184 D1: WINE PRODUCTION

17 Specific Options for Producing

Wines with Residual Sugar

Wines with residual sugar encompass a large range of styles. Some inexpensive wines contain
low to moderate levels of residual sugar to make them more appealing and palatable to a
larger consumer audience. At the other end of the spectrum, the sweetest wines have residual
sugar levels of a few hundred grams per litre (g/L) and are syrupy in texture.
As will be seen in this chapter, the key ways of producing wines with residual sugar are
by concentrating the sugar in the grape must, stopping the fermentation before dryness or
blending in a sweetening component to the wine. The choice of method will be determined
by the style, quality and price of the wine that the winemaker wants to make, the climate of
the vineyard site (for different methods of concentrating the grape must) and the local wine
legislation. The objective is to produce a wine with balanced residual sugar and acidity, and
with flavour concentration appropriate for the level of sugar.

17.1. Concentrating the Grape Must

This is the method used to produce many sweet and luscious styles of wine. The
concentration of sugars in the grape must may be sufficient to stop the fermentation before
reaching dryness; yeast struggle in very sugary environments, especially when alcohol is also
present, and naturally stop fermentation even at relatively low levels of alcohol. However, the
fermentation can also be stopped prematurely by chilling and/or adding SO2 and then filtering
to remove yeast (see Stopping the Fermentation), giving the winemaker greater control over
the balance of alcohol and sweetness.
The grape must is concentrated by the reduction of the water content in the grape, and
hence this process not only concentrates sugar, but also other grape components such as
acidity and flavours. The increase in acidity and flavours helps to keep these wines in balance
so that sweetness does not become too dominant, and is a key reason why many of the
wines made by such methods tend to be very good or outstanding in quality. The method
of removing the water to concentrate the sugars can sometimes add its own flavours. For
example, drying grapes off the vine can lead to flavours of dried fruits; therefore, these wines
can have more complexity than those simply made by stopping the fermentation by chilling or
adding a sweetening component.
Because water is depleted, the volume of juice obtained from the grapes is low. The very
sugary pulp is also often hard to extract during pressing. These factors can add to the cost
of production of these wines, which means they often sell for premium and super premium
prices.
Methods of concentrating the grape must include the drying grapes on and off the vine,
the development of noble rot and the freezing of grapes.
 Specific Options for Producing Wines with Residual Sugar 185

DRYING GRAPES ON THE VINE

As seen in Grape Development in the Vine Growth Cycle, the grape goes through four stages
of ripening. If left on the vine, the grape will enter stage four of ripening in which the grape
starts to shrivel. Water is lost by grape transpiration and the sugars concentrate. The flavours
in the grape also continue to develop, giving very ripe flavours. For example, Pinot Gris may
develop from stone fruit when ripe to tropical fruits and dried stone fruits as it becomes extra-
ripe. Dry autumns are needed for this option to avoid the development of grey rot, which
would give off-flavours. The wines produced in this way are sometimes labelled as ‘Late
Harvest’ (or a local equivalent) and include Vendanges Tardives from Alsace and Spätlese
from Germany or Austria.
There is another method of drying grapes while they are still attached to part of the vine.
In this method, the cane of the vine is cut or broken off from the vine a short time before
harvest. (The cane usually remains attached to the trellis at this point.) The grapes shrivel more
quickly than they would if they were still attached to the rest of the vine. This concentrates
the sugars, acids and flavours within the grapes. The reduced hang time lowers, but does not
eliminate, the risk of grey rot and also means it is possible to obtain grapes with very high
levels of sugar without extra-ripe flavours. The technique is used to make sweet wines in
Jurançon, south-west France, and is also sometimes used in Australia.

Shrivelled grapes that have been left on the vine.

DRYING GRAPES OFF THE VINE

In this method, grapes are picked and then dried. This can last from days to months
depending on the extent of drying required and the speed of the drying process. Bunches
of grapes may be laid out to dry in the sun in warm climates, such as southern Italy or Spain,
186 D1: WINE PRODUCTION

Corvina grapes drying in racks for Recioto di Valpolicella.

or dried in a temperature- and humidity-controlled room in cooler climates, which gives the
ability to speed up drying and avoid the development of grey rot, for example in Valpolicella.
(A humidity-controlled room is clearly more expensive to build and maintain than drying
grapes outside.) This drying process causes water to evaporate, making the sugars, acids
and flavours become more concentrated. This method is often referred to by the Italian term,
passito. Wines made in this way include Recioto di Valpolicella and Vin Santo.

