Production Engineering II

Chapter Three

Welding & Bonding Technology

AAiT
 Introduction to welding
• Joining is generally used for welding, brazing,
soldering, and adhesive bonding which form a
permanent joint between the parts.
• Welding is a materials joining process in which
two or more parts are coalesced at their
contacting surfaces by a suitable application of
heat and/ or pressure.
• Many welding processes are accomplished by
heat alone, others by a combination of heat and
pressure, and still others by pressure only.
• Welding process is divided into two major groups:
1. Fusion welding and
2. Solid-state welding
1. Fusion welding: use heat to melt the base metals. In many
fusion welding operations, a filler metal is added to the molten
pool to facilitate the process and provide bulk and strength to
the welded joint. The fusion category includes: Arc welding (AW),
Resistance welding (RW), Oxyfuel gass welding (OFW), Electron
beam welding, and Laser beam welding.

2. Solid-state welding: joining process in which coalescence results

from application of pressure alone or a combination of heat and
pressure. If heat is used, the temperature in the process is below the melting
point of the metal being welded, no filler metal is utilized.
The solid state category includes: Diffusion welding (DW), Friction
welding (FRW), Ultrasonic welding (USW).
 Arc welding (AW)
• A fusion welding process in which coalescence of
the metals is achieved by the heat from an
electric arc between an electrode and the work

Electric energy from the arc produces
temperatures 10,000 oF (5500 oC), hot enough
to melt any metal

Most AW processes add filler metal to increase
volume and strength of weld joint
 Arc Welding (AW)
• A pool of molten metal is formed near
electrode tip, and as electrode is moved along
joint, molten weld pool solidifies in its wake

Figure.1.1 Basic configuration of an arc welding process.

 Types of Arc welding electrodes
i. Consumable: consumed during welding process. Source
of filler metal in arc welding
ii. No consumable: not consumed during welding
process. Filler metal must be added separately.
Arc shielding
• At high temperatures in AW, metals are chemically reactive to
oxygen, nitrogen, and hydrogen in air

Mechanical properties of joint can be seriously degraded by these reactions

To protect operation, arc must be shielded from surrounding air in AW
processes
Arc shielding is accomplished by:
• Shielding gases, e.g., argon, helium, CO2
• Flux
Flux is substance that prevents formation of oxides and other
contaminants in welding, or dissolves them and facilitates
removal
• Protecting the molten weld metal from atmosphere
• Stabilizes arc
• Reduces spattering

Power source in arc welding

Direct current (DC) vs. Alternating current (AC)

AC machines less expensive to purchase and operate, but
generally restricted to ferrous metals

DC equipment can be used on all metals and is generally
noted for better arc control
 Consumable electrodes -AW processes
welding processes which uses consumable electrode:
– Shielded metal AW (SMAW)
– Gas metal AW (GMAW)
– Flux-cored AW (FCAW)
– Electro gas welding (EGW)
– Submerged AW (SAW)

Non consumable electrodes- AW processes

Welding process which uses non-consumable electrodes:
•Gas Tungsten AW (GTAW)
•Plasma AW (PAW)
•Carbon AW (CAW)
 Shielded metal arc welding (SMAW)
• Uses a consumable electrode consisting of a filler metal rod coated with
chemicals that provide flux and shielding
• Application: construction, pipelines, machinery structures, fabrication job
shops and repair work.
• The equipment is portable and low cost.
• Welding stick is clamped in electrode holder connected to power source.
• Used for steels, stainless steels, cast irons, and certain nonferrous alloys .
• Not used or rarely used for aluminum and its alloys, copper alloys, and
titanium.
 Gas metal arc welding (GMAW)
• Uses a consumable bare metal wire as electrode with
shielding by flooding arc with a gas
• Wire is fed continuously and automatically from a spool
through the welding gun.
• Wire diameter used for GMAW is 0.8 to 6.5mm. Gases
used for shielding includes inert gas such as argon and
helium, and active gases such as carbon dioxide.
• Shielding gases include argon and helium for aluminum
welding, and CO2 for steel welding
• Bare electrode wire plus shielding gases eliminate slag on weld
bead. No need for manual grinding and cleaning of slag
• Used in fabrication operations for welding of ferrous and non-
ferrous metals.
• It uses continuous weld wire rather than welding stick
Figure.1.3 Gas metal arc welding (GMAW).
 Flux-cored arc welding
• Adaptation of shielded metal arc welding, to
overcome limitations imposed by the use of stick
electrodes.
• Electrode is a continuous consumable tubing that
contains flux and other ingredients in its core.
there are two versions of FCAW:

