg N and the whole
quantity P and K as a basal dose and remaining 30 kg N at the time of earthing i.e. after
40-45 days of crop growth.
8. Irrigation:Presowing irrigation is necessary in the spring to summer and desirable for
rabi sowing for uniform germination and better stand. In rabi, two irrigations are
necessary for higher yields and in kharif, one irrigation between the flowering and grain
filling stages must be applied if necessary.
9. Weeding and interculture: One to two weedings during the first six weeks after
germination are necessary. Thereafter, growth rate is high and the crop covers the ground
and smothers most of the weeds.
10. Earthing: Earthing around 48 days after sowing is highly desirable to avoid lodging.
About 10 to 15 cm high earthing is sufficient.
• Alternaria blight: Spray 0.25% dithane M-45 or dithane Z-78 at 1-2 weeks interval.
• Cut worms: Mix 5% heptachlor dust in soil @ 15 kg/ha.
• Head borer and Jassids: One to two sprays of 0.025% metasystox 25EC.
Number of field inspection: A minimum of three field inspection should be done. First
inspection should be made at the stage of 6-7 pairs of leaves are present to check isolation,
volunteer plants and designated diseases, etc. Second inspection shall be made during
flowering to check isolation, off types and other relevant factors. Third inspection shall be
made at maturity prior to harvest to verify designated diseases, true nature of plant, head and
seed.
Rouging: Generally two to three rouging are necessary. First rouging should be done at pre-
flowering stage and other rouging during flowering stage. Before flowering remove tall, very
early and very late flowering plants, branched plants with multiple heads and diseased plants.
At maturity remove off types, diseased plants and wild sunflower plants, plants affected by
wilt, charcoal rot, blight, etc. Sunflower continues to shed viable pollen even after removal
from stalks. Therefore, the heads should be thrown on the ground with face downward
towards the soil.

36
Supplementary pollination: Supplementary pollination is done by gently rubbing the bare

palm or palm covered with a muslin cloth on the heads, so that all the flowers will be
fertilized and increases seed setting. It can also be done by placing the bee-hives on the field
periphery or on blank strips approximately at 200 m intervals has been found beneficial for
cross pollination and seed set.
Harvesting and threshing: Sunflower should be harvested when the back side of the head
turns to lemon yellow in colour or top leaves are dry and flowers are shriveled. The heads are
removed from the plants by cutting with shears or knife and dried in sun for a couple of days.
Then threshing is done by gently beating with sticks or by rubbing heads on the metal sheet.
Threshed seeds must be dried to 8-9% moisture before storage.
Seed yield: Depending up on the variety and management practices adopted the seed yield
may be around 15 qtl/ha.

In Sunflower hybrid seed is produced by using cytoplasmic genetic male sterile
system. The source of cytoplasm used is Helianthus peteolaris. Hybrid seed production
involves two steps
1. Maintenance of parental lines (A-line, B-line and R -line).
2. Commercial hybrid seed production (A x R).
Maintenance of parental lines is generally referred as foundation seed production and
hybrid seed production as certified seed class. The A-line can be maintained by crossing with
B-line in an isolated plot, while in hybrid seed production A-line is crossed with R-line or
fertility restorer line. The B-line and the R-line can be maintained just like normal varieties
by following the required isolation and field standards. As the maintenance of B-line and R-
line is just like normal varieties it is not discussed in detail.
Seed Production of B-line and R-line: The seed is produced in an isolated plot and it is
similar to seed production of open pollinated varieties. However, the isolation distance
required and the field standards are similar to that of maintenance of A -line.
Maintenance of A-line or Hybrid seed Production (A x R):
Isolation requirement: The seed fields must be isolated by 600 m for maintenance of A line
and 400 m for hybrid seed production (A x R) from other sunflower fields, incase of same
line seed fields not confirming to varietal purity requirements of certification and from wild
sunflower species.
Planting ratio: The proportion of female (A-line) and male line (B or R-line) should be 3:1
with two border rows of male parents on the sides of seed production plot.
Brief cultural practices: The success in hybrid seed production depends on synchronization
of flowering between male and female parent. For maintenance of A-line synchronization of
flowering will not be a problem as both A and B-lines are isogenic lines and come to
flowering at the same time, while in hybrid seed production synchronization will be a
problem as A-line and R-line have different genetic constitution. If there is any difference
between the male and female parent for days to flowering, the sowing dates should be
adjusted for proper synchronization of flowering. The seed rate required is 7.5 kg/ha of A-
line and 2.5 kg/ha of B or R-line. Other cultural practices are same as described for open
pollinated varieties.
Roughing: Rouging should be done in both male and female parental line to remove the
volunteer plants and off types. During flowering period roughing should be done daily to
remove the pollen shedders from female parent in the morning hours before the bee activity
starts. Precautions to be taken while rouging;

37
1. Start rouging before off types, volunteers and pollen shedders in female rows start
shedding pollen.
2. Remove plants with pink or purple coloured center in the heads. As the cultivated
forms have greenish yellow in the center.
3. Remove plants showing branching and multi-floret types.
4. Remove diseased plants and plants which are too early or too late in flowering.
5. Before threshing remove the heads with white seeds or seeds with prominent white
streaks.
Number of field inspections: A minimum of four field inspections should be conducted. The
first field inspection should be conducted before flowering stage, second and third during
flowering stag and fourth before harvesting. During the first field inspection verification
should be done for volunteer plants, isolation requirement, errors in planting and the actual
acreage sown. During the second and third field inspection verification should be done for
isolation requirement, off types, diseased plants, pollen shedders and objectionable weed
plants. Actual counts should be taken during second or third field inspection. Fourth or final
field inspection should be done to verify for all the above factors and the off types can be
identified based on panicle or seed characters.
Supplementary Pollination:
a. Hand pollination: Rub the palm with muslin cloth on the male parental line and then on
female parent so as to transfer the pollen from male to female parent during peak
flowering time. This is to be repeated daily during the flowering period in the morning
hours.
b. Bee Hives: Bee hives may be kept at 200 m distance at 3-4 places in the field to increase
bee activity.
Harvesting and threshing: Harvest the male parent first and remove them from the field to
avoid mechanical mixtures. Then harvest the female rows. Harvesting and threshing will be
same as that of OP varieties.
Seed Yield: Depending on the inbred line and the management practices adopted seed yield
may be in the range of 4-5 qtl/ha.
3. SAFFLOWER
Land requirement: Land to be used for seed production shall be free of volunteer plants.
Selected field must be well drained and in preceding two years the safflower crop was not
taken.
Isolation requirement: Safflower is often cross pollinated crop. The minimum isolation
of400 m for foundation seed and 200 m for certified seed from fields of other varieties of
safflower or from the same varieties not confirming to varietal requirement of safflower.
1. Preparation of land: One to two harrowings followed by levelling are sufficient to bring
the seed fields to the desired tilth.
2. Time of sowing: The best time of sowing seed crop is October.
4. Method of sowing:The crop should be sown in rows either by hand or with the help of a
corn planter. The depth of seeding should not be more than 5 cm.
5. Spacing: Row to row –45 to 60 cm.
6. Seed rate: 8 kg/ha.
7. Manuring: Basal application of 10-25 kg N and 30-50 kgP/ha and top dressing of 10-25
kg N/ha at the time of flowering results in substantial increase in seed yield.

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8. Irrigation:After weeding and hoeing one or two irrigations improves seed yield. Irrigation
is more important at bud stage. Late irrigation or too much nitrogen delays harvesting.
9. Weeding and interculture: One to two weedings combined with hoeing when the crop is
3 weeks and 6-7 weeks old are necessary to keep seed field weed free.
• Aphids: Spray 0.1% fenithion.
• Thrips: Spray0.03% dimathoate.
• Safflower bud fly: Spray0.07% endosulphan.
• Bacterial blight:Spray 500 ppm streptocycline.
Rouging: Best time to remove off-type plants is just before the spines appear. All off types
including those of collar are removed. Most common varieties have yellow or orange flowers
but some have red or white ones.
Harvesting and threshing: Safflower should be harvested when the seed heads dry and rubs
out easily in the hand. Late harvesting is undesirable as germination may be reduced by late
rains. The plants are either cut or pulled out and stacked for a few days to dry. The moisture
content should be brought down to 8% or less. Threshing is done by beating dried stalks with
sticks. Then seeds are cleaned by winnowing.
Seed yield: 400-500 kg/ha.
4. GROUNDNUT
Land requirement: Select fields on which groundnut was not raised in the previous two
seasons, unless the variety was same and the crop in the previous two seasons were certified.
Seed field should be well drained with sandy loam soil rich in humus content.
Isolation requirement: Groundnut is a self-pollinated crop. Hence, an isolation of 3 m from
other fields of groundnut is considered sufficient for pure seed production.
1. Preparation of land: One ploughing and threetp four harrowings followed by levelling
brings the field to the desired tilth for planting.
2. Time of sowing: Mid-June to first week of July.
certification agency. Seed should be treated with mercurial fungicides.
4. Method of sowing: The sowing should be done in lines either behind the plough or by
seed planter at the depth of 5-8 cm depending upon soil type and moisture conditions.
Spacing: Row to row –45 to 60 cm (spreading varieties) and 30 cm (bunchy varieties).
Plant to plant – 10 to 15 cm (both for spreading and bunchy varieties).
5. Seed rate: Spreading types – 60 to 80 kg/ha depending upon seed size.
Bunchy types – 80 to 100 kg/ha depending upon seed size.
6. Fertilization: 20:50-80:30-40 kg NPK/ha.
7. Irrigation:Being a kharif crop, groundnut usually does not require irrigation. However, in
situations of prolonged drought one to two irrigations may be necessary. Adequate
moisture supply at flowering, seed development and maturation is necessary to obtain
higher seed yields.
8. Weeding and interculture: The two weedings are necessary, i.e. firstwhen crop is two to
three weeks old (flowering stage) and second at peg penetration in soil. The use of
herbicides prometrin lasso (1-2 kg a.i. in 500-600 lit water/ha) immediately after sowing is
found to be useful. Earthing may also be done to facilitate penetration of pegs into the soil
for bunch and semi-spreading types.
• Caterpillar: Spray 0.5% thiodan 35 E.C. (800 lit water/ha).
• Aphids: Spray metasystox 25 E.C. (1 lit dissolved in 1000 lit water/ha).

39
• Grubs: Apply 10% carbofuran granules (12 kg/ha) at the time of sowing or dust 1%
lindane (40-60 kg/ha).
• Tikka: Spray 0.075% dithane M-45 three to four times soon after the symptoms appear
at the interval of 15 days.
Rouging: Easily distinguishable off-type plants on the basis of plant size, colour of leaflets,
flower colour, etc. and diseased plants affected by rosette, mosaic and root rot, etc. should be
removed from time to time as required.
Harvesting and threshing: The crop is ready for harvesting when leaves start yellowing and
fall down. At this stage the pods become reticulated and within it the seed is separated from
the shell. The plants could be either pulled or dug out and left in the field for 2-3 days for sun
drying. Threshing is done either by hand picking or with the help of suitable machines. After
threshing, the pods should be further sun dried for 3-4 days to reduce the seed moisture
content up to 8-9%. The shelling of pods should be done with sufficient care so as to prevent
chipping and nicking. After shelling and cleaning, the seeds should be stored in a cool dry
place.
Seed yield: Average seed yield varies from 15 to 20qtl/ha.
5. COTTON
SEED PRODUCTION OF COTTON VARIETY
Land requirement: The land should be deep, well drained, moisture retentive and fertile.
Black cotton soils are highly preferable than other soils. Land should be free from volunteer
plants and designated diseases especially the wilt disease.
Isolation: Cotton is often cross pollinated crop. The natural cross pollination to the extent of
10-50% has been recorded in various species. For cotton seed production only one variety at
a farm is a highly desired practice. In India, minimum isolation distance of 50 mfor
foundation seed and 30 m for certified seed production, from fields of other varieties of the
same species, other species and field of the same variety not confirming to varietal purity
requirements for certification, is necessary.
1. Preparation of land: The land should be ploughed deep and harrowed 2-3 times followed
by leveling to make it pulverized and leveled.
2. Time of Sowing: About one week or more earlier than the usual date of onset of monsoon.
3. Source of Seeds: Obtain breeder/foundation seed from a source approved by seed
certification agency. Seed should be treated with mercurial fungicides.
4. Acid delinting/seed treatment: For delinting one kg of fuzzy seed 100 ml of concentrated
sulphuric acid is required. Take empty plastic bucket or enamel bucket and pour the acid
uniformly over the seeds. Then stir vigorously and constantly with a wooden stick for 2-3
minutes till the fuzz sticking to the seeds is completely digested and the seed coat attains a
dark brown colour of coffee powder. Then wash the seeds with water for 5-6 times to
remove all the traces of the acid. The entire ill-filled, damaged insect attacked, diseased,
broken, very small and immature seeds that are floating are to be removed. The good, well
filled and healthy seeds that remain at the bottom of the bucket alone should be taken.
Treat acid delinted seeds with bavistin or thiram or captan @ 2 g/kg of seeds. Sow the
seeds after 24 hours of treatment.
5. Method of Sowing: The sowing should be done by dibbling 2 to 3 seeds per hill.
6. Spacing: Row to Row : 75 to 90 cm
Plant to Plant : 30 - 45 cm.
7. Seed rate: American cotton : 12-16kg/ha
Deshi cotton : 15-25 kg/ha
8. Fertilizer: FYM 15-25 cart-loads before opening of ridges,

40
50:50:50 NPK kg/ha as a basal dose.

25 N Kg/ha as top dress at 60 and 90 DAS.
Basal application of fertilizers is alone not sufficient. To get well-filled, vigorous
seeds, crop needs nutrients at different stages especially through foliage. Spraying of 1%
DAP at 70, 80 and 90 DAS, gives good well filled quality seeds with more seed recovery.
9. Irrigation:
 Irrigate immediately after sowing and give second irrigation 4 days after sowing.
 Depending upon the soil type and climatic conditions irrigate the crop once in a 15 -
20 days.
 Heavy irrigation during flowering period should be avoided.
 Give light irrigation after each picking.
10. Gap filling: Gap filling should be done within 10 days of sowing.
11. Thinning:Thin out the seedling and allow only one healthy seedling per hill. Thinning
should be done within 15 days after sowing.
12. Interculture: Keeping the seed plot free of weeds is must.
13. Plant protection: A number of insect, pests and diseases affect the crop. Important
among them are jassids, thrips, aphids, mites, spotted boll worms, pink boll worm, and
American boll worm, etc.
Roguing: Adequate and timely rouging is extremely important in seed production. They
should be removed at the earliest possible date before flowering. It is wise to remove the
whole plant and not just the flower by hand. Sometimes there may be differences in crop
growth, variation in height, flowering duration and maturation, etc. some plants flower very
early and some pants flower very late.
Harvesting/Picking:
 Start picking when balls are fully mature i.e. when ball begins to open..
 Early harvest results in the production of more shriveled and low viable seeds.
 Late harvest results in rancidity of seed oil and lost its viability very quickly.
 Once in week the opened bolls are harvested for two to three months.
 Harvest only in the morning hours upto 10 to 11 a.m. When there is moisture so that
dry leaves and bracts do not stick to the kapas and lower the market value.
 Remove only the kapas from the bolls and leave the bracts on the plants itself.
 Kapas is sorted manually to pick good quality seeds. Hard locks are to be removed
(Kapas without proper bursting and lint is light yellow in colour), since these kapas
mostly result in poor quality seeds, due to boll worm or other insect attack.
 Bolls spoiled due to rains or damaged by insects should be picked separately and are
not used for seed purpose.
Ginning:
 Ginning has a big role in cotton seed quality. Ginning of cotton seed should be done on
one variety gins or gins approved by the certification agency.
 The ginning machinery must be thoroughly cleaned before ginning the seed crop.
 In ginning the cotton should be subjected to a minimum amount of machining to
minimize the mechanical damage.
 Gin only cotton with moisture content of 6 to 8.5% at the feeder apron.
 Gin saw should be inspected frequently and relaced before they are reduced more than
1/16th inch in diameter.
 If possible use no more than one saw-type lint cleaner.
 After ginning, the seeds should be dried well and cleaned by hand picking.
Seed drying:

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a. After ginning seeds should be dried immediately. While drying under sun the seeds
should be dried between 8 am to 12 noon and 3 pm to 5 pm only.
b. Continuous drying should be avoided. A gap should be given between two continuous
drying.
Yield: Average yield of seed cotton varies from 3 to 6 qtl/ha.
SEED PRODUCTION OF COTTON HYBRID

Land requirement: As per varietal seed production.
Isolation:As per varietal seed production.
Brief cultural practices
1. Preparation of land: As per varietal seed production.
2. Time of Sowing: As per varietal seed production.
3. Source of Seeds: As per varietal seed production.
4. Acid delinting/seed treatment:As per varietal seed production.
5. Method of Sowing:
 Sow the female and male seeds in a planting ratio of 4:1 or 5:1.
th
 The first 4/5 of the total rows of the plot is reserved for the sowing of the female
parent and the remaining 1/5th rows are reserved for sowing of male parent.
 Sowing of male parents is done in 2-3 installments at an interval of 8-10 days for
synchronization.
6. Spacing: Row to Row : 150 cm
Plant to Plant : 100 cm (for female) and 50 cm (for male)
7. Seed rate: Female : 3.75 kg/ha
Male : 2.5 kg/ha
8. Fertilizer: As per varietal seed production.
9. Irrigation:As per varietal seed production.
10. Gap filling: As per varietal seed production.
11. Thinning: As per varietal seed production.
12. Interculture:As per varietal seed production.
13. Plant protection:As per varietal seed production.
Hybridization: In cotton both inter and intraspecific hybrids are available.
A. Interspecific Hybrid:
Varalakshmi : Lakshmi x SB298 E (G. hirsutum x G. barbadense)
DCH 32 / Jayalakshmi: DS 28 x SB 425 (G. hirsutum x G. barbadense)
TCHB213 : TCH 1218 x TCB 209
B. Intraspecific hybrid: Suguna, Savitha (T7 x M12)
Cotton hybrid seed production method is different from the hybrid seed production
methods of other crops. The hybrid cotton seed is produced by hand pollination.The
technique involved is emasculation and dusting.
Emasculation and dusting:
 The emasculation is done in the female line.
 At the time of flowering, select the flower buds for emasculation in female line which
will open on next day.
 Remove calyx, corolla and androecium without damaging the stigma and style; cover
the emasculated flowers with red colour paper bag to avoid cross pollination.
 Emasculation should be done in the evening between 3.00 - 6.00 pm in all the selected
flowers.
 Next day morning remove the red cover and dust the stigmas emasculated flowers with
pollen collected from male line in between 9.00 a.m. to 12.00 noon. Dust the pollen
uniformly on all the sides of stigma.