NOBLE ROT
This method involves the action of the fungus Botrytis cinerea. This is the same fungus that
causes grey rot; however, under certain conditions it can be used beneficially in sweet wine
production. In these circumstances, it is often termed noble rot.
First, the grapes must be fully ripe before the development of the rot. Second, the grapes
must be grown in a region that provides humid, misty mornings followed by sunny, dry
afternoons. Damp conditions in the morning allow rot to develop on the grapes. The fungus
punctures the grape skin with microscopic filaments, leaving tiny holes in the skin. The warm
sunny afternoons slow the development of the rot and cause water to evaporate from the
grape, concentrating its sugars, acids and flavours. The fungus can also modify some of the
aroma compounds in the grape and generate its own unique flavours. Wines made from
grapes affected by noble rot have distinctive honey, apricot, citrus zest, ginger and dried fruit
aromas.
This method is used in the production of many premium and super premium sweet wines,
including Sauternes, Beerenauslese, Trockenbeerenauslese and Tokaji. It is much more typical
to use this technique on white grapes rather than black grapes. Although Botrytis cinerea is
 Specific Options for Producing Wines with Residual Sugar 187

Noble rot punctures the skin of grapes and during sunny afternoons water evaporates, shrivelling the
grapes.

the cause of both noble and grey rot, the term ‘botrytis’ is frequently used as a synonym for
noble rot, and the term ‘botrytised’ is often seen on sweet wine labels.
The spread of noble rot is never uniform and several pickings by hand may be needed
to select the best grapes. This is an expensive process as it requires skilled labour over a
prolonged period of time. This selective picking and the fact that water has evaporated from
the grapes means that the volume of juice obtained is low. Furthermore, in some regions the
ideal conditions for noble rot do not occur every year, making these wines relatively scarce
and therefore expensive. If conditions are too damp, the fungus will develop too rapidly and
cause grey rot, splitting the grapes and encouraging infections.
Furthermore, grapes infected by noble rot are not easy to process in the winery. The
fungus contributes an enzyme (called laccase) that is capable of oxidising a number of
components in grape must and wine, and is relatively resistant to SO2. Chilling, high doses
of SO2 and use of inert gases are all options to minimise the oxidation of the must. The thick,
high-sugar-content must is also difficult to press, clarify and ferment.
These wines are often matured in oak (either old or new) especially if relatively neutral
grape varieties are used, for example Semillon. Oak can give a broader texture to these wines
(the oak contributes some tannins), with new oak adding flavours such as vanilla.
However, wines made from more aromatic grape varieties tend to be stored in stainless
steel or concrete to retain their more pronounced varietal aromas.
188 D1: WINE PRODUCTION