Self-shielded FCAW- core includes compounds
that produce shielding gases

Gas-shielded FCAW- uses externally applied
shielding gases
Figure.1.4 FCAW, Presence or absence of externally supplied
shielding gas distinguishes the two types: (1) self-shielded,
in which core provides ingredients for shielding, and (2)
gas-shielded, which uses external shielding gases.
 Electro gas welding (EGW)
• Uses a continuous consumable electrode, flux-cored wire
or bare wire with externally supplied shielding gases, and
molding shoes to contain molten metal
• When flux-cored electrode wire is used and no external
gases are supplied, then special case of self-shielded FCAW
• When a bare electrode wire used with shielding gases from
external source, then special case of GMAW

Figure.1.5 Electro gas welding using flux-cored electrode wire: (a) front view with molding shoe
removed for clarity, and (b) side view showing molding shoes on both sides.
 Submerged arc welding (SAW)
• Uses a continuous, consumable bare wire electrode, with arc
shielding by a cover of granular flux
• Electrode wire is fed automatically from a coil
• Flux introduced into joint slightly ahead of arc by gravity from a
hopper. Completely submerges operation, preventing sparks, spatter,
and radiation
• Used in steel fabrication for structural shape (e.g. welded I-beams);
seams for large diameter pipes, tanks, and pressure vessels; and
welded components for heavy machinery.
 Gas Tungsten arc welding (GTAW)
• Uses a non-consumable tungsten electrode and an inert gas
for arc shielding
• Melting point of tungsten = 3410°C (6170°F)
• Tungsten inert gas welding (TIG) or (WIG)
• Used with or without filer metal
When filler metal used, it is added to weld pool from separate rod or wire
• Application: Aluminium and stainless steel mostly
 GTAW
Advantages:
• High quality welds for suitable applications
• No spatter because no filler metal through arc
• Little or no post-weld cleaning because no flux
Disadvantages:
• Generally slower and more costly than consumable electrode AW
processes

Plasma Arc welding (PAW)

• Special form of GTAW in which a constricted plasma arc is directed at
weld area
• Tungsten electrode is contained in a nozzle that focuses a high velocity
stream of inert gas (argon) into arc region to form a high velocity,
intensely hot plasma arc stream
• Temperatures in PAW reach 28,000°C (50,000°F), due to constriction of
arc, producing a plasma jet of small diameter and very high energy density
 Figure.1.8 Plasma arc welding (PAW)
Advantages of PAW:
• Good arc stability and excellent weld quality
• Better penetration control than other AW processes
• High travel speeds
• Can be used to weld almost any metals
Disadvantages:
 High equipment cost
 Larger torch size than other AW processes
 Tends to restrict access in some joints
 Resistance Welding (RW)
• A group of fusion welding processes that use a
combination of heat and pressure to accomplish
coalescence
• Heat generated by electrical resistance to current flow at
junction to be welded
• Principal RW process is resistance spot welding (RSW)

Figure.1.9 Resistance welding, showing the

components in spot welding, the main
process in the RW group.
 Components in resistance spot welding
• Parts to be welded (usually sheet metal)
• Two opposing electrodes
• Means of applying pressure to squeeze parts between
electrodes
• Power supply from which a controlled current can be applied
for a specified time duration
Advantages of RW:
• No filler metal required
• High production rates possible
• Lends itself to mechanization and automation
• Lower operator skill level than for arc welding
• Good repeatability and reliability
Disadvantages of RW:
 High initial equipment cost
 Limited to lap joints for most RW processes
 Oxyfuel gas welding (OFW)
• Group of fusion welding operations that burn various fuels mixed
with oxygen
• OFW employs several types of gases, which is the primary
distinction among the members of this group
• Oxyfuel gas is also used in flame cutting torches to cut and
separate metal plates and other parts
• Most important OFW process is oxyacetylene welding

Oxyacetylene Welding (OAW)

• Fusion welding performed by a high temperature flame from combustion
of acetylene and oxygen
• Flame is directed by a welding torch
• Filler metal is sometimes added

Composition must be similar to base metal

Filler rod often coated with flux to clean surfaces and prevent oxidation
Figure.1.10 A typical oxyacetylene welding operation (OAW)

• Most popular fuel among OFW group because it is capable of

higher temperatures than any other

Up to 3480°C (6300°F)
• Two stage reaction of acetylene and oxygen:
– First stage reaction (inner cone of flame)
C2H2 + O2 → 2CO + H2 + heat
– Second stage reaction (outer envelope)
2CO + H2 + 1.5O2 → 2CO2 + H2O + heat
• The two stages of combustion are visible in the
oxyacetylene flame emitted from the torch.
• When the mixture of acetylene and oxygen is in the ratio
1:1, it results neutral flame.
• Maximum temperature reached at tip of inner cone, while
outer envelope spreads out and shields work surface from
atmosphere.