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 Cover the dusted flower with white colour paper bag.

 Pollen collected from one male plant is sufficient to dust 5 female flowers.
 Remove all the opened flowers in the next day morning i.e. before dusting (not dusted
flower buds) immediately to avoid admixtures.
Steps necessary for efficient seed production:
1. Emasculate and dust as far as possible buds appearing during the first six weeks of
reproduction phase to ensure good setting and development of bolls.
2. Restrict your emasculation each day evening from 3 pm to 6.pm and pollination in
morning between 9-12 noon to ensure highest purity of hybrid seeds. Emasculation
should be complete and perfect.
3. Choose optimum size of bud and avoid young or too old buds for emasculation.
4. Cover the male buds with paper bags in previous evening for their use on the next day.
5. Emasculated buds may be covered preferably with butter papers.
6. Do not forget to tie a thread to the pedicel of the bud immediately after pollination.
7. Close your crossing programme after 9th week (from commencement of crossing) and
remove all buds and flowers appearing subsequently to facilitate the development of
crossed bolls.
8. Nip the top and side shoots to stop further vertical and horizontal growth.
9. Light irritations should be given as and when required. Excessive or scanty or
inadequate irrigations should be avoided especially during crossing and boll
development period.
10. Continue irrigation till last picking of the crossed bolls. Frequency of irrigation
depends on weather factors like rainfall, temperature and wind velocity.
Picking of hybrid seed:
1. Pick up the ripe and completely opened bolls along with threads and collect in baskets
for second sorting. Bolls without threads may be bulk harvested as female seed cotton.
2. Crossed bolls collected in baskets may be sorted out for second time to verify that they
are crossed bolls. Then collect the crossed seed cotton and store in gunny bags carefully
marked as crossed bolls.
3. Rain touch cotton or hard locks be picked and kept separately to avoid poor
germination of hybrid seeds.
4. Store the crossed seed cotton in a cool dry place till it is handed over to processing unit.
Ginning:As per varietal seed production.
Seed drying: As per varietal seed production.
Seed yield: 6 to 7 qtl/ha.
L-8. FOUNDATION AND CERTIFIED SEED PRODUCTION OF FODDER CROPS
1. BERSEEM

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Land requirement: Land to be used for seed production shall be free of volunteer plants.
The land should be well drained. The acidic soils are not suitable for berseem seed
production.
Isolation requirement: The minimum isolation of400 m for foundation seed and 100 m for
certified seedshould be provided from the fields of other varieties and the fields of the same
varieties not confirming to varietal requirements for certification of berseem.
1. Preparation of land: Good land preparation is necessary for obtaining uniform
germination. The field should be prepared well by ploughing and two to three harrowings
followed by levelling.
2. Time of sowing: The sowing around 15thOctober is more beneficial. For seed production
berseem may be sown in February also.
certification agency for raising the seed crop.
4. Inoculation of seed: Where berseem is sown in a field for the first time, it is necessary to
inoculate seed with special bacterial culture. For inoculation, mix one kg of culture in 1 lit
of 10% sugar solution. Seed is then mixed well with the solution and then dried under
shade. Add an equivalent amount of moist soil before broadcasting the seed in the field.
Broadcasting must be done within 24 hours of inoculation.
5. Method of sowing:The field is irrigated and in the deep standing water of 5-7 cm,
broadcast seeds.
7. Fertilization: Basal application of 25-30 kg N and 50-60 kg P/ha is sufficient. FYM is not
used as a precaution to control weeds. Foliar spray of planofix (30 ppm) or sulphur at 5
kg/ha in 700-800 lit water after bud stage at an interval of 15 days may be done to obtain
higher seed yield.
8. Irrigation:One to two irrigations at one week interval may be given for good germination
and early growth. Subsequent irrigations are given after every 15-20 days. Stop irrigation
three weeks before harvesting.
9. Interculture: To obtain pure quality seed, keep seed field free from chicory and wild
palak. Pre emergence application of butachlor at 3 kg/ha or post emergence spray of
Dionseb at 4 kg/ha in 600 lit water has been found effective to control chicory.
• Lucerne caterpillar:Spray 0.2% sevin or 0.05% endosulphan @ 800-900 lit/ha.
• Semilooper: Spray 0.5% endosulphan 800-900 lit/ha or dust diptrex powder@25 kg/ha
• Lucerne weevil: Spray 0.5% endosulphan 800-900 lit/ha.
• Thrips: Spray 0.05% Diazinon or 0.02% metasystox solution @ 800 lit/ha.
• Aphids:Spray 0.05% malathion @ 900 lit/ha.
• Red pumpkin beetle:Dust 5% malathion or diptrex @ 20 kg/ha.
• Grass hoppers:Dust 5% BHC on ridges and irrigation channels.
Cutting: Stop taking cuttings for fodder by the last week of February or first week of March
and then crop should be left for seed production. Timely last cutting will ensure insect
activity, pollination and also avoid lodging of the crop. Any delay in last cutting leads to poor
seed setting and early cutting leads to lodging. Ten weeks are required for seed maturity after
last cutting.
Rouging: The seed crop must be rogued carefully at preflowering, flowering and maturity
stages to remove all the off-types, other crop plants and chicory plants. The removal must be
complete before harvest.
Harvesting and threshing: When majority of the pods turn brown, the seed crop should be
harvested and dried in field for 3-4 days. Threshing should be done when the seeds are fully

44
matured and dry. After threshing and cleaning, the seed should be further dried to 8-10%
moisture content before storage.
Seed yield: Average seed yield is 5 to 7 qtl/ha.
2. LUCERN
Land and isolation requirements: As per seed production of berseem.
1. Preparation of land: The land should be prepared well by ploughing and two to three
harrowings followed by levelling. An ideal seed bed is moist and fairly firm.
2. Time of sowing: Sowing of the seed crop should be done in October to November.
certification agency for raising the seed crop.
4. Inoculation of seed:As per seed production of berseem.
5. Method of sowing: Seed crop should be sown in 50-60 cm apart rows.The depth of
seeding should be kept at 0.75 -1.25 cm.
7. Fertilization: Basal application of 25-30:50-60:25 kg NPK/ha is sufficient for raising the
crop. Spray 0.2% borax in case of boron deficiency. Spray IAA (50 gm/ha) at flowering to
increase seed yields.
8. Irrigation:Irrigate the crop as and when required.One irrigation at full bloom and another
at pod filling stage are necessary.
9. Interculture: To obtain pure quality seed, keep seed field free from weed dodder. After
last cutting do not allow dodder plants to set seeds.
• Leaf spot:Spray 0.2% zineb.
• Downy mildew: Spray 0.25% ziram.
Supplementary pollination: Bee hives should be set up for tripping flowers and pollinating
them.
Cutting: Stop taking cuttings for fodder by the last week of February.
Rouging: The seed crop must be rogued carefully at preflowering, flowering and maturity
stages to remove all the off-types, other crop plants and dodder plants. The dodder plants
must be removed before harvest.
Harvesting and threshing:As per seed production of berseem.
Seed yield: Average seed yield is 2 to 3qtl/ha.
L-9. FOUNDATION AND CERTIFIED SEED PRODUCTION OF VEGETABLES
1. TOMATO

45
Land requirement: Land to be used for seed production should free from volunteer plants.
The soil should have good texture, fertile and be well drained with pH 6-7.
Isolation requirement: Tomato is a self-pollinated crop. The minimum isolation of50 m for
foundation seed and 25 m for certified seedshould be provided from the fields of other
varieties and the fields of the same varieties not confirming to varietal requirements for
certification. For hybrid seed production, it requires minimum of 200 m for foundation
(parental line increase) and 100 m for certified hybrid seeds.
1. Preparation of land: Good land preparation for transplanting is necessary. The field
should be prepared well by ploughing and three to four harrowings followed by levelling.
2. Time of sowing: Northern plains– June to August and November to December.
Hills – March to April
Southern states – September to October.
4. Seed rate: Varieties - 300-400 g/ha
F1 hybrid - Male parent - 25 g/ha; Female parent - 100 g/ha.
5. Nursery sowing:Seed may be sown on 15-20 cm high raised beds in 3-4 cm apart rows.
For transplanting one ha 25 nursery beds (2-2.5 x 1-1.25 m) are sufficient to raise
sufficient seedlings.Thin sowing is useful for avoiding damping off disease. Apply 2 kg
of DAP 10 days before pulling out of seedling.
6. Fertilization: After thorough preparation of a field to fine tilth, apply 25 tons of FYM per
ha. Apply 100 : 100: 100 Kg NPK/ha of which, 50% of the N is applied as basal dressing
and remaining 50% of N as top dressing in two split doses at just before flowering and
fruit formation stages.
7. Transplanting: Transplant 7.5 to 10 cm tall seedlings (20-25 days old)preferably at
evening time and irrigate immediately.Spacing is 60 x 45 cm (90 x 60 cm for female
parent and 60 x 45 cm for male parent of hybrids).
8. Spacing:Variety:Autumn, winter crop-75 x 60 cm and spring, summer crop-75 x 40 cm.
Hybrids: Female parent - 90 x 60 cmand male parent - 60 x 45 cm.
9. Planting ratio:Female and male parents are planted in the ratio of 12:1 or 12:2 in hybrid
seed production.
10. Irrigation: Irrigate fortnightly during winter and weekly during summer.
11. Interculture: During first four weeks shallow cultivation is frequently required. Two to
three hoeings and weedings are necessary to keep the field free from weeds.
• Leaf eating caterpillar, fruit borer, jassids:Spray 1250 gm sevin/ha
• Mealy bugs: Spray 625 ml parathion in 625-750 lit water/ha.
• Damping-off: Thin sowing in nursery, Seed dressing with captan or agrosan and
Drenching in seed bed with captan @ 150 gm in 100 lit water to cover 200 m2area.
• Early blight, fruit rot: Spray benlate @ 60 gm in 100 lit water or seed treatment with
benlate @ 2 gm/kg or Spray dithane M-45 @ 1 kg in 300 lit water.
• Wilt: Drench the soil with chestnut compound.
• Virus:Rogue out affected plants. Spray folidol or malathion periodically till fruiting.
• Root knot:Apply DBCP @ 20-40 lit/ha in soil.
Rouging: The roguing should be done based on the plant characters (determinate /
indeterminate), leaf, branching and spreading characters and also based on fruit size, shape
and color. The plants affected by early blight, leaf spot and mosaic (TMV) diseases should be
removed from the seed production field.

46
Crossing (for hybrids): In tomato the hybrid seed production is normally done by hand
emasculation and pollination. However, use of chemical hybridizing agents (MH-1000 ppm)
or CMS lines are also practiced.
Harvesting, seed extraction and processing: The fruits are harvested after full maturity i.e.
when fruits turn in to red color. The last one or two harvests should not be used for seed
extraction. The fruits from first 6-7 harvests should be used for seed extraction. Seed viability
depends on the method of seedextraction and hence, it is more important to choose proper
method of seed extraction. Before seed extraction, the fruits are graded for true to type and
medium to large fruits are selected for getting higher recovery of quality seeds.
The acid method of seed extraction is the best method for tomato seed extraction as
compared to fermentation and alkali methods. In this method, the fruits are to be crushed into
pulp and taken in a plastic containers (or) cement tank. Then add 30 ml of commercial HCL
per kg of pulp, stir well and allow it for half an hour. This facilitates the separation of seed
and pulp. After half an hour, the seeds will settle down at the bottom and then the floating
fraction is to be removed. The collected seeds should be washed with water for three or four
times. The seeds extracted by acid method possess golden yellow colour and high vigour.
The seed extracted by fermentation method possess poor vigour and off colour due to fungal
activity.
Hybrid seed production: Emasculation is done before the anthers are mature and the stigma
has become receptive to minimize accidental self-pollination. It is generally done in the
evening in between 4.00 to 6.00 pm one day before the pollination.
Emasculate the bud by hand with the help of needle and forceps. Remove the calyx,
corolla and staminal column or anthers, leaving gynoecium intact in the flower. Emasculated
flowers should be covered immediately with red coloured paper bag to protect against
contamination from foreign pollen and also for easy identification of emasculated bud during
dusting. In the next day morning, remove the red paper bag of the emasculated bud and dust
the pollen gently over the stigmatic surface using cotton or camel brush. After dusting, the
emasculated flowers are again covered with white or other coloured paper bag for two to
three days. Pollen collected from one male flower can be used for dusting 5 to 7 emasculated
flowers.
Seed Yield : 100-120 Kg/ha.
2. BRINJAL
VARIETAL SEED PRODUCTION:
The soil should be fertile, rich in organic matter, sandy loam, well drained and free fro soil
borne pests and diseases.
Isolation requirement: Brinjal is a self-pollinated crop. The minimum isolation of200 m for
certification.
1. Preparation of land: One ploughing and three to four harrowings followed by levelling is
sufficient to prepare the field to a good tilth.
2. Time of sowing: Plains – February to March and June to July, October to November.
Hills – March to April.
Maturity of seed crop should not coincide with heavy rains. The winter crop needs
special protection from frost.

47
3. Source of seed: As per tomato seed production.

4. Seed rate: 370-500 gm/ha.
5. Nursery sowing: Seed may be sown on 15-20 cm high raised beds in 2-3 cm apart rows.
For transplanting one ha 25 nursery beds (2-2.5 x 1-1.25 m) are sufficient to raise
sufficient seedlings.Spray ammonium sulphate on bed after fortnight of germination to get
healthy and vigorous seedlings.Thin sowing is useful for avoiding damping off disease.
6. Fertilization: Apply20-25 tones FYM at the time of land preparation; Ammonium
sulphate: 250 kg/ha as basal and 250kg/ha as top dress in two doses. SSP: 300 kg/ha.
MoP: 125 kg/ha.
7. Transplanting: Transplant the seedling when 12-15 cm tall preferably at evening time.
Irrigate immediately afterward.
8. Spacing:Non-spreading types : 60 x 60 cmbetween rows and plants.
Spreading types : 75 to 90x 60 to 70cm.
9. Irrigation: Irrigate at two weeks intervals during summer.
10. Interculture: Keep the fields free from weeds and the soil well aerated by frequent
hoeing.
11. Plant protection:Control measures as per schedule should be adopted in seed field.
• Fruit borer, shoot borer, aphids, jassids, Epilachna beetle and mealybugs:
Spray625 ml parathion in 750 lit water.Repeat at 15 days interval with nuvacron @ 625
ml/ha.
• Red spider mite: Spray kelthane at 250 ml/ha.
• Dampingoff: Spray captan 1.25 kg in 800 to 1000 lit water.
• Littlelife: Control insect vectors by spraying 625 ml parathion ormetasystox/ha.
• Powdery mildew, leaf spot, anthracnose: Spray benlate at 150 gm in 250 lit water/ha.
• Phomopsis blight, fruit rot: Spray 0.2%ziram/captan/maneb 2-3 times at 10 days
interval.
• Seed borne diseases: Seed treatment with thiram @ 3 gm/kg seed.
Rouging: An early rouging for off type plants is possible. Rouging can be based on fruit size,
shape and colour as well as plants overall performance. In addition to off-types, plants
affected by Phomopsis blight and little leaf, etc. diseases should be removed from the seed
production field from time to time.
Harvesting and seed extraction:Harvesting is done when fruits are fully ripe. The fruits are
picked and collected. The outer cover is peeled off and the flesh with the seeds is cut into thin
slice. These are then softened by soaking till the seeds are separated from the pulp. After
overnight soaking, the separation of seed from the pulp becomes easier. Then seeds are
separated and dipped in water. The floating seeds are rejected. Then remaining seeds are
dried in partial shade to reduce moisture content of 8%or below before storing.
Seed Yield: Average seed yield is 100-200 kg/ha.
HYBRID SEED PRODUCTION:
Hybrid seed can be produced by hand emasculation and pollination as flowers are
large and large numbers of seeds are formed in a single fruit (800-1500 seeds). Therefore, a
very limited number of fruits producesizeable amount of seed. Generally, the variety setting
the large number of seeds in a single fruit is taken as female parent in hybrid seed production.
The flower buds which are expected to open the next day are selected on the female
parent for emasculation. With the help of forceps the flower buds are opened and the stamens
(5-7) are removed one by one without rupturing anthers. The emasculated buds are covered
with muslin cloth bags to prevent pollination with the undesirable pollens.
Next day in the morning, the flowers which were bagged for taking the pollen grains
are plucked and collected in a petridish. The female buds are then uncovered. The anther