FREEZING GRAPES ON THE VINE

This method requires healthy grapes
to be left to hang on the vine into the
late autumn or winter months. When
freezing temperatures arrive, the water
in the grape pulp turns to ice. When
the grapes are picked and pressed,
this ice remains in the press and the
sugar content of the resulting juice
is concentrated. This technique is
used to produce Eiswein in Germany
and Austria and Icewine in Canada.
These are protected labelling terms,
and winemakers must follow various
regulations to be able to use them. For
example, Canadian Icewine grapes
must be harvested at −8°C (18°F) or
below.
The vines used for these styles
of wine need to be winter hardy and
have grapes with resilient skins that
can offer protection from disease and
can withstand the strain of freeze–thaw
cycles. The most popular grapes are
Riesling and Vidal. Black grapes such
as Cabernet Franc are occasionally Grapes left on the vine into the winter to make Icewine.
used. These wines are often fermented
and stored in stainless steel to retain the primary aromas and flavours of the grape variety.
Oak maturation is sometimes used to add extra flavours (vanilla, clove, etc.).
The conditions for producing wine by this method are very specific. It can only be
produced in a few regions where and when weather conditions allow. Freeze–thaw cycles are
thought to be important for the development of typical ice wine character. The highest quality
but lowest yielding grapes are picked late in the winter season, for example in late January.
Similar to other wines made by the concentration of sugars, juice yield from the grapes is also
very low. There is also considerable risk that the unpicked grapes may become infected by
disease or eaten by pests further reducing yields (netting against birds is an important cost
in ice wine production). All of these factors mean these wines command premium or super
premium prices.
A similar effect can be created by picking grapes in the autumn (at the same time as those
for dry wines) and then freezing them at a winery. This is called cryoextraction. This technique
can be used by winemakers in regions that would not get the typical climatic conditions
required for Eiswein and Icewine. It also does not entail the risks of leaving the grapes on the
vine into late autumn or winter and perhaps losing yield to disease or pests. It is not permitted
in the production of Eiswein and Icewine and therefore wines made by cryoextraction cannot
use these terms on the label. The method requires energy to freeze the grapes, but overall is
cheaper than traditional Eiswein and Icewine production.
 Specific Options for Producing Wines with Residual Sugar 189

17.2. Stopping the Fermentation

Fermentation is the process by which sugars in the grapes are converted to alcohol by yeast,
and therefore stopping this process before all the sugars have been converted results in a
wine with residual sugar.
The advantage of this method is that the winemaker has control over the level of sugar
in the final wine. The earlier the fermentation is halted, the higher the level of residual sugar
that will remain, but also the lower the level of alcohol. For example, White Zinfandel is
produced in this way (without any concentrating of the sugar in the grapes beforehand) and
contains around 35 g/L and 10% abv. These wines taste off-dry to medium-sweet, rather than
fully sweet. This process is relatively quick, simple and low risk (compared to many methods
of concentrating grape sugars) and so it is often used to produce wines that are inexpensive
or mid-priced. It is rare, however, to find the same intensity and/or complexity of the wines
produced by concentrating the grape sugars, and they tend not to reach outstanding levels
of quality. (The exception would be some fortified wines that may undergo long periods of
ageing and be extremely complex.)
The most common way of interrupting the fermentation is by chilling to below 10°C (50°F)
and/or adding a high dose of SO2 to inhibit the yeast. The wine is then racked off its sediment
and sterile filtered to ensure fermentation does not start again at a later stage. Fortification,
the addition of alcohol to kill the yeast, is also an option, but this radically changes the style of
the wine. The winemaking for Fortified Wines is covered in D5: Fortified Wines.

17.3. Blending in a Sweetening Component

Adding a sweetening component is the easiest way of producing a wine with residual sugar.
The dry wine can be stored until it is ready to be bottled and then the sweetening component
blended in. The benefit of this is that dry wines are less susceptible to spoilage organisms
than wines with residual sugar.
The winemaker is also able to trial, measure and add the amount of sweetener that is
needed to produce the style of wine desired. This method therefore allows a high level of
control, enabling high volumes of a consistent product to be made.
Also, compared to methods of concentrating the must where the volume of the wine that
can be produced is reduced, adding a sweetening component will maintain or possibly slightly
increase the volume of the final wine (depending upon the sweetness required) and therefore
does not add to costs in this way.
These factors mean that this technique is suited to the production of high volumes of
inexpensive wines. The quality of the wine being sweetened and balance of the sweetness
against other components in the wine will affect the quality of the final product, but because
this method tends to be used for inexpensive wines, quality is likely to be acceptable to good.
Sugar, rectified concentrated grape must (RCGM) and unfermented grape juice (often
referred to by the German term, Süssreserve) are common sweetening components. While
unfermented grape juice will contribute a grape-juice-like character, RCGM is processed so
that it just contains the sugar from the grape. It is therefore neutral (not adding any additional
flavours to the wine), and smaller amounts are required to sweeten the wine. All of these
additions are inexpensive. The substance that can be used for sweetening is sometimes
determined by local wine regulations. For example, the use of sugar is not permitted in the EU.
Furthermore, for Protected Designation of Origin (PDO) wines, the unfermented grape juice
must come from the same wine region as the wine being made.