Figure.1.11 The neutral flame from an oxyacetylene torch indicating temperatures achieved.
 Safety issue in OAW
• Together, acetylene and oxygen are highly flammable
• C2H2 is colorless and odorless
– It is therefore processed to have characteristic garlic odor
• C2H2 is physically unstable at pressures much above 15
lb/in2 (about 1 atm)
– Storage cylinders are packed with porous filler material saturated
with acetone (CH3COCH3)
– Acetone dissolves about 25 times its own volume of acetylene
• Different screw threads are standard on C2H2 and O2
cylinders and hoses to avoid accidental connection of
wrong gases
Alternative Gases for OFW: Methylacetylene-Propadiene
(MAPP), Hydrogen, Propylene, Propane, and natural gas.
 Soldering and Brazing
• Soldering and brazing process lie some where in between fusion welding
and solid state welding.

• These processes have some advantages over welding process. They can
join metals having poor weldability, dissimilar, with very less amount of
heating needed.

• The major disadvantage is joint made by soldering and brazing has low
strength as compared to welded joint.

• The major difference between them is huge amount of heat is

required in case of welding, low amount in case of brazing and very
low amount in case of soldering.

• Joints made by brazing are relatively weak and soldering joints are
very weak to bear load. Generally, soldering is used to make
electrical contacts.
 Ways to choose joining methods:
• There are no hard-and-fast rules.
• In general, the controlling factors are:
– the types of metal you are joining,
– cost involved, nature of the products you are fabricating, and
– the techniques you use to fabricate them.

Because of its flexibility and mobility, gas welding is widely used for
maintenance and repair work in the field.

On the other hand, gas shielded metal arc welding to repair a critical
piece of equipment made from aluminum or stainless steel.
 Welding Terminology
1. FILLER METALS
The material that you add to fill space during the welding process
is known as the filler metal, or material.
Two types of filler metals commonly used in welding are welding
rods and welding electrodes.

welding rods welding electrodes

1. Refers to a form of filler metal 1. conducts the current from the electrode
that does not conduct an holder to the metal being welded.
electric current during the 2. Consumable electrodes :not only provide a
welding process. path for the current but they also supply
2. The only purpose of a welding fuller metal to the joint (shielded metal- arc
rod is to supply filler metal to welding).
the joint. 3. Non consumable electrodes : are only used
3. This type of filler metal is often as a conductor for the electrical current (gas
used for gas welding. tungsten arc welding). The filler metal for
GTAW is a hand fed consumable welding rod.
 Welding Terminology
2. FLUXES
• The term flux refers to a material used to dissolve oxides and release
trapped gases and slag (impurities) from the base metal; thus the flux
can be thought of as a cleaning agent. In performing this function, the
flux allows the filler metal and the base metal to be fused.

No single flux is satisfactory for universal use; however, there are a lot of good
general-purpose fluxes for use with common metals.
In general, a good flux has the following characteristics:
A. It is fluid and active at the melting point of the fuller metal.
B. It remains stable and does not change to a vapor rapidly within the
temperature range of the welding procedure.
C. It dissolves all oxides and removes them from the joint surfaces.
D. It adheres to the metal surfaces while they are being heated and does
not ball up or blow away.
E. It does not cause a glare that makes it difficult to see progress.
F. It is easy to remove after the joint is welded.
G. It is available in an easily applied form.
 Welding Joints
The weld joint is where two or more metal parts are joined by welding.
The five basic types of weld joints are the butt, corner, tee, lap, and edge.
• A butt joint is used to join two members aligned in the same
plane. This joint is frequently used in plate, sheet metal, and pipe
work.
• Corner and tee joints are used to join two members located at
right angles to each other. Various joint designs of both types have
uses in many types of metal structures.