48
from the male flower is removed and is held in between the arms of the forceps. As the pollen
grains in the anthers of brinjal are released through apical pores, the anther is held
perpendicular to the stigma surface, keeping the apical pores of the anther opposite to the
stigma surface. The forceps are tapped to dust the yellow coloured pollen powder on the
stigma. The pollinated buds are again bagged to prevent cross-pollination and tagged with
coloured tags.
3. CHILLI
The soil should be well drained, rich in organic matter, sandy or sandy loam and free
fromwilt or root rotdiseases.Crop rotation must be followed to avoid endemic Solanaceous
pests.
Isolation requirement: Chilli is a self-pollinated crop. The minimum isolation of400 m for
certification.
1. Preparation of land: As per brinjalseed production.
2. Time of sowing:
(a) Hot pepper
Northern plains: Kharif crop - June to July.
Spring crop - February to March.
Eastern and southern zones - throughout the year.
(b) Sweet pepper
Hills - April, May.
North - July, November to February.
South - September to October.
5. Nursery sowing: As per brinjal seed production.
6. Fertilization: Apply20-25 tones FYM at the time of land preparation; Ammonium
sulphate: 175 kg/ha as basal dose and 175kg/ha as top dress in two doses. SSP: 175 kg/ha.
MoP: 100 kg/ha.
7. Transplanting: Transplant the seedling when 15-20 cm tall after 4-5 weeks.
Transplanting may be done on ridges. Irrigate immediately afterward.
8. Spacing: Hot pepper : 60 x 45 cm.
Sweet pepper : 45 x 45 cm.
9. Irrigation: The maintenance of uniform soil moisture is essential to blossom and prevent
fruit drop. Generally 8-9 irrigations are given depending upon rainfall, soil, humidity and
prevailing temperature.
10. Interculture: As per brinjal seed production.
• Thrips, aphids: Spray300 ml dimecron/ha.
• Pod borer: SprayNuvacron @ 625-750 ml/ha at 15 days interval.
• Mites: Spraykalthane @ 250 ml/ha.
• White grub: Sprayaldrin 30 E.C. @ 6.25 lit/ha.
• Dieback, fruit rot: SpraydithaneM-45 @ 2.5 kg/ha at 15 days interval.
• Powdery mildew: Spraybenlate @ 150 gm/ha in 250 lit water.
• Bacterial fruit and leaf spot: Sprayagrimycin @ 225 gm/ha.

49
Rouging: An early rouging for off type plants is possible. Rouging can be based on based on
the plant height and its stature, flower colour and fruit characters.In addition to off-types,
plants affected by leaf blight, anthracnose and viraldiseases should be removed from the seed
field.
Harvesting:The well ripened fruits with dark red colour should be collected in each picking.
After harvest, discard fruit rot infected fruits.The harvested pods are to be dried under shade
for one or two days and then under sun for another 2-3 days. Before drying, true to type are
selected and graded for seed extraction. Then seed are extracted from graded dried fruits by
taking them in gunny bag and beaten with pliable bamboo sticks. Before storage seeds are
dried to reduce moisture content upto8%or below.
Seed Yield: Average seed yield is 50-80 kg/ha.
4. OKRA
VARIETAL SEED PRODUCTION:
Landrequirement: Land to be used for seed production shall be free of volunteer plants. Soil
should be well drained, fertile, sandy loam to loam having good texture and free from soil
borne diseases.
Isolation: Okra is a self-pollinated crop. For pure seed production seed field must be isolated
400m and 200m for foundation and certified seed production, respectively from other
varieties and the same variety not confirming to varietal purity requirements of seed
certification and from wild Abelmoschus species.
1. Preparation of land: As per brinjal seed production.
2. Time of sowing: Northern plains - February to July (best time is 20th June)
East and South India - throughout the year.
However, sowing should be so adjusted that the maturity of the pod does not coincide
with the rains.
4. Seed rate:Kharifcrop - 8-10 kg/ha
Spring -10-15 kg/ha
5. Method of sowing: The sowing should be done in rows. Use overnight soaked seeds. Sow
in full soil moisture behind the plough in shallow furrows. Seed should not be sown more
than 3 cm deep.
6. Spacing: Kharif crop : 60 x 30 to 45 cm.
Spring : 45 x 30 cm.
7. Fertilizers: Apply25-30tonnes FYM/ha two weeks before sowing in soil; Drill 350 kg
SSP, 125 kg MoP and 300 kg/haammonium sulphate in the rows before sowing. Top
dress300kg/ha ammonium sulphateafter about month.
8. Irrigation: The summer crop needs irrigation twice a week. The rainy season crop needs
irrigation only if there is a prolonged drought.
9. Interculture: Two to three hoeing and weedings from time to time are necessary to keep
the fields free from weeds.
• Jassids, Aphids, white flies, leaf roller: Spray dimecron 10 E.C. @ 0.05% or thiodan
35 E.C. @ 0.07%.
• Borers: Spray sevin W.P. @ 1-1.5 kg/ha and thiodan 35 E.C. @ 1-1.5 kg/ha at 15 days
interval.

50
• Red spider mite: Spraymorestan @ 3-4 gm/10 lit water or karathane @ 2 gm/lit water.
• Yellow vein mosaic: All the plants showing diseases symptoms should be rouged out
immediately up to three fruit stage. Follow the disease schedule mentioned for jassids.
• Powderymildew: As per control of red spider mite.
Roguing: Uproot and destroy yellow vein mosaic affected plants soon after they are noticed
up to three fruit stage. Roguing for off type and wild Abelmoschus species should be done
prior to flowering and during the flowering stage. The off type plants are rogued on the basis
of differences in plant height, leaf and stem characteristics, pigmentation, flower size and
shape, fruit shape, etc.
Harvesting: Fruits should be harvested when they are dried. Varieties with angular pods
which open along sutures should be harvested promptly to avoid shattering. The fruits are
usually picked by hand and threshed by flailing seed by hand. Seed should be dried to at least
10% moisture content before storage.
Seed yield: Average seed yield is 12 qtl/ha.
HYBRID SEED PRODUCTION:
The hand emasculation and pollination is the best method for seed productiondue to
large flowers size. Planting ratio of female and male parents is 9:1. Required seed rate is 4
kg/ha for female and 1 kg/ha for male.
Emasculation is done to minimize accidental self-pollination before the pollen
becomes viable and stigma become receptive in female parent. It is generally done in the
evening (4.00 to 6.00 pm) one day before the pollination.
Emasculate the bud by hand with the help of needle and forceps. Remove the calyx,
corolla and staminal column or anthers, leaving gynoecium intact in the flower. Emasculated
flowers should be immediately covered with red coloured paper bag to protect them from
foreign pollens and also for easy identification of emasculated buds. Remove the red paper
bag of the emasculated bud and dust the pollen gently over the stigmatic surface using cotton
or camel hair brush. After dusting, the emasculated flowers are again covered with white or
other coloured paper bags for 2-3 days. Pollen collected from one male flower can be used
for dusting 5-7 emasculated flowers.
5. ONION
Climatic requirements:Onion is biennial crop and takes two full seasons to produce seeds.
In the first year bulbs are formed and in the second year stalks developed and seeds
areproduced.It is a long day plant. The day length influence bulb onion but has little effect on
induction of seeding. It appears to be day neutral for seed production. It requires cool
condition during early development of the bulb crops and again prior to and during early
growth of seed stalk. Varieties bolt readily between 10 to150C. During bulbing, harvesting
and curing of seed, fairly high temperatures and low humidity is desirable. Seed production is
widely adapted to temperate and sub-tropical regions.
Land requirement: Land to be used for seed production shall be free from volunteer plants.
Selected field should be rich in organic matter with good water holding capacity. Onion can
be grown in different types of soils with pH between 6 to 8 except clay soils.
Isolation Requirements: Onion is highly cross-pollinated crop with up to 93%
crosspollination. For pure seed production, the isolation distance must be at least 1000 m for
foundation seed production and 500m for certified seed production from fields of other
varieties of onion and fields of the same variety not confirming to varietal purity
requirements.
Methods of seed production:There are two methods of seed production.

51
1. Seed to seed method: In this method, the first season bulb crop is left to over-winter in
the field so as to produce seed in the following season.
2. Bulb to seed method:The bulbs produced in the previous season are lifted, selected,
stored and replanted to produce seed in the second year.
Mostly the bulb to seed method is used for seed production because of the following
advantages over the seed to seed method.
 It permits selections of "true-to-type" and healthy bulbs for seed production.
 Seed yields are comparatively very high.
Bulb to seed method:

June-July Nov. – Dec Dec. – Jan. Feb. March April - May
Seed sowing Bulb harvest Bulb planting Flowering Harvest
Bulb preparation
A) Production and storage of bulbs (first year):
1. Sowing time (nursery):
Plains - Middle of October to middle of November.
Hills - April to June.
For raising seedlings for one hectare, 1/20 ha nursery is sufficient.
2. Seed rate: 8 - 10 kg/ha.
3. Fertilization: Apply 20 tonnes of well-rotted FYM at the time of land preparation,
250 kg SSP and 45 kg potassium sulphate at the time of planting and top dress 250 to
375 kg ammonium sulphate in 2-3 doses during the growing period.
4. Transplanting:In the month of January, transplant 8-10 weeks old seedlings in small
beds in well-prepared fields.
5. Spacing:10 to 15 cm depending upon variety and bulb size.
6. Irrigation: Fortnightly irrigation during winter and weekly irrigation during hot
weather. Irrigate sparingly during maturity.
7. Interculture. Keep field free from weeds. Frequent inter culture is essential for good
bulb development. Post-emergence application of tenoran @ 2 kg/ha in 800 lit water
or oxadiazon @ 1 kg a.i./ha is recommended.
• Onion thrips: Spray malathion 50 E.C. at 600 to 700 ml/ha.
• Onion maggot: Spray sevimol 50 W.P. @ 600-700 ml/ha.
• Damping-off: Use treated seed. Drench nursery with 0.3% captan or thiram or
dithane Z-78 at weekly intervalsin cases of seedlings mortality.
• Purple blotch: Spray with copper fungicides such as 0.2% blitox 50.
9. Harvesting and curing of bulbs: Well-matured bulbs should be harvested. Maturity
is indicated by the tops drooping just above the bulb, while the leaves are still green.
After harvesting, the bulbs should be topped leaving a half inch neck. Before storage,
a thorough selection and curing of bulbs should be done. The time required for curing
depends largely on weather conditions and may take three to four weeks.
10. Storage:The essentials of successful storage are:
 The bulbs should be well-matured, dried and cured before storage.
 Storage should be well-ventilated.
 Storage should be done in shallow trays with perforated bottoms
0
 Storage temperatures should range 0 to 4.5 C until 3-4 weeks prior to planting,
when the temperature should be increased to around 10 degree
B) Planting of bulbs and seed production (second year):
1. Time of planting: The best time for planting bulbs is the 2nd fortnight of October.

52
2. Preparation of land: Prepare the field to good tilth. One deep ploughing followed by
3-4 harrowings and leveling are enough.
3. Seed rate: The seed yield is affected by the size of the bulb. The bigger the bulb size,
the higher is the seed yield. If bulb size of 2.5 to3 cm diameter is used for planting,
seed rate will be 15 qtl/ha.
4. Fertilization. Same as described for first year.
5. Method of planting and spacing. Selected bulbs are planted at 8 to 10 cm depth in
the soil at a distance of 45 x30 cm. The sprouted bulbs are planted as such. In
unsprouted bulbs, the upper half portion should be removed, leaving the disc-like
stem and roots intact. The removal of the upper tops hastens sprouting.
6. Intercultureand plant protection: Same as described for first year.
Roguing of seed crop:
First year: It is desirable to begin roguing in the field before bulbs are harvested. Rouge out
plants having a different foliage colour, plant type and late maturing bulbs. After harvesting,
the bulbs should be carefully rouged for colour and off-types having thick-necks, doubles,
bottlenecks as well as any other types which do not confirm to varietal type.
Secondyear: Plant only selected true-to-type bulbs and remove plants not confirming to
varietal characters before flowering.
Harvesting and processing:When seed in the head turn black, the seed crop is ready for
harvest. Normally 2-3 pickings are required depending upon the maturity of the seed.Harvest
the seeds cutting the seed head with 10-15 cm of stalk attached.The harvested umbels are
heaped for a few days for drying which ascertain proper curing of seed. Then the seeds are
separated from the capsules by hand threshing or using pliable sticks. After this immerse
seeds in clean water for 5-10 min for cleaning and dry. The clean seeds aregraded by using
10 x 10 BSS sieve, dried to 6-8% moisture content and treated with bavistin/thiram @ 2-3
g/kg of seed.
Seed Yield: The average seed yield varies from 850 to 1000 kg/ha.
L-10.SEED CERTIFICATION
Seed certification: It is a legally sanctioned system for the quality control of seed during
seed multiplication and production. In general, it is a process designed to maintain and make

53
available to the general public continuous supply of high quality seeds and propagating
materials of released and notified varieties of crop plants.
The seed sold in the market is of two types certified seed or truthfully labeled seed.
The seed which is being certified by seed certification agency is called as certified seed. The
seed certification agency is a separate organization meant for certifying the quality of the
seed and it has nothing to do with seed production. The seed certification agency maintains
both field and seed standards before issuing the certification tag or label. Whereas, truthfully
labeled seed is one which is being produced and marketed by the producing company by
maintaining the labeling standards. The farmer or the user of the seed does not know the
pedigree of the truthfully labeled seed and he has to relay on the seed producing company.
A successful seed production programme can maximize production of high quality
seed at the required time, at reasonable price and at the place where it is needed. High quality
seed should equal or exceed the bench mark of standards set for genetic and physical purity,
germination, vigour and should be free from seed borne diseases and insect pest damage.
High quality seed can be produced by controlling the production protocol in two ways:
a) By monitoring seed multiplication and processing operations at important stages to
avoid or minimize the risks of genetical and mechanical contaminations.
b) By fixing minimum field and seed standards for different varieties/kinds and checking
each seed lot produced against these standards at an appropriate time.
Objectives/purpose of seed certification: The main objective of seed certification is to
ensure genuineness and quality of seed to the purchaser. A well-organized seed
certificationsystem is designed to achieve the following three primary objectives.
1. Systematic increase of seeds of superior varieties.
2. Identification of new varieties and their rapid increase under appropriate and
generally accepted names.
3. Provision of continuous supply of quality seeds by careful maintenance.
Procedure for seed certification: Seed certification is voluntary for the kind/variety
notified by the government of India. It can be completed in six broad phases.
1. Receipt and scrutiny of the application.
2. Verification of seed source, class and other requirements.
3. Filed inspection should be conducted to see that fields are up to the prescribed field
standard.
4. Post-harvest inspection, including processing and packing.
5. Seed sampling and testing to confirm that the seeds are up to the prescribed seed
standards.
6. Grant of certificate, tagging and sealing.
1. Receipt and scrutiny of the application: All those persons who are interested in seed
certification should submit an application to the concerned seed certification officer with
the prescribed fees. The fee is for one season for a single variety and for an area up to 10
ha. If the area is more than 10 ha or if more than one variety is planted separate
applications should be made for each variety. If the area is less than 10 ha under one
variety but if the fields are scattered and separated by more than 50 meters, separate
applications should be made. On receiving the applications the seed certification agency
verifies for the following conditions:
i) Eligibility: Only varieties notified by the central govt. are eligible for certification.
ii) Establishing the seed source: Seed producer should submit the tag, invoice, and a
copy of Form No. 2.
iii) Field should be easily reachable for carrying out timely field inspections or not.
iv) Whether the required isolation and land requirement is followed or not.
v) Whether the processing plant facility is available to the applicant.

54
vi) Whether the applicant has paid the requisite registration fee or not.
Seed producer has to pay the field inspection fees, if above conditions are fulfilled.
2. Verification of seed source, class and other requirements: The seed of appropriate class
should be obtained from authentic source and it should be in accordance with Indian
Minimum Seed Certification Standards.
3. Inspection of seed fields: The certified seed producers should grow and harvest the crop
as per the guidelines issued by the seed certification agency. They must carefully and
faithfully carry out the roguing and other operations as per the directive of the certification
agency. The certification staff conducts field inspections at appropriate stages of crop
growth to ensure that minimum standards of isolation, preceding crop requirement,
roguing and other special operations are maintained at all times. The inspection of seed
crop is done at different stages of crop growth such as at the time of sowing (when new
crop is introduced), vegetative stage or pre-flowering stage, flowering stage, post
flowering or pre-harvest stages and at the time of harvest. The contaminants to be
observed during field inspections are off types, pollen shedders, shedding tassels,
inseparable other crop plants, objectionable weed plants and diseased plants. The field
inspections are designated to ensure that the crop is up to the prescribed field standards.
All the seed fields, which do not meet the required field standards, are eventually rejected.
Method of taking field counts:The method of taking field counts involves following steps:
a. Determine the number of field counts. For all crops a minimum of five counts are to
be taken for an area up to 2 ha and an additional count is to be taken for each additional
2 ha or part thereof as given below.
Area of the field (ha) Minimum number of counts to be taken
Up to 2 5
2-4 6
4-6 7
6-8 8
8-10 9
Above 10 10
In any inspection, if the first set of counts shows that the seed crop does not confirm
to the prescribed standards for any factor, a second set of counts should be taken for that
factor, if the percentage of first set of count for that factor is not more than twice the
maximum permissible level. Two sets of counts are called as double counts. In hybrid seed
production plots the number of counts must be taken separately for both the parents.
b. Number of plants to be observed for completing one count: The number of plants to be
observed for completing a single count varies from crop to crop. The numbers of
plants/heads to be observed for completing a single count are as given below.
Cropping Crop Number of
pattern plants/heads per
count
Wide spaced Bhendi, Brinjal, Bulb crops, Chillies, Cole crops, 100 plants
crops Cotton, Cucurbits, Groundnut, Red gram, Tomato, root
crops, Maize, Potato, etc.
Medium Beans, cowpea, gram, leaf crops, mung, urad, mustard, 500 plants
spaced crops peas, sesame, sun hemp, etc.
Thickly sown Berseem, jute, Lucerne, Mesta, soybean, Bajra, paddy, 1000 plants, 1000
crops wheat, sorghum, etc. heads
The required number of field inspections specified in the seed certification
standards should be conducted. The purpose of these filed inspections is to properly
guide and advise the seed producer, but at the same time to do the necessary inspections

55
so that the ultimate buyer can be assured that the seed crop has met all the necessary
standards.
c. Taking of fieldcounts: The procedure for taking field counts for the thickly swon crops
is as follows.
i) Enter seed field at any randomly selected site to count number of heads/plants per
step. Repeat this process at 5 random locations of the plot and calculate average
number of heads/plants per step.
ii) Determine the number of steps required to include sufficient number of
plants/heads (1000 plants/1000 heads).
iii) Walk through the field according to one of the different schemes, so that all
portions of the field are represented in the counts.
iv) Select at random any row and from any point of that row take enough consecutive
steps to include sufficient number of plants/heads or take 10 consecutive steps in
that row.
v) Count the number of off-types, other crop plants, objectionable weeds and
plants/heads affected by diseases within those steps mentioned in (iv).
Repeat the entire process until the required number of counts for the field size
is completed.
Fig. Travel pattern for field inspection.

d.Rejection of seed fields: All the seed fields which do not confirm to the required
standards for any of the factorsshould be rejected. The rejection letter should be
immediately communicated to the seed grower stating the reasons for the rejection. As
far as possible the seed growers should be convinced for rejecting the seed fields by
showing the contaminants.
4. Post-harvest inspection: The personnel from the seed certification agency should inspect
the fields during harvesting or post harvesting, so that there are no mechanical mixtures
and the seed is not handled badly during threshing or afterwards. Then the seed is sent to

56
seed processing plant with a threshing certificate. The personnel from the seed
certification agency will inspect the seed processing plant to avoid mechanical mixtures
and damage caused to the seed during processing.
5. Seed sampling and testing: The representative from seed certification agency draws a
representative sample from the seed lot at the time of processing or after processing and
sends the sample to official seed testing laboratory for evaluation. In the seed testing
laboratory, the samples will be evaluated for seed standards such as pure seed, inert
matter, other crop seed, weed seeds, germination percentage and moisture percentage, etc.
6. Grant of certificate, tagging and sealing: After receiving a satisfactory report from the
seed testing laboratory, tagging and sealing of bags will be done under the supervision of
seed certification agency. Under special circumstances, advance tags will also be issued to
the extent of 75% of the seed lot. Tags and seals should be in accordance with general
seed certification requirements. Affixing of tags and seals on the containers completes the
process of certification of seeds.
7. Control plot testing: The seed certification agency should arrange for a postseason grow-
out test for all hybrids as prescribed in the standards. Randomly samples should be drawn
from certified seed lots and sent to grow-out test to check the efficiency and accuracy of
the work done.
9. Validity period. The seed is initially valid for a period of nine months from the date of
testing the samples. If the seed is not sold within the stipulated period, it can be
revalidated for a period of six months if the seed lot meets the required seed standards.
The seed can be revalidated as long as it meets the prescribed seed standards and for each
revalidation the validity period will be extended for six months.
10. Revocation of certificate: If the certification agency is satisfied that the certificate
granted by it has been obtained by misrepresentation of essential facts or the holder of the
certificate has failed to comply with the conditions subject to which the certificate has
been issued, can revoke the certificate. The certificate can be revoked only after giving a
show cause notice to the holder of the certificate.
11. Appeal against seed certification agency: If any certified seed grower is not satisfied by
the decision taken by the seed certification agency (in rejecting the seed plot), he can make
an appeal to the appellate authority specified by the state government. The appeal should
be made within 30 days from receiving the rejection letter. The appeal should be made in
written along with a copy of the rejection letter and a treasury fee of Rs. 100/-. The
application should be submitted personally or it should be sent through registered post.
The decision of the appellate authority will be final and it is binding on the seed
certification agency and the seed grower.
L-11.SEED ACT AND SEED ACT ENFORCEMENT

57
To meet the Nation's food security needs, it is important to make available to Indian
farmers a wide range of seeds of superior quality, in adequate quantity on a timely basis. An
improved seed has a special place amongst all the inputs required for agricultural production.
In India until mid-sixties there was no legislation governing the quality of seed sold to the
farmer. But due to the rapid development of agricultural production with the introduction of
hybrids of maize, jowar, bajara and dwarf varieties of wheat and rice during 1965-66
necessitated the enactment the seed legislation. On 29th Dec. 1966 the Seed Act was passed
by the parliament and it came into force throughout the country on 2nd Oct. 1969.
Main features of Seed Act, 1966:
1. Applicability: It is applicable only to notified kinds/varieties of seed and vegetatively
propagating materials used for sowing.
2. Sanctioning legislation: The Act provides for the formation of apex advisory bodies,
namely Central Seed Committee, Central Seed Certification Board, establishment of Seed
Certification Agencies and Central and State Seed Testing Laboratory, etc.
3. Regulatory legislation: It includes provision for notification of kinds/varieties, regulation
regarding the sale of seed, establishment of suitable seed law enforcement machinery
including seed inspectors, seed analysists and appellate authorityand fixation of penalties
for the seed offenders.
Statutory Bodies and Agencies established in India under the Seed Act, 1966:
1. Central Seed Committee (CSC): It is main source of advice to the Central Government
on the administration of the Act and any other matter related to seeds. The committee
consists of achairman, two representatives of seed growers, eight Central Govt. nominated
other interested persons and one representative of State Govt. The Director (Seeds), in
the Ministry of Agriculture, Govt. of India acts as a Secretary of the committee.The
functions of CSC are as follows.
1. To advice state and Central Government on all matters related to the seed, regarding
notification of varieties and the minimum limits for purity and germination of the
notified varieties.
2. To recommend procedures and standards for seed certification, seed testing, etc. and
fees for analysis of samples by the Central and State Seed Testing Laboratories and
for certification.
3. To advice Central and State Government regarding suitability of STL.
4. To send recommendations, proposals and modifications in the seed act to Central
Government.
5. To recommend the Central Government for the suitability of the any seed certification
agency abroad for purpose of this act.
6. To carry out other such supplementary, incidental or consequential functions
conferred by the Act or Rules.
2. Central Seed Certification Board (CSCB):The functions of CSCB are as given below.
1. To deal with the problems related to seed certification.
2. To coordinate the work of states seed certifying agencies.
3. To ensure uniform application of seed certification standards.
4. It recommends financial assistance from central government to state certification
agencies.
3. State Seed Certification Agencies (SSCA):The SSCAs are established by notification in
official gazette as per recommendation of central seed committee in the form of
cooperative societies. It has governing body and executive wing. The governing
bodyconsist of the persons representing all interests, namely, the state government, seed
producing agencies, farmers, subject specialists and seed law enforcement agencies.
Secretary state Department of Agriculture is the chairman of statutory SSCA.

58
Governing body lays down broad policies, while the inspections, seed certification
and seed analysis is the responsibility of executive wing. The functions specified for
theSSCA under the Act are:
1. To certify seed of notified varieties.
2. To outline the procedure for seed certification.
3. To maintain the list of recognized crop breeders.
4. To verify correctness of application and to verify the approved source and fees have
been paid.
5. To verify whether infirm standards and procedures of seed certification is followed.
6. Take the sample and inspect by sending to STL to ensure the seed standards are met
according to the certifying agency.
7. To verify the staff of SCA is well experienced and well trained.
8. Ensure that the actions at all stages are taken expeditiously (done with speed and
efficiency) i.e. field inspection, seed processing plant inspection, analysis of samples
taken and issue certificate.
9. Grant certificate (including tags, labels, seals, etc.) as per the provision of the Act.
10. To maintain adequate records of seed lots.
11. To inspect seed processing plants to verify that admixture and malpractices are being
avoided.
4. Central Seed Testing Laboratory (CSTL):Indian Agriculture Research Institute (IARI),
New Delhi has been notified as the CSTL. The functions of CSTL are as given below.
1. To initiate seed testing programme in collaboration with SSTLs.
2. To collect data continuously on quality of seed found in market.
3. It acts as referee laboratory in respect of disputed samples received from SSTL.
4. To analyze 5% samples received from SSTL to check uniformity of results.
5. State Seed Testing Laboratory (SSTL): Established by notification in official gazette of
state government. In Maharashtra, notified SSTL’s are located at Pune, Nagpur and
Aurangabad.The function of SSTL is to carry out seed analysis for physical purity,
germination, moisture and presence of weed and other crop seeds. The results are valid up
to 8 months from the date of test and are based on sample of seed submitted to SSTL.
6.Appellate authority: State government appoints appellate authority through notification in
official gazette. The function is to look into grievances of seed producer against the seed
certification agency or grievances of seed traders against seed law enforcement officials.
7. Committee for recognition of seed certification agencies of foreign countries: The
Central Govt. on the recommendation of the Central Seed Committee may recognize a
SCA of any foreign country for the purpose of the Indian Seeds Act, 1966.
Agencies for enforcing the regulations regarding the sale of seed:
The seed inspectors appointed by the state government through notification in official
gazette are responsible for seed law enforcement in respective areas. They draw samples of
seed and send it to laboratory for testing.
Duties/Functions of seed inspector:
1. To inspect maximum possible samples of notified varieties.
2. To inspect that labels and certificate are good.
3. Collect samples from doubtful seed lots and send to STL for analysis.
4. Investigate any complaints of seed in writing or sale thereof.
5. To detain imported seed containers for which import is prohibited.
6. To act as member secretary for district seed complaint committee.
7. To institute prosecution in respect of the breaches of the seed act and the rules.
Powers of seed inspectors:

59
1. To take samples of seed of any notified kind/variety from any seed seller or purchaser
or consignee and to send such sample for analysis.
2. Two enter and search any place in which he believes that an offence under this Act
has been or is being committed.
3. To examine any record, register, document or any other material found in any place
mentioned in clause (ii) and seize the same, if he thinks that it may furnish evidence
of the offence.
4. To pay on demand the cost of seed to the person from whom the same is taken.
5. To break-open any container or the door of the premises where any seed of any
notified kind/variety may be kept for sale (if the owner refuses to open) in presence of
two persons as witness and take their signature on a memorandum in the prescribed
form and manner.
Penalties for offenders:
The person who contravenes any provision of the Seed Act or rule thereunder or
prevents a seed inspector from taking samples or from exercising any other power conferred
on him by or under the Seed Act, is punishable by law.
1. For first offence with fine up to Rs. 500/-
2. For second offence onwards he is punishable with 6 month imprisonment or fine Rs.
1000/- or both.
3. Forfeiture of property: When any person is convicted under this act, the seed
concerned property may be forfeited to the government.
4. When company committed offence every responsible person who is guilty can be
punished accordingly.
Problems in enforcement:
1. Technical problem: Standardization of test procedures, variation in laboratory test results,
absence of any systematic seed testing research programme and inadequate number of
trained personnel compared to actual workload are some of the technical bottlenecks
which affects effective enforcement of seed laws.
2. Administrative and financial problems: STLs should have full autonomy and adequate
infrastructure to function properly. The incharge of STL should have sufficient
administrative and financial power for smoothly conducting the functions of STLs. The
persons involved in STL and those concerned with monitoring seed production should be
well aware of provisions of seed regulations and Seed Act.
State Seed Law Enforcement authorities faced mainly the following problems to
enforce the various provisions of the Seed Act to regulate quality of seed.
a. In the absence of registration of seed dealers, the seed law enforcement machineryfinds it
difficult to locate the seed sellers and selling points.
b. Due to absence of authentic information about the seed dealers, it is difficult to collect
reliable data regarding seed.
These lacunae provide enough scope for the unscrupulous seed dealers to make quick
profits by selling indifferent or poor quality seeds as certified seed. To overcome the above
problems, the Seeds (Control) Order, 1983 provides that
i) Seed dealers should obtain license to carry on business of selling, export or import of
seeds at any place in the country.
ii) Seed dealers shoulddisplay in his place of business the opening and closing stock on
daily basis of different seeds held by him and their price list.
iii) Seed dealers should give a cash or credit memorandum to every seed purchaser.
iv) Every seed dealer is required to maintain cash book, accounts, records, etc. related to his
business as directed by the competent authority. He is also required to submit monthly
return relating to his business for the preceding month in a prescribed form.

60
Seed (Control) Order, 1983:

To ensure the proper channel for the distribution of best quality seed to the farmers,
Govt. of India issued Seed (Control) Order, 1983 on 30th Dec., 1983 under the Essential
Commodities Act, 1955 to license seed dealers throughout the country. Under this Order the
Central Govt. empowered the State Govt. or Union Territories to issue the license to the
dealers within their jurisdiction through official Gazette notification for selling, exporting,
and importing seeds including their agents.
The licensed dealers are required to maintain the following records in their shop.
1. Display opening and closing of different seeds held by them.
2. Price list of the all material they have on daily basis.
3. Issue the cash or credit sale memo to the buyers.
4. Maintain the records and faithfully abide the Controller of seed to Govt. of India.
Statutory Bodies and Agenciesto be established under the Seed (Control) Order, 1983:
1. Controller of seed: The Central Govt. is required to appoint a person as Controller of seed
to exercise all or any function of the Controller under Seed (Control) Order, 1983.
2. Licensing authority: The State Govt./Union Territories are required to appoint Licensing
Authority for licensing seed dealer.
3. Inspector(enforcement authority): The State Govt./Union Territories are required to
appoint number of persons as deemed necessary to be Inspector and specify their
respective areas of jurisdiction for enforcement of Seed (control) order 1983.
Powers of the seed inspector:
1. Demand the information about purchase, storage and sales of seed to the dealer.
2. Search any premises where any seed is stored or exhibited for sale.
3. Draw the seed samples from store and sent to the STL.
4. He can seal the store which is not according with the Seed (control) order 1983.
4. Appellate authority: The State Govt. / Union Territories are required to specify the
“Appellate Authority” to deal with the matters related to enforcement of the Seed (control)
order 1983.
Grant of License:
1. Requirements for the grant of license:
• Applicant must not have been convicted under the Essential Commodities Act, 1955 or
any order issued there under within the last three years preceding the date of
application.
• His previous license, if any, must not be under suspension or cancelled within last one
year preceding the date of application.
2. Terms and conditions for the grant of license
• License should be displayed in the shop at top place where it can be readily seen.
• The license is valid for a period of three years unless suspension or cancelled before the
expiry period.
• Holder of license shall report any change in the premises to the Licensing Authority.
• Holder of license shall extend every facility to the Licensing Authority or any of its
officers for the inspection.
3. Procedure for obtaining license:
1. Submit the application form in prescribed format to the Licensing Authority.
2. Fees for application Rs. 25.
3. After satisfaction by Licensing Authority it issues the license to the applicant.
4. If Licensing Authority is not satisfied it refuses the license with reason.
5. If Licensing Authority cancelled the license the holder can appeal to the Appellate
Authority specified by the State Govt. within sixty days from the date of such order.