• A lap joint, as the name implies, is made by lapping one piece of

metal over another. This is one of the strongest types of joints
available; however, for maximum joint efficiency, you should
overlap the metals a minimum of three times the thickness of the
thinnest member you are joining. Lap joints are commonly used
with torch brazing and spot welding applications.
• An edge joint is used to join the edges of two or more members
lying in the same plane. It is more frequently used in sheet metal
work
 Standard Terms (Parts of Joints)
1. The root of a joint is that portion of the joint where the metals are
closest to each other. The root may be a point, a line, or an area,
when viewed in cross section.
2. Groove is an opening or space provided between the edges of the
metal parts to be welded.
• The specified requirements for a particular joint are expressed in
terms as bevel angle, groove angle, groove radius, and root opening.
• Root penetration refers to the depth that a weld extends into the
root of the joint. Root penetration is measured on the center line of
the root cross section.

• Joint penetration refers to the minimum depth that a groove weld

extends from its face into a joint, exclusive of weld reinforcement.

• Weld reinforcement is a term used to describe weld metal in excess

of the metal necessary to fill a joint.
Fig: Root penetration and joint penetration
of welds
 Weld reinforcement Simple weld bead

Square groove welds

Single Bevel groove welds Double Bevel groove welds

Single V groove welds Double V groove welds
Fig: Standard groove welds
 Weld Quality
• Concerned with obtaining an acceptable weld
joint that is strong and absent of defects
• Also concerned with the methods of inspecting
and testing the joint to assure its quality
Welding defects:
1. Cracks
2. Cavities
3. Solid inclusions
4. Incomplete fusion
 Welding cracks
• Fracture-type interruptions either in weld or in base metal
adjacent to weld
• Serious defect because it is a discontinuity in the metal that
significantly reduces strength
• Caused by embrittlement or low ductility of weld and/or base
metal combined with high restraint during contraction
• In general, this defect must be repaired

Figure.1.13 Various forms of welding cracks.

 Cavities
• Two defect types, similar to defects found in
castings:
1. Porosity - small voids in weld metal formed by
gases entrapped during solidification
- Caused by inclusion of atmospheric gases, sulfur in weld metal,
or surface contaminants
2. Shrinkage voids - cavities formed by shrinkage
during solidification
 Solid inclusions
• Solid inclusions - nonmetallic material entrapped
in weld metal
• Most common form is slag inclusions generated
during AW processes that use flux
- Instead of floating to top of weld pool, globules of slag become
encased during solidification
• Metallic oxides that form during welding of
certain metals such as aluminum, which normally
has a surface coating of Al2O3
 Incomplete fusion
• Also known as lack of fusion, it is simply a weld
bead in which fusion has not occurred
throughout entire cross section of joint

Figure.1.14 several forms of incomplete fusion

 Inspection and testing methods
1. Visual inspection
• Most widely used welding inspection method
• Human inspector visually examines for:
- dimension, warpage, Cracks, cavities, incomplete fusion, and
other surface defects
• Limitations:
 Only surface defects are detectable
 Welding inspector must also decide if additional tests are warranted
.
2. Nondestructive evaluation tests (NDT)
 Ultrasonic testing - high frequency sound waves through specimen to
detect cracks and inclusions
 Radiographic testing - x-rays or gamma radiation provide photograph of
internal flaws
 Magnetic particle testing – iron filings sprinkled on surface reveal
subsurface defects by distorting magnetic field in part
 Welding Symbols
 Special symbols are used on a drawing to specify where welds are to be
located, the type of joint to be used, as well as the size and amount of
weld metal to be deposited in the joint.
 These symbols have been standardized by the American Welding Society
(AWS).
The reference line becomes the
foundation of the welding symbol. It is
used to apply weld symbols,
dimensions, and other data to the
weld. The arrow simply connects the
reference line to the joint or area to
be welded. The tail of the welding
symbol is used only when necessary to
include a specification, process, or
other reference information.
Welding Symbols

Example: Weld symbols

applied to reference line
SPECIFING WELDING LOCATION DIMENSIONS APPLIED TO
SYMBOLS

Filet Weld: Arrow Side

Filet Weld: Other Side

Filet Weld: Both Side

 And of course Do staffs Safe all the time
specially Welding!!

Use PPE (Personal Protection Equipments)

 Personal protection equipments (PPE)
 Protect your eyes with safety glasses.
 Protect your body from welding spatter and arc flash with protective
clothing:
 Woolen clothing (possibly cotton) — never synthetic!
 Welding jackets
 Flame-proof apron
 Gloves
 Properly fitted clothing that is not frayed or worn
 Long-sleeve shirts
 Straight-leg trousers that cover shoes
 Fire resistant cape or shoulder covers for overhead work
 Leathers to protect specific body parts or areas
 Keep clothes free of grease and oil.
The End