61
Indian seeds Act, 2004:

The Indian Seeds Act, 2004 was approved by the Govt. of India in 2004 and came
into force with effect from January, 2005. Its main objective is to ensure availability of
quality seeds to farmers. It replaces the Seeds Act, 1966.
Main features of Indian Seeds Act, 2004:
1. Coverage: The seeds of agriculture, horticulture, forestry, plantation crops, medicinal and
aromatic plants are covered under this Act.
2. Seed category: This Act permits sale of certified seeds only.
3. License: The license is compulsory for seed dealers, sellers and growers.
4. Registration: Registration for all kinds and varieties of seed is compulsory with the state
government.
5. Criteria for registration: The released and notified varieties can be protected for
multiplication.
6. Period of registration: 15 years for annual and biennial and 18 years for perennial plants.
7. Certification: The Act permits self-certification of seeds by accredited agencies allows
the central government to recognize certification by foreign seed certification agencies.
Seed producers are permitted to self-certify the performance of their seed under certain
conditions.
8. Compensation: Any loss in the production due to poor seed quality can be claimed in the
consumer court.
9. Farmers’ privilege: This Act allows farmers’ privilege.
10. Penalty: Any person contravening the provisions of the Act or imports, sells or stock of
misbranded or not registered seeds can be punishable by a fine between Rs. 5,000 and
25,000. The penalty for giving false information is imprisonment up to six months and/or
fine up to Rs. 50,000.
11. Exclusion: The techniques (terminator technology and traitor technology) which are
harmful to animals and the environment are excluded.
12. Research exemption: This Act allows use of protected materials by breeders for
development of new varieties.
Differences between Seeds Act, 1966 and Seeds Act, 2004:
Particulars Seeds Act, 1966 Seeds Act, 2004
1. Crops covered Agriculture and Agriculture, horticulture,
horticulture. forestry, plantation crops,
medicinal and aromatic
plants.
2. Registration of transgenic varieties No provision. Special provision.
3. Registration with PPV & FR authority Not required. Required.
4. Period of protection Not defined. Defined.
5. Penalty for violation of the Act Rs. 100-1000/- and 6 Rs. 500-50,000/- and 6
months imprisonment. months imprisonment.
6. Self-certification Not permitted. Permitted.
7. Seed multiplication of land races Permitted. Not permitted.
8. Representatives in central seed From all states. From only five states.
committee
9. Involvement of private sector No. Yes.
L-12.VARIETAL IDENTIFICATION THROUGH GROW OUT TEST

AND ELECTROPHORESIS

62
GROW OUT TEST:

The main aim of grow-out test is to determine the genetic purity of the variety from
the given sample. In grow-out test plant characters that are less influenced by the
environment and which are highly heritable are observed by growing the plants in the field.
The variety, which is to be tested for genetic purity, should be grown in the area for which it
has been released so that the characters of that variety are fully expressed. Each sample
should be sown with proper spacing by adopting the recommended cultural practices so that
the differences between the varieties are fully expressed.
Sampling: The sample for grow out test are to be drawn simultaneously with the samples for
other quality tests and the standard procedure shall be followed. The size of the
submitted sample shall be as follows:
1000 g : for maize, cotton, groundnut, soybean and species of other genera with seeds of
similar size.
500 g : for sorghum, wheat, paddy and species of other genera with seeds of similar size.
250 g :Beta and species of other genera with seeds of similar size.
100 g : for bajara, jute and species of all other genera.
250 tubers/ cuttings/roots, etc.: Seed potato, sweet potato and other vegetatively propagated
crops.
Procedure:Before sowing the seed in the field, the seed should be examined on the
diaphanoscope to identify the seeds of other variety. The seeds of other variety should be
separated and the percentage should be noted. One may also separate the doubtful seed,
which may be sown separately for through examination. The various samples of the same
cultivar are sown in adjacent plots with standard samples at regular intervals. In case of self-
pollinated crops the characters are fixed and it is easy to identify the plants of other cultivars.
In cross pollinated crops where the variability for characters is more it is essential to sow the
authentic samples at regular intervals for comparison between the samples to be tested and
the standard sample. The sample plots should be regularly observed during the entire growing
period of the crop as some of the characters are expressed at seedling stage while the others
are expressed at flowering or at maturity stage. The size of plots, row length etc. will differ
from crop to crop. However, the specifications for different crops are indicated in the
following table. The certification agency may change the specifications if considered
necessary:
Sr. Crop Row Plant to Space Space No. of
No. length plant between between Replications
(cm) (cm) rows (cm) plots (cm)
1 Wheat, barley, oats 6 2 25 50 2
2 Pea, cowpea 6 10 45 90 2
3 Chickpea, green gram, 6 10 30 60 2
black gram
4 Maize 10 25 60 90 2
5 Hybrid Cotton 5 10 45 45 2
6 Paddy: 6 15 20 45 2
a. Very early to medium
b. Late and very late 6 25 30 60 2
7 Pearl millet 6 10 60 90 2
8 Sorghum 6 10 45 60 2
The seed rate may be adjusted depending on the germination percentage of individual
samples and the sowing may be done by dibbling. Subsequent thinning is not recommended.

63
The test crop may be raised along with the control either in the areas recommended for
the variety or in off-season nurseries. The authentic control sample from the originating plant
breeder/breeding institute is to be maintained by the testing station/agency following standard
procedures. Minimum of 200 plants from control sample will be raised along with test crop.
Observations:
a. All plants are studied by keeping in view the distinguishing characters described for the
cultivar both in the test crop as well as the control. Necessary corrections may be
incorporated if the control is found to be heterogeneous.
b. Observations are made during full growing period or for a period specified by originating
breeding institute and deviations from the standard sample of the same variety are
recorded. At suitable development stage the plots are examined carefully and plants which
are obviously of other cultivar are counted and recorded. The specifications of the field
plot, row length etc. may be determined from the information given in the table. The
minimum population required for taking the observations depend on the maximum
permissible off-type plants prescribed for the species.
Maximum Minimum No. of plants required/
Off-types % genetic purity % sample for observation.
0.10 99.9 4000
0.2 99.8 2000
0.3 99.7 1350
0.5 99.5 800
1.00 and above 99.0 and below 400
Calculation, interpretation and reporting of the results: Percentage of other cultivars,
other species or aberrant found may be calculated up to first place of decimal. While
interpreting the results use of tolerance may be applied by using the reject table given below.
Rejection number for prescribed standards and sample size:
Standard Reject number for sample sizes of
800 400
99.5 (1 in 200) 8 *
99.0 (1 in 100) 16 8
95.0 (5 in 100) 48 24
90.0 (10 in 100) 88 44
85.0 (15 in 100) 128 64
*- indicates that the sample size is too small for a valid test.
When nothing worthy of special comment is found, the results may be reported as
“The results of a field plot examination of this sample revealed nothing to indicate that
varietal purity is unsatisfactory”
Advantages:
1. It is the cheapest way to examine reasonable number of plants.
2. It is possible to examine a large number of plots and for each plot it is possible to check
large number of plants.
3. The plants are examined during the whole period of growth. Some characters are more
prominent at one time of the year than another and the samples may therefore be examined
several times during the season.
Disadvantages:
1. The results are not available until 4 to 12months after the seed was received for testing.
ELECTROPHORESIS:

64
It is the latest method of cultivar identification based on protein banding and

isoenzyme activity. Here single seeds are defatted and extracted for protein and esterase. The
extracted proteins or esterases are separated by polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis. Based on
the banding pattern of protein and esterase's the varieties can be differentiated and identified.
Objective: Varietal verification by electrophoretic mobility of protein on polyacrylamide gel.
Electrophoresis for proteins and enzymes: Seeds, seedlings or mature leaves etc. of a crop
plant have a specific mix of proteins which are not only crop specific but also variety specific
(genotype specific). The electrophoresis in a suitable medium separates the mixture of
proteins extracted from seeds, seedlings or mature leaves into distinct bands. Each variety (or
genotype) thus has a specific "banding pattern" on the basis of which admixtures of other
varieties, differing in "banding pattern" could be detected. This is done by comparing the
banding pattern of analysed sample with the standard banding pattern of that variety. The
electrophoresis is now being increasingly used for determining the genetic purity of seed
samples.
Principle: Electrophoresisrefers to the migration of a charged particle under the influence of
an electric field. The movement of ions takes place in a suitable medium (polyacrylamide
gel) which acts as a molecular sieve andcut downconvection currents and diffusion, so that
the separated components remain as sharp zones with maximum resolution. The separation
into distinct bands is due to differences in the size of molecules (molecular weight) of various
proteins anddifferences in charge. Particles with smaller molecular weights migrate faster
than those with higher weights and the molecules with the higher charge migrate faster than
those with a lower charge.
Since proteins carry a net charge at any pH other than their isoelectric point, they
migrate in an electric field, the rate of which depends on the charge density (i.e. the rate of
charge to mass of the molecule). Proteins with higher charge density will migrate faster, thus
resulting in differential rates of movement of proteins when a mixture of different proteins is
subjected to an electric field. By altering the gel pore size (using polymersat different
concentrations) and the charge on the protein molecule (by changing the pH of the system) a
high degree of resolution can be achieved for separation of protein molecules in a mixture.
Interpretation of protein banding pattern:
After staining of the gel, it is placed over a trans illuminator to see the banding
pattern. Relative mobility of each protein (band) is calculated by the following formula.
Distance traveled by protein
Relative mobility (Rm) = ------------------- ---------------------
Distance traveled by tracking dye
On the basis of Rm value and thickness of the band a zymogram is drawn on a paper to show
the banding pattern.
The varieties are verified on the basis of banding pattern:
1. By measuring Rm of bands.
2. Total number of bands.
3. Presence or absence of specific band.
4. Intensity of band and
5. Difference in banding pattern in comparison to authentic zymogram of the variety under
test.
Biochemical tests for varietal identification:

65
Characteristic colour reactions of some genotypes to specific chemicals do form the

basis for diagnosis of genuineness of the variety.
1. Lugol’s solution(Iodine + Potassium Iodide + Water): It is used to differentiate Lupinus
varieties, based on the presence or absence of alkaloids.
2. Phenol colour reaction: It is a recommended test for identification of wheat cultivars
(ISTA, 1976). Grains are soaked in distilled water for 24 hours at 200C. The soaked seeds
are transferred on filter paper soaked in 1% aqueous solution of phenol in Petri-dish. The
dish is covered and kept for about 4 hours at 300C. The ventral side of the grains should
face downwards on the filter paper. The intensity of colour developed is evaluated on a 0-
9 scale (0 = negative or no change of colour and gradual intensification of colour from
light brown to deep black graded from 1 to 9). The lower glumes may also give specific
colour with phenol. The intensity of colour depends on the extent of tyrosinase activity
generated in the grain in presence of phenol as a substrate. This test can also be used on
dehulled oat seeds and on certain herbage seeds (rye grass and Poapratensis); but it is not
suitable for barley. It is also used to differentiate between chicory (Chichoriumintybus)
and endive (C. endive) seeds by treating embryo with 0.5% solution of phenol.
3. Peroxidase reaction:Soybean varieties can be differentiated on the basis of difference in
peroxidase reaction shown by seed coats treated with 0.1% hydrogen peroxide solution.
4. Sodium hydroxide: When the red/white grain colour of wheat is not distinguishable
easily due to weather damage or seed treatment, the seeds are submerged for 15-20 min. in
a 10% sodium hydroxide solution. After drying, the red wheat grains would show clear red
colour while white wheat grains would turn yellowish white. Sodium hydroxide solution
can also be used to distinguish between the garden pea and fodder pea seeds.
5. Potassium dichromate: A 1% solution of potassium dichromate may be used to identify
garden pea and fodder pea from their differential reaction.
6. Potassium hydroxide bleaching powder mixture: A 1:5 wt/wtmixture of potassium
hydroxide and bleaching powder in solution can be used to differentiate between varieties
of sorghum. Seeds are soaked for 5 to 10 minutes in the solution. Seeds with tannic acid in
the testa turn dark, whereas seeds withouttannic acid remain light coloured.
7. Hydrochloric acid: If florescence test result is not reliable due to weather damage or seed
treatment, then soaking the seeds in 1 N HCL may also be used to differentiate the seeds
of cucumber (Cucumissativus) and melon (C. melo). After treating the seeds in 1 N HCL
solution for 1.5 to 2 hours, melon seeds become more strongly coloured (orange-yellow).
The coleoptile colour of cereal would intensify if 1% HCL or NaCl is added to the filter
paper on which seeds are placed. The aleurone layer beneath the testa of barley grains,
which contain chromoplasts, become dark coloured when soaked in 50% sulphuric acid
for 12 to 16 hours and then followed by 4 hours treatment at 400C in a mixture of 10%
HCL and 90% methanol in 1:3 v/v/ mixture.
8. Iodine solution: After removal of the flowering glumes, millet grains mixed with weedy
form were treated with 5% iodine solution (in alcohol). Grains of weedy forms turned dark
brown in 5 to 7 minutes, while cultivated forms remained unchanged or slightly pink.
Detection of genetically modified crops:
The establishment of relevant,reliableand economical methodology for
detection,identification and quantification of GM crops continues to be a challenge at
international level. A great number of different strategies and methods are available for
testing of GM material and the quality of these results depends on the methodology,
equipment, sampling, theoretical expertise and the practical skills of the person handling
testsample.Therefore, it is important to understand the methods and their applications for
detection of GM crops and their products. There are several technologies capable of
detecting, identifying and quantifying either the DNA introduced or the protein(s) expressed

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in GM crops and products. Currently, available methods (PCR, quantitative detection,

qualitative detection, event specific detection and construct specific detection) for detecting
GM crops are almost exclusively based on PCR, because of their high sensitivity,
specificity and need for only a small amount of DNA. Especially, real-time PCR has
been regarded as the most powerful tool for the detection and quantification of GM crops and
products.
GM crops and organic seed production:

Genetic contamination of various kinds is inevitable in field grown crops. This is an
issue faced by farmers growing seed production crops and regulations already exist to ensure
contamination is below an agreed level. The current status of organic crops relies on the
exclusion of GM contamination. This means that contamination of GM crops is an issue for
all classes of organic crops, not only seed production crops.
Contamination may arise through pollen or seed dispersal and both mechanisms are
important. The degree of pollen contamination will depend upon physical distance, sexual
compatibility between the crop and the contaminating source, relative flowering times, crop
areas and outcrossing rate of the crop. The degree of seed contamination will be influenced
by seed handling procedures, seed dormancy and rotation practices.
The best means of reducing pollen contamination levels is to provide isolation
distances between crops and other sexually compatible plants. The effects of seed dispersal
can be reduced by allowing a time period between similar crops and by removing volunteers.
The source of contamination (pollen or seed) cannot be entirely eliminated. The organic
farmers require higher standards of genetic purity. Firstly, they require higher standards in
order to provide the consumer with an acceptable level of GM-free food. Secondly, the use of
home-saved seed may be minimised to reduce the accumulation and multiplication of
contamination. In order to minimise mixing of organic and GM crops, it is necessary to
maintain isolation distance, use physical barriers, years between land use and cleaning of
equipment.
In order to ensure that the measures taken achieve acceptable levels of contamination,
it may be necessary to test and quantify the presence of GM material. However, the methods
available may not always detect contamination and quantification of the level of GM
contamination in organic crops is likely to be very difficult. Firstly, because the GM trait may
not be readily apparent and secondly, the genetic diversity already within some organic crops
may make additional traits from a contaminating crop harder to identify.
If a trait governed by transgene is used to test the presence of transgene, it may lead to
underestimates because not all the transgenes will be active at all times. The direct testing of
transgene(s) is costly, time-consuming and requires detailed knowledge of the transgenes in
question.
There is a possibility of hybridisation and seed mixing between organic crops and
conventional crops. Therefore, while organic seed production care should be taken on
following points.
• The acceptable levels of contamination of organic crops should be decided. It is important
to define acceptable levels because complete isolation cannot be guaranteed.
• The easy and reliable methods of identifying and quantifying GM contamination should be
available, which in practice may be very difficult.
• The sources of seed for organic crop production should be checked.

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L-13.SEED DRYING,SEED PROCESSING AND SEED TESTING
SEED DRYING:
Reducing or lowering the seed moisture content the safe moisture limit in order to
maintain seed vigour and seed viability is known as seed drying. Excess seed moisture allows
mould growth on seed surface and maximum insect activity that causes rapid loss of seed
viability and seed germination and also reduces life of seed. The main advantages of the seed
drying are
1. To maintain seed viability and vigour
2. To permit early harvest
3. To permit long term storage
4. To permit seeds men to sell a better quality product.
5. To permit use of plant stalk as green quality fodder
6. To permit more efficient use of land and man power.
Methods of seed drying:
1. Natural air drying: Crop is allowed to remain in standing position in the field after
physiological maturity for longer period (provided there is no possibility of late rain or
shattering) even after harvest; harvested produce can be spread on field. To achieve
uniform drying the seed should be spread in thin layer. Natural air can be passed through
harvested seed. This is most economical method.
2. Sun drying: Harvested seed is spread evenly on clean threshing yard or cemented floor.
Only one variety of each crop need to be dried at a time to avoid mechanical mixture. Sun
dried seeds should not be allowed to remain open in the floor during night. Since seed will
absorb moisture from air. About 2-4 days are needed to reduce the moisture content to 10-
20 %.
Advantages:
 The method is easy and cheap  Does not require any expenditure or fuel.
Disadvantages:
 The rate of drying is slow.
 Loss due to attack by insects, birds and animals.
 Large floor area is required.
 Involves extra labour for collecting and spreading of seeds during the day.
 Sun drying cause checks/hot spots due to variation in temperature from time to time.
 This checks or spots induce high amount of breakage while processing.
 Dust, dirt and other foreign materials get admixed.
 High weather risks and damage by heavy wind and rains.
3. Forced air drying/Mechanical drying: In forced air drying, heat is created artificially and
drying forcedly carried out. The heat necessary for evaporating the water comes from the
temperature drop of the air. This is most fundamental principle of forced air seed drying.
The rate of elimination of moisture from seed depends on temperature, relative humidity,
physical structure, chemical composition of seed and seed coat permeability.Forced air
drying is again classified according to the structure and methods used for drying and the
types of forced air drying are as follows.
A. Forced natural air drying: Generally ordinary seed godowns are provided with two
types of ventilators for free movement of air circulation. In modern godowns provisions
are to be made for forcible circulation of air with the help of an electronic blower. The
outside air which is comparatively dry (only in dry months) is circulated into the seed
bag in the godowns. The seed get dried up in this process.

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B. Heated with supplement heat: Small quantity of heat is given to seed to raise temp.
about 5 to 100F for reducing relative humidity and then air is passed through it.
C. Heated air drying: Drying air is heated up to 1100F or 400C and then passed through
seed. Systems for heated air drying are as follows.
a. Bag drying: Heated air is passed through bags (mostly gunny bag) containing seeds.
This is most useful for smaller seeds and drying of seeds of large number of varieties
at a time.
b. Box drying: Seeds are kept in boxes having perforated bottom and heated air is
passed through them. This method helps to maintain identify of seed lots.
c. Wagon drying: About 3-4 wagons having perforated bottom are connected to each
other. Seeds are placed in them and heated air is passed through them. Large
quantity of seed can be dried by using this system. Wagon drying has the different
advantages viz., drying is continuous, high versatility, low initial cost, easy cleaning,
can be used for other purposes.
d. Multiple bins drying: Large numbers of bins are used to dry different seed lots.
Heated air is passed through them.
Advantages of mechanical drying:
1. Quick method, timely and uniform drying is possible.
2. Makes early harvest possible.
3. It reduces the chances of losses due to over ripening and shattering of seed.
4. Losses due to rodents and birds are prevented.
5. Less damage during processing operation.
6. Permits long time storage by preventing sun checks and other damages.
Disadvantages of mechanical drying:
1. Initial cost of drying equipment's is high.
2. Fuel is expensive.
3. It produces possible fire hazards.
4. Considerable supervision is necessary.
Principles of forced air drying: Seeds are highly hygroscopic livingmaterial. Their moisture
content depends on temperature and relative humidity of surrounding air. The air passing
through damp seeds pick up water. The evaporation cools the air and the seed. The heat
necessary for evaporating the water comes from the temperature drop of the air. The
principle factor for determining seed moisture is water-vapour pressure in the seed and the air
surrounding it.
The vapour pressure in the seed is greater than that of the surrounding air, vapour will
move out of the seeds and vice a versa. When two vapour pressures are equal there is no net
movement of vapour and moisture has equilibrium state with surrounding atmosphere.
Hence, the seed drying is takes place when there is a net movement of water from the seed
into surrounding atmosphere. The rate at which the seed will dry depends upon the rate
moisture migration from the center to the surface and by the speed at which surface moisture
is evaporated in the surrounding air.
The rate of moisture migration from center of seed to the surface of the seed is
influenced by a) temperature of the seed, b)physical structure of seed, c)chemical
composition of the seed and d) seed coat permeability. The rate of moisture removed from
surface of the seed is influenced by a) degree of surface of seed exposed to the drying air,
b)saturation and relative humidity of the drying air and c)temperature of drying air.
Air distribution system: Three main types of air distribution systems used for seed drying.
1. Main and lateral duct system: In this system, the main duct can be located in the center
or one side or outside of the bin. When it is located outside the bin under the floor it can
also be used for emptying the bin. Side located main duct can be built inside the bin or on

69
to the wall outside the bin. Interior side or outside located main duct has advantage over
central main duct due to their no disturbance of the floor.
2. Single central perforated duct system: The side wall of the bin must be perforated so
that air can flow laterally through the seed. For this air distribution system, there must be
an equal thickness of seed not exceeding 6 feet around duct. For drying, the air should be
forced upward through seed. This system is more commonly used for ear corn drying.
3. Perforated false floor air distribution system: This is most common and satisfactory
system for heated air drying. In this system air is introduced under the perforated false
floor. The false floor can be made of hard ware cloth or screen or by perforated metal.
Perforated metal is more durable and convenient to use. The floor is supported on concrete
block having 90-120 cm space for typical farm loading and unloading i.e. up to 500
pounds/sq. feet. Adequate clearance and arrangement of support chambers between the
regular bin floor and the false floor must be provided, so that entering air moves freely and
is uniformly distributed. The channels and openings for the flow of air must be carefully
designed to carry air stream satisfactory. When metal flooring is used the total area of all
openings should not be less than 8-10% of storage floor area.
Selection of crop dryers and system of heated air drying: Dryers are the full units having
both a heater unit where fuel is burned and a fan to force the heated air through connecting
duct into air distribution system. The dryers have automatic temperature control, flame failure
control, transition duct, foundation rings, seed leveler, sweep unloader and auger unloader.
Dryers are come into two main types according to the manner in which heat is supplied to air.
1. Direct method: The fuel is burned and hot combustion gases are thrown directly into
the air stream which goes into the air distribution system.
2. Indirect method: Hot combustion gases pass into a chamber and drying air is
circulated around the chamber and exchanged heat is used for seed drying.
In first method there is possibility of blowing soot (black powdery deposit from
smoke), unburned fuel, objectionable fumes, and small parks due to fuel. Hence the indirect
method for drying is universally followed.The heated air drying can be again classified
according to the method of filling of seed in to the bin as follows.
1. Layer in bin dryer: In this method the bin is filled to a specific depth depending upon
seed moisture, the drying unit and bin size. Seed is dried in layers; successive layers of
moist seed are added periodically to the drying bin after the previous layers have been
partially dried. It generally required 3-4 days while each new layer dries. These dryers
range from 21-40 feet diameter and 5-20 Hp. Layer in bin dryer requires a thorough
understanding of the in—bin drying process, since the depth of the successive layers of
seed to be added to the drying bin depends on the type of seed and its moisture content,
the drying-air conditions, and the fan rating. It is the most efficient but slowest method.
2. Batch in bin dryer: In this method of drying, the quantity of seed at given moisture
content can be dried with a given drying unit. The high moisture seed is placed in a
drying bin, dried and cooled and removed to storage bin. Seed depth are typically 2.5 to 4
feet, the deeper the seed depth the lower the air flow and the slower the drying.
3. Batch dryers: The inner air chamber is surrounded by two parallel perforated steel walls.
These are generally rectangular or cylindrical and usually described by volume in bushel
that a dryer will hold or fill e.g. 300 bushel dryer. Fan power ranges from 30-40Hp. The
number of batches per day will be 8-10 for small and 1-2 for big dryers. It requires close
management for moisture sampling, seed receiving, dry seed transfer and operating
cycles.
4. Continuous Dryer: Continuous flow dryers move seed through heating and cooling
sections of the column continuously. Seed flow is controlled by volume meter which is

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present at the lower side of seed column. Heated air is passed through the upper 2/3rd to
3/4th of seed column at 100-150 CFM/bu. Power needs are from 7 to 60 Hp.
SEED PROCESSING:
Seed lots received from the field are often at high moisture content and contain trash
and other inert material, shriveled, broken, chaffy seeds, diseased or insect affected seeds,
common weed seeds, noxious weed seeds, deteriorated seeds, damaged seeds, other crop
seeds, other variety seeds, off size seeds, etc. Hence, process which involves all steps
followed in sequence in order to dry the seeds to safe moisture level, remove or reduce to the
extent of possible the various undesirable materials; uniform size grading and seed treatment
to upgrade the overall seed quality called as seed processing.
Seeds processing refers to all the steps necessary for preparation of harvested seed for
marketing, namely, handling, drying, shelling, preconditioning, size grading, treating and
packaging. Seed processing involves all the operations after harvest that aim at maximizing
seed viability, vigour and health.
Principle: The quality of seed is improved during processing in two ways (1) Separation of
other seeds or inert matter and (2) Upgrading or the elimination of poor quality seeds. The
ultimate goal of seed processing is to obtain the maximum percentage of pure seed with
maximum germination potential. Hence, before starting the actual processing operation of
seed it should be first prepared for processing called “pre-conditioning” e.g. shelling in
groundnut, maize, hulling in rice, grasses seed, debearding of oat, barley and maize,
scarification of lucerne, rice bean, scalping (rough cleaning) of all seeds.
Purposes of seed processing:
1. To lower the cost of further processing and storage, including transport. This is
achieved by reducing the bulk of the seed lot by cleaning debris and by removing
empty or fractured seed (pre cleaning).
2. To increase the longevity of seeds. It is done by drying seeds to safe moisture content
and treating with protective chemicals.
3. To reduce the variability in vigour by invigorating the seeds and removing the low
vigour seeds.
4. To improve the uniformity in seed shape or size by grading or by pelleting.
5. Treatment of seeds with protective insecticide and pesticides.
Sequence of operations or steps in seed processing: Sequences of operations are based on

characteristics of seed such as shape, size, weight, length, surface structure, colour and
moisture content, because each crop seed possesses individually different seed structure.The
steps involved in seed processing are as follows:
Drying Pre-cleaning ConditioningCleaning Separatingor Upgrading
Storage Bagging Weighing Treating
CLEANING:
Principle: In the cleaning process, the separation of dockage (undesirable and unwanted
impurities like damaged or broken seed of the variety, weed seed, other crop seed, light and
chaffy seed, off size, broken plant parts, inert matter like sand, soil particles, insecticide,
pesticide particles) is done on the basis of difference in physical properties of desirable seed
and undesirable matter. The principle physical differences found in seed material are seed
size (length, width and thickness), density, shape, surface texture, colour, affinity for liquid,
and seed conductivity.

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Methods of seed cleaning: Cleaning of seed can be conveniently discussed in three steps:
Step 1. Pre-conditioning and pre-cleaning:
Pre-conditioning: Isolation of seed from plant parts with which it was harvested i.e. Shelling
Pre cleaning: Removal of external materials like trash, stones, clods which are either in
larger size or lighter in weight. No pre-cleaning is required for hand harvested and
winnowed seeds. The machineries involved in this operation are as given below.
1. Scalper: Removes the larger inert matter from the seeds. If it contains a single sieve it
is called as scalpers and with two sieves it is called rough cleaners. The unit consists of
a vibrating or rotating screen or sieve having perforation large enough to allow the
rough seed to pass through readily.
2. Debearders: The machine has horizontal beater with arms rotating inside a steel drum.
When the seeds pass through, it do the action of rubbing the seeds and clip the seeds of
oats, debeard barley, thresh white cap in wheat, remove awns and beards, de hull some
grass seeds and polish the seed.
3. Huller-scarifier: It has two rubber faced rough surfaces to rub the seeds. Dehulling
(removal of outer coat or husk) and scarification (scratching the seed coat) can be done
simultaneously or separately.
4. Maize sheller: 1) High capacity power operated shellers for bulk seed and 2) Hand
shellers for breeder or nucleus seed.
Step 2.Basic cleaning: The second stage of cleaning is carried out with air blasts and
vibrating screens and is applicable to all kinds of seeds. It is essentially the same as scalping
but more refined. It is performed mostly by one machine known as air-screen cleaner. The air
screen cleaner uses three leaning elements as given below.
1. Aspiration: The light seed and chaffy material is removed from the seed mass through
aspiration.
2. Scalping: The good seed are dropped down through screen opening but large material
(trash, clods, etc.) is remained over screen.
3. Grading: The good seed remain over screen and smaller particles (undersized, cut,
shriveled, broken seeds) drop down.
Parts of air screen cleaner:
Feed hopper: This is used to spread the seed across full width of the top screen through even
and steady flow. The type of hopper depends upon the make e.g. roll feed hopper, roll feed
brush hoper, metering hopper, etc.
Screen: In the air screen machine, screen performs both scalping and grading. Screens are
made up of either perforated metal sheet or woven wire mesh. Opening of perforated metal
sheet may be round, oblong or triangular, whereas the holes of wire mesh screen are square or
rectangular.
Clay crushing roll:These are used to crush the clay clumps without damaging the seeds.
These two large diameter rolls are made up of rubber hard enough to crush the clay clumps
without damaging the seeds. The rolls are adjustable to various opening and may be left
inoperative when not needed.
Brushes: Brushes travel mechanically back and forth under each screen. Bristles of the
traveling brushes sweep the underside of each screen to keep the perforation open. The
cleaning efficiency is more when the perforation remains open.
Tappers: These are installed over the scalping screen to help scalping screen clean.
Shoes: The vibrating or shaking section of the machine into which the screens are fitted is
called shoes. A shoe usually has fitting for two screens, one for scalping and other for
grading. A machine may have one or two shoes depending upon the size. The shoes are
inclined to allow the seed to flow over the screen.
Eccentrics: The off center drives on the drive shaft shake the shoes and are called eccentrics
of the other shoe.

72
Fan: In general there are two fans. Upper is for removing the light chaff and dust before they
reach the screen and lower removes the light seed and trash not removed by the upper air or
screen.
Air chest: This allows the material lifted by the air stream to settle. This is done by
decreasing the air velocity as it passes through the air chest. The lifted material settles out by
gravity and is spouted out of the air chest.
Principle operation: The shaking motion of screen may be of several ways but in general it
is eccentric. The screens are arranged in shoes that cause to move the screen in opposite
direction, thus balancing each other. The number of screen and air systems may vary
depending upon the model and make. However, a typical four screen cleaner has following
jobs
1. First screen: Its perforations are large enough to readily drop the seed but small
enough to scalp off large foreign material such as stems, sticks dirt or weed seed.
2. Second screen: Its perforations are small enough to retain good seed but large enough
to drop trash, weed seed and dirt smaller than the crop seed.
3. Thirdscreen: It removes large foreign material or contaminating seeds that were small
enough to pass through the first screen.
4. Fourthscreen: This screen has perforation slightly larger than those in the second
screen.
UPGRADING:
After basic cleaning, it is desirable to further upgrade quality by removing either
specific contaminants or by very precise size grading. The various processing operations
conducted after basic cleaning to further improve seed quality are regarded as the upgrading
operations. The choice of upgrading operation depends upon the type of contaminants and
crop seed. The following table describes the various types of upgrading operation
equipments, their principle of operation and specific uses.
Table: Upgrading machines, their principles and specific uses.
Sr. Type of upgrading Principle Use
No. operation & types of
machine
1. Sizing and grading (Dimensional sizing)
a) Width and thickness Separate the seed on the basis Used in sizing hybrid
i) Horizontal flat of difference in width and corn, rice seed industry.
screen separator. thickness. The separators apply
ii) Vertical ribbed gravity, centrifugal force and
screen separator. pressure for separation.
iii) Cylindrical screen
separator.
b) Length Seeds are separate on the pure Small grains, Corn,
i) Disc separator length basis soybean
ii) Cylinder separator
2. Gravity or weight separation
i) Gravity separator Seeds are separated according Remove badly damaged,
to the vertical stratification deteriorated, diseased,
according the difference in empty, blind, soil, sand,
specific gravity of the seed. etc.
ii) Stoner Modified gravity separator Remove heavy inert
matter from larger
volume of seed

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3. Air separation
i) Pneumatic separator Divide the seed according to the General cleaning, close
terminal velocity (velocity of air grading, specific
to suspend particles in a rising separation. Lifting seeds
air current). of foxtail from
ii) Aspirator Fan at discharge end induce a Altafescue.
vacuum which allows the
atmospheric pressure to force
air through the separator.
iii) Scalping aspirator Rough separation is made.
iv) Fractioning aspirator Heavy seeds fall against the air
flow and light seeds are lifted.
The mixture separated into
different grades.
4. Surface texture separation
i)Roll mill Seeds are classified according to Separation of smooth
the texture of seed coat. clover seed from rough
Roughest seed are ejected first. seed coat, irregular shape,
wrinkled, shriveled, broke.
ii)Magnetic separator Iron powder is mixed in seed Removal of contaminating
which stick to the rough weed seed from seed of
textured seed powder and which clovers, alfalfa, etc.
attract towards the magnetic
drum.
iii)Inclined draper Based on the texture and shape Separation of smooth or
of seed. Round and smooth round seeds from rough
seeds are collected separately flat or elongated seeds.
against rough and flat seed in
with inclined draper.
5. Electronic separator
i)Electric colour sorter Separated on the basis of colour Separation off coloured
brightness by the machine. seeds.
ii)Electrostatic separators Separated on the basis of electrical Johnson grass
property or surface charge. Poor charges from sesame
are slow to lose their charge and fall seed.
gradually.
6. Other separator
i)Spiral separator According to the ability of the Separation of rape, vetch,
seed to roll. Fast rolling seeds soybean seed from wheat,
collect separately than slow oat, rye. Separation of flat,
rolling with inclined surface. wrinkled seeds from round
soybean.
ii)Polisher Polishing agent are mixed and Improve the luster of the
the mixture is agitated and seed e.g. beans, peas,
passed over screen for popcorns.
separation.
iii)Picker belts Separation that can’t make by Removal of undesirable
machine may be made by hand ears of corns, cockleburs
on hand picker belts. Operator from cotton seed, pods
observes seeds and removes the from shelled peanuts.
unwanted material by hand.
iv)Vibratory separator Separate on basis of shape & texture. Desk is Removal of
vibrated with electromagnetic vibrator. weed seed.
Flat/rough seeds climb to high side of deck.

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SEED TESTING:
Seed testing refers to evaluation of seed quality in terms of genetic purity, physical
purity, germination and seed moisture. Seed testing results help in approval or rejection of
seed lots for planting purpose. If a seed lot confirms to the prescribed minimum seed
standards, it is approved forplanting purpose. In case the seed lot fails to meet minimum seed
standards, it is used as grain for consumption. Seed testing is generally done for improved
classes of seed such as breeder seed, foundation seed and certified seed. The seed testing
consist of five major steps, viz., sampling, purity analysis, germination test, moisture test and
seed health test.
Standard seed-testing procedures for the evaluation of seeds have been developed by
the International Seed Testing Association (ISTA). The seed analysts has to follow rules
prescribed by the ISTAfor seed testing if the seed is moving into the international trade.
However, if the sale of the seed is regulated in a country by an Act of Parliament, the testing
of seeds for quality-control purposes may be done by the rules prescribed in the country. The
seed testingisuseful for achieving the following objectives for minimizing the risks of
planting low quality seeds.
Objectives of Seed Testing:
1. To determine the quality of seed, that is, their suitability for planting.
2. To identify seed quality problems and their probable cause.
3. To determine the need for drying & processing and specific procedures that should be
used.
4. To ensurethat the seed meets established quality standards or labeling specifications.
5. To establish quality and provide a basis for price and consumer discrimination among
lots in the market.
Major steps in seed testing procedure:
9. Sampling: The process of taking a small portion of seed from the large seed lot is called
sampling and the seed thus selected is called sample. The sample should be true
representative of the entire seed lot. The sampling includes following aspects.
i) Time of sampling: Usually it is done after bagging when seed is ready for storage or
sale and also during processing.
ii) Sampling authority: Seed sampling is done by officer or inspector of State Seed
Certification Agency and submitted to STL. The seed samples submitted by seed
inspectors are called official samples. Sometimes, seed samples are submitted by
farmers, seed growers and seed farms. Such samples are called service samples.
iii) Sample size: It varies from crop to crop.
iv) Sampling methods:There are two types of sampling methods, viz., sampling with
hand and sampling with Trier or probe.
v) Types of samples: There are four types of samples.
a. Primary sample: The small portion of seed drawn from the large seed lot is
known as primary sample. Several primary samples are drawn from the seed lot.
b. Composite sample: Sample formed by mixing all the primary samples of a seed lot.
c. Submitted sample: Sample which is submitted to STL for testing.
d. Working sample: Sample drawn from submitted sample to carry out seed testing work.
2. Purity analysis: It is useful for determining the physical purity of the seed and it is carried
out with working sample. The size of working sample varies from crop to crop. This test
reports the physical components of the seed sample. According to ISTA (International Seed
Testing Association) rules, the sample is separated into three components as given below.
i) Pure seeds: It refers to the portion of the seed that belongs to the variety under testing.
ii) Other seeds: It includes other variety seeds of a crop, other crop seeds and weed seeds.
iii) Inert matter:It includes broken or damaged seeds, leaf bits, straw, soil particles, stones, etc.

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3. Germination test: Germination refers to emergence of normal seedlings from the seed
under ideal conditions of light, temperature, moisture, oxygen and nutrients. Germination
test is essential to determine planting value of the seed. Germination test indicates
proportion of the seed that will develop into normal plants.Germination test is conducted in
four replications. Germination is expressed in percentage.Normal seedlings are used for
reporting germination percentage.As per ISTA rules, seed sample is divided into five
components as given below.
i) Normal seedlings: Seedlings with normal growth of root and shoot.
ii) Abnormal seedlings: Seedling that do not have capacity to develop into normal plants.
For example, defective seedlings lacking either cotyledons or having stunted root and
shoot or their essential structures so much decayed.
iii) Hard seeds: Seeds which do not absorb water due to impermeable seed coat.
iv) Fresh un-germinated seeds: Viable seeds that do not germinate and remain fresh in
germination test.
v) Dead seeds: These are non-viable seeds.
Seed viability test: Seed viability is tested with a chemical known as tetrazolium chloride.
This is the rapid method of germination test. Excised embryo test and X-ray radiography
techniques are also useful for testing seed lots for seed viability.
Seed vigour testing: The seed vigour predicts the general ability of a seed lot to germinate
normally over a range of adverse conditions. Its purpose is to differentiate seed lots, with
essentially equal germination, according to their ability to germinate well inspite of
adversity.The speed of germination is an indicator of vigour. The faster germinating seed
lot is considered to have more seed vigour. More vigorous seeds lots can be stored for
longer periods without loss of germination.
The most common vigour tests in agriculture are the cold test, the accelerated
ageing test, the conductivity test and the tetrazolium test.
4. Moisture test: The moisture content can be measured in two ways, viz., by oven method
and by moisture meter.
5. Seed health test:Seed health refers to freedom of seed from the presence of seed borne
diseases and insect damage. This test is conducted to examine the presence of pathogens in
the seed as well as insect damage to the seeds. The seed should be free from the seed borne
diseases and insect damage. This test is conducted by the seed pathologist to ensure good
seed health.

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L-14.SEED TREATMENT
Seed treatment:
1. It refers to the application of the fungicide, insecticide or a combination of the both to seed
so as to disinfect them from seed born or soil born pathogenic organisms and storage
insects.
2. It is the use and application of biological, physical and chemical agents and techniques
used with seed that provide seed and plant protection and improve the establishment of
healthy crops.
Seed treatments play a significant role in improving the establishment of healthy
crops leading to better yields.Seed treatment ensures assured germination and vigour.
Importance of seed treatment: A successful treatment should bring about following
benefits:
1. Prevention of spread of plant diseases: There are different types of diseases which affect
the seed at different levels of developments of seed. For example,
 Systemic diseases infect during harvest or storage e.g. smut of wheat, blight of barley,
smut of millet.
 Systemic diseases infect during the flowering stage and established in seed e.g. loose
smut of wheat.
 Non-systemic diseases like Fusarium.
2. Protect the seed from seed rot e.g. Pythium spp., Rhizoctonia, Sclerotium; they rot the seed
before germination in the field.
3. Improve the germination: Seed treatment often improves the standard of germination
through the control of seed surface.
4. Provides protection from storage insects and improve the storability.
5. Qualitative improvement in the seed.
6. Improve the field performance.
7. Enable mechanized sowing.
8. Redefines agriculture as a profit oriented art, business or science.
Types of seed treatment:
1. Protection treatments: It includes fungal treatments of seed with fungicide or insecticide
or pesticide.
a. Seed disinfection: Eradication of fungal spores established in seed coat or in deep
endospermic tissues by fungicidal treatments is known as seed disinfection e.g. loose
smut of wheat or systemic diseases.
b. Seed disinfestation: Destruction of seed surface borne organisms by chemical dips,
soaks in fungicides or insecticides used as dusts, slurry or liquid e.g. bacterial blight of
barley or non-systemic diseases.
c. Seed protection: Protection of seed and young seedlings from organisms in soil which
may cause decay is termed as seed protection.
2. Invigoration: Predispose or invigorate the seed lot to chemicals which reach to embryo
without destroying seed tissue is known as invigoration treatment. Theses chemical are
generally used for better performance of seed. The solvents used for invigoration includes
acetone, dichloromethane, petroleum ether as solvent for phyto-hormones, antioxidants,
etc. Choice of solvent depends upon solubility of the chemicals to be used for seed
treatments, effect of the solvent on seed germinability and the ability of the solvent to
reach the site of action, i.e. the embryo. Invigoration of legumes with Rhizobium culture
involves dry dusting of seeds with active bacteria in charcoal powder base.
3. Pelleting: Seeds are mechanically coated by water soluble and coloured paste of non-toxic
insecticides, fungicides, inoculants, lime, animals and birds repellents, fertilizers, nutrients

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etc. Pelleting regulates seed rate for precision planting and some steps of interculture
taking care of both protection and invigoration treatments. The colour of pellet may help
to avoid predator birds and small animals. The flower seeds are pelleted to resemble
flower colour which helps gardener to arrange planting according to colour. Pelleted seeds
cost more and weigh more than unpelleted seeds.
Methods of seed treatments: Seeds can be treated after harvest or before storage or before
sowing depending on the type of protection or invigoration necessary. The treatment methods
used are:
1. Physical: e.g. delinting of cotton seed, scarification of hard legume seed.
a. Hot water seed treatment for small grains: e.g. loose smut of wheat, barley controlled
by presoaking (5-6 hrs. in water) and immersing in hot water.
b. Solar heat treatment: Presoaking (4-5 hrs.) seeds and then sun drying (12-16hrs. in
May- June) after spreading in thin layer.
c. Cold water treatment (anaerobic): Presoaked (4h hrs.) seeds are stored in air tight
container for 70 hrs at an average temperature of 700F. After storage drain off water
and spread it in thin layer for drying to safest moisture level (10-12%). Treat seed with
one of the organic fungicides. It is used against black rot of cabbage, other crucifers,
early and late blight, tomato anthracnose, etc.
2. Chemical:
a. Organomercurial: Recommended for small grains flax, cotton, and safflower. Proper
dose of chemical is important because over dose may injure to seed and lower is failing
to give the proper result.
b. Inorganic mercurial: Mercury chloride (1:1000 dilution) seed treatment to vegetables
seed (5-10min) and ornamental bulbs, roots, corns (1-2 hrs.) for controlling
anthracnose, black rot of sweet potato, fusarium wilt of tomato, etc.
c. Organic non-mercurial: Thiram, captan, etc.
d. Inorganicnon-mercurial: Copper sulphate, cuprous oxide, etc.
3. Fumigation: Used against storage pest e.g. HCN, Ethyl oxide, Dichlorophos.
4. Biological: Rhizobium, Azotobacter inoculation.
Instruments used for seed treatments:
1. Slurry treater: Suspension of wettable powder treatment in water is called slurry
treatment. It has basic parts such as cup and dump pan. The cup introduced a given
amount of slurry and dump pan given seed into the mixing chamber. This is used for all
types of seeds. Moisture added due to the application of slurry is soon lost from the
surface.
2. Direct treater: It has basic two types of machines, viz., panogenand mist-o-matictreater.
The mist-o-matictreater is mostly practicable to use.
 Mist-o-matictreater: This instrument applies the chemical in the form of mist. It has
different parts viz., cup, treatment tank, pump, disc and retarding hopper. Cup is used to
apply the chemicals and its size depends upon the cc’s of seed on which the chemicals
are delivered. Disc break drop into mist. After metering the instrument, seed flows
rapidly in revolving fluted disc which is mounted under seed spreading cone. The rate
of mist and seed flow is adjusted with the help of pump.
3. Homemade drum mixer: It has drum with handle mounted on fix stand and having pipe
running through it at an angle. After placing the seed in the drum, rotate it with the handle.
The chemical is applied through the pipe.
4. Grainauger: Liquid material can be dripped on to the seed as they enter a grain auger. By
the time seeds have left the auger, the liquid is spread well over the most seed.

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5. Shovel: Seeds are spread on a clean, dry surface (10-15 cm depth.). The proper amount of
treatment is diluted with water and sprinkled evenly over the seed. Mixing is
accomplished with a shovel turning the seed at least 20 times.
Precautions during seed treatment:
1. Most of the chemical uses for seed treatment are poisonous to human and also to the seed.
Extreme care is required to ensure that treated seed is never used as human or animal food.
To minimize the possibility, treated seed should be clearly labeled as being dangerous, if
consumed.
2. Care must be taken to treat seed at the correct dosage rate. Applying too much will be
poisonous or too little material fails to give the result.
3. Seed with very high moisture content is very susceptible to injury when treated with some
of the concentrated liquid products.
PACKAGING:
After processing and treating seed is completed, seeds are packed into container of
specified net weight. Packaging or bagging is essential last operation in which seeds are
handled in bulk flow. The packaging consists of the following operations.
1. Filling of seed bags to an exact weight.
2. Placing a leaflet in the seed bags regarding improved cultivation practices.
3. Attaching labels, certification tag on the seed bag and sewing of the bag.
4. Storage of bags.
Packaging material: The choice of packaging material and amount of seed to be packed
depends upon kind of seed to be packed, seed moisture content, storage environment,
duration of storage, cost of storage and cost of packaging material. Packaging material used
in seed bagging is of following types.
1. Moisture vapour permeable container: e.g. Jute bag, cloth bag and paper bag.
2. Moisture vapour resistant container: e.g. Jute bag laminated with polythene film.
3. Moisture vapour proof container: e.g. Polythene bag, tin cans, aluminum pouches
and glass bottle.
In India, cereals, pulses, oil seeds normally packed in jute or cloth bag while, flower and
vegetable seeds are packed in paper box, cardboard box, aluminum foil, polythene pouches,
etc. Starchy seeds having moisture within 6-12% and oil seed having moisture within 6-9%
should be stored in moisture resistant container.
LABELING & TAGGING: During labeling & tagging following main points should be considered.
1. After seed testing seed bags needs to be labeled “Certified/Foundation seed” which is
provided by SSCA.
2. These labels must be signed by proper authority.
3. Such bags are closed with a bag sewing machine with a label or tag can be sewn to the bag
in the presence of seed inspector.
4. The label gives the information about the name of crop with variety, class of seed, lot
number, genetic purity, germination %, physical purity%, date of testing and date of
validity. The lot number contains four parts and each is differ by dash e.g. MAY 09-13-
01-01
Part Code Title of code Particulars of code
Part I MAY 09 Month Year code Indicate the month and year on which the
crop was harvested.
Part II 13 Production location Where the seed field located i.e. State or
code Union Territory in India. 13 for Maharashtra.
Part III 01 Processing plant code Where the relevant lot was processed
Part IV 01 Seed produce code Serial number of lot.

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L-15.SEED STORAGE
Seed storage: It refers to preservation of seed with initial quality until it is needed for
planting.The purpose of seed storage is to maintain the seed in good physical and
physiological condition from the time they are harvested until the time they are planted. Thus,
storage is the maintenance of high seed germination and vigour from harvest until planting.
Many crops lose their viability quickly due to either high seed moisture or due to
high atmospheric temperature and humidity. It is therefore, essential to monitor suitable
temperature and moisture condition during storage to minimize loss of viability. Thestorage
process will be started from the moment when seed reach physiological maturity until they
germinate or until they are thrown away because they are dead or otherwise worthless.
General principles of seed storage:
As various factors affects seed quality in storage, the following principle emerges as
necessary for good storage.
1. Seed storage conditions should be dry and cool.
2. Before placing the seeds into storage, they should be dried to safe moisture level.
3. Provide proper ventilation.
4. Store structures should be water proof i.e. rain water should not be entered.
5. Seeds placed in storage must be clean, free from trashes which may harbor insects or
pests.
6. Effective and adequate protection against thefts, rodents, birds, insects and fungi by
fumigation and other necessary materials.
7. Proper sanitation should be provided.
8. Proper maintenance of temperature and moisture content of surrounding atmosphere
of bags.
9. Store high quality seeds only.
10. Determine the seed storage needs in view of period of storage, time and climate of
prevailing area. Long term storage period and high relative humidity condition
requires high quality sophistications than that of short term storage period and low
relative humidity.
Stages of seed storage: The entire storage period can be divided into following stages.
1. Storage on plant: There is an interval time between physiological maturity and harvest
maturity and any delay in harvesting the seed after they reach harvest maturity, the seed
quality is greatly influenced. Weathering damages are also a serious factor during this
period. Therefore, it is most important to maintain initial seed quality to the near
maximum, by keeping weathering and other types of damages to minimum level.
2. Harvest, until processed and stored in ware house: The period of harvesting and
cleaning is frequently one of high temperatures. Seed deterioration is also high during this
period because of high moisture content. Transport from field to threshing yard, threshing
yard to processing plant and processing plant to ware house involves rapid deterioration
when handling of material is not properly. Moisture content should be less than 13%
during this period to control mold growth. If moisture content is above 13% adequate
necessary care in handling the seed material at this stage is necessary.
3. In warehouse: It is compulsory to give primary attention to rooms or buildings which
considered as warehouse for storing the seed material. For better maintenance of seed
quality following points should be considered.
• Make arrangement of warehouse according to crop e.g. Onion, soybean, peanuts, etc.
• Fumigation of warehouse.
• Proper ventilation arrangement.
• Stacking of seeds.

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4. In transport: Handling of seed material properly during transport will be helpful for
maintenance of seed life. Any mechanical damage should be minimized.
5. In retailer store: The retailers have a small quantity of seed material but they also give
the special attention for storage and handling of seeds. They should minimize the handling
damage and protect from the store grain pests.
6. On the user’s farm: Quality of seed should be protected until they sown in the field or
until they are thrown away because they are dead or otherwise worthless. Hence it is
important to protect them on farmer’s field also up to sowing. There are many causes for
deterioration of seed at farmer’s field e.g. pest and disease attack, moisture at storing
place, improper handling, etc.
Factors affecting seed longevity in storage: Seeds are the basic inputs of agriculture and
hence they should possess the best quality in all respects of its characters. Seed aging and loss
of germination during storage cannot be stopped altogether, though it could be appreciably
reduced by providing good storage conditions. Seed longevity in storage depends up on
following factors.
1. Kind/Variety of seed: Some kinds of seeds are naturally short lived e.g. soybean, onion,
peanut, etc. Similarly, the genetic makeup of the lines or varieties also influences
storability.
2. Initial seed quality: The seed lots having vigour, undeteriorated seeds store longer than
that of deteriorated lots. Depending upon the severity of damage or degree of
deterioration, e.g. extent of weathering damage, mechanical injury, flat, wrinkled or
otherwise damaged seed, etc. the longevity in storage is influenced.
3. Moisture content: Moisture content of seed is directly proportional to the life span of
seed during the storage. The rate of viability of seed decreases as the moisture content of
seed increases. Forstorage of cereals in ordinary storage conditions for 12 to 18 months,
seed drying up to 10% moisture appears quite satisfactory.
4. Relative humidity and temperature during storage: Relative humidity and temperature
during storage are the most important factors for deciding the moisture content of the seed.
Rather it is a function of relative humidity to maintain the safe moisture content in the
seed than that of temperature referred as equilibrium moisture content. Establishment of
equilibrium in seed is a time dependent process. It does not occur instantaneously. A
period of time depends up on the seed kind, initial moisture content, the average relative
humidity and temperature. Temperature also play important role. The activity of mould
and insects increases with increasing temperature. Low temperature is very effective in
maintaining seed quality even though relative humidity might be quite high. Good cold
storage for seed should not exceed 60% in relative humidity. The following simple rules
put forth by Harrington are a useful guides as well as measures of effects of moisture
content, temperature and relative humidity.
 A 1% decrease in moisture content nearly doubles storage potential of seed.
 A 100F decrease in temperature nearly doubles storage potential of seed.
 Good seed storage is achieved when the percentage of relative humidity in storage
environment and the storage temperature in degrees Fahrenheit add up to 100.
5. Provenance: The seed samples obtained may show the difference in viability due to their
different pre-harvest conditions like climate, soil, pest and diseases infection, etc. Also
the different factor operating before and during harvest can cause different amount of
deterioration.
6. Environmental fluctuations: There is little effect of environment fluctuation outside the
storage structure on the longevity of the seed.

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7. Extreme storage conditions: Extreme condition of temperature, moisture content and

relative humidity will cause heavy deterioration of seed e.g. low temperature leads
freezing effect.
8. Oxygen pressure: Increase in pressure of gaseous oxygen present in storage environment
decrease the viability of seed.
9. Storage condition for the activity of organisms: There are six types of organisms which
are feeding on seeds during storage viz., bacteria, fungi, mites, insects, rodents and birds.
The activity of all these organisms can lead to damage resulting in loss of vigour or
viability or particularly in case of rodents to complete loss of seed.
10. Other factors: Direct sun light on the seed, number and kind of fumigation, seed
treatment are the some other causes for deciding the longevity of seed during the storage
rather than that of mentioned above.
11. Storage at transit, at retailer’s store and user’s farm: Adequate storage precautions at
all these points are also necessary.
Measures for pest and disease control during storage: Pest and diseases are one of the
most severe causes of seed deterioration during the storage. To control seed deterioration due
to insects and diseases, the following control measures should be taken.
1. Sanitation: Good sanitation is necessary to control the seed against pest and diseases.
Torn seed bags should be immediately replaced with new bags. All spilled seeds or floor
sweeping should be immediately removed. Discarded seed and cleanings should be carried
away, not just dumped outside the door. In addition to cleaning, the floor and walls should
be sprayed with residual insecticides as often as required e.g. DDT @ 1-2gm/m2.
2. Seed treatment: An insecticide combined with a fungicide may be applied as a protectant.
3. Fumigation: The most serious source of reinfestation is infested seed which brought in.
Already infested seed may be brought from field or it may be transferred from infested
storage. Such infestation is controlled by fumigation. Rather than fumigating the whole
storage, it is better to have a fumigation room or to fumigate the seed on concrete floor
under a tarpaulin before it enters the main storage room. The general fumigants used
below 300C and below 12% seed moisture are methyl bromide (16-32 mg/m3), hydrogen
cyanide (32-64 mg/m3) and hydrogen phosphide (5-10 tablets/MT of seed). The repeated
use of fumigation may seriously reduce the vigour and germination capacity of seed. Also
fumigation at seed moisture above 14% will deteriorate the seed quality. To build the
insect proof storage, make sure that the seeds, bags or anything else placed in storage are
insect free.
4. Seed moisture: Prevention is better than cure. Soto prevent damage from storage fungi, it
is best to store seeds which have been well-dried to safe moisture content limits (generally
12%).

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L-16.SEED MARKETING
The recommended or notified and released improved varieties of seeds must be

available to the farmers well in time in sufficient quantity so that the planting schedule is not
disturbed. The cost of such high quality seed should moreover be within the reach of average
farmer. Therefore, seed marketing is a vital activity controlling the supply and price of seeds
for the progress in crop production and productivity. The linkage between timely availability
of the end product with the production pipeline being monitored and the quantity of the seed
of the kind or variety to be produced being adjusted on the basis of demand calls for
meticulous planning to keep the seed market alive.
Seed marketing: It refers to the actual acquisition and selling of packed seeds, intermediate
storage, delivery and sales promotional activities.
Seed marketing comprises the following:
1. Demand forecasts (assessment of effective demand).
2. Marketing structure.
3. Arrangements for storage of seeds.
4. Sales promotional activities.
5. Post- sales service and
6. Economics of seed production and seed pricing.
Marketing structure:
The key to success in seed marketing is the establishment of the effective channel of
distribution. The various channels through which seed can be marketed vary greatly
according to the needs of the seed company.Presently the seed distribution is done by
following way.
1. Farmer to farmer distribution: This is the traditional method whereby the farmers
obtain their requirements from neighbours either on cash payment or on an exchange
basis. No formal marketing organization is required for this type of distribution.
2. Distribution by co-operatives:This involves procurement of seeds by cooperatives and
its subsequent distribution. The distribution of seed through cooperatives has often been
encouraged by the government through subsidies and guarantees.
3. Distribution by Departments of Agriculture: Seeds are purchased by governments,
out of the government funds, and are distributed through District Agriculture
Officersand Block Development Officers.
4. Distribution of seeds by non-government: In this system, the seeds are distributed
through a network of seed distributors and seed dealers.
Both the Seed Review Team (1968) and National Commission on Agriculture (1976)
have recommended that State Government should withdraw from the seed procurement and
distribution field in a phased manner and concentrate on their principle function of providing
extension education in the use of high quality seeds for improving productivity.Thus,
emphasis should be given on the establishment of a seed marketing network to replace the
role of state government, and to establish a system that will be adequate for the anticipated
increase in seed demand. In this connection, it is considered necessary that a network of seed
dealers should be established.
Marketing organization: There are numbers of possible ways through the marketing
network can be organized. The simplest and most efficient system is to establish a central
marketing cell and regional offices in end-use areas. The retail sale could be organized either
by appointing distributors/dealers such as private dealers, cooperatives, agro-sales service
centers, etc., or by opening seed company/corporation-owned sales points or both, as
illustrated in the following Figure.

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Central Marketing Cell
Regional Offices Regional Offices Regional Offices
Sole Distributors Dealers Dealers Dealers Company/corporation

(Private) (Private) (Co-ops) (Agro-Sales Services) owned sale depots
Dealers Dealers Dealers

(Private) (Co-ops) (Agro-Sales Service)
The central marketing cell is responsible for planning, appointments of
dealers/distributors, seed movement, marketing intelligence research, pricing, promotional
activities, financing and record keeping.
Regional offices are responsible for seed supply and promotional materials to
dealers/distributors, training of seed dealers, expansion into new market areas, publicity and
execution of promotional programme.
The dealers and distributors are the last, but most important link in the chain of the
seed marketing and they must assume great responsible.
Law et al. (1971) have listed the following responsibilities for dealers which are self-
explanatory.
1. Ethical dealings.
2. Sell quality seed only.
3. Proper storage of seeds.
4. Maintenance of attractive shops.
5. Wise use of publicity.
6. Knowledge of product and competitors.
The utmost care should be taken in the matter of appointment/selection of distributors
and seed dealers. In this connection, due emphasis should be place on an integrated marketing
approach. The dealers involved in selling fertilizers/pesticides, or other agricultural inputs,
should be preferred. The dealer distributor network should be organized in such way that the
seed retailers are located within easy reach of farmers e.g. establishment of at least four sales
points in each Community Development Block.
Sales generation activities: The sales promotional activities should form the integral part of
the marketing organization. These activities reflect on the overall distribution of seeds, as
well as the impact it has created on the consumer. The consumer demand for good seed is
largely dormant. It should be awakened and stimulated. Creative use of promotional material
that reaches the cultivator is an important way to accomplish this goal.
Therefore, the share of both the parent company and the dealers in the publicity
efforts are essential.This should be accomplished by setting up a publicity budget at the
dealer’s level and company level, at an acceptable percentage of the annual sales. The seed
companies can provide basic materials such as photographs, technical reports, posters, plates
and leaflets which the dealer can adopt to his specific uses.
There are many ways of promoting seed sales. A sound and effective sales
programme must be based on the judicious use of three basic tools, i.e. advertising, publicity
and public relations.
Promotional media: Resources invested in variety development and seed production will be
wasted if farmers are not persuaded to use the improved varieties. All promotional activities
involve sending messages to the distributors and consumers in order to inform them about a

84
company's products and help them to make their decision to buy a particular variety or brand
of seed. This can be done through various ways as given below.
1. Newspapers: Judicious use of advertising in newspapers/periodicals/newsletters is an
important promotional tool. Advertisements should apply to specific regions and specific
varieties prior to the planting season. It should give briefly the advantages of good seed,
their price, location of the dealer and variety names, etc.
2. Cinema slides: Cinema slides developed for local conditions can also be effective tool, if
used during the earliest part of the planting season. These should emphasize the local
dealer and seasonal crops.
3. Hoardings: These are effective for year round publicity. Hoardings should be multi-
coloured, attractive and large enough to be easily seen. Location of the hoarding should be
such that it can be seen by the maximum cultivators needing seed. Good locations are near
weekly rural bazars, railway stations, bus stands and important rural crossroads.
4. Radio: The advertising of seeds of seasonal crop availability, prices and dealer location on
radio is also an important tool for reaching farmers and increasing sales.
5. Melas: Participation in ‘KisanMelas’, ‘Krishi VigyanMelas’ organised by agricultural
universities or institutes is also an important medium which is becoming popular.
6. Field demonstrations: A well organised demonstrations convinces and inspire confidence
in farmers to adopt scientific agricultural practices and the use of high quality seeds. This
can be done in coordination with extension agencies.
Factors Affecting Seed Marketing: Seed marketing is greatly affected by following factors.
1. Clear cut policy: A clear cut policy for developing the seed industry, defining the tasks
and responsibility of the official, semi-official and private economic sectors is necessary
for the development of seed marketing on sound footing.
2. Availability of well-identified and adapted varieties: The superior varieties should be
regularly funneled into the seed programme. Without these, the seed marketing
programme cannot expand. Current official information on new varieties that have been
recommended and released for crop production helps in accelerating the programme.
3. Adequate production, storage and testing facilities: These are necessary for producing
and maintaining seed quantities and qualities in accordance with established standards
vital for the development of sound marketing.
4. Official programme: When new varieties or hybrids are first being introduced, partially
among small scale farmers, the government generally has to take the initiative and
promote the supply arrangement. Another important role of government is to provide
market information, to set target and to regulate and control agencies and enterprises.
5. Demand forecast: Realistic assessment and targets of seed demand are very necessary.
Excessive quantities result in large carry-over stocks and subsequent losses, due to loss
in germination and vigour of seed if carried over for too long. On the other hand, short
supplies would deprive the seed company/corporation profit it could have made.
6. Market intelligence: Comprehensive market intelligence to show the needs of
cultivators, location of production areas, location and size of market demands and
marketing costs, are important factors influencing seed marketing. A market intelligence
system should be so developed as to provide reliable information to keep official and
private institutions up to date on production and supply patterns.
7. Transport and storage arrangements: Adequate intermediate storage buffer godowns,
transport arrangement for timely supply of seeds and their proper storage in end-use
areas/dealers/distributors godowns are also very important. Poor transport arrangements
add to the risks, and poor storage results in rapid losses in seed germination and viability,
rendering them worthless for planting purposes.

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8. Nature of product: Seeds are perishable commodity and get easily damaged if seed
handling is not satisfactory at any stage in overall chain of seed marketing. Seed
marketing is seasonal. Unsold stock if carried over for too long will bring heavy losses.
9. Quality control programme: Effective, legally enforced control procedures to ensure
uniform quality levels, according to internationally recognized standards are necessary.
In the absence of these, unscrupulous elements may create unhealthy competition with
bonafide seed companies/corporations.
10. Publicity: A vigorous policy of publicity on value, availability and returns from certified
seed of the recommended varieties is a potent tool for increasing seed sales.
11. Financial reward: A clear-cut policy of financial rewards to those dealers who make
outstanding records as salesman is also of considerable importance and goes a long way
in the development of seed marketing.
Role of WTO in seed marketing: The WTO acts as conductor, tribunal, monitor and trainer.
1. Orchestra conductor: International trade is governed by very precise rules developed by
the WTO's members. Countries must apply these rules when trading with one another. The
WTO acts as the orchestra conductor to implement these rules. Adapting or changing the
principles of international trade means reaching consensus among WTO members through
a round of negotiations.
2. Tribunal: One of the main roles of the WTO is to settle disputes between its members.
The WTO plays the role of trade tribunal, where members may file complaints against
other members who fail to abide by the principles of international trade.
3. Monitor: The WTO regularly reviews the trade policies of its members. These reviews
assess whether WTO members are abiding by WTO rules and measure the impact of their
domestic policies on international trade. The purpose of these reviews is not so much to
solve problems as to prevent them from occurring in the first place.
4. Trainer: The WTO provides training programmes for government officials from
developing countries - for example, ministry staff or customs officials.
Role of OECD in seed marketing:
OECD is contributing actively to the Agricultural Market Information System (AMIS)
called for by G20 agriculture ministers with the aim of addressing food price volatility
through more timely, accurate and transparent information on global food markets.
AMISis an inter-agency platform that seeks to improve food market transparency and
policy responses to ensure greater food security. AMIS assesses global food supplies of the
principal trading countries of agricultural commodities and provides a platform to co-ordinate
policy action in times of market uncertainty. AMIS issues monthly reports on global markets
that are freely accessible to analysts and the public.Useful AMIS products are as follows.
1. AMIS monthly monitor reports on major developments in international commodity
markets.
2. AMIS market database on production, supply, utilisation, trade and closing stocks.
3. AMIS policy database on domestic and trade policies.

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Dr.R.M.PawarDr.R.M.PawarDr.R.M.

Department of Agricultural Botany

Dr. R. M. Pawar, Asstt. Prof. of Agril. Botany

L-1. SEED AND SEED TECHNOLOGY

Dr. R. M. Pawar, Asstt. Prof. of Agril. Botany

Dr. R. M. Pawar, Asstt. Prof. of Agril. Botany

Dr. R. M. Pawar, Asstt. Prof. of Agril. Botany

L-2. VARIETAL DETERIORATION AND MAINTAINANCE OF GENETIC PURITY

Dr. R. M. Pawar, Asstt. Prof. of Agril. Botany

Dr. R. M. Pawar, Asstt. Prof. of Agril. Botany

f) It may occur through volunteer plants.

Dr. R. M. Pawar, Asstt. Prof. of Agril. Botany

Dr. R. M. Pawar, Asstt. Prof. of Agril. Botany

Characters of good quality seed:

Dr. R. M. Pawar, Asstt. Prof. of Agril. Botany

Benefits of quality seeds:

Dr. R. M. Pawar, Asstt. Prof. of Agril. Botany

L-4. CLASSES OF SEED OR STAGES OF SEED MULTIPLICATION

Dr. R. M. Pawar, Asstt. Prof. of Agril. Botany

Dr. R. M. Pawar, Asstt. Prof. of Agril. Botany

Nucleus Seed Stage I Nucleus Seed Stage II

Breeder Seed Stage I Breeder Seed Stage II

Foundation Seed Stage I Foundation Seed Stage II

Certified Seed Stage I Certified Seed Stage II

Stages of seed multiplication:

Dr. R. M. Pawar, Asstt. Prof. of Agril. Botany

L-5.FOUNDATION AND CERTIFIED SEED PRODUCTION OF CEREALS

Dr. R. M. Pawar, Asstt. Prof. of Agril. Botany

OPEN POLLINATED VARIETIES SEED PRODUCTION

Dr. R. M. Pawar, Asstt. Prof. of Agril. Botany

9. Interculture: Timely weeding and interculture operations are essential.

HYBRID SEED PRODUCTION

Dr. R. M. Pawar, Asstt. Prof. of Agril. Botany

Brief cultural practices:

Dr. R. M. Pawar, Asstt. Prof. of Agril. Botany

CERTIFIED SEED PRODUCTION IN JOWAR:

Dr. R. M. Pawar, Asstt. Prof. of Agril. Botany

OPEN POLLINATED VARIETIES SEED PRODUCTION

Dr. R. M. Pawar, Asstt. Prof. of Agril. Botany

6. Seed rate: 16-18 kg/ha

HYBRID SEED PRODUCTION

Dr. R. M. Pawar, Asstt. Prof. of Agril. Botany

3. Source of seed: As per OP varieties seed production.

Dr. R. M. Pawar, Asstt. Prof. of Agril. Botany

Dr. R. M. Pawar, Asstt. Prof. of Agril. Botany

9. Interculture: As per OP varieties seed production.

Dr. R. M. Pawar, Asstt. Prof. of Agril. Botany

3. Method of transplanting: Transplant 2-3 seedlings per hill.

HYBRID SEED PRODUCTION

Dr. R. M. Pawar, Asstt. Prof. of Agril. Botany

HYBRID RICE SEED PRODUCTION TECHNOLOGY (THREE LINE SYSTEM)

Dr. R. M. Pawar, Asstt. Prof. of Agril. Botany

Dr. R. M. Pawar, Asstt. Prof. of Agril. Botany

OPEN POLLINATED VARIETIES SEED PRODUCTION

Dr. R. M. Pawar, Asstt. Prof. of Agril. Botany

Dr. R. M. Pawar, Asstt. Prof. of Agril. Botany

FOUNDATION SEED PRODUCTION OF BAJARA:

CERTIFIED SEED PRODUCTION IN BAJARA:

Dr. R. M. Pawar, Asstt. Prof. of Agril. Botany

Dr. R. M. Pawar, Asstt. Prof. of Agril. Botany